Bones of the axial appendicular

skeleton:
● Hands (27 in each hand)
○ Carpal bones (9)
■ Scaphoid
■ Lunate
■ Triquetrum
■ Pisiform
■ Trapezium
■ Trapezoid
■ Capitate
■ Hamate
■ Hamulus
○ Metacarpal Bones (5)
■ First Metacarpal
■ Second Metacarpal
■ Third Metacarpal
■ Fourth Metacarpal
■ Fifth Metacarpal
○ Phalanges (14)
■ Proximal phalanges (5)
■ Middle phalanges (4)
■ Distal phalanges (5)
● Foot (26)
○ Hindfoot (2)
■ Talus
■ Cacalunus
○ Midfoot (5)
■ Cuboid
■ Medial
■ Intermediate
■ Lateral Cuneiform
■ Navicular
○ Forefoot (14)
■ Phalanges
■ Metatarsals
Joints
i.Ball-and-Socket: The ball and socket joint is fully mobile under the control of
muscles, ligaments, and tendons. The ends of the bones are covered with tough
cartilage and are lined with synovial membrane. Each joint contains a small
amount of synovial fluid which lubricates it. Synovial fluid provides protection for
the ball and socket joint and allows for stress-free movement.

ii.Hinge: A hinge joint is a joint that can only move along one axis (up or down, or
side to side only). These are found in the elbows and knees, for example. These
joints have simple ligaments for reinforcement, with hyaline cartilage and tough
fibrous connective tissue.
iii.Pivot: A joint that can freely rotate around a single axis. An example would be the
joint bone and its surrounding ligaments.directly under your skull in your neck. The
joint rotates around a ring formed by another
iv.Saddle: In a saddle joint, one bone forms a sort of saddle shape while the other is sort of like
the rider, providing stability and more flexibility than a hinge joint.
v.Plane: A joint in which the bones are mostly flat and are able to slide across each other.
However, only a small amount of gliding movement is allowed.
vi.Condyloid: A joint where one bone has an oval-shaped cup and the other goes inside it,
allowing for movement in many directions.
Structure of Bones
Flat Bones-
Ex. skull, ribs, pelvis
● Inner spongy (cancellous)
● Outer shell compact
● Function is to protect organs
● Site for hematopoisis
Long Bones-
Ex. Humerus, Femur
● Function is making up the framework of our body
● Also a site for hematopoisis
Function of Bones
● Support & shape body
● Protection of internal organs
● Movement in union with muscles
● Storage of minerals (calcium, phosphorus) & lipids
● Blood cell production
Bone Marrow
Red Bone Marrow-
● Where hematopoiesis happens- hematopoiesis is the production of cellular components within our blood (e.g. red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets form
within the bone marrow.)
● Found in flat bones and epiphysis of long bones
Yellow Bone Marrow-
● Fat Storage
● Found in the diaphysis of long bones
Structure of Bone
Spongy Bone-
● Makes the bone lighter
● Made of trabeculae and cavities
● Innermost portion of bone
Compact Bone-
● More compact, fewer gaps and spaces
● An organization made up of osteons
Microscopic Structure of Bone: Compact Bone
Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone-
Osteons are cylinder shaped with multiple layers or sheets of bone that wrap around each other to form an osteon. In the center of these layers, is a canal called the haversian
canal, central canal. Blood vessels, lymph vessels and nerves travel through the canals. In between sheets of lamellae are tiny channels called canaliculi, which branch out from
the central haversian canal to empty spaces called lacunae.
Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen
Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nerves
Volkmann’s canals – channels running perpendicular to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal
Osteocytes – mature bone cells
Lacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
Canaliculi – located between the sheets or layers of bone that wrap around the osteon, canaliculi are hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal.
Cellular Structure of Bone
The bone is mostly made up of the bone matrix and the cells of the bone.
Bone Matrix
The bone matrix is made up of osteoid which makes up the organic portion of the bone, and hydroxyapatite which makes up the inorganic portion.
Organic
The organic portion of the bone is made up of osteoid which is made up of proteins and type one collagen. This gives bone its tensile strength.
Inorganic
The inorganic portion is made up of hydroxyaphatite which contains phosphate crystals (calcium phosphate and water). This gives bone its rigid strength and density.
