In your earlier classes, you have learnt about the number line and how to represent

various types of numbers on it (see Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 : The number line

Just imagine you start from zero and go on walking along this number line in
the positive direction. As far as your eyes can see, there are numbers, numbers and
numbers!

Fig. 1.2 58
0
Now suppose you start walking along the number 2
line, and collecting some of the numbers. Get a bag 40

ready to store them!

You might begin with picking up only natural
numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on. You know that this list
goes on for ever. (Why is this true?) So, now your bag

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2 MATHEMATICS

contains infinitely many natural numbers! Recall that we denote this collection

by the symbol N.

Now turn and walk all the way back, pick up zero and put it into the bag.
You now have the collection of whole numbers which is denoted by the symbol
W.

Now, stretching in front of you are many, many negative integers. Put all the
negative integers into your bag. What is your new collection? Recall that it is the
collection of all integers, and it is denoted by the symbol Z.

Z comes from the

Why Z ?
German word
58 “zahlen”, which means
0
0 “to count”.
2
40 2 -40

Are there some numbers still left on the line? Of course! There are numbers like

,
or even . If you put all such numbers also into the bag, it will now be
the

19

19

–5

collection of rational numbers. The collection of rational numbers is denoted by Q.

‘Rational’ comes from the word ‘ratio’, and Q comes from the word ‘quotient’.
You may recall the definition of rational numbers:
p
A number ‘r’ is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form ,
q
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NUMBER SYSTEMS 3

where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. (Why do we insist that q ≠ 0?)

p
Notice that all the numbers now in the bag can be written in the form , where
pq

and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, –25 can be written as ; here p = –25
and q = 1. Therefore, the rational numbers also ilude the natural numbers, whole
numbers and integers.
You also know that the rational numbers do not have a unique representation in
p 1 2 10 25
the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For example, = = =
q 2 4 20 50

= , and so on. These are equivalent rational numbers (or fractions). However,
p p
when we say that is a rational number, or when we represent on the number q
q
line, we assume that q ≠ 0 and that p and q have no common factors other than 1
(that is, p and q are co-prime). So, on the number line, among the infinitely many

fractions equivalent to , we will choose to represent all of them.

Now, let us solve some examples about the different types of numbers, which
you have studied in earlier classes.

Example 1 : Are the following statements true or false? Give reasons for your
answers.
(i) Every whole number is a natural number.
(ii) Every integer is a rational number.
(iii) Every rational number is an integer.
Solution : (i) False, because zero is a whole number but not a natural number.
m
(ii) True, because every integer m can be expressed in the form , and so it is a
1
rational number.

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4 MATHEMATICS

(iii) False, because is not an integer.

Example 2 : Find five rational numbers between 1 and 2.
We can approach this problem in at least two ways.
Solution 1 : Recall that to find a rational number between r and s, you can add r and
r + s3
s and divide the sum by 2, that is lies between r and s. So, is a number
2 2
between 1 and 2. You can proceed in this manner to find four more rational numbers

, ,
between 1 and 2. These four numbers are 5 11 13 and 7.
4 8 8 4
Solution 2 : The other option is to find all the five rational numbers in one step.
Since we want five numbers, we write 1 and 2 as rational
numbers with denominator 5 + 1,
7 8 9 10
i.e., 1 = and 2 = . Then you can check that , , , and are all rational
6 6 6 6
7 4 35 11
,
numbers between 1 and 2. So, the five numbers are , , and .
6 3 23 6
Remark : Notice that in Example 2, you were asked to find five rational numbers
between 1 and 2. But, you must have realised that in fact there are infinitely many
rational numbers between 1 and 2. In general, there are infinitely many rational
numbers between any two given rational numbers.
Let us take a look at the number line again. Have you picked up all the
numbers? Not, yet. The fact is that there are infinitely many more numbers left on
the number line! There are gaps in between the places of the numbers you picked
up, and not just one or two but infinitely many. The
amazing thing is that there are infinitely many numbers lying
between any two of these gaps too!
So we are left with the following questions:
1. What are the numbers, that are left on the number line,
called?

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 5

2. How do we recognise them? That is, how do we distinguish them from

the rationals (rational numbers)?

These questions will be answered in the next section.
EXERCISE 1.1

p
1. Is zero a rational number? Can you write it in the form , where p and q
are integers q
and q ≠ 0?
2. Find six rational numbers between 3 and 4.

