UNDERSTANDING HOW HIGHLY INVOLVED MINORITY PARENTS

SUSTAIN THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN THEIR CHILD'S EDUCATION

A Dissertation by

David D. Sheppard

EdS, Pittsburg State University, 1996

MA, University of Missouri @ Kansas City, 1983

BGS, University of Kansas, 1976

Submitted to the College of Education

and the faculty of the Graduate School of
Wichita State University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education

May 2007
© Copyright 2007 by David D. Sheppard

All Rights Reserved

 UNDERSTANDING HOW HIGHLY INVOLVED MINORITY PARENTS
SUSTAIN THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN THEIR CHILD'S EDUCATION

I have examined the final copy of this dissertation for form and content, and recommend
that it be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of
Education with a major in Educational Leadership.

__________________________________
Raymond L. Calabrese, Committee Chair

We have read this dissertation and recommend its acceptance:

__________________________________
John Fast, Committee Member

__________________________________
Lori Miller, Committee Member

__________________________________
Jean Patterson, Committee Member

__________________________________
Randy Turk, Committee Member

Accepted for the College of Education

_________________________________
Jon M. Englehardt, Dean

Accepted for the Graduate School

_________________________________
Susan K. Kovar, Dean

iii
 DEDICATION

To my loving wife, Marla, and my daughter Madison for their enduring patience,

support, and encouragement during my educational journey.

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am exceedingly grateful and appreciative to Dr. Calabrese for assisting me in my

endeavors throughout the dissertation process. His eternally optimistic and positive

attitude is an inspiration and motivation to me. His encouragement, support for others,

and approach to life is a living reality of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology and

humanistic psychology, all research perspectives that framed this study. My most

memorable impression of Dr. Calabrese will be his proclivity for his students to ‘get

down to business’ yet indulge us in his wonderful sense of humor at the same time.

I want to thank the other members of my dissertation committee: Dr. John Fast,

Dr. Lori Miller, and Dr. Jean Patterson, and Dr. Randy Turk, for their time and dedication

to their profession in helping my fellow students and me learn on this dissertation

journey.

My educational experience in the Educational Leadership program at Wichita

State University has been an outstanding one. I have appreciated the individual professors

I had the pleasure to spend time with during my course work: Dr. Ray Calabrese, Dr. Ian

Gibson, Dr. Jean Patterson, and Dr. Randy Turk. They helped immensely in my growth

in leadership and learning through the academic opportunities that they provided to me.

I would also like to thank the Board of Education members of TriCounty Special

Education Interlocal #607, and the Director, Kevin Shepard for allowing me to begin this

educational voyage and their commitment in letting me continue. In conjunction with

that, I want to express my gratitude to USD 445 Board of Education in Coffeyville for

permitting their district as the site for my research study, and individuals at USD 445 who

v
helped me in the data collection process. My particular thanks is extended to Sonya

Cantrell who helped me with district data and Infinite Campus information.

I also thank the Native American and African American parent participants who

gave their time and commitment to me during my study. Without them, there would be

no study.

I wish to thank my parents, Dr. Robert Glenn and Edee Sheppard, for providing

me the enduring support and encouragement for whatever I choose professionally to

pursue.

Finally, I extend my best wishes and gratitude to my other Cohort 12 members:

Martin Stessman, Rae Niles, Russell Miller, Robert Morton, and Cameron Carlson.

Thanks for the memories we created together as well as your support and friendship.

vi
 ABSTRACT

The purpose of my research study was to describe minority parents’ perceptions

of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved

in their child’s education. Participants’ perceptions were viewed through the theoretical

frameworks of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and

humanistic psychology (Maslow, 1943). A qualitative descriptive multi-case study

research design applied appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective to describe

the minority parent’s perceptions of how they overcame challenges, sustained

involvement, and remained highly involved in their child’s education. An appreciative

inquiry theoretical research perspective centers on the positive core of experiences held

by participants. The multiple case study design was selected for utilizing more than one

case for evidence and data, thus strengthening the study and increasing its external

validity (Yin, 2003). Data were collected through focus groups interviews, and document

review.

Data were analyzed using pattern matching, the constant-comparative method and

CATPAC, a text analysis software designed to show relationships among words. The

analyzed data revealed six findings: Six salient findings were derived from my data

analysis: (1) Native American and African American parents identified involvement

strategies to improve their child’s education; (2) African American parents believed there

were issues related to minority relationships within the school and community; (3) Native

American and African American parents set expectations for their children; (4) Native

American and African American parents expressed pride in their children’s

accomplishments; (5) Native American and African American parents linked family

vii
values to their role and responsibility as a parent; (6) Native American and African

American parents linked teacher care and respect for their child to the child’s success.

These findings validate that Native American and African American parents

desire to be and can be as successful as any other minority or non-minority parents, at

being involved in their children’s education. This group of highly involved parents

offered several effective strategies for sustaining involvement in their child’s education.

Communication strategies and recognition for what is important in dealing with school

personnel has facilitated these parents in their quest to support and help their child

through their educational careers. Both Native American and African American parents

demonstrated that a belief system centered on the modeling of core and family values,

including instilling the value of an education has proven to be effective positive acts for

their children and families. A strong, positive, and optimistic belief system as well as a

learned ability for effectively interacting with the school system has facilitated these

parents in overcoming challenges and obstacles other minority parents often face.

I hope that the findings from this study can contribute to furthering an awareness

of, and inspiring future research for minority parent involvement in our schools, as well

as opening doors to practice and policy changes facilitating the education of children who

greatly need to achieve at higher levels in our schools.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................... 1

Introduction............................................................................................................. 1
Background of the Study ........................................................................................ 2
History of School-Family Relationships............................................................. 3
Policy and Partnerships....................................................................................... 4
Problems with Parent and School Partnerships .................................................. 6
Minority Involvement ..................................................................................... 6
Statement of the Problem........................................................................................ 7
The Importance of Parent Involvement .............................................................. 8
Student Achievement .......................................................................................... 8
Policy Uniformity and Approaches .................................................................... 9
Socio-Economic, Cultural and Personal Challenges ........................................ 10
Alienation from the School Process.................................................................. 12
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................... 14
Overview of Methodology.................................................................................... 14
Research Questions........................................................................................... 14
Objectives ......................................................................................................... 15
Significance of the Study .................................................................................. 15
Delimitations and Limitations........................................................................... 16
Assumption ....................................................................................................... 17
Definition of Key Terms................................................................................... 17
Appreciative Inquiry ..................................................................................... 17
Highly Involved Parents ............................................................................... 17
Minority ........................................................................................................ 17
Organization of the Dissertation ....................................................................... 18

CHAPTER 2 ......................................................................................................... 19

Review of the Literature ....................................................................................... 19

Overview of the Conceptual Framework.......................................................... 19
Epistemology .................................................................................................... 21
Descriptions of the Theoretical Frameworks.................................................... 22
Competing Perspectives.................................................................................... 26
Methodology for the Literature Review ........................................................... 28
Empirical Research ............................................................................................... 34
Legislation......................................................................................................... 34
Parent Perspective............................................................................................. 35
Psychological Components........................................................................... 36
Barriers to Parent Participation......................................................................... 40
Alienation...................................................................................................... 40
Cultural ......................................................................................................... 41

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Chapter Page

Personal......................................................................................................... 42
Social Class................................................................................................... 43
Extent of Minority Involvement ....................................................................... 45
Sustaining Parent Involvement: Secondary School Research .......................... 47
Influence of Parental Expectations/ Aspirations............................................... 50
Summary ........................................................................................................... 54

CHAPTER 3 ......................................................................................................... 56

Methodology ......................................................................................................... 56
Purpose of Study ................................................................................................... 56
Statement of the Problem...................................................................................... 56
Research Questions........................................................................................... 57
Context.............................................................................................................. 57
Research Design.................................................................................................... 58
Theoretical Research Perspective ..................................................................... 58
Units of Analysis............................................................................................... 59
Data Collection Methods .................................................................................. 61
Focus Groups ................................................................................................ 61
Semi-Structured Interviews .......................................................................... 61
Documents .................................................................................................... 62
Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 62
Trustworthiness of the Data.......................................................................... 63
Bias ............................................................................................................... 64
Summary ........................................................................................................... 64

CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................... 65

Purpose of Study ................................................................................................... 65

Overview of Methodology.................................................................................... 65
Emerging Theory .................................................................................................. 66
Research Questions............................................................................................... 67
Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 67
Findings................................................................................................................. 67
Finding 1 Native American and African American Parents Identified
Involvement Strategies to Improve Their Child’s Education ........................... 69
Involvement Strategy Focusing on Teachers and Administrators ................ 77
Involvement Strategies Focusing on Child................................................... 80
Positive Interaction in Child’s Environment............................................. 80
Summary of Finding ......................................................................................... 83
Finding 2 African American Parents Believed There Were Issues Related to
Minority Relationships with the School and Community................................. 83
Challenges Regarding Minority Status at USD 445 ..................................... 87
Challenges Regarding Minority Status in the Community........................... 89

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Chapter Page

Summary of the Finding ................................................................................... 90

Finding 3 Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for
Their Children................................................................................................... 91
Expectations in a Parental Role .................................................................... 94
Expectations and Aspirations for Education................................................. 95
Summary of Finding ......................................................................................... 96
Finding 4 Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in
Their Children’s Accomplishments .................................................................. 96
Pride through Effort and Accomplishments ............................................... 100
Instilling Pride, Values, and Self-esteem.................................................... 101
Summary of Finding ....................................................................................... 102
Finding 5 Native American and African American Parents Linked Family
Values to Their Role and Responsibility as a Parent...................................... 103
Core Values and Inspiration ....................................................................... 108
Modeling Family Values and Responsibility.............................................. 109
Summary of the Finding ................................................................................. 110
Finding 6 Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher
Care and Respect for Their Child to the Child’s Success............................... 111
Lack of Teacher Care and Respect ............................................................. 115
Instilling Care, Respect, and Teacher Support ........................................... 116
Summary of Finding ....................................................................................... 117
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 118

CHAPTER 5 ....................................................................................................... 119

Purpose of Study ................................................................................................. 119

Summary of the Literature Review..................................................................... 119
Overview of Methodology.................................................................................. 121
Research Questions............................................................................................. 121
Findings............................................................................................................... 121
Discussion of Findings........................................................................................ 122
Finding 1: Native American and African American Parents Identified
Involvement Strategies to Improve Their Child’s Education ......................... 122
Finding 2: African American Parents Believed There Were Issues Related to
Minority Relationships Within the School and Community........................... 124
Finding 3: Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for
Their Children................................................................................................. 127
Finding 4: Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in
Their Children’s Accomplishments ................................................................ 129
Finding 5: Native American and African American Parents Linked Family
Values to Their Role and Responsibility as a Parent...................................... 131
Finding 6: Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher
Care and Respect for Their Child to the Child’s Success............................... 133
Implications for Future Research........................................................................ 135

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Chapter Page

Implications for Praxis and Recommendations .................................................. 136

Relationship of Findings to Relevant Theory ..................................................... 137
Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................. 138

REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 140

APPENDICES .................................................................................................... 158

Appendix A......................................................................................................... 159

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Score Directions (SPSIS)........................ 159
Appendix B ......................................................................................................... 161
Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring Guide ......................................... 161
Appendix C ......................................................................................................... 165
Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring Instrument.................................. 165
Appendix D......................................................................................................... 168
Focus Group Questions................................................................................... 168
Appendix E ......................................................................................................... 169
Interview Questions ........................................................................................ 169
Appendix F.......................................................................................................... 171
Wichita State University Institutional Review Application............................ 171
Appendix G......................................................................................................... 176
Letter of Consent for Parent Participants........................................................ 176
Appendix H......................................................................................................... 178
Letter of Consent for Administrators, Counselors and Teachers.................... 178

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 2.1 Search for Empirical Research……………………………………………31-33

Table 4.1 Native American and African American Parents Identified Involvement
Strategies to Improve their Child’s Education………………………………71-77

Table 4.2 Issues Related to Minority Relationships with the School and Community
Raised by African American Parents………………………………………...84-87

Table 4.3 Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for Their
Children…………………………………………………………………..… 92-94

Table 4.4 Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in Their
Children’s Accomplishments……….……………………………………….97-99

Table 4.5 Native American and African American Parents Linked Family Values to Their
Role and Responsibility as a Parent……………………………………….103-107

Table 4.6 Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher Care and
Respect for Their Child to the Child’s Success……………….….……….111-115

xiii
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Since the inception of family/parent involvement in education, researchers have

sought to understand the implication of the parent’s involvement in his/her child’s

education. The field of family/parent/community school involvement did not exist prior

to the 1960s, and it was neither recognized in policy nor research (1997). Thus, the field

of parent/school involvement is recent and its implications are still being discovered.

The importance of parent involvement in education has been well documented

(Cotton & Wiklund, 1989; Davis, 2000; Epstein, 1983; Henderson, 1987; Henderson &

Berla, 1994; Henderson & Mapp, 2002). Parent involvement has been linked to student

achievement, self-esteem, and other desired factors attributable to student success in

education.

Today’s parent involvement research is focused on identifying the most effective

and productive methods to benefit the child’s learning through involvement of parents

(Baker & Snoden, 1997; Baker & Snoden, 1998). A challenge for educational systems is

to seek collaboratively a process that increases parent involvement and effectively

contributes to their child’s success in school. Moreover, it becomes an ethical issue for

educators to operate with a policy of high parental inclusion, for example, integrating all

socio-economic, racial, and ethnic groups. For this reason, consideration of the

demographics of the local community is vital for those systems involving multiple

ethnicities and cultures. The next section discusses community and school characteristics

that provide a demographic background for the site of this study.

1
 Background of the Study

This study took place in Coffeyville, Kansas, and USD 445. Coffeyville is a small

blue-collar community in southeastern Kansas with approximately 11,000 residents.

Seventy percent of the Coffeyville’s residents work in Coffeyville. The other 30% of the

workforce commute from surrounding rural areas and smaller towns. Some commute

from Oklahoma, especially Notawa County, the county directly south of Coffeyville. Of

the 30% working, yet residing outside of Coffeyville, the Montgomery County Action

Council discovered that those workers did not desire to relocate. Higher taxes and

housing were given as the foremost rationale for not living within the county boundaries

(Hurd, 2003). Coffeyville consists of the following ethnic groups: White Non-Hispanic

(75.76%), African American (12.12%), Native American Indian (4.97%), Hispanic

(3.82%), and Other (3.33%) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Coffeyville USD 445’s

enrollment of 1,925 students consists of the following ethnic groups: White, 55%,

African American, 16%, Native American 10%, Hispanic, 4%, and Other, 15%. In USD

445 Elementary, Middle School, and High School level, ethnicity groups are very

similarly comprised to the district demographics (Kansas State Department of Education,

2006). Economically disadvantaged students enrolled in USD 445 make up

approximately 59% of the student population (Kansas State Department of Education,

2005).

In 2000, the median household income was $25,542 and the median age was 39.2

years. Median household income for African-Americans was $15, 321, compared to $31,

964 for Native Americans, $26, 875 for Hispanics and $27, 515 for Whites. Overall, the

median household income is less than the state median household income in 2000 that

2
was 40.264. The unemployment rate for Black males and females is 9.6% and for White

males and females, it is 9.7%. While the Hispanic unemployment for males is only 4.4%,

for the Hispanic females it is 22% (City-data.com, 2005).

The next section examines (a) the history of school-family relationships, (b)

policy and (c) partnerships of schools-parents, and (d) minority parent involvement in

their child’s education.

History of School-Family Relationships

In the most unsophisticated and conventional societies, parents are responsible for

their children’s education. In these societies, sons are still following in their father career

footsteps, and daughters, many of them observing the same child-rearing practices and/or

vocational paths of their mothers (Gardner, 2004). “From the youngest of ages, children

witness their elders carrying out these roles in models passed down through generations

from great-grandparents to siblings” (Gardner, 2004, p. 121). Children learn primarily

from parents/families through their first half decade before the formal school

socialization process begins. Increased day-care and attendance at preschool facilities

have impacted this socialization process in the previous two decades in large part due to a

growing number of women entering the workforce (Coleman, 1987), shifting the

emphasis of education from parent/family to the school.

Frequently, the shift from exclusive home to school learning represents a critical

juncture for parent involvement (Gardner, 2004). That is, today, there is a growing

emphasis for parents to be involved and participate in school functions; yet, increased

parental involvement has been difficult to achieve due to the diversity of family life in the

United States. Nearly one half of American households are represented by a family other

3
than married couples with children, such as working mothers with no fathers in the

household. There are about 12 different classifications for household and family

structures (Social Science Data Analysis Network, 2001). Married couples with children

have traditionally been the norm, but that is becoming less so. Moreover, many families

have non-traditional life-work styles or time constraints such as increased workloads

outside the home along with childcare responsibilities (Moore & Barbarin, 2004).

Policy and Partnerships

The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Act (ESEA) in 2001

(Rutherford, Anderson, Billig, & Corporation), otherwise known as No Child Left

Behind (NCLB)(No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002), has continued to endorse

parental involvement in schools (Gomez & Greenough, 2002). One objective of NCLB is

strengthening the partnership between parents and schools. Under Title I Section 1118

Parental Involvement: written policy states that local education agencies need to “identify

barriers to greater participation by parents in activities (authorized by this section) with

particular attention to economically disadvantaged, those of limited English proficiency

or limited literacy, disabled, and are of any racial or ethnic minority background” (No

Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002). The law increases the parental role in their child’s

education as informed decision-makers, and provides parents with more options for

educational choice: “by conducting the effectiveness of parental involvement policy with

the involvement of parents”(No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002). In addition,

parents must receive certain notification of educational benchmarks such as grades or

assessments (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002). Therefore, an aim of NCLB is

the sustenance of parent and school partnerships.

4
 Partnership efforts have been included through other legislative means. For

example, Vail and Struck (1999) reported that five years after the addition of the Title I

portion of the ESEA Act in 1994, parents were still not aware of the legislation to

increase parent participation in schools, even though this funding greatly facilitated

federally supported parent involvement programs. In addition, Title I schools have not

adequately followed through on parent involvement requirements because there has been

no follow-through or consequences for not meeting requirements, though many were

established for disadvantaged students (Gomez & Greenough, 2002).

The added initiatives called for parent involvement compacts (one example is

contracts) with schools that create viable partnerships with parents. Previously federally

funded parent programs created contracts between the parents and school (Boyd &

Shouse, 1997). These contracts varied according to the contract’s purpose and objectives.

In general, they are simple clauses signifying an agreement between the school and

parents, and written with specific strategies usually for engaging parents for monitoring

their child with homework assignments within district or local policy guidelines (Better

Education for Students and Teachers Act 2001; Epstein & Hollifield, 1996).

Contracts with principal, parents, teachers, and children benefited children

academically. Parents were to maintain their commitment to the contracts. Some

contracts focused on providing a particular place at home to do school work, discussing

school activities, monitoring a child’s homework, and offering encouragement (Walberg,

Bole, & Waxman, 1980). Homework and attendance monitoring were the most prevalent

areas stipulated throughout parent contracts.