Cells in Bones
● Osteoprogenitor
● Osteoblasts
● Osteocytes
● Osteoclasts
Osteoprogenitor
● Precurser to osteoblasts
● Differentiate into osteoblasts under the influence of various growth factors
Osteoblasts
● Synthesize collagen and proteins (osteocalcin and osteopontin proteins- when
combined they make ostoid.)
● Produce alkaline phosphatase, which is an enzyme responsible for forming
hydroxyaphitite.
● Mature into osteocyte
Osteocytes
● Occupy lacunae (which are empty spaces)
● They have a star-like appearance that is caused by branches they use to
“communicate” with other osteocytes or osteoblasts
● They maintain the bone
Osteoclasts
● Derived from monocytes
● Responsible for bone resorption
● Break bone down using an enzyme called tartrate resistant phosphatase
● Occupy Howship’s lacunae- little lacunae formed by osteoclasts as they break down
 Bones are constantly being remodeled. They are built up by osteoblasts and broken down by osteoclasts.
Cartilage- An exracellular connective tissue secreted by cells called chondrocytes. Chondrocytes are derived from the same precursor cells as bone, fibroblasts. Chondrocytes
secrete fibrous materials- collagen which is a strong fibrous protein, and elastin which provides an elastic component to cartilage. Both collagen and elastin together provide
cartilage with both strength and flexibility.
Cartilage is not innervated, meaning it does not have any nerve cells, and it is also avascular, which means it doesn’t have any vasculature that runs through it. (Arteries, veins, or
blood vessels.) Instead, cartilage recieves nutrition and immune protection from the surrounding fluid; this is why carilage does not heal well.
Characteristics of Cartilage
● Mostly water; no blood vessels or nerves
● Tough, resilient
● New cartilage forms from chondroblasts
● Heal poorly
Growth of Cartilage
● Appositional – cells in the perichondrium secrete matrix against the external face of existing cartilage
● Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes inside the cartilage divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within
Types of Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilages: fine collagen fiber matrix- most abundant type- found in articular (movable joint) cartilage, costal cartilage (connecting ribs to sternum), respiratory cartilages
(in larynx & upper respiratory passageways) & nasal cartilages
Elastic Cartilages: similar to hyaline cartilage, more elastic fibers (very flexible) – found in external ear & epiglottis (larynx covering)
Fibrocartilage: rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers; highly compressible with great tensile strength- found in menisci of knee, intervertebral discs & pubic symphysis
*Although cartilage can be calcified, calcified cartilage is not bone. Bone is a separate type of connective tissue
9. Development and maturation of bones at the cellular and gross anatomical levels.
a. Ossification: The process of bone formation by osteoblasts (a cell that secretes what will eventually make up a bone).
b. Ossification generally begins about six weeks after fertilization and continues until about age 25.
c. There are two types of ossification, called intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification:
i.Intramembranous Ossification: This is where fibrous membranes are turned into bones. Osteoblasts secrete a bone matrix and calcium in order to harden it. This is responsible for
the flat bones of your skull and mandibles.
ii.Endochondral Ossification: This is where a type of cartilage (called hyaline cartilage) is solidified, making up most of the bones in your body. This is started when a chondrocyte
makes a template of the central section (diaphysis) of the hyaline cartilage. The new matrix/template then hardens, preventing nutrient diffusion and killing the chondrocytes. Blood
vessels invade the cavities made by the dead cells, causing osteoblasts and osteoclasts to modify the hardened calcium into spongy bone. A marrow cavity is poked through the
middle of the diaphysis. Dense, connective tissue forms a sheath around the bone. The bone then finally begins to calcify, turning the cartilage into spongy bone and making a
solid matrix of minerals around the bone.
10. How to Distinguish between types of vertebrae (e.g., cervical, thoracic, and lumbar)

Cervical Vertebrae- The cervical vertebrae of the spine consists of seven bony rings that reside in the neck between the base of the skull and the thoracic vertebrae in the trunk.
Among the vertebrae of the spinal column, the cervical vertebrae are the thinnest and most delicate bones.
Thoracic Vertebrae- The thoracic vertebrae are a group of twelve small bones that form the vertebral spine in the upper trunk. Thoracic vertebrae are unique among the bones of
the spine in that they are the only vertebrae that support ribs and have overlapping spinous processes.
Lumbar Curve-The lumbar vertebrae consist of five individual cylindrical bones that form the spine in the lower back. These vertebrae carry all of the upper body's weight while
providing flexibility and movement to the trunk region. They also protect the delicate spinal cord and nerves within their vertebral canal.
