Optical Density(Radiographic Density)

▪ Is the degree of blackening of the finished radiograph.

▪ Determines the amount of light transmitted through a radiograph.
▪ Has a numeric value and can be present in varying degree, from completely black, in which no light is transmitted through
the radiograph, to almost clear.

Relationship of the Optical Density of Radiographic Film to Light Transmission Through the Film
Percent of Light Transmitted(It/Io x 100) Fraction of Light Transmitted(It/Io) Optical Density(log Io/It)
100 1 0
50 1/2 0.3
32 8/25 0.5
25 1/4 0.6
12.5 1/8 0.9
10 1/10 1
5 1/20 1.3
3.2 4/25 1.5
2.5 1/30 1.6
1.25 1/80 1.9
1 1/100 2
0.5 1/200 2.3
0.32 2/625 2.5
0.125 1/800 2.9
0.1 1/1000 3
0.05 1/2000 3.3
0.032 1/3125 3.5
0.01 1/10000 4
*Sensitometry is the study of the relationship between the intensity of exposure of the film and the blackness after processing.
*The two principal measurements involved in sensitometry are the exposure to the film and the percentage of light transmitted
through the processed film. Such measurements are used to describe the relationship between OD and radiation exposure. This relationship is called
characteristic curve.
*Characteristic curve or sometimes the H & D curve after Hurter and Driffield, who first described this relationship.
*Two pieces of apparatus are needed to construct a characteristic curve: an optical step wedge, sometimes called a
sensitometer, and a densitometer, a device that measures OD.

Steps involved in the construction of a characteristic curve. Characteristic Curve

▪ Black is numerically equivalent to an OD of 3 or greater, clear is less than 0.2.At and OD of 2,only 1% of viewbox light
passes through the film.

▪ Is determined by dividing the incident light intensity by the amount of light transmitted through the process film.
 *Most unexposed and processed radiographic film has an OD in the range of 0.1 to 0.3, corresponding to 79% and 50%transmission, respectively.
These ODs of unexposed film are attributable to base density and fog density.
*Base density is the OD that is inherent in the base of the film. It is attributable to the composition of the base and the tint added to the base to make the
radiograph more pleasing to the eye.Base density has a value of approximately 0.1.
*Fog density is the development of silver grains that contain no useful information.Fog density results from inadvertent exposure of film during
storage, undesirable chemical contamination, improper processing, and a number of other influences. Fog density on a processed radiograph should
not exceed 0.1.
*Base and fog densities reduce radiographic image contrast and should be as low as possible.
*The useful range of OD is approximately 0.25 to 2.5. Most radiographs, however, show image patterns in the range of 0.5 to 1.25 OD.

*Higher fog density reduces the contrast of the radiographic image.

*A radiograph that is too dark has a high OD caused by overexposure which results when too much x-radiation reaches the image receptor.
*A radiograph that is too light has been exposed to too little x-radiation, resulting in underexposure and a low OD.

*A(overexposed),B(underexposed).Both chest radiographs are unacceptable because no detail to the lung field is apparent.

▪ Can be controlled in radiography by two major factors:mAs and SID.

*SID is usually fixed at 90 cm for mobile examinations,100 cm for table studies, and 180 cm for upright chest examinations.
*OD increases directly with mAs with mAs.
▪ Can be affected by other factors but the mAs value becomes the factor of choice for its control.

Factors Affecting Optical Density

1. Milliampere seconds(mAs)
▪ Is used as the primary controller of radiographic density and image receptor exposure.
▪ If increased-ray exposure increases proportionally, and radiographic density also increases.
*As a general rule, when only the mAs setting is changed, it should be halved or doubled.
*The mAs value must be changed by approximately 30% to produce a perceptible change in OD.The kVp setting must be changed by approximately 4%
to produce a perceptible change in OD.
▪ Reciprocity Law: Principle that state that optical density on a radiograph is proportional only to the total energy imparted to
the radiographic film and independent of the time of exposure.
*Whether a radiograph is made with short exposure time or long exposure time, the reciprocity law states that the OD will be the same if the
mAs value is constant.
*The reciprocity law holds for direct exposure with x-rays, but it does not hold for exposure of film by the visible light from radiographic intensifying

screens.
*The reciprocity law fails for screen-film exposures at exposure times less than approximately 10 ms or longer than approximately 2s.
*The reciprocity law is important for special procedures that require very short or very long exposure times, such as angiointerventional
radiography and mammography, respectively. For these few situations, increasing the mAs setting may be required if automatic exposure control

does not compensate for reciprocity law failure.