5
 Problems with Parent and School Partnerships

A difficulty for many parent and school partnerships after initial enthusiasm was

keeping the parents actively sustained in the process. The compact programs have met

with limited success even though the numbers had initially increased since the 1994

inception figures (Vail & Struck, 1999). Despite the promising outlook for increasing

parental involvement, only about 40% of Title I schools were utilizing any form of

compacts with parents in 1998 (Gomez & Greenough, 2002; Vail & Struck, 1999).

Defining ‘involvement’ is one problem facing parental-school efforts (Gomez &

Greenough, 2002). Most schools operate with the perspective that involvement means

parents are involved in school events and activities, ignoring other aspects of parent

involvement as vital such as support at home (Boethel, 2003; Gregory & Weinstein,

2004; Mapp, 1999; Moore & Barbarin, 2004). Current federal legislation associated with

parental involvement—under part (e) of Section 1118 in NCLB—defined involvement as

effective parental participation, and encourages parent/school partnerships to improve

student achievement. Legislation designates local schools or agencies to facilitate parents

with state academic standards, student achievement benchmarks, requirements of state

and local educational assessments, monitoring their child’s advancement, and working

with teachers for enhancing their child’s achievement (No Child Left Behind Act of

2001, 2002).

Minority Involvement

The parents who seem to be more involved in their child’s education are affluent,

possessing white middle-class advantages of race or class (Boethel, 2003; Deschenes,

Cuban, & Tyack, 2001; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Moles, 1993). Epstein (1995)

6
suggested six types of involvement: (1) parental learning opportunities, (2)

communicating with the school, (3) volunteering, (4) home support, (5) governance or

decision-making, and (6) association with the community. Frequently, white middle-class

parents have the advantage of being able to communicate more effectively to the majority

of school personnel because of possessing similar beliefs and values (Deschenes et al.,

2001; Diamond & Gomez, 2004). The inherent advantages make involvement easier for

white middle-class parents. Many of the issues that impede minority communication and

involvement are discussed in my study.

Just as there is an achievement gap for many children of minority parents, there

also exists unequal conditions for all parents to be highly involved in their child’s

education (Deschenes et al., 2001; Desimone, 1999; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Harry,

2002).

For those who face a system built on middle-class values and beliefs, there is a

need to recognize the conflicting values, aspirations, and expectations constructed by

parents of different races and cultures. As a result, this study seeks to address the

following overarching question: How do highly involved minority parents sustain their

efforts to participate in their child’s education despite overwhelming challenges?

Statement of the Problem

This section discusses (a) the importance of parent involvement, (b) student

achievement, and (c) legislative policy regarding parent-involvement, (1) socio-economic

challenges, (2) cultural and (3) personal challenges, and (4) alienation from the school

process. The concluding part of this section explains what has been substantiated by the

research, along with the study’s focus.

7
 The Importance of Parent Involvement

Educators base instructional changes on data-driven research. Wang, Haertel, and

Walberg (1994) synthesized and analyzed 50 years of research rating the most vital

factors for facilitating student learning. Out of 28 prioritized factors, one of the most

important factors was home environment/parental support. The importance of parent

involvement in a child’s educational success has been documented by several researchers

(Baker & Snoden, 1998; Becher, 1984; Chavkin & Williams, 1993; Cotton & Wiklund,

1989; Dauber & Epstein, ; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Hickman, Greenwood, & Miller,

1995; Lall, Campbell, & Gillborn, 2004).

Studies indicate that parental involvement in their children’s schools is a vital and

equal partnership; however, parent involvement is more of an espoused theory and not a

theory in use (Vail & Struck, 1999; Zinth, 2005). Parents represent a resource for

educators that are under-utilized as a potentially powerful source for helping students

learn. The goal for facilitating student learning is discovering the right combination of

workable methods, including parent involvement that is directed at raising student

achievement, as well as, self-esteem, positive attitudes, and a number of other factors that

may benefit the student educationally.

Student Achievement

The standards movement defines how well students perform on state assessments

as the measure to assess student learning (Deschenes et al., 2001; Marzano, 2003). Some

believe that student achievement is more than improving performance on standardized

tests (Funkhouser & Gonzales, 1997). Student achievement, for example, also can be

measured by grade point average (GPA), mastery of fundamental skills, drop-out and

8
graduation rates, student attitudes, student self-concept, and employability (Cotton,

1991).

Industry and business leaders are inclined to stress the knowledge and skills

required to meet future world markets, which will demand greater academic achievement

among American students (Funkhouser & Gonzales, 1997; U.S. Department of

Education, 1997). A growing consensus among business leaders, parents, and teachers is

that raising academic standards is the right course of action and essential for expecting

students to improve achievement (2000; Funkhouser & Gonzales, 1997).

Considering the magnitude of raising student achievement, it is increasingly

important that schools assign more importance on parental involvement. An effective

home-school connection is essential to initiate parent involvement (Epstein, 1995).

Modeling the inherent value in education falls logically to parents and it becomes

increasingly important that schools initiate the establishment of this connection for

student achievement efforts (Marzano, 2003).

Policy Uniformity and Approaches

Attempts have been made at the local, state, and federal levels to address the

accountability and uniformity of many parental involvement issues. For example, the No

Child Left Behind Act of 2001 along with Title I regulations stressed the importance for

development of parent/family/community involvement features for schools, and many

states have some legislation or policy stressing improvement in parent involvement,

including Kansas (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002).

Accountability for implementing meaningful parent involvement programs is a

challenge for many federal, state, and local programs, exacerbated because of staffing

9
and funding shortages (Gomez & Greenough, 2002). In many public schools, successful

parent involvement programs are short-lived because of the lack of funding, systematic

techniques, and differing approaches, formats and structure (Lewis, 1992). The need for

systematic approaches is complicated because of few parent involvement studies that

provide detail of the procedures used in their reviews (Dauber & Epstein, 1993; Griffith,

1996). These issues contribute to the limited research of longitudinal studies of family-

school-community partnerships (Rutherford et al., 1997). Thus, studying highly involved

minority parents and their cultures is important research as well as the resulting

implications affecting policy change for parent involvement.

Socio-Economic, Cultural and Personal Challenges

Beyond local policy, state, and federal legislation there exists a challenge related

to cultural differences concerning the reasons why some parents become involved and

others do not (Gomez & Greenough, 2002). Thus, there is evidence that many schools

project an unwillingness to become involved with certain parents based on ingrained

views of prejudice along race, class, cultural ranks, and socioeconomic status (Ballen &

Moles, 1997; Boethel, 2003; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Jeynes, 2003).

The majority of public schools in the United States represent middle class values.

These values are supported and perpetuated by those who work in these organizations.

These people are inclined to respect the cultural character of the middle class, while

devaluing those less prosperous (Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Lareau & Horvat, 1999;

Larson & Ovando, 2001; Sanders, Epstein, & Connors-Tadros, 1999).

Many teachers, for example, perceive parents of the non-dominant culture or class

(minorities), as not wanting or desiring the responsibility to become involved in their

10
child’s education (Calabrese-Barton, Drake, Perez, Louis, & George, 2004; Caplan, Hall,

Lubin, & Fleming, 1997; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; LaBahn, 1995; Lopez, 2001). As a

result, they may be exceptionally cautious of lower socio-economic African-American

parents’ involvement because of racial and social class biases (Henig, Hula, Orr, &

Pedescleaux, 1999; Lewis & Forman, 2002). In essence, there is a lack of awareness and

communication with families of different cultures and values (Delpit, 1995; Larson &

Ovando, 2001) that may be either tacit or explicit.

The cultural divide between socioeconomic groups may be part of the issue

related to low parent involvement among disenfranchised groups. Research suggests that

working class minority as opposed to middle-class minority parents, may evaluate the

perceived benefits of being involved in their child’s schooling economically, that is,

weighing the cost of attending school events, participating in meetings, or seeking out

home childcare and transportation, versus the benefits to be involved (Diamond &

Gomez, 2004; Nechyba, McEwan, & Older-Aguilar, 1999). In the middle-class culture

and belief system, the minority parent’s choice of non-involvement is perceived through

the majority of school staff and teachers (including African-American staff) as neither

caring about their children’s education nor pursuing the means for helping them with

their education (Deschenes et al., 2001; Nechyba et al., 1999; Patterson, Niles, Carlson,

& Kelley, 2005). In addition, teachers may not acknowledge elements of minority family

involvement such as encouragement, monitoring of homework, and/or support at home

(Boethel, 2003).

Minority status frequently implies that parents aspire to be less involved in their

child’s education; it often means that minority parents must negotiate through more

11
challenging environments with fewer respected resources to become fully involved

within school contexts. These school contexts are represented through magnet schools,

high percentage free and reduced lunch schools, urban, and neighborhood schools

(Diamond & Gomez, 2004).

Many minority parents suffer from environmental challenges at a greater level

than non-minorities. They face time, job, and personal obstacles related to involvement in

their child’s education, moreover, they often lack, high levels of education, sophisticated

parenting skills, and may have a primary household language other than English (Ballen

& Moles, 1997; Boethel, 2003; LaBahn, 1995; Melaville, 1998). These challenges

demonstrate the necessity for school personnel to become skilled at addressing and

developing positive communication strategies and other plans to connect with non-

involved minority parents (Desimone, 1999). Otherwise, minority parents who come

from traditionally disenfranchised backgrounds may feel that they will continue to

encounter obstacles such as negative or little communication, a disinviting attitude, or

both.

Alienation from the School Process

Socio-cultural, economical, and personal constraints are forces limiting minority

parental involvement. More importantly, deep-rooted problems such as feelings of

alienation also exist. Several studies suggest that parental alienation may be the source of

inadequate communication with the schools (Lewis, 1992). Alienation of parents from

the school process can and does transverse all socio-economic status, ethnic, minority,

and geographical boundaries. Calabrese (1990) contended that while the literature

proposes a variety of reasons for alienation, there is general agreement that minorities are

12
commonly alienated from the school system. Even though minority parents can and do

indicate a strong willingness to participate in their children's education, most, however,

perceive and report little hope that school staff will take the initiative in reaching out to

them (Calabrese, 1990; Sanders et al., 1999; Trotman, 2001; U.S. Department of

Education, 1996).

The minority parent’s alienation may be linked to a school culture that inhibits

parents from school involvement by not facilitating their development in self-knowledge

and self-reliance within the school culture, thus accomplishing little to reduce their

alienation. The alienation syndrome remains enabled by the schools. It is perpetuated

through policies that are representative of an unreceptive bureaucratic institution that

often is self-defeating (Calabrese, 1990).

The alienation process exacerbates the lack of parent involvement. An effective

approach is needed to bring parents, educators, and the community together for the

child’s academic success (Epstein, 1992). Parents who sense that the school is actively

involving them have a more positive attitude toward the school organization (Davis,

2000; Epstein, 1983). Thus, school communication that fosters a receptiveness and

sensitivity toward different cultures, values, and minority plights will more likely succeed

in increasing parent involvement.

Although extensive research exists on the importance of parental involvement in

education, there is little information on sustained parent involvement across grade levels

(Caplan et al., 1997). Consequently, this study describes Native American and African

American parents’ perceptions of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement,

and remained highly involved in their child’s education.

13
 Purpose of Study

The purpose of my research study was to describe minority parents’ perceptions

of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved

in their child’s education. Participants’ perceptions were viewed through the theoretical

frameworks of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and

humanistic psychology, as it includes Maslow’s theory of ‘the basic good in people’

(1943).

Overview of Methodology

This study employed a qualitative descriptive case study research design with an

appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective to describe the minority parent’s

perceptions of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained

highly involved in their child’s education. An appreciative inquiry theoretical research

perspective centers on the positive core of experiences held by participants. Appreciative

inquiry focuses on the strengths and assets of organizations or individuals (Cooperrider,

Whitney, & Stavros, 2003). In this way, an appreciative inquiry theoretical research

perspective acts as a framework for the research design.

Research Questions

The study described the minority parent’s perceptions of how they overcame

challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in their child’s

education. As a result, this study was guided by the following research questions:

1. How do highly involved minority parents describe their motivation to be involved

in their child’s education?

14
 2. How do highly involved minority parents describe the challenges that they have

overcome in sustaining their involvement in their child’s education?

3. How do highly involved minority parents describe the strategies they use to

sustain involvement in their child’s education?

Objectives

The following are the objectives and outcomes for this study:

1. The study will provide a description of minority parents’ perceptions of their

motivations to be involved in their child’s education.

2. The study will provide a description of the challenges that minority parents

overcame to be highly involved in their child’s education.

3. The study will provide a description of the strategies used by minority parents

to sustain their involvement in their child’s education.

Significance of the Study

This research study may have wide-ranging implications for minority parent

involvement regarding school initiatives. Specifically, this study sought to contribute to

the scholarly literature and research on minority parental involvement by describing the

minority parent’s perceptions of how he/she overcame challenges, sustained involvement,

and remained highly involved in his/her child’s education.

Sufficient information for establishing methods for enhancing involvement for all

parents across grade levels over an extended time does not exit (Caplan et al., 1997).

Until the last decade, studies appeared to ignore the involvement of minority parents, nor

did they acknowledge the concept of sustained parent involvement in their child’s

education (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Recent studies during the past decade

15
that may have focused on engaging minority parents in education have not considered

sustained involvement or employed an appreciative inquiry research perspective as a lens

for examining minority parental involvement. Identifying the motives, challenges, and

strategies for highly involved parents to sustain their involvement in their child’s

education over an extended period will greatly enhance the literature and research on

parental involvement for minorities.

Additionally, this study may represent a contribution to the effectiveness for

future minority parental involvement policy and for schools desiring to involve more

parents of multi-cultural backgrounds. At least 15 states have not mandated a state or

local policy plan to address the action of parent involvement (Zinth, 2005). Given the

importance of NCLB and adequate yearly progress (AYP), this study may increase

awareness, services, and policies to create a more “highly involved” atmosphere for

minority parents.

Delimitations and Limitations

The following delimitations applied to the study:

1. The study was delimited to minority parents of USD 445 who

currently have children enrolled in high school or have graduated in

2006 from high school in the Coffeyville School District.

2. The study was delimited by the appreciative inquiry theoretical

research perspective.

The following limitation applied to the study:

1. The perceptions of administrators and teachers related to minority

parent involvement are not part of the study.

16
 2. The researcher’s role as supervisor of special education services in

USD 445 through May of 2006 may have affected perceptions or

reactions of those involved in the study.

Assumption

The researcher assumes there are many minority parents who overcome

challenges, sustain involvement, and remain highly involved in his/her child’s education.

Definition of Key Terms

The study’s key terms are defined below.

Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry is a theoretical research prescriptive that asks

unconditionally positive questions, and concentrates on positive core values within the

organization. The appreciative inquiry research perspective is holistic in nature and

directs the focus of inquiry in a positive direction (Cooperrider et al., 2003)

Highly Involved Parents

Highly involved parents are those who participate in traditional school activities,

homework monitoring and support, and have a deep commitment for seeing their child

succeed in school (Cotton & Wiklund, 1989).

Minority

Minority in the context of this study refers to the ethnic-racial background of the

participants. A minority group in the United States is defined by its race, ethnicity, and

numerical minority who may experience discriminatory treatment and is assigned to a

lower status position across wider society (Yetman, 1985).

17
 Organization of the Dissertation

The dissertation will follow the traditional five-chapter organization. Chapter 1

presented the background of the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study,

overview of the methodology, research questions, significance of the study, objectives,

and definition of terms. Chapter 2 provides the literature review. Chapter 3 provides a

detailed description of the study’s methodology. Chapter 4 provides a summary of the

findings. Chapter 5 provides a discussion of the findings, implications for future research,

implications for praxis and recommendations, relationship of findings to relevant theory

and a summary and conclusion of the study.

18
 CHAPTER 2

Review of the Literature

Chapter 2 of the proposal is the literature review. It is comprised of the (1)

conceptual framework, (2) epistemology, (3) descriptions of the theoretical framework,

(4) competing perspective, (5) a methodology for inclusion of related research in the

review of the empirical literature, and (6) a synthesis of the reviewed empirical literature

as it relates to minority parents who display sustained engagement or involvement in their

child’s education.

Overview of the Conceptual Framework

My conceptual framework for this study is based on positive psychology and

humanistic psychology principles that provide a viewpoint for examining highly involved

and sustained parental engagement of minority parents in their child’s education. The

positive psychology framework evolved from humanistic psychology. Humanistic

psychology’s foundation was based on a reaction to the traditional schools of

behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Among others, Maslow (1943) was influential in its

genesis with his views of a human being’s aspirations and needs for accomplishing goals

based on motivation to perform good deeds and sustain a healthy self-esteem.

My professional experiences and observations of parent involvement have led me

to believe that few selective parents have sustained high involvement in their child’s

education. I have found through my experience that the majority of parents fall

somewhere on a continuum of rarely involved to highly involved in their children’s

education. The appearance is that only a small percentage of parents participate in the

19
majority of school activities. This participation traditionally represents working at the

school, volunteering, or interacting with school personnel on a routine basis. Less visible

to school personnel is the time spent by parents discussing education and monitoring

homework assignments. The degree of home communication and involvement likely

becomes more apparent to a classroom teacher as either the student’s academic deeds

improve or decline as the year unfolds.

My experience also informs me that communication is a critical component and at

the heart of sustaining parent involvement. Schools in the United States have been

constructed and conceived in the cast of middle class beliefs and values, which are still

prevalent today creating a lack of awareness and communication with families of

different cultures and values (Delpit, 1995; Larson & Ovando, 2001). It follows that

middle class parents can more easily communicate with school personnel who are aligned

with their middle class social and cultural beliefs and values (Deschenes et al., 2001;

Desimone, 1999; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Lewis, 1992). Therefore, for the minority

parent, particularly if disadvantaged socially, culturally and/or financially, that effective

communication with the school, essential for parent engagement, will be more difficult

because of challenges faced in the process.

I find that some parents feel alienated or excluded from involvement in schools. I

also sense a strong desire among most parents, regardless of racial, ethnic, or socio-

economic background, to become engaged and involved in their child’s education. One

way to view this phenomenon, and discover how parents accomplish their goals of

educational engagement despite the challenges they encounter, is through the theoretical

frameworks of humanistic psychology and its embedded school of thought positive

20
psychology. These perspectives include the works of Maslow and Seligman, and embrace

a positive and optimistic psychology toward life. Moreover, I filter the theoretical

frameworks of humanistic psychology and positive psychology through an appreciative

inquiry theoretical research perspective.

Epistemology

This study is framed in a social constructionism epistemology. The function of

verbal communication is critical in social constructionism. How people converse about

themselves and civilization determines the character of their experiences (Raskin, 2002).

Constructionism stems from the epistemological position that researchers should be

aware of “how” people construct meaning in addition to “what” they know. In this study,

I use a social constructionism epistemology to examine the social relationships between

highly involved minority parents and the school.

Social constructionism serves as the epistemological basis for humanistic and

positive psychology by explaining how people psychologically and socially construct

knowledge (Guzdial, 1997). In this study, social constructionism undergirds the

conceptual frameworks of humanistic psychology and positive psychology, as well as an

appreciative inquiry, the theoretical research perspective.