Sacrum Vertebrae- The sacrum is a large wedged shaped vertebra at the inferior end of the spine. It forms a solid base of the spinal column where it intersects with the hip bones
to form the pelvis. The sacrum is a very strong bone that supports the weight of the upper body as it is spread across the pelvis and into the legs.
Coccyx- The coccyx is a small triangular bone at the bottom of the vertebral column consisting of three to five (usually four) fused rudimentary vertebrae. In other vertebrates, the
coccygeal vertebrae form the skeleton of the tail. Human embryos have a tail but this is absorbed in the fetal period.
Osteoarthritis (OA)-
● Most common chronic arthritis; often called “wear-and-tear” arthritis
● Affects women more than men
● 85% of all americans develop OA
● More prevalent in the aged, and is probably related to the normal ageing process
● Occurs when the protective cartilage that cushions the ends of your bones wears down
● Years of abrasion and compression cause increased production of metalloproteinase enzymes that break down cartilage
● As age increases, cartilage is destroyed more quickly than it is replaced
● Most commonly affects joints in your hands, knees, hips, and spine
Treatment:
OA is slow and irreversible, but treatment methods include-
● Mild pain relievers along with moderate activities
● Magnetic therapy
● Glucosmaine sulfate decreases pain and inflammation
● SAM-e (s-adenosylmethionine) builds up cartilage and regenerates tissue
Osteoporosis-
● Osteoporosis is the loss of bone mass throughout the skeleton. It
predisposes people to fractures
● The loss of bone occurs silently and progressively. There are usually no
symptoms until the first fracture
● The cause is when the creation of new bone material doesn’t keep up
with the removal of old material
● Age related disorder
● When the thoracic vertebrae are affected, there can be a gradual
collapse of verebrae
Treatment:
● Treatment can help, but the condition can not be cured
● Medications including alendronate, risendronate, ibandronate,
raloxifene, and others
● Healthy diet
● Weight bearing exercises
Fractures
Terminology
● Nondisplaced- bone ends retian their normal position
● Displaced- bone ends are out of normal alignment
● Complete- bone is broken whole way through
● Incomplete- not broken whole way through
● Compound (open)- bone ends penetrate the skin
● Simple (closed)- bone ends do not penetrate the skin
Common Types of Fractures-
● Linear – the fracture is parallel to the long axis of the bone
● Transverse – the fracture is perpendicular to the long axis of the bone
● Oblique – diagonal breaks across the bone
● Comminuted – bone fragments into three or more pieces; common in
the elderly
● Spiral – ragged break when bone is excessively twisted; common sports
injury
● Avulsion – pieces of the bone have been pulled apart
● Impacted – opposite of avulsion fractures – a piece of bone is pushed
down into another piece of bone
● Fissure – cracks in the bone
● Depressed – broken bone portion pressed inward; typical skull fracture
● Greenstick – incomplete fracture – one side of the bone breaks and the
other side bends; common in children
● Compression – bone is crushed; common in porous bones
● Epiphyseal – epiphysis separates from diaphysis along epiphyseal line; occurs where cartilage cells are dying
Disc Herniation
Is a disorder when a rupture of the soft tissue that seperates two vertebral bones in the spinal canal. Some herniated discs cause no symptoms. Others can
irritate nearby nerves and result in pain, numbness, or weakness in an arm or leg. Not every disc requires intervention. When needed, treatment includes
medication, physical therapy, and possibly surgery.
Soliosis
A lateral curvature of the spine. (picture on right)
Anterior Cruciate Ligament Tears
The ACL is the tissue that connects the thigh bone to the knee. Most ACL injuries occur in sports such as basketball, soccer, football, skiing, and tennis.
Symptoms include knee swelling, instability, and pain. Treatment may include surgery and physical therapy.
Medial Collateral Ligament Injury/damage
Medial collateral ligament (MCL0 injury is a stretch, partial tear, or complete tear of the ligament on the inside of the knee. A valgus trauma or external tibia
roation are the causes of this injury. It is categorized in 3 grades, I, II, and III.
12. The effects of exercise and aging on the skeletal system and the diseases mentioned
❏ Bone density is slowly diminished. Bones are more likely to break.
❏ Cartilage in joints thins, reduces movement of joints. Joints become stiffer and more rigid.
❏ Range of motion in joints is limited due to rougher joint surfaces, tendon stiffness, and the joint problems listed above.