▪ Direct Square Law .
 Allows the radiologic technologist to calculate the required change in mAs after a change in SID to
maintain constant OD.
 Is derived from the inverse square law.
 Question: An examination requires 100 mAS at 180 cm SID. If the distance is changed to 90 cm SID, what should be
the new mAs setting?
x 90 2
Answer: =
100 1802
2
90
x=100 ( )
180
1 2
¿ 100
2 ()
1 ❑
¿ 100
4 ()
= 25 mAs
▪ When preparing to make a radiographic exposure, the radiologic technologist selects specific settings for each of the factors
described: kVp, mAs, and SID. The control panel selections are based on an evaluation of the patient, the thickness of the
anatomical part, and the type of accessories used.
▪ Standard SIDs have been in use for many years. For tabletop radiography, 100 cm is common, but dedicated
chest examination usually is conducted at 180 cm. Tabletop radiography at 120 cm and chest radiography
at 300 cm are now often used.
▪ The use of a longer SID results in less magnification, less focal spot blur, and improved spatial resolution. However, more
mAs must be used because of the effects of the direct square law.
Influencing Factors Affecting Optical Density

1. Kilovolt peak (kVp)

▪ Five percent rule: Principle that states that an increase of 5% in the kVp may be accompanied by a 30% reduction in the
mAs to produce the same optical density at a slightly reduced contrast scale.
▪ Fifteen percent rule:Principle that states that if the optical density on a radiograph is to be increased with the use of kVp, an
increase in kVp by 15% is equivalent to doubling of the mAs
▪ Maintaining Density:
 A 15% increase in kVp requires 1/2 the original mAs.
 A 15% decrease in kVp requires 2x the original mAs.
 No practical amount of mAs can compensate for insufficient kVp/penetrability (all it does is increase patient
exposure).
 kVp has the incident effect of increasing scatter production which also increases density.
*If only OD is to be changed, the 15% rule should not be used because such a large change in kVp would change image contrast.
*The 15% rule is commonly applied because it can be used without producing images outside the acceptance limits.
* When a contrast change is desirable, the 15% rule is a useful method of maintaining density.However, when only a density change is desired, the 15%
rule should not be used because it causes contrast change as well.
*When density changes are desired, the method of choice is to vary the mAs because it is the controlling factor for density.

2. Distance
Source-to-image receptor distance (SID)
▪ Distance affects exposure of the image receptor according to the inverse square law.
▪ Refers to the distance from the x-ray source to the image receptor(IR).
▪ Affects the number of x-ray photons reaching the IR when as it changes.
*SID and density are inversely proportional: As SID increases, density will decrease increase.
▪ Affects radiation intensity: As SID increases, radiation intensity decreases; As SID decreases, radiation intensity increases.
This is known as the inverse square law.
*The inverse square law states that the intensity of radiation is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the x-
ray source, or

* However, the most common situation in radiography is a need to maintain an acceptable density while changing the distance.To maintain density,
mAs for the density change. The density maintenance formula is used for this purpose. This formula is based on the inverse square law but it is reversed
to a dricet square law because the mAs must increase when distance increases, and vice versa, in order to maintain density.

where: mAs1=original mAs

 mAs2= new mAs
D1 =old distance
D2= new distance
Object-to-image receptor distance (OID)

 The distance between the image receptor and the object being imaged.
 An increase in OID decreases density by creating space for scatter
radiation to escape before reaching the image receptor. If less scatter
reaches the image receptor, less density is created on the image.
 An air-gap technique increases object-to-film distance, and this permits
scatter radiation to avoid the image receptor. This scatter radiation would
normally contribute radiation fog to the density.

3. Anatomical Part
▪ The patient is the prime attenuator of the beam, the anatomical part being examined has a great deal of influence on the
density of the film. The amount of attenuation is dependent on the thickness and type of the tissue being radiographed. The
tissue type is affected by the average atomic number and the density(quantity of matter per volume) of the tissue. The use of
contrast media will alter the average atomic number of the tissue and can affect density. Pathology can alter tissue thickness
and/or type.