Contrasting with the traditional problem-focused research in psychology,

humanistic psychology enhanced by positive psychology advanced and challenged the

traditional deficit, problem-centered methods utilized in psychology. Humanistic

psychology considers human beings as subjects with inner experiences, motivations, and

desires not easily measurable by conventional objective means. Using these frameworks,

my research will reflect on the intention and context of humans sharing thoughts, choices,

21
free will, and dialogue in social relationships for examining how highly involved

minority parents sustain engagement in their child’s education. As a result, the

epistemology of social constructionism aligns with the examination of the knowledge

gained through these theoretical constructs.

The frameworks of positive and humanistic psychology were filtered through the

research perspective of appreciative inquiry. Appreciative inquiry considers the strengths

of organizational situations and human experiences through recognizing and building on

what is already robust and vital to their existence. Social constructionism is a

fundamental underpinning of appreciative inquiry in that it builds on the premise of

socially constructed realities. The social constructionism of epistemology is the

foundation for the positive context of appreciative inquiry theory. Several main beliefs of

appreciative inquiry stream from the image that people control their destiny by

envisioning what they want and create a blueprint to move toward a personally designed

destiny (Cooperrider et al., 2003).

Descriptions of the Theoretical Frameworks

In this section, I will discuss the theoretical frameworks of my proposed study. I

will use the theoretical frameworks of positive psychology, and its evolvement from

humanistic psychology as well as the appreciative inquiry theoretical research

perspective.

Appreciative Inquiry

Appreciative inquiry is a form of action research. As a theoretical research

perspective it frames the direction of the research (Egan & Lancaster, 2005). It

transforms the problem into a strengths-based perspective and reframes it. Appreciative

22
inquiry observes the positive nature of human behavior and those values that inspire

people to improve their condition/situation based on their strengths, hopes, dreams, and

aspirations (Cooperrider et al., 2003). Appreciative inquiry along with the frameworks of

humanistic and positive psychology illuminated the assets of minority parents to

constructively and positively become involved in their child’s education.

Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology is “a value orientation that holds a hopeful, constructive

view of human beings and of their substantial capacity to be self-determining” (Monti &

Williams, 2001, para. 16). This school of thought and system of psychotherapy along

with positive psychology and an appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective

provide a lens for viewing how minority parents overcame challenges, sustained

involvement, and remained highly involved in his/her child’s education.

In his seminal work, A Theory of Human Motivation, Maslow (1943), who many

consider the father of humanistic psychology, explained that human beings have basic

biological, physical, and psychological needs. He asserted that these needs require

fulfillment before acquiring secondary goals such as learning, playing, or working. The

theory’s basic premise is that human behavior is governed by biological, cultural, and

situational circumstances.

Maslow (1943) contended that human beings would first satisfy needs that are

more important before progressing to higher level needs. Basic needs like food, safety,

love, and respect, are primary needs. After an individual’s primary needs are satisfied,

he/she progresses to higher psychological needs like sociability and self-actualization.

23
 Maslow, in company with Rogers, May, and Pearls are viewed as the founders of

humanistic psychology (Daniel, 2005). Humanistic psychology introduced humans not as

“objects” but as beings who exhibit feelings, intentions, and values that figure heavily

into behaviors and motivations. The humanistic psychology movement, by the 1980’s,

evolved into several different fields, and served across a continuum of varied approaches

in psychology, counseling, and other mental health therapies (Monti & Williams, 2001).

As research theory, humanistic psychology is guided by an assurance that purpose

and ethical values are important psychological forces that comprise basic determinants of

human behavior. Human beings manifest the “humanness” or “holism” of their character

through the need for meaning and creativity. As a research approach, humanistic

psychology makes use of all characteristics of human existence (Monti & Williams,

2001).

These theoretical perspectives helped describe how minority parents overcame

challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in his/her child’s

education. Many of the attributes of minority parents who remain highly involved in his

or her child’s education may be the same positive attributes espoused by humanistic

psychology and related therapies. These attributes may serve healthy, successful people

with more internal hope allowing them to persevere through difficult situations when

others cannot. Humanistic psychology offers a theoretical perspective to understand why

and how minority parents sustain support of their child’s education.

Positive Psychology

Positive psychology is supported by positive emotions, positive traits, and

positive societal foundations, (Seligman, 2002). As positive psychology applies essential

24
positive interventions, its purpose is to complement not replace what is already is known

about suffering, disorders, and limitations (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005).

The goals of positive psychology and its applications are to increase people’s

happiness. Research through positive psychology interventions show that those who are

happy, experience positive emotions of a pleasurable life, are engaged (in life), and have

meaning (in their life). The greatest emphasis is placed on engagement and meaning

(Seligman et al., 2005). The measuring of happiness is a recent evolvement for positive

psychology derived from theorems based on Seligman’s earlier experimentation on

learned helplessness, depression, and self-explanatory style. The three concepts are

inextricably linked as outlined in the following paragraphs.

Seligman’s seminal research involved learned helplessness (Seligman & Maier,

1967). Learned helplessness can be described as maladaptive behavior where “giving up”

is the response to circumstances where another behavior would gain avoidance or escape

from a detrimental or negative situation. Learned helplessness is the inability to take

action under certain circumstances, and if no action is taken, the premise is that inaction

leads to apathy then depression. Through this maladaptive behavior, people learn that no

matter what they do, it seems immaterial. Learned helplessness, for example, may occur

in generational welfare recipients. Payments to indigent people may represent being

rewarded for nonproductive or passive behavior, thus reinforcing the act of learned

helplessness and dependency (Lindbeck, 1994). It is converse of optimism.

Optimism describes a range of positive psychological and physical health

attributes (Gillham, Shatte, Reivich, & Seligman, 1998). Optimism theory suggests that if

people can learn to be helpless, then they can unlearn helplessness, and can learn to be

25
optimistic. Learned optimism may combat the perception of how self-action makes little

difference (Scheier & Carver, 1992).

Learned optimism compliments the notion of explanatory style and learned

helplessness. Self-explanatory style is a way of habitually explaining to oneself how and

why things happen. Conversely, learned helplessness is driven by pessimism and that

one’s actions have no consequence. A pessimistic manner of looking at the way things

happen to us through our self-explanatory style often perpetuates learned helplessness

(Seligman, 1998). Thus, a positive self-explanatory style may control learned

helplessness and diminish depression by inspiring a hopeful and optimistic attitude

regarding the future.

Competing Perspectives

Several alternative theories were considered. One such alternative explanation is

the critical point of view; it is in sharp contrast to the research perspective of appreciative

inquiry. Influenced by Kant, Hegel, and Marx, the first critical theorists addressed the

oppression they observed in society and economics, particularly for disadvantaged,

minorities, and other marginalized people. In the postmodern era, critical theory remains

a prevailing choice of inquiry into societal organizations and paradigms, including

education (Bohman, 2005). In addition, it has become a prevalent choice of inquiry for

parental involvement research.

Grioux, Apple, and Freire are three modern critical educational theorists who

express beliefs about education that affects parent involvement research. Apple proclaims

that problems in contemporary schools are centered around “competing social visions”

(Apple, 1996, p. 97). Giroux suggests that there are two relevant competing social visions

26
related to parents and public schools: neo-liberalism and multicultural awareness. The

neo-liberalism movement is progressively growing in the United States and global

markets. The term neo-liberalism has little to do with liberalism and much to do with

“hypercapitalism” (Giroux, 2001). Hypercapitalism is a prevailing international condition

whereby everything is bought or sold for a price, including education. In the United

States, business and corporate culture are seen as invading educational systems as

consumerism to parents (2001). For this reason, a parent’s exposure to learning

opportunities containing educational political policy is important. By comprehending the

bigger picture of policy in education, parents become decision-makers who are more

informed.

The other social vision, multicultural awareness, proclaimed by critical theory

proponents is that cultural studies should take a forefront in educational research (Giroux,

1994). Giroux asserts that if multicultural awareness was used by more educators, they

would see themselves as active participants in the construction of education and less as

historical versions of social change and receivers of culture (1994). Teachers need to

expand on culturally relevant learning opportunities for students (Freire, 1998). Through

this process, teachers gain an awareness of parental and familial backgrounds of their

students.

Critical theory examines many of the same constructs for educational reform as

one does through appreciative inquiry. Critical theory, however, by pointing out the

inequities in power, is traditionally informative and explanatory in nature, not

transformative. It can be problem-based, pessimistic, and may fall short in providing

uplifting motivations and strategies for drawing marginalized parents into the school

27
mainstream. In effect, I did not select critical theory as a theoretical perspective because

it less effectively postulates how we can rebuild the human spirit.

Appreciative inquiry had its genesis as a reaction to the critical theory

perspective. Appreciative inquiry is a direct result of realizing traditional modes of

inquiry into organizational problems were not succeeding, and that more innovative or

generative actions had to be applied to inspire members, and increase productivity

(Fitzgerald, Murrell, & Newman, 2001). I believe appreciative inquiry allows

constructive understanding for eliciting a positive core of experience through the stories

experienced by minority parents in sustaining involvement throughout their child’s

education.

Methodology for the Literature Review

My literature search seeks to identify, assimilate, summarize, and synthesize

studies that report on the association between highly involved minority parents who have

sustained engagement in their child’s education and the theoretical framework of

humanistic and positive psychology as viewed through the lens of an appreciative inquiry

theoretical research perspective. Keywords for my search in the following databases are

organized in a subsequent table and will be bounded by the following criteria:

• Only empirical research since 1990.

• Only empirical research that had one or more of the following minority

populations as a unit of analysis: Native American, African-American, and

Hispanic.

• Only empirical research published in peer-reviewed journals.

Key Words

28
 Positive psychology

Humanistic psychology

Appreciative inquiry

Parent involvement

Minority

Secondary schools

Kansas

Highly involved

Sustained

The preceding keywords were used in my search strategy of the empirical

research. For clarity, the search engine (greatest to least amount yielded) followed by the

respective amount of keywords hits are identified in Table 2.1.

The first strategy used keywords from my theoretical perspectives: This yielded

the majority of hits through Google Scholar: 1190 for humanistic psychology, 731 for

positive psychology, and 405 for appreciative inquiry. ERIC FirstSearch yielded 263 hits

for humanistic psychology, 40 for positive psychology, and 25 for appreciative inquiry.

Dissertation Abstracts yielded 104 for humanistic psychology, 49 for positive

psychology, and 110 for appreciative inquiry. Infotrac yielded 164 hits for humanistic

psychology, 67 for positive psychology, and 27 for appreciative inquiry.

The second strategy used the keywords related to my study: parent involvement,

minority, secondary schools, Kansas, highly involved, and sustained. Google Scholar

identified 7540 hits for parent involvement. ERIC FirstSearch identified 4,102;

Dissertation Abstracts identified 1,355, and Infotrac identified 488. When the key word

29
minority was added as a keyword Google Scholar identified 1180 hits, ERIC FirstSearch

identified 321 hits, Dissertation Abstracts identified 74 hits, and Infotrac identified 11

hits. When the keyword “secondary schools” was added, the number of hits was

substantially reduced yielding only a combined database total of approximately 300 hits.

When the keyword “Kansas” was added, there were only 38 total hits on the combined

databases. I sought to identify the types of empirical studies completed in Kansas related

to my research and added the keywords “highly involved” and “sustained.” Fourteen hits

on the combined databases were identified.

The third search strategy combined the theoretical perspectives and research

keywords. This combination yielded few combined database hits. “Positive psychology”

and “parent involvement” yielded approximately 30-combined database hits. Additional

combination of keywords produced even fewer results from the combined databases.

In my fourth search strategy, I used materials obtained from books, journals, or

dissertations germane to my study. In addition, during the literature review process

sources were obtained via a snowballing effect from other parent involvement references

or resources. Most of the relevant studies were discovered through Google Scholar,

followed by ERIC FirstSearch, and to a lesser amount Dissertation Abstracts, with

approximately 350 pieces of research. Of these, 72 studies were determined to be relevant

to the focus of my study.

Although there was evidence of empirical research in elementary school contexts,

it was a secondary consideration in this review of the empirical research. My study’s

focus is on the breadth of the minority parent’s engagement with schools; and how their

engagement with schools was sustained over time.

30
Table 2.1

Search Results for Empirical Research

Search Strategy I: Theoretical Perspectives

Search Terms ERIC Google Dissertation Infotrac

FirstSearch Scholar Abstracts

Positive
40 hits 731 hits 49 hits 67 hits
Psychology

Humanistic Psychology 263 hits 1190 hits 104 hits 164 hit

Appreciative Inquiry 25 hits 405 hits 110 hits 27 hits

Search Strategy II: Research Keywords

Search Terms ERIC Google Dissertation Infotrac

FirstSearch Scholar Abstracts

Parent Involvement 4, 102 hits 7,540hits 1,355 hits 488hits

Minority 321 hits 1,180 hits 74 hits 11 hits

Secondary Schools 7 hits 299 hits 1 hit 0 hits

Kansas (and substituted for

Kansas were High Involved & 0 hits 38 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Sustained)

Highly Involved 0 hits 10 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Sustained 0 hits 4 hits 0 hits 0 hits

31
Table 2.1 (continued)

Search Strategy III: Combining Search Strategies I & II

Search Terms ERIC Google Dissertation Infotrac

FirstSearch Scholar Abstracts

Positive Psychology & Parent 0 hits 18 hits 0 hits 12 hits

Involvement

Positive Psychology & 0 hits 12 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Minority

Positive Psychology & 0 hits 2 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Secondary Schools

Positive Psychology & 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Kansas

Positive Psychology & Highly 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Involved

Positive Psychology & 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Sustained

Humanistic Psych. & Parent 0 hits 5 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Involvement

Humanistic Psych. & Minority 0 hits 7 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Humanistic Psych. & 0 hits 3 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Secondary Schools

Humanistic Psych. & Kansas 0 hits 1 hit 0 hits 0 hits

32
Table 2.1 (continued)

Search Strategy III: Combining Search Strategies I & II

Humanistic Psych. & Highly 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Involved

Humanistic Psych. & 0 hits 2 hits 3 hits 0 hits

Sustained

Appreciative Inquiry & Parent 1 hit 8 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Involvement

Appreciative Inquiry & 1 hit 5 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Minority

Appreciative Inquiry & 0 hits 1 hit 0 hits 0 hits

Secondary Schools

Appreciative Inquiry & 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Kansas

Appreciative Inquiry & 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Highly Involved

Appreciative Inquiry & 0 hits 0 hits 2 hits 1 hit

Sustained

When combining the

remaining Theoretical 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits 0 hits

Perspectives and Research

Keywords “no hits” were

yielded across databases.

33
 Empirical Research

Research indicates that there is a lack of a clear definition for the term

“involvement” (Baker & Snoden, 1997). The lack of a clear definition prevents accurate

information from being obtained about parent involvement studies. In this study, the

definition of the term is aligned with the descriptions of ‘involvement’ defined in Chapter

1.

My review of the empirical research focused on the most pertinent information

related to highly involved minority parents who have sustained engagement in their

child’s education. The review does not contain a plethora of studies specifically

describing strategies, challenges, and motivations of highly involved minority parents. I

found the following themes prevalent in my review of the related empirical research: (1)

a brief legislative history (2) parent’s perspective, (3) parent’s voice, (4) parent

motivation for becoming involved in their child’s education, (5) barriers that exist for

minority parents, and (6) sustaining parent involvement and expectations/aspirations of

minority parents in their children’s education.

Legislation

Vail and Struck (1999) reported that five years after the addition of the Title I

portion of the ESEA Act in 1994, parents were still not aware of the legislation to

increase parent participation in schools, even though this funding greatly facilitated

federally supported parent involvement programs. The reauthorization of the Elementary

and Secondary Act (ESEA) in 2001 (Rutherford et al.), otherwise known as No Child

Left Behind (NCLB) (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002), has continued to endorse

parental involvement in schools (Gomez & Greenough, 2002).

34
 One objective of NCLB is to strengthen the partnership between parents and

schools. Under Title I Section 1118 Parental Involvement: written policy states that local

education agencies need to “identify barriers to greater participation by parents in

activities (authorized by this section) with particular attention to economically

disadvantaged, those of limited English proficiency or limited literacy, disabled, and are

of any racial or ethnic minority background” (No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002).

This most current legislation established the groundwork for state regulatory agencies to

begin enforcing individual school systems to take active steps in their local plans for

strengthening this important area of involvement between families and educators.

Parent Perspective

Understanding the parent’s voice and perspective through participation in their

child’s education is important to the success of highly involved minority parents who

have sustained engagement in their child’s education. The decision-making paradigm of

minority parent choice for involvement indicates two patterns: internal motivations

driven by psychological components, and involuntary actions guided by exposure and

resource for social and culture capital. Research shows most parent involvement

strategies have been identified and derived through the school’s perceptions and policies,

not the parent’s perspective (Baker & Snoden, 1998; Epstein, 1992, 1995; Lewis, 1992). I

found few studies examining parent processes and courses of action that motivate the

underlying decision-making for becoming involved in their child’s education, those that

exist examined the parent processes from a psychological perspective.

35
Psychological Components

Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler from their studies through 1984-87 and 1992-95

built on previous research and developed a model for examining parent perspectives for

involvement. The model was based on the information gathered from efficacy of

teachers, taken from teacher and principal reports, and analyzed for existing school

characteristics and qualities influencing parental involvement. This data linked a school’s

capacity for contributing to parent motivations to the parents’ participation with the

school. Survey-based research indicated correlations between positive qualities of schools

and parent involvement and revealed a need to more objectively measure parent

participation at all school levels (Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Brissie, 1987). In

addition, high teacher efficacy scores were positively correlated with four indicators of

parent involvement: (1) parent-teacher conferences, (2) volunteering, (3) home teaching,

and (4) support from home.

In another survey-based research design, findings indicate consistency among the

teacher questionnaires within the three areas: (1) personal role construction, (2) self-

efficacy, and (3) invitation from the school. Role construction characterizes how parents

believe it is essential and important to participate in education based on their needs and

their child’s needs. Role construction explains how values toward education are created

and decisions formulated for participation in their child’s education. Self-efficacy

signifies a person’s willingness or perseverance to overcome challenges in providing

parental educational influence. Parent self-efficacy beliefs assess if a parent’s

intervention with the child would be worthwhile. A parent’s strong self-efficacy has

secondary benefits in the form of behaviors that may be modeled for the child.

36
 Parents are more likely to be involved when the school initiates their involvement

through an invitation. Invitations by the school carry greater influence on parent decision-

making when either role construction or self-efficacy is weak (Hoover-Dempsey &

Sandler, 1995, 1997). These concepts present similarities to the principles of learned

optimism and self-explanatory style outlined in positive psychology (Seligman, 1998).

The Hoover-Dempsey model evolved from the work of Deslandes and Bertrand

(No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, 2002) and measured the same constructs with one

minor difference: data for the seventh through ninth grades were analyzed for teenager

requests for their parent’s involvement, and was added to invitation by the school,

specifically for seventh through ninth grades. Participants consisted of 770 parents of the

1500 that initially received mailed questionnaires. Five schools in urban and rural areas in

Canada were targeted. Parent involvement at home and school were examined for their

association to parent role construction, self-efficacy, teacher, and student invitation to

participate. Results indicated that parent role construction was a significant factor for

participation in eighth grade, less for grades 7 and 9. Parent self-efficacy was not a

significant variable in this study’s influence on parent involvement across all grades,

particularly ninth grade (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005).