3. Find five rational numbers between and .

4. State whether the following statements are true or false. Give reasons for your
answers.
(i) Every natural number is a whole number.
(ii) Every integer is a whole number.
(iii) Every rational number is a whole number.

1.2 Irrational Numbers

We saw, in the previous section, that there may be numbers on the number line that
are not rationals. In this section, we are going to investigate these numbers. So far,
all
p
the numbers you have come across, are of the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0. So, you may ask: are there numbers which are not of this form? There are
indeed such numbers.

The Pythagoreans in Greece, followers of the famous

mathematician and philosopher Pythagoras, were the first
to discover the numbers which were not rationals, around
400 BC. These numbers are called irrational numbers
(irrationals), because they cannot be written in the form
of a ratio of integers. There are many myths surrounding
the discovery of irrational numbers by the Pythagorean,
Hippacus of Croton. In all the myths, Hippacus has an
unfortunate end, either for discovering that 2 is irrational
or for disclosing the secret about 2 to people outside the Pythagoras
secret Pythagorean sect! (569 BCE – 479 BCE)
Fig. 1.3

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6 MATHEMATICS

Let us formally define these numbers.

p
A number ‘s’ is called irrational, if it cannot be written in the form , where p
q and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
You already know that there are infinitely many rationals. It turns out that there
are infinitely many irrational numbers too. Some examples are:

2, 3, 15,, π, 0.10110111011110...

Remark : Recall that when we use the symbol , we assume that it is the positive
square root of the number. So 4 = 2, though both 2 and –2 are square roots of 4.
Some of the irrational numbers listed above are familiar to you. For example,
you have already come across many of the square roots listed above and the number
π.
The Pythagoreans proved that 2 is irrational. Later in approximately 425 BC,
Theodorus of Cyrene showed that 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
and 17 are also irrationals. Proofs of irrationality of 2 , 3 , 5 , etc., shall be discussed
in Class X. As to π, it was known to various cultures for thousands of years, it was
proved to be irrational by Lambert and Legendre only in the late 1700s. In the next
section, we will discuss why 0.10110111011110...
and π are irrational.
Let us return to the questions raised at the end of
the previous section. Remember the bag of rational 36
numbers. If we now put all irrational numbers into the
bag, will there be any number left on the number line? 19 –5
The answer is no! It turns out that the collection of all
rational numbers and irrational numbers together make up what we call the
collection of real numbers,
which is denoted by R. Therefore, a real number is either rational or irrational. So,
we can say that every real number is represented by a unique point on the
number line. Also, every point on the number line represents a unique real
number.
This is why we call the number line, the real number line.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 7

In the 1870s two German mathematicians,

Cantor and Dedekind, showed that :
Corresponding to every real number, there is a
point on the real number line, and corresponding
to every point on the number line, there exists a
unique real number.

R. Dedekind (1831-1916) G. Cantor (1845-1918)

Fig. 1.4 Fig. 1.5
Let us see how we can locate some of the irrational numbers on the
number line.

Example 3 : Locate 2 on the number line.

Solution : It is easy to see how the Greeks might have discovered
2 . Consider a square OABC, with each side 1 unit in length (see Fig. 1.6). Then
you can see by the Pythagoras theorem that
Fig. 1.6
OB = 1 12 + =2 2 . How do we represent 2 on the number line?
This is easy. Transfer Fig. 1.6 onto the number line making sure that the vertex O
coincides with zero (see Fig. 1.7).

Fig. 1.7

We have just seen that OB = 2 . Using a compass with centre O and radius OB,
draw an arc intersecting the number line at the point P. Then P corresponds to 2 on
the number line.

Example 4 : Locate 3 on the number line.

Solution : Let us return to Fig. 1.7.

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8 MATHEMATICS

Fig. 1.8

Construct BD of unit length perpendicular to OB (as in Fig. 1.8). Then using the
2
2
2 +1 =
Pythagoras theorem, we see that OD = ( ) 3 . Using a compass, with
centre O and radius OD, draw an arc which intersects the number line at the point Q.
Then Q corresponds to 3.
In the same way, you can locate n for any positive integer n, after n−1 has been
located.

EXERCISE 1.2
1. State whether the following statements are true or false. Justify your answers.
(i) Every irrational number is a real number.

(ii) Every point on the number line is of the form m , where m is a natural
number.
(iii) Every real number is an irrational number.
2. Are the square roots of all positive integers irrational? If not, give an example of
the square root of a number that is a rational
number.