*There is an inverse relationship between tissue thickness/type and radiographic density. In other words, as tissue thickness, average atomic number of
the tissue, and/or tissue density increases, radiographic density decreases.

Thickness of part(Tissue Thickness)

▪ The thicker the patient, the more x-radiation is required to penetrate the patient to expose the image receptor. For this
reason, the radiologic technologist must use calipers to measure the thickness of the anatomy that is being irradiated.
*A thick body section attenuates a greater number of x-rays than does
*As thickness of part increases, optical density decreases.
Pathology
▪ The type of pathology, its size, and its composition influence radiographic technique. In this case, the patient examination
request form and previous images may be of some help. The radiologic technologist should not hesitate to seek more
information from the referring physician, the radiologist, or the patient regarding the suspected pathology.
▪ Pathology can appear with increased radiolucency or radiopacity.
▪ As certain diseases progress, the number and/or types of atoms in the affected tissue may change that can cause in an
increased or decrease in tissue density .These changes can have a direct influence on the attenuation(absorption) of the x-ray
beam by the affected tissue.
*Additive diseases and conditions will cause an increase in tissue density which are more difficult for x-ray photons to penetrate, will result in a
decrease in optical density.
*Destructive diseases and conditions will cause a decrease in tissue density, which will allow x-ray photons to more readily penetrate the tissue will
result in a decrease in optical density .

Classifying Pathology

Radiolucent (Destructive) Radiopaque (Constructive)

Active tuberculosis Aortic aneurysm
Atrophy Ascites
Bowel obstruction Atelectasis
Cancer Cirrhosis
Degenerative arthritis Hypertrophy
Emphysema Metastases
Osteoporosis Pleural effusion
Pneumothorax Pneumonia
Sclerosis

4. Film Processing
▪ The condition of the film processing solutions can dramatically alter density. Density will increase when the developer
solution temperature increases, immersion time increases, or replenishment rates increase. Density will decrease when the
above factors decrease as well as when contamination decreases solution strength.
 Developer solution Temperature: Maintained at 35˚C (95˚F)
 Immersion Time :Manual-5 min, Automatic-22s
 Replenishment Rate : Approximately 60 to 70 mL of developer and 100 to 110 mL of fixer for every 35 cm (14 in)
of film.
▪ The development time recommended by the manufacturer is the time that will result in maximum contrast. When
development time extends far beyond the recommended period, the image receptor contrast decreases.

5. Image receptor speed

▪ Faster speed screens will emit more light in response to radiation exposure than slower speed screens and will result in a
higher density image with less patient dose.
 *An increase in screen speed from 100 to 200 doubles the density of the film, because twice as much light is produced by the 200 speed screen. A 400
speed screen produces twice as much light as a 200 speed screen, resulting in an image being twice as dark.

6. Collimation
▪ Collimation is the use of any beam restricting device to decrease the field of view of the image and exposure area of the
patient.
▪ Beam restrictors reduce the amount of scatter that is produced.
▪ Every technologist should follow the principle of ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) which includes collimating
only to the necessary area of interest.
▪ Collimation reduces patient dose and decreases scatter radiation.
▪ Beam restriction, or collimation, changes the size of the x-ray field and, therefore, the volume of tissue being exposed to
radiation. As collimation increases, the size of the light field and the volume of tissue irradiated are decreased. Increasing
collimation results in decrease scatter production and, as a result, decreased optical density.
*Increasing collimation deceases optical density.
*Decreasing collimation increases optical density.
7. Grids
▪ The radiographic grid was invented in 1913 by Gustave Bucky and continues to be the most effective means for limiting the
amount of scatter radiation that reaches the IR."
▪ Grids absorb scatter which would otherwise add density to the film. The more efficient the grid, the less the density. Grid
with high ratios, low frequency, and dense interspace material; moving grids and improperly used grids all reduce density.
▪ Compensation for varying grid ratios is generally accomplished by increasing mAs. The amount of mAs needed can be
calculated using the grid conversion factors. Changes between grids, which is the most common clinical problem, are
accomplished by using the following formula:
mAs1 GCF 1
=
mAs2 GCF 2
where: mAs1=old mAs
mAs2 = new mAs
GCF1 = original grid conversion factor
GCF2 = new grid conversion factor