In contrast to the prior described findings, there is evidence supporting the

contribution of parent efficacy in a student’s education. Shumow and Lomax (2001),

sampled 929 families with children aged 10-17 to explore the influence of parent’s self-

efficacy on student achievement. They found parent efficacy linked to background and

income, and that those with higher efficacy were more involved in their child’s education

37
and rearing at home. The study is constrained by its research methods employing student

and parent reports only.

In addition to parent efficacy, a powerful effect of the Deslandes and Betrand

(2005) study arose from the student requests for involvement. This phenomenon was

heavily dependent on the existing parent-student relationship at all grade levels with

greater placed on the eighth grade (Deslandes & Bertrand, 2005). The researchers

believed that scrutinizing ‘at home parent involvement,’ data separate from ‘at school

involvement,’ data on ‘student requests’ would be essential for more specific

information. Their findings suggest that the school may want to implement a means of

emphasizing parent involvement while working with students at grade levels 7 through 9.

At the core of the minority parent perspective is the belief that being involved in

their child’s education is a necessary pursuit, and if they possess an optimistic efficacy

about the helpfulness of their educational involvement, then they have a greater

likelihood of being involved (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Dodd and Konal

(1999) in their book, Making High Schools Better: How parents and teachers can work

together, interviewed 83 parents, teachers, and administrators in two school districts in

New England, a qualitative study about parent involvement at the secondary level. The

purpose was to gain perspectives on learning and teaching practices for their children.

Parents of eleventh and twelfth graders were randomly selected. Those selected had been

exposed to the new social studies and math curriculums. Twenty of the interviews were

with teachers and administrators. The premise emerging from the interviews disclosed

that neither school personnel nor parents had appreciative comprehension of the other’s

perspectives (Dodd & Konal, 1999). They found it difficult to bring together ‘the teacher

38
as professional’ and ‘parent from a personal perspective’ in constructive dialogue. The

authors went into great depth of personal stories of parents who expected their children to

learn in ways that teachers had never thought or heard of before. A limitation to the study

was the diversity of parents where the ethnic minority was only 1% among the parent

participants. The views of educational involvement for African-Americans and other

ethnicities, however, remain comparable in their aspirations for their children.

African-American and White parents have similarly high standards for their

children. As many as 91% of African-Americans and 95% of Whites believed their

children should master the basics of reading, math, and writing in school, and 86%

African-American parents thought it essential to master the grammar/syntax of the

English language despite the debate at one time over Ebonics (Dodd & Konal, 1999).

African-American and Latino parents expressed the same concerns for high educational

standards/values (Epstein, 1995; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Mulligan, 2005). These views

are remarkably similar to the majority of White participants in New England in the Dodd

and Konal (1999) data.

A close-up, in-depth view of parent perspective was offered (Carreon, Drake, &

Calabrese-Barton, 2005) through immigrant parents who described their experiences and

the engagement in their children’s education. Participants were 17 immigrant families

interviewed in three rounds of discussions in groups. Participants were from a mid-sized

city in Texas, in two predominantly lower-socioeconomic elementary schools. The

researchers utilized cultural-historical activity and critical race theory in their approach to

these minority/immigrant case studies (Carreon et al., 2005). Supporting a uniquely

appreciative perspective for how immigrant parents’ encountered initial obstacles, the

39
authors gave rich descriptions of how immigrant parents succeeded in building

constructive relationships through their pursuit of participation.

Much of the parent involvement research is characterized by ‘things parents can

do’ according to the school’s perspective (Calabrese-Barton et al., 2004; Carreon et al.,

2005). It is the researchers’ beliefs that cultural environments intersect between parents

and schools in predetermined ways.

Barriers to Parent Participation

Barriers to parent participation in their child’s education can be classified in the

following broad groups: (1) alienation, (2) cultural, (3) personal, and (4) social class

roadblocks. Even within these themes, family situations are highly situational and

individualistic.

Alienation

Alienation is a barrier to minority participation in schools. Calabrese (1990) used

an alienation instrument administered to 22 minority and 91 White parents in an

Midwestern urban school district. Results revealed that minority parents experienced

more alienation from the school than did White parents. Group differences were

illustrated in response to four of the scale’s questions: (1) minority parents did not feel

invited from the school, (2) minority parents could not count on school establishment for

reliable information, (3) teachers were unsociable; and (4) dissatisfaction was

experienced with school actions, policy, and proceedings.

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Cultural

For minority parents, alienation is synonymous with communication and cultural

obstacles. Calabrese-Barton, Drake, Perez, Louis and George (2004) claim a deeper

awareness of minority parent perspective by teachers and administrators is lacking and is

a major cause in the lack of minority parent involvement in their child’s education. In

using terms such as ‘presence,’ ‘engagement,’ ‘spaces,’ and ‘ecology’ in lieu of only

‘involvement’ the researchers focused more on how parents interact with their culture and

environments; they were better able to understand the beliefs that motivate and sustain

the strategies culturally diverse parents use or need (Calabrese-Barton et al., 2004).

In a review of data over a five-year span, a correlation study of Hispanic families

involved in literacy courses with their children, researchers found that teachers rated

Hispanic parents to be as involved and interested in their child’s education/literacy as

other parents, despite language and cultural barriers. This example helps to dispel the

deficiency model that minority parents are either less involved or inclined to be less

involved in their child’s education. Such institutionalized misconceptions project the

parents as scapegoats, when in fact the challenge lies with the schools not to view

minority parents as being deficient (Epstein & Dauber, 1991; Wright, 2005).

Relevant to the deficiency model concept, another correlation study involved

minorities at eight inner city and middle schools. Teacher attitudes and practices were

linked to parent involvement in terms of their support on certain variables. The results

showed a strong correlation between parent participation and teachers who implemented

practices that facilitated involvement and reached out to minority parents (Epstein &

Dauber, 1991). In the process of the study, school personnel offered opinions of the

41
working class parents that were unflattering; such as parents being ‘too busy,’ not

interested or ‘too ignorant’ to be included in parent education (1991). Nevertheless, when

schools/teachers provided those opportunities to the parents, those who had not become

involved became more involved. Banks (1995) states in his extensive review of

multicultural education that by focusing on deficiencies, doubts are cast on minority

strengths. Educators forming judgments in terms of deficits instead of potential strengths

remind us that our own limitations and faulty thinking may present the biggest barriers to

minorities.

Personal

Personal barriers in minority parent involvement in their child’s education are

daycare, time, transportation, manual labor jobs, linguistic skills, uncommunicative

channels to the schools, and other practical challenges. In addition, factors affecting

personal barriers include limited education and/or a perceived inability to help in their

own child’s learning. These problems represent hills for all parents to climb, but become

mountains for disadvantaged and minority parents (Bright, 1996; Delgado-Gaitan, 2001;

Scribner, Young, & Pedroza, 1999).

One of the few experimental studies in parent involvement identified barriers for

disadvantaged Latino, and African-American families by studying African-American and

Hispanic mothers and their children in a Head Start program (Starkey & Klein, 2000).

Children were randomly designated to control or intervention groupings. The parent

intervention group was trained to support their children’s math development and overall

parent involvement. Pre and post tests indicated gains in both intervention areas. No such

gains were seen in the control groups (Starkey & Klein, 2000). In addition, the study

42
found barriers to parent involvement regarding transportation problems, day-care needs,

and scheduling problems due to work conflicts. Parents who were willingly to be

involved gained from the exercise. They found it vital to make involvement in their

child’s education a priority regardless of the personal barriers.

The intent of the research design in Smerkar & Cohen-Vogel’s (2001) study was

to comprehend barriers and better understand this situation from the parents’ viewpoint,

the researchers listened to parents. Thirty families were randomly selected to participate;

10 each from grades 2nd, 4th, and 6th. Findings revealed that parents believed their

involvement was most critical in the role of attending school meetings/events and

monitoring homework. Even with this perception, the parents’ belief was that attendance

at school activities and meetings represented more of a perfunctory role; they did not feel

part of the activity/meeting or that they were assisting in any way. These parents were

reluctant to take part in decision-making because they believed teachers should be the

“parents at school.” Parents failed to see the reciprocation in the process by not

understanding they also may need to be “teachers at home” (Smrekar & Cohen-Vogel,

2001, p. 81). The study’s data indicates that parents want to be involved in their

children’s education but are limited through the perception that their roles are distinct and

unique from the schools. “They don’t understand how to cross those boundaries”

(Smrekar & Cohen-Vogel, 2001, p. 97). These researchers offer that it is time to present a

system built on collaboration instead of the term involvement.

Social Class

A working class and middle class theory have also characterized challenges to

minority parent involvement, which had sprung from a 1993 study of federally subsidized

43
elementary schools. Findings exhibited only modest communication between lower-

income parents and school personnel (Davies, 1993). In viewing social class issues,

working class is defined as lower socio-economic, and middle class as middle socio-

economic. Numerous researchers addressed working class minority parents versus middle

class parents in relation to parent involvement (Desforges, 2003; Desimone, 1999;

Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Gregory & Weinstein, 2004; Lareau & Horvat, 1999).

Diamond and Gomez (2004), however, identified 18 parents, who were self-

identified or peer identified as ‘actively involved’ African-American parents. Interviews

tapped into their attitudes, beliefs, and practices of participation in their child’s education

throughout seven schools in Chicago, Illinois. Demographics of the schools were

between 70-100% African-American. They found that working-class African-American

parents, in divergence to the middle-class African-American, appeared to be more

disapproving and outspoken about their children’s schools, and would repeatedly rank

them as second-rate. African-American working class parents, particularly mothers, were

more often displeased with their schools; the parents reported feeling disrespected from

teachers in their attempts at participation. Middle-class parents were more likely to

identify and contact people who would help them to receive more opportunities to attend

higher quality schools. Middle-class parents also considered schools as supporting their

involvement; they were happy with the education their children received (Diamond &

Gomez, 2004), although middle class parents were happy with their education, African-

American parents have more difficulty meeting expectations and standards set forth by

schools than other groups (Lareau & Horvat, 1999).

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 Researchers observed classrooms and concluded there were times that African-

American students were not treated with the same considerations or advantages as White

students because of ethnicity and family aspects. Given those results, educators

questioned their beliefs about the neutrality of their approaches to both students and

parents. It appeared teachers wanted certain ‘acceptable behaviors’ in requesting support

from parents. More specifically, teachers wanted parents to read to their child, support

teacher efforts, reinforce their expectations, and respect teacher expertise. Collectively,

the acceptable behaviors meant parent behaviors conformed to teacher expectations. The

teacher expectation of acceptable parent behavior perception made it more difficult for

African-American parents to respond in supportive ways (Lareau & Horvat, 1999).

Extent of Minority Involvement

Several studies examined the extent of minority parent involvement in their

child’s education. A caution needs to be considered in examining empirical research

related to minority parent involvement in their child’s education. Most studies examine

the extent of overt involvement. Yet, minority families tend to be more involved at home

and take a different role or limited approach to school involvement than white middle

class families (Fan & Chen, 2001; Henderson & Mapp, 2002; Lopez, 2001; Mapp, 1999).

The lack of overt involvement as discerned by school officials may not equate

with the perceptions of involvement of minority parents. Hispanic parents of successful

high school students, for example, considered themselves less involved in school

activities yet highly involved in their child’s education. Their beliefs supported the ethics

of hard work and the value of an education Lopez (2001). Some researchers suggest that

45
it is what the family ‘does’ that is more important to student success than family income,

education, or family structure (U.S. Department of Education, 1994).

These findings are similar to other research that claims home involvement for

minorities is more influential than school-based involvement. Minority and

disadvantaged parents may have time at home to do the enriching kinds of educational

activities, and engage in more discussion about school related work and activities. In

many cases, they may find themselves in working positions that it conflict with the

school’s traditional hours (Mulligan, 2005). In spite of the challenges presented by

systemic and bureaucratic policies, according to a survey study of parents in six

Maryland high schools, the overwhelming sentiment among minority parents is that

parent involvement is needed at the high school level. Over 80 % of parents wanted to be

more involved and sought ways to effectively learn how to help their children at home

(Sanders et al., 1999). The empirical research indicates that minority parents have a

strong desire for being actively involved in their child’s education. Their desire to be

actively involved appears to be as strong as any other group of parents (Boethel, 2003;

Calabrese, 1990; Desforges, 2003; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Hoover-Dempsey &

Sandler, 1997; LaBahn, 1995; Sanders et al., 1999; Trotman, 2001)

A number of studies focus on conventional parent involvement activities: school

meetings, parent-teacher conferences, a school or class event, or volunteering at school.

Researchers classified highly involved parents as those who attended at least three

activities a year and those as low involvement who attended one or no activities. They

also indicated there was a correlation between involvement and traditional family

structure (Nord & West, 2001). Examination of the National Educational Longitudinal

46
Study (NELS: 88) data were used to compare parent involvement variables as related to

student achievement. The researchers concluded that minorities and low SES parents are

not less involved. Minority parent’s influence, support, and involvement at home often

goes unnoticed. There findings suggest that parents, especially minority parents, are

usually more involved than recognized by school personnel (Ho & Willms, 1996).

Sustaining Parent Involvement: Secondary School Research

Parent participation in school activities drops at the middle school and high school

grades. This trend is as true for Whites as it is for minority subgroups (Catasambis &

Garland, 1997; Dauber & Epstein, 1993), even though the perception continues by some

educators and researchers that minorities are less involved in their children’s education

(Calabrese-Barton et al., 2004; Caplan et al., 1997; Diamond & Gomez, 2004; Dornbusch

& Ritter, 1988; LaBahn, 1995; Lopez, 2001).

A 1997 study using statistics from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of

1988 (NELS:88) tracked stability and examined parental changes in educational

involvement between middle school and twelfth grade. The sample of 13, 580 parents

were followed from 1988-1992 (Catasambis & Garland, 1997). A subsequent objective

was to use Epstein’s (1992; 1995) six different typologies of parent involvement: parental

learning opportunities, communicating with school, volunteering, home support,

decision-making, and association with the community as grouping different ways that

parents are involved. In addition, the study identified differences between ethnic and

racial minority groups. The reasoning not only distinguished the different types of

parental involvement, but showed how they overlapped, and how the occurrence of

parent involvement was a complex relationship of interconnections between participants

47
(Catasambis & Garland, 1997). Findings revealed information about home support.

African-American and Latino parents tend to show the highest levels of rules and

supervision about homework, TV viewing, grades, and course decisions for adolescents

in both middle and high school. African-American parents displayed the most

supervision. Parents of students who stay in school increased their educational

expectations of their children, and this was greatest between African-American and

Hispanic, with African-American demonstrating the greatest change. This percentage

doubled that of Caucasians (1997).

In a second measure of involvement, all groups lessened their communication

with the schools during middle and high school; African-American parents showed the

sharpest decrease followed by Latinos. Latinos also displayed low levels of parental

involvement in the eighth grade, parent-teacher organizations, and community groups.

African-Americans exhibited the highest levels of participation in parent organizations,

while Whites showed the most mutual contacts with the schools such as volunteering and

other school activities, often considered a more significant measure of traditional parental

involvement (Catasambis & Garland, 1997).

The study provided positive aspects of minority parent participation in their

child’s education. The longitudinal nature of the data and the overlapping of Epstein’s

typologies provided a more comprehensive view of parent involvement. This knowledge

reflects an opposing viewpoint from the voluminous amounts of literature that indicates

parent involvement decreases as the student progresses through middle school and high

school. There seemed to be a shift in attention from individual monitoring of children to

more instances in which parents, particularly minorities, are looking to mutually

48
exchange knowledge if given the opportunity to do so (Catasambis & Garland, 1997).

Data showed there were minority parents that sustained educational involvement with

their children through the years.

Other researchers using the same statistical set of data from the National

Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NELS:88) discovered similarities to the

previous study. The relationship between parent involvement and high school completion

was different for European Americans than Latinos. It was stronger for European

Americans than Latinos, citing a closer relevance to the majority school culture and

philosophies. Parent advocacy was not as strong in the Latino families even though

education was highly valued. The relationship between Native Americans and school

definitions of parent involvement was weaker. Findings illustrated evidence that social

capital made available to the ethnic minority groups were vital to student’s high school

completion. The researcher concluded that parent participation, through traditional school

programs, were influential in effecting a student’s completion from high school

(Anguiano, 2003).

In considering demographics at the secondary levels, family income, parent

education, and two-parent households were important elements for students to

successfully complete high school. Other research supports these findings, when two

parent households were in place and other factors were controlled (Desforges, 2003;

Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 1997; 2001; Rumberger, Ghatak, Poulos,

Ritter, & Dornbusch, 1990; Williams, Williams, & Ullman, 2002). Students perform

almost as well in school if only one parent is highly involved (National Center for

Education Statistics, 1997). Students residing with both natural parents are more likely to

49
complete high school; this is true for Hispanics and Whites, but not for African-American

(Ekstrom, Goertz, Pollack, & Rock, 1986). One caveat regarding this study is that it

analyzed NCES statistics from a 1980/82 longitudinal study on 30,000 high schools

students to determine data of students drop-out information at the secondary level (1986).

While the research on sustained parent involvement provides some evidence of parental

motivations and strategies on sustaining involvement, the research generally focuses on

how or why parents are less involved. There remains insufficient information for

establishing particular involvement methods that have enhanced participation for all

parents across grade levels over an extended time (Caplan et al., 1997).

Influence of Parental Expectations/ Aspirations

Expectations and aspirations for a child’s future may be immeasurable in terms of

its positive affect on the outcomes of the child’s education. A meta-analysis viewing

parent involvement in relationship to academic achievement disclosed that parental

aspirations/expectations for children’s educational achievement presented the strongest

relationship among all other variables (Fan & Chen, 2001). Jeynes (2003) also used a

meta-analysis of 21 studies. The results indicated that the effect of parental involvement

was significant across all minority groups in the study. Researchers claim that no matter

what level of education the parent possesses (Nord & West, 2001) and regardless of

socioeconomic status (Shaver & Walls, 1998), parental involvement positively affects

academic achievement.

Parent support and encouragement in a child’s education is one of the most

critical indicators of that child’s educational aspirations (Hossler, Braxton, &

Coopersmith, 1989; Hossler, Schmidt, & Vesper, 1998; McDonough, 1999). Hoge, Smit

50
and Crist (1997), defined parental involvement as comprised of four components: (1)

parent expectations, (2) parent awareness, (3) participating with school, and (4)

community. Parental expectations’ were considered the most important component.

Parental influence remains consistent and enduring in spite of competing peer

pressure and views (negative or positive) in middle school and high school. Peer

influence does not supersede a strong home foundation and support (Davies & Kandel,

1981; Rumberger, 2001; Smith, Schneider, & Ruck, 2005). This is disputed by several

researchers who believe peer and neighborhood forces particularly for African-

Americans are stronger pressures effecting adolescent school success than parent

expectations or aspirations (Dornbusch & Ritter, 1988; Nechyba et al., 1999). Moreover,

Mulligan (2005) used data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey of the

Kindergarten Class of 1998-99 (ECLS-K) to gauge how language minorities are involved

in their children’s education. In her study on parental involvement with language

minorities, she discovered that the higher the African-American parent’s school

expectations were, the less that family was involved in school. This disparity grew as the

parent’s expectations climbed.