3. Show how 5 can be represented on the

number line.

4. Classroom activity (Constructing the ‘square

root spiral’) : Take a large sheet of paper and
construct the ‘square root spiral’ in the following
fashion. Start with a point O and draw a line segment OP 1 of unit length. Draw a
line segment P1P2 perpendicular to OP1 of unit length (see Fig. 1.9). Now draw a
line segment P2P3 perpendicular to OP2. Then draw a line segment P 3P4
perpendicular to OP3. Continuing in Fig. 1.9 : Constructing this manner, you can
square root spiral
get the line segment Pn–1Pn by

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 9

drawing a line segment of unit length perpendicular to OP n–1. In this manner, you

will have created the points P 2, P3,...., Pn,... ., and joined them to create a beautiful
spiral depicting 2, 3, 4, ...

1.3 Real Numbers and their Decimal Expansions

In this section, we are going to study rational and irrational numbers from a
different point of view. We will look at the decimal expansions of real numbers and
see if we can use the expansions to distinguish between rationals and irrationals. We
will also explain how to visualise the representation of real numbers on the number
line using their decimal expansions. Since rationals are more familiar to us, let us

start with them. Let us take three examples : .

Pay special attention to the remainders and see if you can find any pattern.
10 7
Example 5 : Find the decimal expansions of , and .
38

Solution :
3.333... 0.142857...
0.875
3 10 1.0
8 7.0 7
9 7
64
10 30
60
9 28
56
10 20
40
9 14
40
10 60
0
9 56
1 40
35
50
49
1

Remainders : 1, 1, 1, 1, 1... Remainders : 6, 4, 0 Remainders : 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,

Divisor : 3 Divisor : 8 3, 2, 6, 4, 5, 1,...
Divisor : 7

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10 MATHEMATICS

What have you noticed? You should have noticed at least three things:

(i) The remainders either become 0 after a certain stage, or start repeating
themselves.
(ii) The number of entries in the repeating string of remainders is less than the
divisor

(in one number repeats itself and the divisor is 3, in there are six entries
326451 in the repeating string of remainders and 7 is the divisor).
(iii) If the remainders repeat, then we get a repeating block of digits in the quotient

(for , 3 repeats in the quotient and for , we get the repeating block
142857 in the quotient).
Although we have noticed this pattern using only the examples above, it is true for
all
p rationals of the form (q ≠ 0). On division of p by q,
two main things happen – either q
the remainder becomes zero or never becomes zero and we get a repeating string of
remainders. Let us look at each case separately.

Case (i) : The remainder becomes zero

In the example of , we found that the remainder becomes zero after some steps
and

the decimal expansion of = 0.875. Other examples are = 0.5, = 2.556. In

all these cases, the decimal expansion terminates or ends after a finite number of
steps. We call the decimal expansion of such numbers terminating. Case (ii) : The
remainder never becomes zero

In the examples of and , we notice that the remainders repeat after a certain
stage forcing the decimal expansion to go on for ever. In other words, we have a
repeating block of digits in the quotient. We say that this expansion is non-

terminating recurring. For example, = 3.3333... and =

0.142857142857142857...

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 11

The usual way of showing that 3 repeats in the quotient of is to write it as 3.3.

Similarly, since the block of digits 142857 repeats in the quotient of , we write
as

0.142857 , where the bar above the digits indicates the block of digits that repeats.

Also 3.57272... can be written as 3.572. So, all these examples give us non-
terminating recurring (repeating) decimal expansions.
Thus, we see that the decimal expansion of rational numbers have only two choices:
either they are terminating or non-terminating recurring.
Now suppose, on the other hand, on your walk on the number line, you come across
a number like 3.142678 whose decimal expansion is terminating or a number like

1.272727... that is, 1.27 , whose decimal expansion is non-terminating recurring, can
you conclude that it is a rational number? The answer is yes!
We will not prove it but illustrate this fact with a few examples. The terminating
cases are easy.

Example 6 : Show that 3.142678 is a rational number. In other words, express

3.142678
p
in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.
q

,
Solution : We have 3.142678 = and hence is a rational number.
Now, let us consider the case when the decimal expansion is non-terminating
recurring.

p
Example 7 : Show that 0.3333... = 03. can be expressed in the form , where
p and q
q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Since we do not know what 03. is , let us call it ‘x’ and so

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12 MATHEMATICS

x = 0.3333...