Approximate Bucky(Grid Conversion)

Factor for Grids

Bucky Factor at

Grid Ratios 70kVp 90kVp 120kVp

No grid 1 1 1

5:1 2 2.5 3
8. Filtration 8:1 3 3.5 4
▪ Three types of x-ray filtration are used: inherent, added,and
compensating. All x-ray beams 12:1 3.5 4 5 are affected by the inherent filtration
properties of the glass or metal envelope of the x-ray tube. For general-
16:1 4 5 6
purpose tubes, the value of inherent filtration is approximately 0.5
mm Al equivalent.
▪ The variable-aperture light-localizing collimator usually provides an additional 1.0 mm Al equivalent. Most of this is
attributable to the reflective surface of the mirror of the collimator. To meet the required total filtration of 2.5 mm Al, an
additional 1-mm Al filter is inserted between the x-ray tube housing and the collimator. The radiologic technologist has no
control over these sources of filtration but may control stages of added filtration.
▪ Some x-ray imaging systems have selectable added filtration, as shown below.
 ▪ Usually, the imaging system is placed into service with the lowest allowable added filtration. Radiographic technique charts
usually are formulated at the lowest filtration position. If a higher filter position is used, a radiographic technique chart must
be developed at that position.
▪ Under normal conditions, it is unnecessary to change the filtration. Some facilities may be set for higher filtration during
examinations of tissue with high subject contrast, such as the extremities, joints, and chest. When
properly used, higher filtration for these examinations results in lower patient radiation dose. When added filtration is
changed, be sure to return it to its normal position before beginning the next examination.
▪ As added filtration is increased, the result is increased x-ray beam quality and penetrability. The result on the
image is the same as that for increased kVp, that is, more scatter radiation and reduced image contrast.
▪ Filtration and its ability to alter beam intensity affect density. All types of filtration alter density. Density decreases when
filtration is increased.
▪ When added filtration is changed, which is rare, a half-value layer calculation should be made to permit adjustment of mAs
or other factors to maintain density.

9. Anode Heel Effect

▪ The anode heel effect alters the intensity of radiation, and therefore the
density, between the anode and the cathode ends of the x-ray tube.
Depending on the angle of the anode, this effect can cause a density
variation of up to 45 percent between the anode and cathode ends of the
image.
▪ Image density is always greater at the cathode end.
▪ The anode heel effect is most noticeable with a steep bevel, large focal
spot, short SID, and a large IR size.

10. Focal Spot Size

▪ Most x-ray tubes are equipped with two focal-spot sizes. On the operating console, these usually are identified as small and
large,0.5 mm/1.0 mm,0.6 mm/1.2 mm, or 1.0 mm/2.0 mm. X-ray tubes used in interventional radiology procedures or
magnification radiography may have 0.3 mm/1.0 mm focal spots.
▪ Mammography x-ray tubes have 0.1 mm/0.3 mm focal spots. These are called microfocus tubes and are designed specifically
for imaging very small microcalcifications at relatively short SIDs.
▪ For general imaging, the large focal spot is used. This ensures that sufficient mAs can be used to image thick or dense body
parts. The large focal spot also provides for a shorter exposure time, which minimizes motion blur.
▪ One difference between large and small focal spots is the capacity to produce x-rays. Many more x-rays can be produced
with the large focal spot because anode heat capacity is higher. With the small focal spot, electron interaction occurs over a
much smaller area of the anode, and the resulting heat limits the capacity of x-ray production.
▪ Large focal spots tend to bloom more at higher mA and may occasionally reach a point where they alter image density.
▪ Blooming occurs with large mA because the incident electron beam is not as easily focused by the focusing cup. It is rare for
blooming to cause a visible density difference.
▪ A small focal spot is reserved for fine-detail radiography, in which the quantity of x-rays is relatively low.
▪ Small focal spots are always used for magnification radiography. These are normally used during extremity radiography and
in examination of other thin body parts in which higher x-ray quantity is not necessary.
▪ Have such small effect on density.