It is evident that the parental need to pass on values and self-worth to their

children is important. Maslow’s (1943) research validates as a part of the human

condition, a desire for certain social needs. This includes self-worth, a desire to achieve,

to be productive, and to crave recognition or admiration. It is substantiated that all parents

regardless of ethnicity, race, or culture have basic hopeful expectations and wishes of

success for their children. Seligman’s (2002) studies also corroborate that the basic

wants, desires, and securities for one’s children are similar for most parents. Thus,

51
parents can make an impact on their children’s education by declaring positive

expectations or aspirations for them. The manifestations of the aspirations and positive

expectations that parents model to their children potentially can prevent the effects of

poverty experienced by minorities particularly African-Americans (Moore & Barbarin,

2004). Disturbingly, the poverty rate for African-Americans is nearly quadruple the

poverty rate for non-Hispanic Whites (23% and 6%, respectively). In addition, education

attained by Whites is higher than African-Americans as a whole, and the unemployment

rate for African-Americans is more than twice that of non-Hispanic Whites (2004).

There is evidence of learned optimism among members of minority populations

where parent involvement was an indirect variable. Results revealed that high achievers

responded more often to failure by declaring a lack of effort. While low achievers

responded to poorer performance or failure by figuring it was lack of innate ability. This

finding was true across all ethnic groups. This hypothetical is consistent with motivation

and attribution theory, and to learned optimism or pessimism theorized by Seligman.

Parents were also predictable. When parents professed low perceptions of shame

toward their children, this equaled higher scores for their children. Parental ways of

thinking were crucial in affecting their children’s self-concepts. High-achievers more

frequently reported that their parents gave motivational encouragement, stressed the

value of effort and the importance of their schooling. These principles may represent

bigger factors in their success than helping with homework (Bempechat, Graham, &

Jimenez, 1999). Expectations and aspirations toward their child’s education certainly

claim an important role in parent involvement.

52
 In this review of empirical research related to my study, parent perspectives were

explored to bring light to the reader another voice in the research on minority parent

involvement. These minority parents include linguistically challenged immigrant parents

and families as well. The characteristics of role construction and self-efficacy were

viewed as motivators/strategies behind why and how some minority parents involve

themselves in their child’s education. Researchers suggest that by more closely listening

or stepping into the parent’s world, schools can come to a greater understanding of

ethnically, culturally, and racially diverse families for establishing that critical

communication between home and school. Research also revealed that in pursuit of this

approach schools introduce social and culture capital to minority parents whom otherwise

would not have access to opportunities for networking and growth.

Barriers to parent participation centered on the themes of alienation, cultural,

personal, and social class challenges. Schools inviting parents to take advantage of

learning opportunities and work to establish mutual communication channels may relieve

some of the social and cultural barriers that have existed for minority parents.

Secondary school research examined the extent and detail of minority

involvement sustained through upper grade levels. Studies were examined for sustained

involvement, parental attitudes, and parental expectations. Prior research suggests that

parent involvement decreases as students move through the grades. Researchers suggest

that educators need to take personal responsibility for increasing parent involvement.

They believe that the building and growth of networking through using social and

cultural capital facilitates confidence and self-worth, both important for parents who are

either poor and/or minority to increase involvement with their child’s education.

53
 The final section investigated the influence of parent expectations. These

expectations and aspirations act as a tremendous influence on a child’s self-worth and

educational values. Studies showed a strong relationship between parental expectations in

education and academic achievement. Some evidence was inconclusive on whether peer

influence could outweigh parent expectations negatively or positively. Minority parenting

styles were also discussed. The connection of achievement to the modeling of parental

attitudes was explored through the responses of high and low student achievers.

Summary

The literature review began with a conceptual and theoretical description of the

study’s framework. The theoretical framework of humanistic and positive psychology is

grounded in the appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective. Appreciative

Inquiry is a theoretical research prescriptive that asks unconditionally positive questions,

and concentrates on positive core values within the organization. It is holistic in nature

and directs the focus of inquiry in a positive direction. Humanistic psychology offers a

lens for examining the successful endeavors of minority parents who sustain involvement

in their child’s education. The theoretical framework of humanistic psychology attributes

to acts of self-determination, a thirst for good values, to accomplish productive goals, and

to acquire self-respect.

The more recent addition of positive psychology theory supports the foundations

of humanistic psychology and adds positive interventions in people’s lives. It encourages

people to use healthy characteristics of optimism, hope, and aspiration instead of focusing

on their limitations in efforts to persevere through difficult circumstances. These

54
theoretical perspectives form the framework of my study and for examining the empirical

research of minority parents who sustain involvement in their children’s education.

This review of the empirical research focused on six areas: (1) legislation (2)

parent perspective of involvement in their child’s education, (3) barriers to parent

participation, (4) extent of minority involvement, (5) sustaining parent involvement:

secondary school research, and (6) the influence of parent expectations and aspirations.

This literature review provided information focused on the study’s purpose to describe

the perceptions, motivations, and challenges of highly involved minority parents, who

have sustained involvement in their child’s education. Chapter 3 explains research

methodology and research design that were used in conducting my study.

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 CHAPTER 3

Methodology

In this chapter, I explained the research design and methods used in my study. I

began with a statement of the purpose, context of the study, problem statement, research

questions, units of analysis, and data analysis. I concluded this chapter with the data

analysis processes, as well as, the procedures undertaken to ensure the trustworthiness of

the data.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of my research study was to describe minority parents’ perceptions

of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved

in their child’s education. Participants’ perceptions were viewed through the theoretical

frameworks of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and

humanistic psychology, as it includes Maslow’s theory of ‘the basic good in people’

(1943).

Statement of the Problem

Although extensive research exists on the importance of parental involvement in

education, little information is available on sustained parent involvement across grade

levels (Caplan et al., 1997). This is true for parents in general, and more specifically for

minority parents. Consequently, this study described Native American and African

American parents’ perceptions of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement,

and remained highly involved in their child’s education.

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 Research Questions

This study was guided by the following three research questions:

1. How do highly involved minority parents describe their motivation to be

involved in their child’s education?

2. How do highly involved minority parents describe the challenges that they

have overcome in sustaining their involvement in their child’s education?

3. How do highly involved minority parents describe the strategies they use to

sustain involvement in their child’s education?

Context

This study took place in Coffeyville, Kansas, and USD 445. Coffeyville is a small

blue-collar community in southeastern Kansas with approximately 11,000 residents.

Seventy percent of the Coffeyville’s residents work in Coffeyville. The other 30% of the

workforce commute from surrounding rural areas and smaller towns. Some commute

from Oklahoma, especially Notawa County, the county directly south of Coffeyville. Of

the 30% working, yet residing outside of Coffeyville, the Montgomery County Action

Council discovered that those workers did not desire to relocate. Higher taxes and

housing were given as the foremost rationale for not living within the county boundaries

(Hurd, 2003). Coffeyville consists of the following ethnic groups: White Non-Hispanic

(75.76%), African American (12.12%), Native American Indian (4.97%), Hispanic

(3.82%), and Other (3.33%) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). Coffeyville USD 445’s

enrollment of 1,925 students consists of the following ethnic groups: White, 55%,

African American, 16%, Native American 10%, Hispanic, 4%, and Other, 15%. In USD

445 Elementary, Middle School, and High School level, ethnicity groups are very

57
similarly comprised to the district demographics (Kansas State Department of Education,

2006). Economically disadvantaged students enrolled in USD 445 make up

approximately 59% of the student population (Kansas State Department of Education,

2005).

Research Design

I used a qualitative descriptive multiple case study research design. There were

two cases filtered through an appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective to

describe Native American and African American parent’s perceptions of how they

overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in their

child’s education. A multiple case study, has advantages over a single-case study design

by utilizing more ‘cases’ for evidence and data, thus strengthening the study and

increasing its external validity both factually and theoretically (Yin, 2003). This research

design has an emerging component embedded within it (Patton, 1990).

Theoretical Research Perspective

An appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective focuses the inquiry of the

research on the positive core of organizations or individuals (Cooperrider et al., 2003).

Appreciative inquiry addresses issues or challenges that exist in the organization by

building on what people in the organization are already doing that is good (Cooperrider &

Srivastva, 1987). One of the fundamentals of appreciative inquiry is the underlying

positive principle. This principle recognizes that by asking positive questions about work

solutions, challenges are explored in a different and creative way. Unconditional positive

questions allow people to identify peak experiences in their work such as their strengths,

58
positive thoughts, and aspirations for achievement, and to engage in unlocking their

potential, values or wisdom (Fitzgerald et al., 2001). This theoretical research perspective

informed how questions were asked in semi-structured interviews and in the focus groups

in this study.

Units of Analysis

Minority parents are the unit of analysis for my study. In this study, minority

parents consisted of African American, and Native American parents residing within

USD 445 geographical boundaries. This study was comprised of those two cases: African

American parents and Native American parents. Participating parents had children

attending Coffeyville High School in USD 445 in the 11th or 12th grade or children who

recently graduated in May 2006. Native American and African American parents who

have demonstrated sustained involvement in their child’s education through middle and

high school were purposively sampled. Participants were selected through a set of

protocols designed to identify highly involved parents who have sustained involvement in

their child’s education.

High school and middle school administrators, counselors, and teachers were the

source of data for selection to the participant pool. High school administrators,

counselors, and teachers who were data sources for selection to the participant pool must

have had four consecutive years of service in the high school. Middle school

administrators, counselors, and teachers who were data sources for selection to the

participant pool must have had six consecutive years of service in the middle school. The

administrators, counselors, and teachers were presented a list of Native American and

African American parents who have children in the 11th or 12th grade in high school or

59
recently graduated in May 2006. They completed a questionnaire identifying Native

American and African American parents as “highly involved,” “moderately involved,” or

“not involved” in their children’s schooling, as well as, identifying the involved

category/criteria as “very important”, “moderately important”, and “low importance”

(See Appendix B).

There were 17 participants in the study; six Native American and 11 African

American parents. The educational background and occupational status of the “highly

involved” parents participating in the study was documented. Native American parents’

occupations consisted of a teacher and paraprofessional, a registered nurse, a

photographer, a community service worker, a college student, and an industrial plant

manager. This same group’s educational background was comprised of two masters

degrees, one with a bachelor’s degree, and one soon to be acquired, and two others with

some college beyond high school.

The African American group had four participants who worked in some area of

health medicine. Two ministers were included in the participants, and both used the

ministry as a supplement to their main occupations. A cosmetologist, two educators, and

one retiree were also involved. This group’s education ranged from three participants

who had doctorate or masters degrees to many with some college after high school

graduation. One participant did not complete secondary school.

The questionnaire was piloted with a representative group of administrators,

counselors, and teachers. Researchers in the field of parent involvement reviewed the

questionnaire for face validity. A total score for the questionnaire was compiled for each

Native American and African American parent. I used the Sheppard Parent School

60
Invitational Score (SPSIS) composite score that fell in the top quartile of participants as

the cut-off score.

Data Collection Methods

The following research methods were used in the collection of data: focus groups,

semi-structured interviews, and review of relevant documents.

Focus Groups

The focus groups were comprised along racial lines to account for cultural

differences. Two focus groups were conducted. One group included Native American and

the other group was African American parents. Each focus group was comprised of five

participants. All questions were constructed according to the principles of appreciative

inquiry, and were based on the guidelines established in the Appreciative Inquiry

Handbook (Cooperrider et al., 2003). For example, “Can you describe how you have

stayed involved in your child’s education?” Or, “How can you describe your motivation

to stay involved?” The questions for the focus groups are in Appendix D. Each focus

group was approximately one hour in length at the Coffeyville USD 445 Board of

Education location.

Semi-Structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews were used to gather data from the participants. The

semi-structured format for interviews allowed for guided, open-ended conversations that

enabled me to gain an in-depth understanding of the participant’s attitudes, perceptions,

and viewpoints on the topic (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003; Patton, 2002). The questions in the

semi-structured interviews were constructed in a manner consistent with appreciative

61
inquiry guidelines. For example, “Can you describe some of the peak experiences and

challenges of being involved in your child’s education?” The questions for the interviews

are found in Appendix E. Approximately 10 interview questions focused on gathering

data to answer the research questions. Each interview lasted between 45 minutes to 60

minutes in length, at a time and place that was mutually designated.

Six interviews were conducted with African American parents and one with a

Native American parent who volunteered to be interviewed. I sought to gain their

personal stories, perceptions, and experiences regarding involvement in their child’s

education. The parents that I interviewed were not participants in any other data gathering

method. Those identified for participant selection in the focus groups did not overlap as

interview participants. The emergent nature of the qualitative case study design allowed

for the exact number of interviews to be extended if necessary as data were collected.

Documents

Documents relevant and applicable to the research questions were also examined.

Documents included for review originated from USD 445 district policy, state policy,

school board minutes, or other publicly accessible documents utilized by USD 445

schools in referring to parent involvement.

Data Analysis

Collected data were analyzed using pattern matching, the constant-comparative

method and CATPAC, a text analysis software designed to show relationships among

words to analyze data. In particular, recurring themes were sorted using an open and axial

62
coding process. The themes were used in a series of content matrices to identify the

strength of support of the unitized data (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

Relevant documents were examined using content analysis. Data from these

sources along with the data gained from interviews and focus groups served to triangulate

evidence. I took safeguards to ensure the study’s creditability, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability throughout the data collection and data analysis

process. Triangulation and trustworthiness of the data are further explained in the

following paragraphs.

Trustworthiness of the Data

For the purposes of this study, I gauged the quality of the data gathering process

by focusing on the credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability of the

study. Data from my study’s interviews and focus groups were analyzed and interpreted

through these operational definitions. Credibility was determined using member checking

to confirm what was said, and the meaning of what was said at the end of each focus

group. Moreover, I triangulated the data by examining multiple sources of evidence,

cross-data analysis, and methods checking. The data collected from subunits within each

of the units of analysis were shared with the participants to ascertain their credibility. I do

not make claims as to its transferability. Instead, I leave it up to the reader to make an

informed decision as to the study’s transferability to his/her context.

Additionally, I maintained a rich description of the data collection process

including observations (Bogdan & Biklen, 2003). The dependability of the study was

strengthened through the embedded case study protocols in the data collection procedures

in order to minimize errors and bias (Yin, 2003). Moreover, the use of an emerging

63
research design allowed me to describe changes that occurred in the research context and

how they affected my approach to the study. Key informants ascertained the

confirmability of the data through the interaction of the participants who reviewed the

draft report of the results and the review of a draft proposal. Moreover, I used a peer

review team to provide feedback on my findings.

Bias

As the researcher, I demonstrated sensitivity and awareness to circumstances

within the context of the USD school system, its employees and involved parents, as well

as acknowledging an acceptance for uncertainty that evolves from the emerging evidence

or design of this study. By practicing high ethics and maintaining standard protocol for

data collection and data processing, I gained a considerable step toward reducing

researcher bias within my own study.

Summary

This chapter described the qualitative descriptive case study methods used during

my research. The data reflected participants’ views of sustained and highly involved

Native American and African American parent involvement during the data collection

period in the summer and fall of 2006. I discussed the methods of data collection, focus

groups, semi-structured interviews, and document review. The theoretical frameworks of

the study, humanistic and positive psychology aligned with the appreciative inquiry

research perspective, combined to provide a lens for interpretations of all data. Chapter 4

presents the findings derived from the data analysis of my study.

64
 CHAPTER 4

Chapter 4 presents the findings derived from the data collected during this study. I

organized this chapter by first reaffirming the purpose of the study and the underlying

theoretical perspectives that I used to direct my study. I then provide a brief overview of

the methodology, research questions, data analysis, and summary of the findings. At the

conclusion of my summary of findings, I present the theory that emerged from my data

analysis.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of my research study was to describe minority parents’ perceptions

of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved

in their child’s education. Participants’ perceptions were viewed through the theoretical

frameworks of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and

humanistic psychology, as it includes Maslow’s theory of ‘the basic good in people’

(1943).

Overview of Methodology

I used a qualitative multiple case study emergent design that allowed me to gain

the participants’ perspectives related to the research questions. There were two cases.

Each case had a separate unit of analysis. The two units of analysis were comprised of 11

African American parents, and 6 Native American parents.

I applied an appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective to collect data

related to African American and Native American (parent) participant’s perceptions of

65
how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in

their child’s education.

Emerging Theory

As competing theory, critical theory was briefly discussed in Chapter 2. The

works of educational critical theorists, Giroux, Freire, and Apple were cited as an

optional framework or lens to examine challenges, motivations, and strategies described

by highly involved minority parents in their child’s education. A complimentary theory

that emerged from my findings in addition to the perspectives of appreciative inquiry,

positive psychology, and humanistic psychology is the theory of empowerment.

Empowerment becomes a process of growing the capabilities of individuals or groups so

they can comprehend their choices and transform those choices into preferred actions or

outcomes. Empowered individuals are better suited to influence those decisions that

affect the course of their lives. Fundamentally, this speaks to critiquing of one’s

environment, change, and self-determinism (Giroux, 2001). In Freire’s work, he

discusses education in terms of empowerment for groups not just individuals, with a

change in structure, condition or character, and a focus on cultural change (Heaney,

1995).

The practice of freedom within education proposed by Freire includes a more

enlightened view of learning for adult learners. Freire worked with Latinos in South

America, setting up community-based learning centers outside of traditional schools and

organizations, because of the criticism that traditional schooling only adds to the

“marginalization of minorities and the poor (Heaney, 1995).”

66
 Research Questions

This study was guided by three research questions:

1. How do highly involved minority parents describe their motivation to

be involved in their child’s education?

2. How do highly involved minority parents describe the challenges that

they have overcome in sustaining their involvement in their child’s education?

3. How do highly involved minority parents describe the strategies they

use to sustain involvement in their child’s education?

Data Analysis

I used content analysis, pattern matching, the constant-comparative method, and

CATPAC, text analysis software designed to show relationships among words to analyze

my data. In particular, I used open and axial coding processes to identify themes. The

themes were subsequently used in a series of content matrices to identify the strength of

support of the unitized data (Miles & Huberman, 1994). I took safeguards to ensure the

study’s creditability, transferability, dependability, and confirmability throughout the data

collection and data analysis process.

Findings

Six salient findings were derived from my data analysis. They are listed below.

Finding 1: Native American and African American parents identified

involvement strategies to improve their child’s education.

Finding 2: African American parents believed there were issues related to

minority relationships within the school and community.

67
 Finding 3: Native American and African American parents set

expectations for their children.

Finding 4: Native American and African American parents expressed

pride in their children’s accomplishments.

Finding 5: Native American and African American parents linked family

values to their role and responsibility as a parent.

Finding 6: Native American and African American parents linked teacher

care and respect for their child to the child’s success.

The sections that follow address the six findings from my study. Participants’

statements are interwoven in narrative format to create richer descriptions and images of

what they described or felt. African American parents represent the first unit of analysis

and Native American parents represent the second unit of analysis.