Now here is where the trick comes in. Look at

10 x = 10 × (0.333...) = 3.333...
Now, 3.3333... = 3 + x, since x = 0.3333...
Therefore, 10 x = 3 + x
Solving for x, we get

9x = 3, i.e., x =

p
Example 8 : Show that 1.272727... = 1 27. can be expressed in the form
, where p q

and q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Let x = 1.272727... Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100
to get
100 x = 127.2727...
So, 100 x = 126 + 1.272727... = 126 + x
Therefore, 100 x – x = 126, i.e., 99 x = 126
126 14
i.e., x= =
99 11

You can check the reverse that =1 27. .

p
Example 9 : Show that 0.2353535... = 0 235. can be expressed in the form
,q

where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0.

Solution : Let x = 0 235. . Over here, note that 2 does not repeat, but the block 35
repeats. Since two digits are repeating, we multiply x by 100 to get 100 x =
23.53535...
So, 100 x = 23.3 + 0.23535... = 23.3 + x
Therefore, 99 x = 23.3

i.e., 99 x = , which gives x =

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 13

You can also check the reverse that = 0 235. .

So, every number with a non-terminating recurring decimal expansion can be
expressed
p in the form (q ≠ 0), where p and q are integers. Let us
summarise our results in the q
following form :
The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or nonterminating
recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-
terminating recurring is rational.
So, now we know what the decimal expansion of a rational number can be. What
about the decimal expansion of irrational numbers? Because of the property above,
we can conclude that their decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.
So, the property for irrational numbers, similar to the property stated above for
rational numbers, is
The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is
irrational.
Recall s = 0.10110111011110... from the previous section. Notice that it is
nonterminating and non-recurring. Therefore, from the property above, it is
irrational. Moreover, notice that you can generate infinitely many irrationals similar
to s.
What about the famous irrationals 2 and π? Here are their decimal expansions up
to a certain stage.
2 = 1.4142135623730950488016887242096...
π = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950...

(Note that, we often take as an approximate value for π, but

Over the years, mathematicians have developed various techniques to produce more
and more digits in the decimal expansions of irrational numbers. For example, you
might have learnt to find digits in the decimal expansion of 2 by the division
method. Interestingly, in the Sulbasutras (rules of chord), a mathematical treatise of
the Vedic period (800 BC - 500 BC), you find an approximation of 2 as
2 follows:
1 11 111
=1+ + × − × × = 14142156.
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14 MATHEMATICS

3 43 34 4 3
Notice that it is the same as the one given above for the first five decimal places.
The history of the hunt for digits in the decimal expansion of π is very interesting.
The Greek genius Archimedes was the first to
compute digits in the decimal expansion of π. He
showed 3.140845 < π < 3.142857. Aryabhatta (476 –
550 C.E.), the great Indian mathematician and
astronomer, found the value of π correct to four
decimal places (3.1416). Using high speed computers
and advanced algorithms, π has been computed to
over 1.24 trillion decimal places! imedes (287 BCE –
BCE)
Fig. 1.10
Now, let us see how to obtain irrational numbers.

Example 10 : Find an irrational number between and

Solution : We saw that = 0142857. . So, you can easily calculate = 0285714. .

To find an irrational number between and , we find a number which is non-

terminating non-recurring lying between them. Of course, you can find infinitely
many such numbers.
An example of such a number is 0.150150015000150000...

EXERCISE 1.3
1. Write the following in decimal form and say what kind of decimal expansion each
has :

(i) (ii) (iii)

(iv) (v) (vi)

23
2. You know that = 0142857. . Can you predict what the decimal expansions
of , ,
77
4 5 6
, , are, without actually doing the long division? If so, how?
7 7 7

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 15

[Hint : Study the remainders while finding the value of carefully.]

p
3. Express the following in the form , where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. q

(i) 06. (ii) 047. (iii) 0001.

p
4. Express 0.99999 .... in the form . Are you surprised by your answer? With
your q
teacher and classmates discuss why the answer makes sense.
5. What can the maximum number of digits be in the repeating block of digits in the

decimal expansion of ? Perform the division to check your answer.

p
6. Look at several examples of rational numbers in the form (q ≠ 0), where p
and q are q
integers with no common factors other than 1 and having terminating decimal
representations (expansions). Can you guess what property q must satisfy?
7. Write three numbers whose decimal expansions are non-terminating non-recurring.

