EE 213 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS II

Lecture 4
Complex Frequency and Resonance

Dr. A. Zidouri

1
Recap: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
 A sinusoidal voltage source is identified as:
vs t   Vm cos  t   
where  is the frequency,  is the phase angle and
Vm is the maximum amplitude.
 A sinusoidal current source is identified similarly as:
is t   I m cos  t   
 The response of a linear circuit in steady-state in
response to a sinusoidal source is also sinusoidal:
 with the same frequency and
 with possibly different amplitude and phase.
2
Recap: Phasor, Impedance & Admittance
 For linear circuits with sinusoidal sources, phasor
transform leads to algebraic frequency domain
analysis:
V  Vme j  P Vm cos  t   

 The relation between voltage over an element and

current through the element is expressed in the
frequency domain as:
V  ZI
 Z is referred to as the impedance and its reciprocal
is called the admittance:
V  I/Y
3
Recap: Impedance and Related Values

Element Impedance Reactance Admittance Susceptance

(Z) (Y)

Resistor R  1/R 
(resistance) (conductance)

Inductor jL L 1/(jL) 1/(L)

Capacitor 1/(jC) 1/(C) jC C

 All circuit analysis techniques for resistive circuits are

extended to sinusoidal steady-state analysis by using
the frequency-dependent impedance expressions.

4
Frequency Response
 The impedance of an arbitrary RLC circuit is thus
frequency-dependent.
 This dependence can be depicted graphically by
magnitude and phase angle versus frequency, which
constitute the frequency response of the impedance.
 Parallel RC impedance:
1
R
jC R
Z  Z
1 1  jRC
R
jC

5
Frequency Response: Parallel RC
R
Z  j 
1   RC 
2
Z  j   tan 1  RC 

Amplitude response Phase response

6
Half-Power or Cut-Off Frequency

V V  ZI  Z I

 Cut-off frequencies are those at which the average
power is half of its maximum value.
 Maximum average power for the above circuit:

1 Z  j 0 I
2 2 2
1 V0 1 2
Z is max at   0  Pmax    R I
2 R 2 R 2
 The power is halved at  = c = 1/RC :
1 Z  jc  I
2 2 2
1 Vc 1 2 1
Pc    R I  P0
2 R 2 R 4 2
7
Resonance: Parallel RLC

V


 A circuit is said to be at resonance if the imaginary

part of its impedance or admittance is zero.
 For the parallel RLC circuit:
I 1  1 
Y   j  C  
V R  L 
 The imaginary part (susceptance) is zero at:
1
r  : Resonance frequency
LC
8
Example: Resonance Frequency
 1 
jL  R  
V  j C 
Z 
I 1
jL  R 
jC
jL 1  jRC 

1  2 LC  jRC

 The resonance frequency for this circuit is:

1
r 
LC  R 2C 2

9
Parallel RLC: Magnitude Response

I
V  2 2
 1    C  1 
   
R   L 

 Bandwidth is defined in terms of the half-power

frequencies as:
BW 2  1
 The response gets sharper as the bandwidth gets
smaller.

10
Quality Factor
 The quality factor is defined at the resonance as:
 Maximum energy stored 
Q 2  
 Total energy lost in a period 
 Since energy is stored by the capacitors/inductors
and it is dissipated by the resistors, we have:
2 maxt wC t   wL t 
Q 
PR T
1
wC t   CvC2 t 
2
1 2
wL t   LiL t 
2
PR : Resistive power
11
Quality Factor: Parallel RLC
 Consider a source with current i t   I cos  rt 
 At resonance, we have Y = 1/R . Hence:
1
vC t   Ri t   RI cos  rt   wC t   CR 2 I 2 cos 2  rt 
2
 The inductor current is obtained via phasor analysis:
RI RI  j 90 RI
IL   e  iL t   sin  rt 
jr L r L r L

 The energy stored in the inductor is then given by:

1 R 2I 2 1
wL t   sin 2
 rt   CR I
2 2
sin 2
 rt 
2 r L
2
2

12
Quality Factor: Parallel RLC (ctd.)
 The total energy stored is thus a constant:
1
wC t   wL t   CR 2 I 2
2
 The total energy dissipated by the resistor over a
period is found as:
1 2 2 I 2R
PR  I R  PR T  PR 
2 r r
 Hence the quality factor of a parallel RLC circuit is:
CR 2 I 2 R C
Q   RCr  R
I R
2
Lr L
r
13
Bandwidth for Parallel RLC
 Since Q/R = rC = 1/rL, the admittance satisfies:
1  1  1   r  
Y  j  C    1  jQ   
R  L  R   r   
 At the half-power frequencies, we have:
R I I 2   r 
V   Y  Q    1
2 Y R  r  
 We can obtain 1, 2 and the bandwidth as:
  1 
2
1  r 1
1,2  r  1      BW     
2Q 
2 1
  2Q  Q RC
 