Participant statements will be identified as African American, Native American,

and female or male where appropriate. I conclude each finding with a brief summary

statement. In addition, I include a table with data connected to each finding. I use the

abbreviation A/A to correspond to African American parents and the abbreviation N/A to

refer to Native American parents throughout my report of findings. I use the pseudonyms

Nicole, April, Judy, Hillary, Michelle, Kelly, Joni, Amanda, Janelle, Glen, and Peter for

the A/A parents. I use the pseudonyms Karla, Allison, Barbara, Lisa, Carrie, and Tom to

represent N/A parents.

68
 Finding 1 Native American and African American Parents Identified Involvement

Strategies to Improve Their Child’s Education

Native American and African American parents identified involvement strategies

to improve their children’s education. This finding is supported by my third research

question that asks N/A and A/A parents to describe the strategies that they utilized to

sustain involvement in their child’s education. The strategies described by these

participants support all three of the theoretical perspectives; however, appreciative

inquiry perspective was more prevalent than positive psychology and humanistic

psychology.

In reporting the first finding, I first address the strategies N/A and A/A parents

identified as working with teachers or administrators in their child’s school. This is

followed by a discussion of strategies that participants stressed as being more applicable

for guidance in their child’s life as well as strategies to help them in their education.

Those two broad general categories, school and child strategies, are further delineated by

subtopics within them.

The first subtopic under the general category related to school strategies, working

with teachers and administrators, deals with communications in involvement, next,

relationship building through communication, and then additional strategies for school-

related concepts. Additional strategies, identified by both NA/ and A/A participants, in

working with the school and child are listed in Finding 1.

The second broad heading under this finding focuses on involvement strategies

with the child. Included under this segment are visiting their child’s environment,

69
advocating for their child, and providing opportunities for their child. I conclude with a

summary of the finding.

70
Table 4.1

Native American and African American Parents Identified Involvement Strategies to

Improve their Child’s Education

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative One of my strategies is to have in depth conversations about things they worried
Inquiry
about in their schooling. [I] keep them talking, keep lines of communication

open. I am very careful not to say something that would reflect negatively on one

of their friends, whether I agree or not.

If you are not involved with your child and he makes Fs–you do not care. On the

other hand, if you are involved, you can participate and say okay, you got an F

now let us go on.

I know parents who are not able to be involved with their child. They have two

jobs. They are barely keeping their heads above water. Some have 10-hour jobs.

Our kids will be more involved, because we were.

Often times I go to parent teacher conferences.

If you are involved as a parent, stay a part of your child’s life, and be there every

day, your child will learn.

I have learned that you want your children to talk to you. Lines of communication

need to be kept open.

71
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative It opens communication for us, but you are still not getting that communication with
Inquiry
the teacher. As parents, we can see what the grade book looks like. We can say, hey

friend (son or daughter), you have a missing assignment here. Do you know what

happened? In addition, they are saying, Hey, I turned that in, and we are saying

well, you need to work that out with the teacher because they do not have it

recorded.

There are too many kids in this area without a scholarship or motivation. They will

never leave.

My children are very fortunate that we have been able to go on good vacations with

educational value.

If you get involved in your child's education, you will know what kinds of friends

your child is selecting.

(15 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

African Americans

One thing we've tried to do this year to keep the communication open with a parent's

night where we showed parents how to get on the parent portal online. We showed

them other things on the computer.

It is important to communicate and to be articulate in the communication. My wife

and I are both professionals. We think about our school system, and we cannot think

of anything that we would want to change. It falls on the parent to receive what is

being offered . . . the school system wants to see parent involvement.

72
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Appreciative My only complaint with the school system is that they make rules and don’t enforce
Inquiry
them. Now, it just depends. When my children were in grade school, I was

consistent, in the PTA and other events. It became more important when they were

in high school. When my child’s grades went down, I asked for a weekly report and

we went over weekly reports every week.

It’s not about attacking someone or protecting, it’s about communicating.

I do get involved more now. I haven't always. Terminologies change and the way

teachers deal with children change. They are not as formal. Teachers today are not

as formal as when I was going to school. They're more relaxed.

So, it has helped me to be more active. If you are in the teacher's place, you have to

be obedient. That does not mean that all of a sudden you have a brain, you need to

think for yourself. Therefore, you need to learn how to be able to distinguish some

things. Even if you do not agree, there is a way that you can talk to a person

[appropriately].

Well, I think the biggest thing is instilling a work ethic and to encourage them to

finish what they start. I believe in supporting the teachers. They have their own

strategies. You have to work with them.

Open communication is the number one thing, especially for Black people. You

really need to get involved with your children. You must have an open

communication. I think we had good rapport with teachers. We talked about his

difficulties and his achievements as a whole.

Communication was a key.

73
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Appreciative I would tell them to be involved. Not all teachers and kids get along. There will be
Inquiry
bumping heads sometimes.

Open communication, dignity, and respect are demonstrated at home every day. I

expect them to show to others. That is how I was brought up. Start an open

communication with your children. Everyone respects open communications.

One of the things that I share with my children is if you’re 50% of the problem, then

you are the problem. I work with my children and their problems to help straighten

that out.

I’m still a communicator and focus on logic, the ability to focus on truth and logic

and always in the best interest of the student because its all about students receiving

a education.

I think it helps teachers if our involvement is there. I think it gives them

encouragement one-way or the other . . . that is why I am involved.

(36 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspectives

Humanistic I feel that I could talk with a teacher and if I can’t get what I needed from the
Psychology
teacher, I could go to the principal or counselors. Parents, make your child the

number one priority.

74
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Humanistic I wanted my children to understand that I thought their education was the biggest
Psychology
priority in their lives. If I didn’t hold it in high esteem and wasn’t involved in their

education, they wouldn’t be motivated to be successful.

I still think teachers need to be in control at all times and maintain that authority.

I would hope that my involvement did help the teacher and my child.

Positive Native Americans

Psychology
I have always felt as long as you are involved as a parent, your child has an

opportunity to go and do whatever they want to do.

If they go to a smaller school district, they may not have all the opportunities that

they have here.

I think being involved in their education every day is a challenge because you have

to have an extreme amount of time commitment and . . . it has to be there all of the

time. It is a tremendous challenge to find the time to help them with their education.

My parents were not involved and I wanted to get involved in high school.

When I had kids, I wanted them to be involved and to experience everything or at

least try it.

African Americans

They [teachers] encouraged my involvement with my child. I think it was because

of my attitude. I always have the attitude that I am on the teacher's side . . . as long

as the teacher is being fair and just.

75
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Positive I didn't call the teacher every week. However, the teachers were willing to give us a
Psychology
weekly report. That was a positive - getting a report at the end of the week . . . was

helpful as I helped my child with homework assignments.

Every once in a while, I would go to the school to see what's going on. Talk to the

counselors, too.

They [teachers] encouraged my involvement with my child. I think it was because

of my attitude. I always have the attitude that I am on the teacher's side . . . as long

as the teacher is being fair and just.

Empowerment Native Americans

Theory
I would tell my daughter or my son to go in and talk to the teacher and get them to

explain something; the teachers more or less called them lazy and told the kids to

read the book again.

We experienced lack of communication, primarily with the two oldest children. My

emails went unanswered by several teachers.

[N/A/Barbara](Referring to another parent): Her kids go to school, and she doesn’t

get home until its time for them to go to bed at night.

They don’t have the opportunity for involvement and it kills them.

I would tell my daughter or my son to go in and talk to the teacher and get them to

explain something; the teachers more or less called them lazy and told the kids to

read the book again.

African Americans

My feeling from the administrators and teachers is that whatever the teacher says is

going to be “right,” regardless. It was the same way back when we were in school.

76
Table 4.1 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Empowerment We’ve tried PTA to get parents out at the beginning of school introductions. We've
Theory
tried feeding parents open house we would fix hot dogs and potato chips for the

parents to eat.

Parents should have an interest in their [children’s] academics many of our parents

here are not educated.

We are working with [families] the second and third generational welfare, and we

are now receiving their crack babies and children in the school system. All I know is

Coffeyville; it is difficult here. Coffeyville is like no other system.

Involvement Strategy Focusing on Teachers and Administrators

Native American and African American parents identified involvement strategies

to improve their child’s education. These strategies focused on their relationship with

teachers and administrators at the school or when working with their child. Many

strategies suggested by the N/A and A/A parents illustrated a point of reconciliation

between themselves and the teacher, school administrator, and at times the counselor.

One of the most prevalent strategies was increased communication between the

parents and teachers. Many A/A and N/A parents voiced that proactive communication

and being respectful to school personnel, even if in disagreement, were important for

sustaining commitment between parents and teachers.

Communication was important for facilitating parent-teacher conferences, as

reported by several A/A parents. Nicole, an A/A parent stated, “Open communication is

the number one thing, especially for Black people.” Other participants agreed. More

77
specifically, Nicole said, “When we all sat down and talked with the teacher, the

conference was more productive.”

Peter, an A/A parent, reported that when communication with teachers and

administrators focuses on logic and truth, it works in the best interest of the student

(child). Peter also maintained, “It is not about attacking or protecting someone. It is about

communicating.” In addition, A/A parents suggested communicating with teachers at

every opportunity. Judy, an A/A parent who is also a teacher at the middle school,

explained:

To keep the communication open, the school tried a parent's night where we

showed parents how to get on the parent portal online. We have tried almost

everything to get more parents here. The problem is the ones that are concerned

are the ones that are going to come out anyway, whether it is for open house,

parent teacher conferences, or a meeting on your child.

Several N/A parents agreed that communication is the most important strategy for

building a relationship and rapport between parents and teachers. Several parents in the

N/A focus group expressed frustration with teachers. They referred to a lack of

communication by teachers at the middle and high school levels. Lisa said:

My e-mails went unanswered by several teachers. We had some issues with

teachers. It was not that I was upset with the teachers . . . but I did not know what

to do. I needed some communication from them but never received it.

Lisa went to the high school attempting to handle the problem in person, which she did so

successfully on this occasion; yet, the issue of her child’s teacher not returning emails

was left unresolved.

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 Karla, like Lisa, was frustrated in working with high school teachers. She

complained of the teachers’ failure to send home advice or materials to help parents. She

said:

If I went and sit in class with them, I could have helped them with their projects,

but they did not have enough information for me to help them at home . . . Many

times the grades were very bad, and we were not notified until they were very

bad.

Two N/A female parents remarked, “There were times in middle school and high

school when a couple of teachers had lost our children’s graded assignments.” The

parents and the student (their child) retrieved proof of the disputed assignments and

grades. The parents and students located the missing papers that reflected the original

grades, which were different from the recorded grades. The teacher had to change the

child’s grade.

Several N/A and A/A parents agreed that the on-line monitoring system for grades

was a very useful way of tracking their son’s or daughter’s schoolwork and grades;

however, they believed the on-line system did not extend opportunities for

communication between teacher and parent beyond grade monitoring.

African American and Native American parents believed they had to be persistent

in communication efforts with administrators and teachers in order to foster support for

their child. In the beginning of the year, both A/A and N/A parents agreed that not only

was persistence important in communication with school personnel, but also immediate

and proactive meetings with the teacher. For example, Joni an A/A parent said, “When I

enroll him, I go to every teacher, here’s my cell phone number, and here’s my work

79
number.” Nicole, another A/A parent, said, “I want to get in touch [with the teacher] right

away, particularly if there is a problem, I don’t want to wait two to three weeks to be

informed.” Kelly, an A/A parent, expressed, “forming a support group with school

personnel immediately is important.” Joni, summed up persistence using communication

with school personnel, by the following statement, “I am going to be involved in my

child’s education.”

Involvement Strategies Focusing on Child

The following section focuses on strategies that N/A and A/A parents used when

working with their child. Involvement strategies were addressed that dealt with

communication and their child, parental’ roles and responsibilities for the child, and

recommendations for dealing with life and school.

Positive Interaction in Child’s Environment

One A/A parent believed the Coffeyville teachers were proactive in calling

parents at conference times and other times as well to discuss problems or positive

events. Some participating parents described, “Good teachers” as those who “care about

our kids and respect them.” N/A parents as well as A/A parents recognized the need to

stay involved with their children by visiting and communicating with them at school.

Five A/A parents and three N/A parents specifically mentioned making those

planned or unplanned visits to the school. Judy, an A/A parent declared:

Sometimes I show up unannounced to see the teacher or my children so I can

keep up with what is going on there (in their environment) . . . every parent

should do this once in a while and every school should welcome it.

80
 Janelle, an A/A parent, agreed with Judy, “It would be best to go see what is

happening at the school; go visit with the teacher and see what is going on.” Hillary, an

A/A parent, concurred with those remarks, “The teachers and I have a good rapport. I

would encourage other parents to go talk to teachers. Be forward, but do not go with an

attitude. I think today parents go with an attitude and it causes trouble.” Glen an A/A

father added, “I think we had a good rapport with teachers. We talked about my son’s

difficulties and his achievements as a whole.”

Carrie, an N/A parent, told her child, “This is to let you know you have 100% of

my support, but the same goes for the teacher.” This philosophy was also expressed by

Judy, Michelle, April and Nicole, and Peter in the A/A group. Another N/A parent, Lisa,

stated, “Going to the teachers is important, and in some areas the teachers have done a

good job, an excellent job!” Allison, another N/A mother, commented, “Because my

parents weren’t involved I wanted to be involved in her high school as much as possible.”

Advocating for Children

A few parents at the A/A focus group voiced negative comments about USD 445

teacher expectations. They spoke of how students were treated unfairly at times. This

generated a discussion about parents questioning the teacher’s philosophy, and coming to

their child’s defense if they perceived the child as being treated unfairly.

These A/A parents voiced how those concerns materialized, “It was obvious that

her teacher did not understand minorities, and was very prejudiced,” Michelle an A/A

parent said, “ I did have to go up there, talk to the teacher and set the record straight.”

This reaction surfaced because she did not want the teacher to expect less from her child

because she was Black. She insisted the children be “treated equally.” Two A/A, mothers,

81
Nicole and Kelley, informed school personnel how busy their children were in activities.

They reported that the teacher said, “That will keep them out of trouble.” Both parents

were offended. They saw the comment as stereotyping their children. Kelley said, “I

don’t know if it was a Black issue, but that’s how I felt when they said it.”

April, another A/A parent, was emphatic about respect being reciprocated

between her child and the teacher. She believed that respect is a significant element for

effective involvement. She stated, “I want my child to go out and respect all people in

general, but I also want my kid to be respected by the teacher.” Michelle added,

“Anybody can yell at the coach [the teacher] instead, do something that lets your child

know that you respect the system and that you're working in the system.”

Providing Opportunities

A strategy of being able to provide opportunities for children was another

significant point. Tom, a N/A parent, mentioned that his children traveled out of state to

different Indian reservations. “They got to see some of the Native American ways,” he

stated. A N/A parent, Carrie, utilizes a parental role strategy when she encourages her

children to travel, and makes plans for them to experience a multitude of opportunities in

life.

Carrie, along with other N/A and A/A parents, were convinced that some

minorities miss a vital ingredient in their education, by not being able to travel to a world

of sights and sounds not found in books, where there lies a world outside of Coffeyville,

full of opportunities and adventure. They avowed not to have their children miss

educational opportunities; otherwise, the alternative was seeing them “stuck in

Coffeyville.”

82
 Summary of Finding

Finding 1 reported that N/A and A/A parents identified involvement strategies to

improve their children’s education. These strategies for participating in their child’s

education were various, widely established, and differed in degree and effort put forth by

the parents. Communication was a focal point for discussing how parents related to

school personnel. Both N/A and A/A parents believed that while communication was an

important ingredient in parental involvement, the parent stories indicated that parents

were initiating much of that communication.

Most N/A and A/A parents believed that ‘good’ teachers responded by giving

their children more respect, and this was one factor in facilitating relationship- building

between the parent and teacher. Both N/A and A/A parents stressed that they supported

their child’s teachers, despite having some issues with them.

Positive and negative communication with school personnel was modeled to their

children, in particular, by A/A parents. Both A/A and N/A parents expressed the

importance of going to the school and visiting the child or classroom. They voiced that

advocating for their child, particularly regarding minority status, was important.

Finding 2 African American Parents Believed There Were Issues Related to Minority

Relationships with the School and Community

There were issues related to minority relationships with the school and

community raised by several A/A parents. The second research question asked

participants to describe challenges they encountered while sustaining involvement in their

child’s education. Many of the espoused challenges were connected to ethnicity and this

carried over from the school district to the community. Some of that dialogue that was

83
negatively expressed did not fit with humanistic psychology, positive psychology, or

appreciative inquiry. This dialogue was more accurately, negative, uncorroborated

commentary, that expressed the views of one or two such isolated incidents that the

information seemed irrelevant, in addition, was unsubstantiated by other A/A parents.

The findings are organized by first talking about minority status and relationships

related to the teachers and administrators, followed by minority relationships related to

the community. Minority relationships within the school and community focus on

challenges that affected mostly A/A parents and their children. I first report how A/A

parents cite minority status as a major obstacle in relating to teachers at the middle school

and high school levels. I then cite the difficulties A/A parents articulate about low

expectations by teachers, concluding with the topic of discrimination that was expressed

by some of the A/A parents.

The finding next reports data related to minority status on community issues. This

subject covers existing racism in the community, challenges associated with minorities

such as poverty, and lack of networking opportunities with social institutions, such as

school systems. Next is the summary of the finding.

Table 4.2

Issues Related to Minority Relationships with the School and Community Raised by

African American Parents

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative I think our district is beginning to see that it is not so much a racial issue as it is
Inquiry
an issue of poverty.

84
Table 4.2 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective
I wish everyone could get along better both minorities and non-minorities. It seems

by the time children begin school they have made prejudgments formed and

modeled by their parents and peers.

Appreciative It is one of those things . . . I do wish everyone could just get along better.
Inquiry
We have a large black population.

I think they are very vocal with what they expect our community to give them and

they get it.

There are some benefits to being ethnic in this community.

I don’t think there is discrimination; however, if you ask a Black, they may tell you

a different story.

There are some good things that the district does and is doing. There are some good

changes coming down the pike, I just hope they can get the teachers to listen to the

parents.

African Americans

When my child is respecting others, then he can be respected too.

We understand cultures by knowing different cultures. I'd let them change places for

about a month. Every minority would be a minority and every non-minority would

then be a minority living in different places shopping in different stores, and

experiencing first hand the sign of prejudice. When they switch back, they'd have a

better understanding of each other.

I know there are some blatant inequities in our environment . . . I attempt to stay

poised in my interactions . . . I observed a mother as stirred up when she perceives

her kids are being treated unfairly. We strive to resolve problems rather than

respond with emotion.

85
Table 4.2 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Appreciative On-line grades has been a good thing especially for us Black people in Coffeyville.
Inquiry
Being able to check on our kids online, and make sure they are doing okay is very

important.

I've told my children, I don't ever want you to use the excuse that you're Black.

Humanistic African Americans

Psychology
The challenges at USD 445 are not unlike any other district, where they maybe

fighting and such. We worked hard at instructing them [our children] how to avoid

those things, such as fighting.