8. Find three different irrational numbers between the rational numbers and .
9. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational :
(i) 23 (ii) 225 (iii)
0.3796
(iv) 7.478478... (v) 1.101001000100001...

1.4 Representing Real Numbers on the

Number Line
In the previous section, you have seen that any
real number has a decimal expansion. This helps
us to represent it on the number line. Let us see
how.
Suppose we want to locate 2.665 on the
number line. We know that this lies between 2
and 3.
So, let us look closely at the portion of the number line between 2 and 3.
Suppose we divide this into 10 equal parts and mark each point of
Fig. 1.11
division as in Fig. 1.11 (i). Then the first mark to

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16 MATHEMATICS

the right of 2 will represent 2.1, the second 2.2, and so on. You might be finding

some difficulty in observing these points of division between 2 and 3 in Fig. 1.11
(i). To have a clear view of the same, you may take a magnifying glass and look at
the portion between 2 and 3. It will look like what you see in Fig. 1.11 (ii). Now,
2.665 lies between 2.6 and 2.7. So, let us focus on the portion between 2.6 and 2.7
[See Fig. 1.12(i)]. We imagine to divide this again into ten equal parts. The first
mark will represent 2.61, the next 2.62, and so on. To see this clearly, we magnify
this as shown in Fig. 1.12 (ii).

Again, 2.665 lies between 2.66 and 2.67. So, let us focus on this portion of the
number line [see Fig. 1.13(i)] and imagine to divide it again into ten equal parts. We
magnify it to see it better, as in Fig. 1.13 (ii). The first mark represents 2.661, the
next one represents 2.662, and so on. So, 2.665 is the 5th mark in these
subdivisions.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 17

We call this process of visualisation of representation of numbers on the number

line, through a magnifying glass, as the process of successive magnification.
So, we have seen that it is possible by sufficient successive magnifications to
visualise the position (or representation) of a real number with a terminating
decimal expansion on the number line.
Let us now try and visualise the position (or representation) of a real number with a
non-terminating recurring decimal expansion on the number line. We can look at
appropriate intervals through a magnifying glass and by successive magnifications
visualise the position of the number on the number line.

Example 11 : Visualize the representation of 5 37. on the number line upto 5

decimal places, that is, up to 5.37777.
Solution : Once again we proceed by successive magnification, and successively

decrease the lengths of the portions of the number line in which 5 37. is located. First,

we see that 5 37. is located between 5 and 6. In the next step, we locate 5 37.
between 5.3 and 5.4. To get a more accurate visualization of the representation, we
divide this portion of the number line into 10 equal parts and use a magnifying glass
to

visualize that 5 37. lies between 5.37 and 5.38. To visualize 5 37. more accurately,
we again divide the portion between 5.37 and 5.38 into ten equal parts and use a
magnifying
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18 MATHEMATICS

glass to visualize that 5 37. lies between 5.377 and 5.378. Now to visualize 5 37.
still more accurately, we divide the portion between 5.377 an 5.378 into 10 equal
parts, and visualize the representation of 5 37. as in Fig. 1.14 (iv). Notice that 5 37.
is located closer to 5.3778 than to 5.3777 [see Fig 1.14 (iv)].

Remark : We can proceed endlessly in this manner, successively viewing through a

magnifying glass and simultaneously imagining the decrease in the length of the
portion

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 19

of the number line in which 5 37. is located. The size of the portion of the line we

specify depends on the degree of accuracy we would like for the visualisation of the
position of the number on the number line.
You might have realised by now that the same procedure can be used to visualise a
real number with a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion on the number
line.
In the light of the discussions above and visualisations, we can again say that every
real number is represented by a unique point on the number line. Further, every
point on the number line represents one and only one real number.

EXERCISE 1.4
1. Visualise 3.765 on the number line, using successive magnification.