r
 The ratio Q  is also called the selectivity.
BW
14
Resonance: Series RLC

v

1
 Resonance frequency: r 
LC
1 L
 Quality factor: Q 
R C
  1 
2
1 
 Half-power frequencies: 1,2 
 r 1     

  2Q  2Q 

r R
 Bandwidth: BW  
Q L

15
 Resonance: Parallel and Series RLC

Parallel RLC Series RLC

1 1
Resonance frequency (r) LC
LC

C L 1 L
Quality factor (Q)  rRC  R  r 
L R R C
  1 
2
1    1 
2
1 
r  1     r  1    
2Q  2Q 
Half-power frequencies
  2Q    2Q 
   
r 1 r R
Bandwidth (BW)    
Q RC Q L

16
Series-Parallel RLC Circuit

RL

I V R C
L


I 1 1 1 R  L 
Y   jC    2 L 2 2  j  C  2
V R RL  jL 2 2 
R RL   L  R L   L 
1 RL2 L
 Resonance frequency: r   2 , for RL 
LC L C
 No resonance for larger RL values !
 For the parallel (series) RLC the magnitude of the
admittance (impedance) is minimum. Neither is the
case for the series-parallel RLC circuit.
17
Series Inductive or Capacitive Reactance
j 0 Rs jX s  jL j 0 Rs jX s   j /  C 
Ie Ie

 The quality factor is defined in a similar way.

Consider the case of inductive reactance.
 The maximum total energy stored:
1 2 1 1 X
w t   Li t   LI 2 cos 2  t   wmax  LI 2  s I 2
2 2 2 2

 The energy dissipated per period:

1 2  2  I 2R s X s
PsT  I R s  
2    
2I 2 X s /  2 X s
 Quality factor: Q  
I R s / 
2
Rs
18
Series versus Parallel Reactance
Rs jX s
 For a general series reactance:
Xs
Q 
Rs
Rp

 For a general parallel reactance:

jXp
Rp
Q 
Xp

 Remark: Note that the quality factor is frequency-

dependent.
19
High-Q Resonant Circuit
Rs
1
Y  jC 
R s  jL C
L

 Suppose that the series reactance has a large ( 20)

Q-factor (called a high-Q coil).
XL L
1 1  L Rs
Rs Rs
 The admittance can then be approximated by:
1
Y  jC 
jL
1
 The resonance frequency is approximated as: r 
LC
20
Equivalent High-Q Resonant Circuit


Rs
L
C R sC L C

 Based on the impedance approximation

1
Rs  jL jC L/C
Z 
1 1
R s  jL  R s  j L 
jC jC

the admittance can be approximated as

R sC 1
Y  jC 
L jL
21
Complex Frequency
 Phasor analysis can be generalized for linear circuits
with damped-sinusoidal sources:
x t   X me tc os  t   
P Xme tc os  t     Xme j ; x t   Re Xme j  e  jt 
 The new ingredient  (nepers per sec.) is called the
damping factor and also as the neper frequency.
 The complex frequency is then defined as:
s    j

 The steady-state response of a linear circuit with

damped-sinusoidal sources is also damped-sinusoidal
with the same complex frequency.
22
Impedance and Admittances
 The relation between voltage and current is
expressed in the complex frequency domain again as:
V  Z s  I  I / Y s 
 Differentiation  multiplication with s in s-domain:
  
x t   Re X me j  e st ; x t   Re sX me j  e st 
 The impedance and admittances of basic circuit
elements are hence obtained in this case as:
Element Impedance (Z) Admittance (Y)
Resistor R 1/R
Inductor sL 1/(sL)
Capacitor 1/(sC) sC
23
Example: Circuit Analysis in s Domain
L

vi Z R C vo

 The impedance seen by the source is:
R  1 /  sC  R
Z  s   sL   sL 
R  1 /  sC  sRC  1
 The output voltage is related to the source voltage as:
R 1
Vo  s  sRC  1 LC
H s    
Vi  s  Z s  s2 
1
s
1
RC LC
 Functions of this form are called transfer functions.
24
Example: Circuit Analysis in s Domain
2H
1 
F
vi  4e t sin  2t  Z 4 4 vo

 The output is obtained in the s-domain as:
 3  
2 j 1 j j j
Vo  2 4
 e 2
 e 4
 4 e 2
 2 2e 4
s  s  2 s 1 2j Vsi 2

H  1 2j 

 The forced response of the output is obtained as:


vo t   Re 2 2e j 45
 e
1 2j t
 

 2 2e t cos  2t  
4
 Remark: The complete output response is obtained
by adding the natural response.