Positive I understand an individual who is productive in society and striving to make a

Psychology
difference that I enter into work relationships with them.

Yes, some of the positive peaks . . . we had six kids go through this school district.

When I show up [to the event] their mannerisms change.

Empowerment Native Americans

Theory
There are some children regardless of race or what classroom they were assigned

who would cause problems. I have many great friends here in this town. I have lived

here all my life.

People are from every ethnic group. The ones that want to blend into the community

and be part of the community are going to be part of that community, and the ones

who want be different will be different. Their children will be the ones who you

have trouble with when they attend to school.

86
Table 4.2 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Empowerment I go to the school and she said you are not her mother. I said no, I am her
Theory
stepmother, and I take care of her. They could not handle that. I mean she is White

and I am Black. They frown on Black and White. Me being Black, they did not want

me involved.

At Roosevelt [Middle School], you have Black and Whites doing the same identical

thing and their both there in front of the principal. The White one can walk off, but

the Black one will be called to the office.

There were issues linked to minority relationships with the school and community

raised by A/A parents. The following section reports the issues as related to the school

and the community.

Challenges Regarding Minority Status at USD 445

Several members of the A/A focus group expressed concern over challenges that

they and their children faced while attending school in the Coffeyville district.

Challenges and prejudices related to minority status were expressed. An A/A parent,

Amanda, said, “There are still a few teachers that make it hard on minorities.” Issues

were raised concerning how some minorities were treated in the school system. Some of

these issues involved teachers lowering expectations for minorities and discrimination.

Teacher Expectations

Some A/A parents believed school personnel were lowering their expectations for

their children. They also believed their children were misunderstood, or wrongly

disciplined for inappropriate behavior at school. In addition, two A/A parents believed a

87
few years earlier that a counselor and teacher were “holding back my children by having

lower expectations for them.” Michelle, an A/A parent, had concerns regarding her

daughter and son. She remembered her experience with a counselor, “This person was

discouraging my son from pursuing his own academic choices in school, when it

involved college prep classes, such as sciences and math.” Michelle informed her

children, “I don't ever want you to use the excuse that you're Black, even though there are

more barriers to overcome as a minority person.” Nicole, April, and Judy A/A parents

agreed that some teachers at USD 445 exhibited lowered expectations for African

Americans.

Discrimination

Another A/A parent, Joni, insisted teachers did not want to assist her because of

her race. “They frown on Black and White,” asserted Joni, and furthermore, “the school

did not want to help me because I was Black and my daughter was White.” April was

another A/A parent who insisted that her son was treated unfairly over rules at USD 445

because of his ethnicity, and that it got to the point she even involved the National

Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Michelle, asserted that

“the challenge of being a minority in the public school system is very evident to

minorities but not to non-minorities.” Michelle had a unique vision of how the school

system and the community could create a change of perspective. “It would start by non-

minorities magically switching roles with all minorities to live in their shoes [situation]

for a while, to be able to recognize discrimination first hand.” Michelle stated, “In this

scenario it is hoped that when roles were switched back, people would have acquired a

88
better understanding of each other; particularly as it applies to the teachers’

understanding and expectations for minority children.

Challenges Regarding Minority Status in the Community

African American parents raised issues related to the minority relationships in the

Coffeyville community, and some intermingled with issues dealing with school

personnel. Prejudice seemed to exist in the community in some A/A parents’ eyes. Most

of these parents knew of racism in the 1950s and ‘60s when they were growing up.

“Racism is more subtle now and it can blind-side our kids,” stated Peter, an A/A parent.

At least four A/A parents, Glen, Peter, Judy, and Michelle stressed to their children, that

one’s minority status offers no excuses or privileges in this world, and race can present

numerous obstacles to overcome. They, however, also stressed encouraging their children

to succeed.

Two male A/A parents believed “racism, poverty, drugs, and alcohol were

devastating the community.” One of those parents, Peter, has interpreted inequities in the

system as “his biggest personal challenge.” He believed that by being a strong role model

and educating his children to develop positive core values, he could facilitate their

resolve in dealing with bigger issues of race and prejudice within the school system and

the community as well.

Several A/A parents believed that people who had problems in the community

and school were not just African American. Kelly, an A/A parent, said, “Even parents

with money had problems with their children.” These same A/A parents believed poverty

was a big factor in the community, which included African American, Native American,

and White people.

89
 African American parents, April, Nicole, and Judy, strongly believed that

establishing an effective communication link represents a vital connection for helping

minorities coming into the community. They insisted communication was the number one

priority for both community and school district. In their opinions, creating a network with

other minority parents in the community was worthwhile, valuable, and symbolized a

social capital learning process.

Summary of the Finding

Finding 2 reported issues related to minority relationships within the school and

community raised by A/A parents. The finding indicated that A/A parents are sometimes

frustrated for themselves and their children attending USD 445. They believe the

injustice of low expectations by teachers and other school personnel still exist. They also

documented in some instances, that their children were ignored or unfairly treated. Other

findings expressed by some N/A and A/A parents indicated that recent changes in USD

445 administration reflected improvements in the attitudes and programs at least at the

high school.

Findings reported that A/A parents believed challenges regarding minority status

in the community existed. Some of the A/A parents wanted a higher awareness to take

place concerning the plight of minorities in the community. Other A/A parents discussed

proactive moves for new minorities moving to Coffeyville such as networking,

communicating, and offering encouragement in reaching out to the school system.

Findings reported that A/A parents believed some teachers lowered their

expectations for African American students. One mother noted that a counselor was not

supporting her child’s preferences either for college prep courses insinuating that he

90
would not be going to college, or that the courses may be too difficult for him. Another

parent believed her child’s teacher expected less of her because of her race. Other A/A

parents reported similar challenges with regard to low expectations, such as

administrators and teachers not enforcing rules and regulations, and some not

understanding minority students at USD 445.

The reported findings by A/A parents regarding discrimination represented an

amalgamation of low expectations and unfair treatment. One A/A parent reported

discrimination occurred concerning disciplinary actions involving her child simply

because of his race. Joni, an A/A parent, had claimed a prejudice existed toward her

because she was Black and her daughter was White. In addition, Michelle, another A/A

parent, contributed the following, “Because minorities have to fit into a system that is

mostly run by white people, minorities come closer to understanding white people than

white people understand minorities.”

Finding 3 Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for Their

Children

Native American and African American parents set expectations for their

children. This finding supports all of the study’s research questions. N/A and A/A parents

describe their expectations, motivations, and aspirations for their child. In reporting

Finding 3, I first address expectations in a N/A and A/A parental role, under one

subtopic, next I speak to expectations by N/A and A/A parents about aspirations for their

child’s education as the following subtopic. Finally, I conclude with a summary of this

finding.

91
Table 4.3

Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for Their Children

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative I instill the values I use in every day life in my children in the hope that they
Inquiry
would adopt those principles as their own. In addition, I want them always to try

their very best.

My parents believed going to college was not a big thing. Therefore, anything

that I achieved, I did it for myself, and I decided it was very, very important.

As far as instilling the value of school through my parents, they were not

involved in my education. My aspiration for them [my children] is to be good

citizens of the United States. My other goal is to be good parents, if they want to

be parents.

(6 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

African Americans

We expected them (children) to be productive and there were times for them also

to maintain self-control. We expected that too.

Parent-teacher conference involvement helps you (parent) build a relationship

with the teacher.

I tell my daughter, you have to listen. When I was going to school, I learned that

if I did not listen, then I lost out.

We were able to offer [the children] direction and stability that they needed to be

productive students with good citizenship.

To new people (in the community) I would say do not give up – don’t quit.

(9 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

92
Table 4.3 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic My husband and I both see the value of education.

Psychology
My children have seen us struggle with income issues. They also realize the value of

an education. Even their Dad is pursuing his bachelor degree now.

I instill the values I use in every day life in my children in the hope that they would

adopt those values as principles for their own life.

I always want them try their very best.

African Americans

My mom has always told me the truth, even when it hurt; my mom told me the truth.

Our (parents) main goal was to guide them to be productive and constructive

citizens.

You have been sent to school to open your mind and accept what the teacher has to

offer. I have told them this action is but one-step toward becoming a productive

member of our society.

Positive Native Americans

Psychology

Well, I hope they set high expectations for themselves.

My aspirations for her would be to keep learning and to keep shooting for that goal.

She has always been-goal-oriented, we have both committed to getting her through

school.

It has never been a question of if he was going to college – it was always a matter of

when.

We have high expectations for our children. We praise them, but also inform them

when we feel they have not put forth a genuine effort.

93
Table 4.3 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspectives

Positive You are not attending school for the reason of having the teachers like you. You
Psychology
have been sent there to learn.

It would be my biggest wish that parents would start feeling comfortable enough to

come to school without being angry.

I think the atmosphere is changing with the new administration.

I really believe the atmosphere is changing too.

Our children were expected to do things a little different from some of the students

whose parents worked outside the school district because the Mom and Dad

(teachers) were on the scene. The expectations from the teachers are different for

teacher’s kids.

Being a pastor, I had to be involved with many students, not just our son. Our main

goal was to guide them to be productive and constructive citizens.

Native American and African American parents set expectations for their

children. Expectations expressed by African American and Native American parents

reflected their parental role responsibilities, such as rules and recommendations for their

child to live by.

Expectations in a Parental Role

Some of N/A and A/A parents’ expectations were ingrained in family ideals. An

expectation presented by Michelle, and A/A parent, was clearly voiced, “I was a hard

disciplinarian, but I was honest, I set goals, and I was not an easy pushover (for my

children).” Another N/A parent, Carrie, asserted, “We've set high standards our children,

been involved, and have really chosen to stay involved.” Allison, a N/A parent stated,
94
“My aspiration is for them to be good citizens of the United States. My other goal is for

them to be good parents, if they want to be parents.” Several parents from both N/A and

A/A groups modeled positive expectations to their child. Glen, an A/A parent stated, “As

a pastor it was important for our kids to become good citizens and productive members of

society.” Barbara, a N/A parent, said, “I always told my kids to keep on learning and to

do your best.”

Expectations and Aspirations for Education

Expectations and aspirations for education were also articulated by N/A and A/A

parents. They expressed to their children that despite problems with one or two teachers it

remained their [children’s] job to get an education regardless of what they may consider

unfair or difficult. N/A and A/A parents were supportive of their children in dealing with

school issues. Several of N/A and A/A parents were very proud of their children’s

accomplishments and efforts, admitting that much had been expected of them. Four N/A

and A/A parents expressed to their children that it was not if they would go to college,

but more accurately when they would go to college.

Native American parents from the focus group had hoped their children set high

expectations. One N/A focus group member, Allison, declared, “Our whole family is an

example of the value of an education.” Karla, a N/A parent proclaimed, “My husband and

I are both professionals; we both see the value of an education.” Some N/A parents lead

by example. They instilled the value of an education to their children by either one or

both parents returning to college as a non-traditional student.

Many parents from N/A and A/A groups desired their children to aspire to their

[child’s] dreams. Others expressed that they wanted their children to become productive,

95
worthwhile citizens of this nation, and still a few more reiterated, I want my children “to

never stop learning.”

Summary of Finding

Finding 3 reported that N/American and A/American parents set expectations for

their children. The evidence from this finding indicated that A/A and N/A parents were

successful in modeling and instilling the value of education to their children. Certain

expectations for their children’s life and education permeated these parents’ attitudes.

They spoke of family values—hard work, doing your best, and being productive citizens.

Expectations and aspirations were apparent regarding their child’s educational

aspirations. N/A and A/A let it be known to their children that they would go to college.

They also expressed that despite problems with one or two teachers, they expected their

children to be successful. They also advised their children to take responsibility for

getting an education regardless of the challenges.

Finding 4 Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in Their

Children’s Accomplishments

Native American and African American parents expressed pride in their

children’s accomplishments. This finding substantiated all research questions. The tone in

describing the pride of accomplishment N/A and A/A parents felt about their children

corresponds to appreciative inquiry, positive psychology, and humanistic psychology

theoretical perspectives.

The data reports prideful moments that N/A and A/A parents expressed about

family members or situations. I begin with how that pride was manifested through efforts

and accomplishments. In addition, as a subtopic to accomplishments, I report on single-

96
parent households with the information distinctive to them. I then focus on pride, values,

and self-esteem issues discussed by parents. Finally, I conclude with a summary of the

finding.

Table 4.4

Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in Their Children’s

Accomplishments

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative We set high standards and stay involved in our children’s education. We have
Inquiry
chosen to stay involved.

You do have to accept them (children) for whatever level of achievement their able

to put forth regardless of whether they graduate as an honor student [as long as they

graduate].

You have to be proud for whatever they have achieved and whatever they have

accomplished.

All four of our children, are very involved in extracurricular activities, and their

grades are wonderful.

I instill the values that I use in every day life in my children so they will adopt

those principles as their own. In addition, I want them to always try their very best.

One of the most satisfying [experiences of being involved in my daughter’s

education] is that my daughter and I have maintained a very close relationship. I

have chosen to be very involved in all of her school activities.

(11 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

97
Table 4.4 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspective

Appreciative I held my son back a year before kindergarten and he has excelled academically and
Inquiry
he has excelled in sports too.

My dad was laid back, but when it came to school, he insisted that we do our best

and get good grades. All of us attended school. I graduated from PSU with an

education degree, and received my masters and reading specialist.

We were able to talk [with the teacher] about his difficulties and his achievements

as a whole.

Hopefully, my children will learn to respect themselves and respect others.

We [parents] always talked about our children carry themselves with pride. So they

can be proud of who they are, what they do, and how they act.

I’m African-American and [I believe] if you care enough about yourself, you can

carry that respect wherever you go and whatever you do.

(9 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic Being involved in their (children) education every day is a challenge; you make a
Psychology
significant time commitment, regardless of your other responsibilities.

Our son purchased a house two weeks ago and we helped him fix it up. This was a

big joy for us, seeing him owning his own home and being successful in what he is

doing.

One of the most satisfying [experiences of being involved in my daughter’s

education] is that my daughter and I have maintained a very close relationship.

98
Table 4.3 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic She [daughter] has a reading disability. She had to work so very, very hard. She also
Psychology
had a herniated disc as a junior. She has a 504 plan.

Did they get a great education and were they able to go on to college? Yes! All three

of them have been educated in Coffeyville schools. They all come out with a great

education. They can do whatever they want to do.

African Americans

She’s doing great in school . . . making good grades. She has some problems, but

she is a good student and she loves playing sports.

My most peak experience was when I cried my eyes out as my son graduated from

K-State. It was his dream. We were going to send him to Pittsburg, but his dream

was to attend K-State. He did whatever it took to go – saved his money, made good

grades, and didn't play football so he could concentrate on his grades.

I have always been involved with all my seven children. You really need to get

involved with your children.

Native American and African American parents expressed pride in their

children’s accomplishments. N/A and A/A parents verbalized their children’s

accomplishments in both school and life situations. The finding verifies that years of

sustaining involvement in their children’s education is beneficial for N/A and A/A

parents in both tangible and intangible ways. Parental satisfaction was displayed over the

efforts and accomplishments achieved by their children.

99
 Pride through Effort and Accomplishments

Both N/A and A/A parents exhibited admiration for their son’s or daughter’s

accomplishments in school and extracurricular activities. Barbara, a N/A parent, who was

proud of her daughter’s efforts in compensating for her disability, stated:

My child has had a reading disability, and has fought through all of that. She has

had to work so very, very hard. She is the kid we discovered had a herniated disc

as a junior, and now is on a 504 plan.

Carrie, a N/A mother, said, “Probably one of the most satisfying things for me is we

[daughter and mother] have maintained a very close relationship simply because I have

chosen to be very involved in all of her school activities.

Michelle, an A/A mother, purported, “My son had written a paper about me

calling me his most unforgettable person and his greatest role model.” She also expressed

pride in her husband’s commitment for their children by acknowledging that he has been

a member on the site counsel, participates in activities, and attends parent-teacher

conferences:

The kids see this and know that he is taking time out of an 80-hour week job to

attend parent-teacher conferences. It makes a difference. We set the standard . . .

Our son learned to value education because of the role model his father set for

him.

An A/A couple had six kids who attended USD 445 reflected on the pride they

felt when two of their children were honor students, and others were student athletes, or

gave service to the community. Other A/A and N/A parents told of their children

100
graduating from Coffeyville schools, and the great pride they took in their achievements.

Some of their children were bankers, business personnel, or lawyers.

Single-parent families

Three respondents, Nicole, Joni, and Janelle, all A/A, were also single-family

parents and care providers. They all stated that they found time to participate in their

child’s education. “I did it all by myself!” declared Janelle. One N/A parent said, “Being

involved in your child’s educational activities, takes an extreme amount of time

commitment.” Single parent families voiced that they felt pride in watching their children

graduate (walk across that stage) from high school and college. They considered the

challenging years of child rearing and commitment to their children’s education a

worthwhile endeavor.

Instilling Pride, Values, and Self-esteem

Several N/A and A/A parents indicated that instilling pride in their children was

one way to develop their self-esteem and values. Developing self-esteem and a

foundation of values was needed to withstand the forces of the world that “could do them

harm” according to Peter an A/A parent. The A/A and N/A parents believe that instilling

pride also included teaching their children about their A/A or N/A heritage, culture, or

history.

“Learning the history of our culture is one of the most important factors in being

proud of your heritage, we’d explain to our kids,” claimed one A/A couple. Other A/A

and N/A parents agreed that showing an interest and pride in one’s culture was important.

Judy an A/A parent said, “be proud of who you are!” She believed instilling pride in her

children inspired them to do better in school. Peter, another A/A parent claimed, “Pride,

101
respect for themselves and in others, made them want to the best job they could do in any

endeavor.” Carrie, an N/A parent concurred, “one needs to be proud of whatever your

children has accomplished or achieved, regardless of the level. We really praise them.”

Some of the A/A parents who were raised by single-family parents believed they

instilled pride and self-esteem in their children’s value system. They believed that having

lived in a single-family unit; they had a knowledge base to address single-parent issues.

Nicole, an A/A parent said, “My mother was very busy, and still got her education, along

with participating in activities with us. I was very proud of her.” Judy, another A/A

parent also noted that her father was a huge inspiration to her even though he lacked an

education himself. She stated, “He always supported our education and didn’t put up with

foolishness when it came to attending school.” Others expressed similar pride in the role

model their parent or parents served.

Summary of Finding

Finding 4 reported that N/A and A/A parents expressed pride in their children’s

accomplishments. Pride in self, self-respect, and self-esteem were linked to praise, family

values, and family history. Data in this finding showed that A/A and N/A parents alike,

believed that the time and energy expended on their children both in life and educational

careers were well worth the effort. N/A and A/A parents believed that instilling values

and self-esteem is linked to being proud of one’s family heritage and culture.

Native American and African American single-parent families voiced their

difficulties involved in raising their children and allocating that time spent toward their

educational support and participation in activities. Some attributed a positive role model

102
by their single parent as a foundation to their understanding the worth of the involvement

with their child.