2. Visualise 426. on the number line, up to 4 decimal places.

1.5 Operations on Real Numbers

You have learnt, in earlier classes, that rational numbers satisfy the commutative,
associative and distributive laws for addition and multiplication. Moreover, if we
add, subtract, multiply or divide (except by zero) two rational numbers, we still get
a rational number (that is, rational numbers are ‘closed’ with respect to addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division). It turns out that irrational numbers also
satisfy the commutative, associative and distributive laws for addition and
multiplication. However, the sum, difference, quotients and products of irrational
numbers are not always

17
irrational. For example, ( 6) + −( ) ( 2) − ( 2),( 3)⋅( )
6 , 3 and 17 are
rationals.
Let us look at what happens when we add and multiply a rational number with
an irrational number. For example, 3 is irrational. What about2 + 3 and 2 3 ? Since
3 has a non-terminating non-recurring decimal expansion,

the same is true for 2 + 3 and 2 3 . Therefore, both 2 + 3 and 2 3

are also irrational numbers. 7 ,
75 ,
5

Example 12 : Check whether 2 + 21, π − 2 are irrational numbers or

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20 MATHEMATICS

not.

Solution : 5 = 2.236... , 2 = 1.4142..., π = 3.1415...

7 75 75
= =
Then 7 5 = 15.652..., 5 55 5 = 3.1304...

2 + 21 = 22.4142..., π – 2 = 1.1415...
All these are non-terminating non-recurring decimals. So, all these are irrational
numbers.
Now, let us see what generally happens if we add, subtract, multiply, divide, take
square roots and even nth roots of these irrational numbers, where n is any natural
Example 13 : Add 22 + 53 and 2 – 33 .

22 + 53
)+ ( 2 – 33 ) = (22 + 2 + 53
) ( – 33
)
= (2+1) 2 + (5 − 3) 3 = 32 + 23
number. Let us look at some examples.

Solution : (

Example 14 : Multiply 65 by 25 .
Solution : 65 × 25 =6×2× 5 × 5 = 12 × 5 = 60

Example 15 : Divide 815 by 23 .

83 × 5
= 45
Solution : 23 8 15 ÷ 2 3 =
These examples may lead you to expect the following facts, which are true:
(i) The sum or difference of a rational number and an irrational number is
irrational.
(ii) The product or quotient of a non-zero rational number with an irrational
number is irrational.
(iii) If we add, subtract, multiply or divide two irrationals, the result may be rational
or irrational.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 21

We now turn our attention to the operation of taking square roots of real numbers.

Recall that, if a is a natural number, then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0. The same
definition can be extended for positive real numbers.
Let a > 0 be a real number. Then a = b means b2 = a and b > 0.

In Section 1.2, we saw how to represent n for any positive integer n on the number
line. We now show how to find x for any given positive real number x
35.

geometrically. For example, let us find it for Fig. 1.15 x = 3.5,

i.e., we find geometrically.
Mark the distance 3.5 units from a fixed point A on a given line to obtain a point B
such that AB = 3.5 units (see Fig. 1.15). From B, mark a distance of 1 unit and mark
the new point as C. Find the mid-point of AC and mark that point as O. Draw a
semicircle with centre O and radius OC.
Draw a line perpendicular to AC passing
through B and intersecting the semicircle at
D. Then, BD = 3.5 .

More generally, to find x , for any positive

real number x, we mark B so that AB = x x
units, and, as in Fig. 1.16, mark C so that BC = 1
unit. Then, as we
have done for the case x = 3.5, we find BD = (see
Fig. 1.16). We can prove this result using the
Fig. 1.16
Pythagoras Theorem.
Notice that, in Fig. 1.16, ∆ OBD is a right-angled triangle. Also, the radius of the
circle x + 1
is
units. 2
x+1
Therefore, OC = OD = OA = units.
2
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22 MATHEMATICS

x + 1 x −1

Now, OB = x − = ⋅
2 2
So, by the Pythagoras Theorem, we have

x+1 2 x−1 2
4x BD2 =
OD2 – OB2 = − = =x.
2 2 4

This shows that BD = x .

This construction gives us a visual, and geometric way of showing that x exists for
all real numbers x > 0. If you want to know the position of x on the number line,
then let us treat the line BC as the number line, with B as zero, C as 1, and so on.
Draw an arc with centre B and radius BD, which intersects the number line in E (see
Fig. 1.17). Then, E represents x .

Fig. 1.17
We would like to now extend the idea of square roots to cube roots, fourth roots,
and in general nth roots, where n is a positive integer. Recall your understanding of
square roots and cube roots from earlier classes.
What is 3 8 ? Well, we know it has to be some positive number whose cube is 8, and
you must have guessed 3 8 = 2. Let us try 5 243 . Do you know some number b such

that b5 = 243? The answer is 3. Therefore, 5 243 = 3.