25
Transfer Functions
 Linear time-invariant circuits are described by
differential equations of the form:
d n vo d n 1vo dvo d m vi dvi
an n
 a n 1 n 1
   a1  a v
0 o  bm m
   b1  b0vi
dt dt dt dt dt

 Damped-sinusoidal inputs lead to damped-sinusoidal

outputs of the same frequency in steady-state:
vi t   Ve
i
st
 vo t   Voe st

a n s n  an 1s n 1    a1s  a0  Voe st  bm s m  bm 1s n 1    b1s  b0  Ve

i
st

 The transfer function from vi to vo is defined as:

Voe st N  s  bm s m  bm 1s n 1    b1s  b0
H s    
Ve
i
st
D  s  an s n  an 1s n 1    a1s  a0

26
Poles and Zeros
 The zeros of a transfer function H(s) are the values
zi for which H(zi) = 0.
 The poles of a transfer function H(s) are the values
pi for which H(pi) = .
 Rigorous definitions are in terms of limits !
 A transfer function can then be expressed as:

H s   k
 s  z1    s  zm 
s  p1    s  pn 
 For real-valued coefficients, the complex-valued
poles/zeros appear as conjugate pairs.
 Poles that are not repeated are called simple.
27
 Pole-Zero Plot
 Pole-Zero plot is the depiction of poles as X and
zeros as O in the complex number plane (or s-plane).
 Example:PZ plot of the transfer function from vi to vL
 vL 
2H
1
F
vi 4 4

VL s  s  1
H s    2
Vi s s2
s  s  1

 s  0.5  j 0.5 7  s  0.5  j 0.5 7 
28
Poles and The Natural Response
 vL 
2H

1
iL F
vi 4 4 vC

 Consider the example circuit we have seen before:
VL  s  s  s  1 VC  s  2 I  s  0.5  s  1
 2 ,  2 , L 
Vi  s  s  s  2 Vi  s  s  s  2 Vi  s  s 2  s  2
 Observe the same poles in all the transfer functions!
 Provided that one portion of the circuit is not
separated physically from the other, all transfer
functions defined for it will have common poles.
 The poles determine natural response of a circuit and
are hence also called natural frequencies.
29
Complete Response of a Linear Circuit
 Consider a damped sinusoidal (voltage or current)
input to a linear time-invariant circuit:
u t   U  e st , U  U e jU

 Any resulting voltage/current can be expressed as:

y t   yna t   yfo t 
 
Natural Response Forced Response

 The forced response is also damped-sinusoidal of the

same (complex) frequency and is given by:
yfo t   H  s  U  e st , if s is not equal to a pole of H
where H(s) is the transfer function from u to y.
 The natural response is determined by the poles of
the transfer function H(s) and the initial conditions.
30
Natural Response of a Linear Circuit
 Consider a transfer function with simple poles:
N  s  k  s  z1    s  zm 
H s    , m  n; pi  zj , i,j; i  j  pi  p j
D s   s  p1    s  pn 
 The natural response of the output is of the form:
yna t   A1e p1t    Ane pnt
where Ai’s are constants that are to be determined
based on the initial conditions.
 When all poles are distinct except pi=pi+1== pi+k-1:

yn t   A1e p1t    Ai1e pi1t  Ai  Ai1t    Aik 1t k 1 e pti 
 Aike pikt    Ane pnt
31
Natural Response: Distinct Real Poles
yna
i
y
i
na

yna
i

 Distinct real poles lead to responses in the form of

exponential decay, exponential increase or constant
response in time.
32
Natural Response:Distinct Complex Poles

 Distinct complex conjugate poles lead to oscillatory

responses with exponentially decaying, exponentially
increasing or constant amplitudes.
33
Recap: Series RLC Circuit

vi

 The transfer function from vi to vC is given by:

VC n2 1 R
H s    2 , n  , 
Vi s  2s  n
2
LC 2L
 The poles of this transfer function are given by:
p1     2  n2
p2     2  n2

34
Response of a Series RLC Circuit
VC n2 1 R
H s    2 , n  , 
Vi s  2s  n
2
LC 2L

 Over-damped:  > n
vC t   vCfo t   A1e p1t  A2e p2t

 Critically-damped:  = n
vC t   vCfo t    A1  A2t  e p1t

 Under-damped:  < n
vC t   vCfo t   Be t cos  dt    ,
where d  n2   2 , B  2 A1 ,   A1
35