From these examples, can you define n a for a real number a > 0 and a positive
integer n?
Let a > 0 be a real number and n be a positive integer. Then n a = b, if bn = a and b >

0. Note that the symbol ‘ ’ used in 2, 3 8, n a , etc. is called the radical sign.

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 23

We now list some identities relating to square roots, which are useful in various

ways. You are already familiar with some of these from your earlier classes. The
remaining ones follow from the distributive law of multiplication over addition of
real numbers, and from the identity (x + y) (x – y) = x2 – y2, for any real numbers x
and y. Let a and b be positive real numbers. Then

a a
=
(i) ab = a b (ii) b b
a − b = a −b a − b = a −b
2
a+ b (iv) a + b
(iii)
( )( ) ( )( )
(v)
( a + b )( c + d )= ac + ad + bc + bd

2
(vi)
( a+ b
) =a +2 abb+

Let us look at some particular cases of these identities.

(5 + 7 ) (2 + 5 )
(i) (ii) (5 + 5 )(5 − 5 )

(iv) 11 − 7
2
(iii)
( 3 + 7) ( )( 11 + 7 )
Solution : (i) 5 + 72 + 5105527
( )( ) = + + + 352
(ii) 5 + 5 5 − 5 = 5 − 5 = 25 – 5 = 20
2
( )( ) ( )
2 2 2
(iii)
( 3 + 7 ) = ( 3 ) + 237 + ( 7 ) = 3 + 221 + 7 = 10 + 221
11 − 7 11 + 7 = 11 − 7 = 11 − 7 = 4
2 2
(iv)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Example 16 : Simplify the following expressions:

Remark : Note that ‘simplify’ in the example above has been used to mean that the
expression should be written as the sum of a rational and an irrational number.

⋅
1
We end this section by considering the following problem. Look at 2 Can you
tell where it shows up on the number line? You know that it is irrational. May be it
is easier to handle if the denominator is a rational number. Let us see, if we can
‘rationalise’ the denominator, that is, to make the denominator into a rational
number. To do so, we need the identities involving square roots. Let us see how.

⋅
1
Example 17 : Rationalise the denominator of 2
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24 MATHEMATICS

1
2
Solution : We want to write as an equivalent expression in which the denominator
2. 2
is a rational number. We know that is rational. We also know that multiplying

1 2 2
by
2 2 will give us an equivalent expression, since 2 = 1. So, we put these

two

facts together to get

⋅
1 1 2 2
= × =
2 2 2 2
1
In this form, it is easy to locate 2 on the number line. It is half way between 0
and 2 .

Example 18 : Rationalise the denominator of

1
Solution : We use the Identity (iv) given earlier. Multiply and divide 2 + 3 by

1 2− 3 2− 3

− 3 to get = 4 3− = −2 3 . 2+ 3 2− 3
×
2

5
⋅
Example 19 : Rationalise the denominator of 3 − 5
Solution : Here we use the Identity (iii) given earlier.

5 5 3 + 5 53 + 5
( −5 )
So, 3− 5
=
3− 5
×
3+ 5
=
35−
=
2 ( 3 + 5)
Example 20 : Rationalise the denominator of

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 25

⋅
1
7 + 32
−
1 1 732 7 3 2 7 3 2− −

Solution : 7 3 2 7 3 2+= + × 7 3 2− = 49 18− = 31

So, when the denominator of an expression contains a term with a square root
(or a number under a radical sign), the process of converting it to an equivalent
expression whose denominator is a rational number is called rationalising the
denominator.
EXERCISE 1.5
1. Classify the following numbers as rational or irrational:

1
(i) 2− 5 (
(ii) 3 + 23 ) − 23 (iii)
2
(iv)(v) 2π

(3 + 32)( + 2
each of
3 + 33
)( − 3 ) the
2. Simplify
following
5−
2
2
( 5 + 2) )( 5 + 2 expressions:

(i) ) (ii) (
(iii)(iv) ()
3. Recall, π is defined as the ratio of the circumference (say c) of a circle to its
diameter c
(say d). That is, π = ⋅ This seems to contradict the fact that π is irrational. How will
d
you resolve this contradiction?
4. Represent 93. on the number line.
5. Rationalise the
7 denominators of 7 − 6 the following:
1
1 11
5+ 2 72−
(i)(ii)

(iii)(iv)

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26 MATHEMATICS

1.6 Laws of Exponents for Real Numbers

Do you remember how to simplify the following?
(i) 172 . 175 = (ii) (52)7 =

2310
(iii) 7 = (iv) 73 . 93 =
23
Did you get these answers? They are as follows:
(i) 172 . 175 = 177 (ii) (52)7 = 514
2310 3

(iii) 7 =23 (iv) 73 . 93 = 633

23
To get these answers, you would have used the following laws of exponents,
which you have learnt in your earlier classes. (Here a, n and m are natural numbers.
Remember, a is called the base and m and n are the exponents.)
(i) am . an = am + n (ii) (am)n = amn

a
m m n−

(iii) n =a , m > n (iv) ambm = (ab)m a

What is (a)0? Yes, it is 1! So you have learnt that (a)0 = 1. So, using (iii), we can
1 −n

get =a
n . We can now extend the laws to negative exponents
too. a
So, for example :

(ii) (5 )2 –7 = 5–14

23–10 = 23–17 (iv) (7)–3 ⋅ (9)–3 = (63)–3

(iii) 7
23
Suppose we want to do the following computations:
1 4
5
(ii) 3

7
(iii) 1
73

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 27

How would we go about it? It turns out that we can extend the laws of

exponents that we have studied earlier, even when the base is a positive real number
and the exponents are rational numbers. (Later you will study that it can further to
be extended when the exponents are real numbers.) But before we state these laws,
and to even make sense of these laws, we need to first understand what, for example
4 is. So, we have some work to do!
In Section 1.4, we defined n a for a real number a > 0 as follows:

Let a > 0 be a real number and n a positive integer. Then n a = b, if bn = a and b

> 0.
1
n n
In the language of exponents, we define a = a . So, in particular, 3 2 = 2 .

There are now two ways to look at 4 .

212
3 = 434 3 = =2 83
4

4 = (45) = (64) =8
Therefore, we have the following definition:
Let a > 0 be a real number. Let m and n be integers such that m and n have no
common factors other than 1, and n > 0. Then,
m
m

an = ( a) =
n n am
We now have the following extended laws of exponents:

1
5 3− = 7 15 = 715
(iii) 1= 7
2
EXERCISE 1.6
3
1.Find :(i) 64(ii) 32(iii) 125

4
2.Find :(i) 9(ii) 32(iii) 16(iv) 125

1 7
111 1

1(iv) 7 8 ⋅
5 2 2
3.Simplify :(ii) 3 (iii)
3

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28 MATHEMATICS

Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then, we have

(i) ap . aq = ap+q (ii) (ap)q = apq

a p q−
(iii) qp ) apbp = (ab)p
= a (iv
a
You can now use these laws to answer the questions asked earlier.

1 4

Example 21 : Simplify (i)(ii) 35

2 2 2⋅ = = 2 = 2 2= 3 = (iii)
3

Solution :

2 1 2 1+ 3 1 4 4
3 3
(i) 33 3 1 (ii) 5 5

1
5 11 3 5− −2

114
1.7 Summary
In this chapter, you have studied the following points:
p
1. A number r is called a rational number, if it can be written in the form , where p
and q are q

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NUMBER SYSTEMS 29

integers and q ≠ 0.

p
2. A number s is called a irrational number, if it cannot be written in the form , where p
and q q are integers and q ≠ 0.
3. The decimal expansion of a rational number is either terminating or non-terminating
recurring. Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is terminating or non-
terminating recurring is rational.
4. The decimal expansion of an irrational number is non-terminating non-recurring.
Moreover, a number whose decimal expansion is non-terminating non-recurring is
irrational.
5. All the rational and irrational numbers make up the collection of real numbers.
6. There is a unique real number corresponding to every point on the number line. Also,
corresponding to each real number, there is a unique point on the number line.

r
7. If r is rational and s is irrational, then r + s and r – s are irrational numbers, and rs and
are s irrational numbers, r
≠ 0. a a
ab = ab =
8. For b b positive real numbers
a a and b, the following identities hold:
a + b
( )( ( )(
2
a + b =a (i)(ii)
( )
(iii)− b = −a b ) (iv) a+ b a− b ) = −a b 2

(v)+ 2 ab b+

,
1 we multiply this by a b− , where a and b are
9. To rationalise the denominator of
a b+ a b−
integers.
10. Let a > 0 be a real number and p and q be rational numbers. Then
(i) ap . aq = ap + q (ii) (ap)q = apq
ap p q−

(iii) q =a (iv) apbp = (ab)p

a

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