Finding 5 Native American and African American Parents Linked Family Values to Their

Role and Responsibility as a Parent

Native American and African American parents linked family values to their role

and responsibility as a parent. This finding supports the research questions. I organized

this chapter by reporting data identified by A/A and N/A parents that supports the

finding. Table 4.5 includes rich and descriptive A/A and N/A parent quotations. Next, I

report core values and inspiration, followed by a conversation on modeling family values

and responsibilities in a parent, and concluding with a summary of the finding.

Table 4.5

Native American and African American Parents Linked Family Values to Their Role and

Responsibility as a Parent

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative Before school begins, certain ideas [good values] have been inflicted on them.
Inquiry

When they [children] tell me about someone [invites] them over. I always ask,

who are their parents, where do they live, where does the mother work . . . are

there any brothers or sisters? [We stay involved in their lives.]

We have modeled it [values] in many different ways in our house. We use many

examples. Whether it is family, friends, or something that has come up that we

cannot afford [to purchase].

One thing that I value very highly about myself is honesty and standing behind

my word. If you tell someone you are going to do something, then you do it.

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Table 4.5 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative I am honest.
Inquiry

I hope that they will adopt those [good] principles as their own.

I use those [good] values in my everyday life. I instill them in my children and I

hope that they will use them in their everyday life.

I believe the core values start by [the parent] setting high standards and expecting

that those standard will be met. However, you have to let your child achieve to

their potential.

We have set high standards and been involved and we’ve chosen to stay involved.

(16 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

African Americans

I want to be able to look at my children smile, and hear them say Mom, thank you,

for being there.

You must make your children the number one priority even though you are tired

from working all day.

Because of the way I was reared, my values were always there. My parents were

always involved in our lives, and they always encouraged us.

I think core values involve living that example. It makes a difference in your kid’s

life, more than just talking about it.

What I value most is being able to relate to various people, and people of different

cultures, and backgrounds.

A lack of knowledge is always a disadvantage, not just the lack of having a formal

education, but rather a lack of information. Knowledge gives you some control.

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Table 4.5 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspective

Appreciative [Children would] accomplish the ability to carry on, to know that they can do
Inquiry
something.

Most of our kids’ problems are the ability to say that they can do [something great]

. . . This would be an example of core values.

Core values make us all believers in Christ. Those core values are what we use as

we venture into our school districts and communities. Those are our practicing

principles.

As parents, it is our responsibility not the school district’s to teach our kids how to

solve problems. The school district teaches problem solving, but it is our

responsibility to support problem solving. I am the greatest role model they ever

had.

The gospel afforded me the core values; [it is] the Christian character that assists

me.

Their [children] anger challenged me to direct them through our core values.

I learned much from working with my son. He motivated me.

(13 similar quotations apply to this theoretical perspective)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic My aspiration is for them [children] to be good citizens of the United States. My
Psychology
other goal is for them to be good parents, if they want to be parents.

We just push more with our examples.

My parents were not involved in my high school; yet, I wanted to get involved

When I had kids, I wanted them to experience everything or at least try it.

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Table 4.5 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic Success begins at a very early age.

Psychology
African Americans

It is the parent’s responsibility. I believe we should participate . . . have an interest

in their [children] academics.

Many of our parents are not educated.

I guess that's one of my strengths or core values. I once caught my nephew cheating

on spelling test. I took his paper and tore it up. Hey, in this classroom you are my

student! [and will learn to develop core values]

One of my core values is honesty . . . made a big difference in my child’s life. To

me, honesty in the business world, in the education field, whatever it is, is a core

value. I've always been honest with my kids.

Many minorities especially socio-economically disadvantaged minorities . . . suffer

a loss of control. When you have to depend on a system to give you control, there is

a real loss . . . your only control is your children . . . it's the parent’s responsibility

to instill values.

A lack of knowledge is always a disadvantage. Even if you don't have a formal

education, at least pursue having an understanding of whatever [your child] is going

through.

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Positive When you’re involved with your child, you can send them [a message]. If they make
Psychology
F’s – you don’t care or you can participate and say okay, forget it and let’s go on.

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Table 4.5 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Positive My aspiration is for them [my children] to be good citizens of the United States. My
Psychology
other goal is for them to be good parents.

Even before children begin [their] schooling, certain ideas have been inflicted on

them. It is one of those things – before you change the children . . . change the

parents. I do wish everyone could just get along better.

My parents believed going to college was not a big thing. Therefore . . . . I achieved.

I would advise everybody to get as involved as you can as early as what you can [in

your children’s education.

I would have to say that the main motivation for me was that my parents were not

involved in my education and I only wish they had been.

I use those [good] values in my everyday life . . . I instill those value in my children.

African Americans

Leading by example – . . . if we didn't cuss in the house, they didn’t cuss.

Always be involved in yours child’s education.

You could . . . inform others how to be more involved in their child’s education.

Anger and hostility never resolves anything . . . we are a very emotional family we

are a very loud family, we are boisterous, in fact three of my kids were in this math

teachers class and he found them all stimulating.

Just being able to know that I can teach them something . . . not giving up.

You have to get involved in the system. That way, you can make a difference.

The fact that I had to be educated was a challenge. Even though, I didn't have formal

education right out of high school, I've always been a reader.

My dad taught us that your education is something no one can take it away.

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 Native American and African American parents linked family values to their role

and responsibility as a parent. They defined family values about the parental role as being

a parent model in the parent role and accepting responsibility as a parent.

Core Values and Inspiration

Carrie a N/A parent, said, “I believe in having really high standards and expecting

that the standards will be met by my children.” Some of the N/A and A/A parents’

interpretation of core values and principles were deemed so important that they believed

they should be used and demonstrated each day to their children. Peter, an A/A parent,

spoke to those principles:

First, my children needed to trust my wife and me that it would be okay. I ask

them to be more tolerant, and to deal with the anger that is rising up inside of

them to prevent getting into trouble. It challenged me to direct them with our core

values, so that is what I did.

In discussing the trust his children developed through family values, Peter expressed:

As adults and as parents its our responsibility, not the school district’s, to teach

our children how to solve problems . . . the school district does, but it is our

responsibility as parents, and that’s something the kids and my wife have always

done is to problem-solve. I am the greatest role model they ever had.

Native American and African American parents indicated that their core values

were also shaped by the examples their children had set for them. Such was the case for

Janelle, an A/A female parent, “Learning from things having to do with my son . . .

motivate me.” A/A and N/A parents, whose children had disabilities, found inspiration

during the learning process in working with their child.

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 Modeling Family Values and Responsibility

A recurring theme related to family values appeared in the data. An A/A parent,

stated, “To me, I think core values . . . living that example, is what makes a difference in

your kids life, more than just talking about it.” Glen, an A/A parent declared, “Well, I

would think the fact that we lead by example is important . . . we don’t cuss in the house,

they don’t cuss.” Other core values expressed by parents included “honesty, hard work,

faith in God, service to others, and commitment.” Several A/A and N/A parents believe

that such values become guiding principles for accepting responsibility as a role model in

their child’s life. Peter, an A/A parent said:

God lent them [my children] to me, they are mine, they are blood of my blood,

and flesh of my flesh. It is my responsibility to nurture them. I need to give them

a foundation for life, including wings to fly away. Given this, they can participate

in life, and come back to see me sometime.

The N/A and A/A parents believed their values shaped their children’s values.

Interestingly, for these highly involved parents, not all of their parents modeled the strong

value of an education to them. Allison, a N/A parent said:

My parents were not big on going to college. School was not a big thing to them.

Therefore, anything that I achieved, I did it for myself. As far as the example of

the value of an education being instilled in me through my parents, that did not

occur. My motivation is that my parents were not involved in my education. I

wish they had been involved.

Carrie, another N/A parent whose parents did not value her education, asserted:

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 I look at this differently because of my personal beliefs and experience. My

parents were not involved, and I wanted to be involved in high school . . . so

when I had children, I just wanted them to be involved and to experience

everything.

Some of the N/A and A/A parents who lacked a role model as a child still developed

strong core values. In these cases, a lack of parental values shaped their own commitment

to values. These N/A and A/A parents who lacked a role model accepted the

responsibility and provided role models for their children.

Summary of the Finding

Native American and African American parents linked family values to their role

and responsibility as a parent. This finding reported the core values and parental role

responsibilities that N/A and A/A parents exhibited in their involvement with their

children. They defined core values as the basic values of responsibility and modeling.

Their dedication to their children’s education was obvious. Some A/A and N/A parents

stated their own children had inspired them.

Four Native American and African American parents made direct comments to

the values of honesty. Other family values such as strong work ethic, commitment, moral

compass, and belief in God were expressed by both N/A and A/A parents. Parents

possessed a strong inclination to model the value of an education. Some N/A and A/A

parents who did not have a role model felt compelled to be a model for their children.

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 Finding 6 Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher Care and

Respect for Their Child to the Child’s Success

Native American and African American parents linked teacher care and respect

for their child to the child’s success. This finding speaks to challenges as well as

motivations and strategies that connect to concepts and commentary about teacher care

and respect as it relates to a child’s educational success. N/A and A/A parent commentary

is associated primarily with the first research question on motivations described by

parent’s in sustaining their child’s education.

I organize this finding’s data by stating the finding and presenting Table 4.6

containing all relevant N/A and A/A parent comments related to theoretical perspectives

of the study. I first report teacher care and respect, and then I report instilling care,

respect, and teacher support. I conclude with a summary of the finding.

Table 4.6

Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher Care and Respect for

Their Child to the Child’s Success

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Appreciative There are some fantastic ones [teachers] and I would not hesitate for a moment to
Inquiry
have any of my children in their classes.

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Table 4.6 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

In certain areas, the teachers have done a good job. They have done an

outstanding job!

If my children have a problem and if they ever wanted to go to their teacher, that

was fine and I would support them 100% of the time.

African Americans

Appreciative Anybody can yell at the coach [the teacher] instead do something that lets your
Inquiry
child know that you respect the system and that you are working in the system.

Open communication, dignity, and respect.

I want my child to go out and respect all people in general, but I also want my kid

to be respected by the teacher.

It helps when they [children] know you are interested and involved and that you

care about what’s happening with them.

I want the teacher to help me and not harm . . . start an open communication.

Respect yourself and respect other people.

Ever so often, the administrator or the teachers notice that you are committed to

your child . . . then they begin to respect you more.

Let your child know that you support them and they have 100% your support, but

also at the same time support that teacher.

We didn't have a lot of trouble with our kids and most of the teachers know they

have our support.

A teacher who knows your child . . . sees the value in your child, especially

minority children . . . then that child will perform in school.

Teachers are human too; they are stretched out.

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Table 4.6 (continued)

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Humanistic I think the teachers will do the very best that they can. As parents, we will not all
Psychology
agree with how teachers have handled something, but they are the ones in

control in the classroom.

I am, giving her good support but the school system has not always [given her

good support] . . . most of the teachers have been incredibly good about helping

her but not all of the teachers have been.

African Americans

Anybody can yell at the coach [the teacher] instead of leting your children know

that you respect the system and that you're working in the system.

A teacher sees the value in your minority child.

Teachers overall don't understand [your child]. Some do, however, and you can

tell. I can tell you the classes that my children have been more successful in are

with teachers that took with them. I can name a teacher that did it.

I use the TLC (tender loving care) method for my kids

Does it take commitment? Yes.

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Positive It's like being a referee at a ball game . . . make the best call that you can make,
Psychology
but not everybody's going to agree with the decisions you make.

I never tried to blame a teacher for anything because I don't think it helps.

[Be] involved with your child.

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Table 4.6 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspective

Positive Open communication, dignity, and respect. You can show it at home to your kids
Psychology
every day.

I expect them [children] to be treat other people with respect, also.

I inform them to be straightforward to all their teachers.

You have not been sent there [school] to like or dislike the teacher, you’ve been sent

there [to learn].

With our new administration, I really believe the atmosphere is changing.

Theoretical Native Americans

Perspective

Empowerment I would call the school and ask the teacher to call me. The teacher never called me.
Theory
[The teacher] told them [children] to come in 30 minutes before school to work on

concepts they did not understand.

Some [teachers] were strong, set in their ways, and saw me as an intruder in their

room.

There was an incidence . . . last year in calculus . . . . I kept emailing the instructor; I

kept encouraging this child to get extra help . . . and no communication. My e-mails

went unanswered by this teacher and several other teachers as well.

There are teachers that I would not want children to have.

African Americans

There have been some instances because of race . . . and they had to be handled

delicately.

I really feel like the teachers need to know about the student’s learning styles and

their background, etc. Teachers are afraid to get that personal anymore.

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Table 4.6 (continued)

Theoretical African Americans

Perspective

Empowerment When that non-minority teacher goes back into the classroom, would he or she
Theory
expect less from that minority kid? Would he or she have an appreciation for maybe

what that child might have went through?

Native American and African American parents linked teacher care and respect

for their child to the child’s success. Some A/A parents perceived that ways their child

was being treated related to care and respect as a form of discrimination. They claimed

that their children were treated differently just because they were Black.

Lack of Teacher Care and Respect

Michelle, an A/A parent, expressed dismay for a teacher “expecting less for my

kids because they are Black.” She told her children they should never be expected to be

anything or achieve anything but the best.

A few of the A/A and N/A parents remarked, that if a teacher showed their

children respect and treated them as individuals, those teachers developed a stronger

rapport with their children. Peter an A/A parent explained, “If a teacher demonstrates true

caring for my child, then my child will put out more effort for that teacher.” Barbara, a

N/A parent said:

They (teachers) would not give my children help or they were so unorganized that

they lost half of my children’s work . . . teachers more or less called them lazy,

when they asked questions they would tell them to read the book again . . .

Sometimes I think teachers just fluff parents off.

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 Respect was a strong link for what the parent wanted to see between their child

and teacher as paraphrased from several of the A/A parents, and implied through the

messages about teachers’ relationships with their children from N/A parents. A/A parents

used the word respect frequently; however, N/A parents did not use the word respect.

Both N/A and A/A parents claimed, that in their perception, if their child’s teacher did

not care about their child, then this was viewed as the biggest hurdle or challenge to their

child’s educational success.

Instilling Care, Respect, and Teacher Support

An important element connected to the lack of respect and teacher care theme was

a crossover to parent respect and care for the child; this was illustrated in the

communication with the child, parent role responsibilities, and family values. All parents

claimed to demonstrate love and commitment to their children. Janelle, an A/A working

single-parent mother, remarked, “Just stepping in and letting them know I care and am

always there,” she believed was reinforcing for their self-esteem. Another A/A parent,

Glen, corroborated that belief. “I use the TLC (tender loving care) method for my kids; it

sure seems to cover it.” These A/A parents believe that caring builds self-respect and

self-esteem and teachers should exhibit these values when working with their children.

Glen said, “I really feel like the teachers need to know all they can about a child’s

background, learning styles, and family.”

It was frequently verbalized by N/A and A/A parents that their children had to

learn to respect themselves before they could demand it from others. These parents talked

about how they believed in self-respect and in instilling self-respect in their children.

116
 Placing responsibility on the child for doing better in school instead of the teacher

was also voiced by both A/A and N/A parents. Michelle, an A/A mother, said, “Our

children and most of the teachers knew that they (teachers and administrators) had our

support.” This belief was made clearer by Judy an A/A parent, who asserted, “You have

not been sent there to like or dislike the teacher, you’ve been sent to open your mind and

accept what the teacher has to offer in order for you to become a productive individual in

society.” Carrie, an N/A parent voiced, “If my children have a problem and if they ever

wanted to go to their teacher, that was fine and I would support them 100%; however, I

will not be the one making the phone call.”

Some A/A parents wanted teachers to be firm, caring, and respectful to their

children. Judy spoke for a number of parents. She said, “Let your child know that they

are supported 100%, but in addition, so is the teacher.” Glen, an A/A father, added, “it

isn’t that teachers don’t care, it is just that sometimes their hands are tied . . . teachers are

human too, they get stretched out, but they have their own strategies, you have to work

with them.” These comments were appreciative beliefs about teacher abilities and trust in

teacher connections for providing an appropriate education, and respecting their child.

Teacher care and respect was expressed as a futuristic view also. For example, N/A and

A/A parents expressed, “We want to bring our kids up to take care of themselves.”

Summary of Finding

Native American and African American parents linked teacher care and respect

for their child to the child’s success. Respect and care for their children were the

strongest statements that parents made about their child’s teachers. A teacher’s lack of

caring and respect also presented the largest obstacle to their educational involvement.

117
Several A/A and N/A parents portrayed the experiences of having teachers who cared

strongly about their child and teachers who did not care as much about their child.

Some A/A or N/A supported their child’s teacher despite problems with the

teacher. Those parents placed the responsibility on the child to pursue a resolution to a

teacher problem; yet, they indicated they would be in the background for support. N/A

and A/A parents espoused that their children had to learn respect before demanding it

from others. There were also appreciative beliefs about teacher abilities and trust in

teacher connections for providing an appropriate education for their children.

Chapter Summary

This chapter presented the data from my study’s six findings. The data were

collected from A/A and N/A parents who were rated as highly involved in their child’s

education. The six salient findings were: (1) Native American and African American

parents identified involvement strategies to improve their child’s education, (2) African

American parents believed there were issues related to minority relationships with the

school and community, (3) Native American and African American parents set

expectations for their children, (4) Native American and African American parents

expressed pride in their children’s accomplishments, (5) Native American and African

American parents linked family values to their role and responsibility as a parent, and (6)

Native American and African American parents linked teacher care and respect for their

child to the child’s success.

Chapter 5 discusses the interpretation of the salient findings, recommendations for

future research, contributions to the profession, and contributions to practice.

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 CHAPTER 5

The focus of this final chapter is to review the purpose of the study, research

questions, the methodology, major findings, summary of the findings, and discussion of

the findings. The major segment of this chapter will interpret the findings, and suggest

recommendations.

I organized this chapter by first reaffirming the purpose of the study, summary of

the literature review, methodology, research questions, and a summary of findings. Next,

I continue to discuss each of my findings. After reviewing my findings, I will expound on

implications for future research, implications for practice and recommendations,

relationship of the findings to relevant theory, then finally, a summary and conclusions.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of my research study was to describe minority parents’ perceptions

of how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved

in their child’s education. Participants’ perceptions were viewed through the theoretical

frameworks of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology (Seligman, 1998) and

humanistic psychology, as it includes Maslow’s theory of ‘the basic good in people’

(1943).

Summary of the Literature Review

The literature review began with a conceptual and theoretical description of the

study’s framework. The theoretical framework of humanistic and positive psychology is

grounded in the appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective. Appreciative

Inquiry is a theoretical research prescriptive that asks unconditionally positive questions,

and concentrates on positive core values within the organization or individual. It is

119
holistic in nature and directs the focus of inquiry in a positive direction. Humanistic

psychology offers a lens for examining the successful endeavors of minority parents who

sustain involvement in their child’s education. The theoretical framework of humanistic

psychology attributes to acts of self-determination, a thirst for good values,

accomplishment of productive goals, and to acquire self-respect. The more recent

addition of positive psychology theory supports the foundations of humanistic

psychology and adds positive interventions in people’s lives. It encourages people to use

healthy characteristics of optimism, hope, and aspiration instead of focusing on their

limitations in efforts to persevere through difficult circumstances. These theoretical

perspectives form the framework of my study and for examining the empirical research

of minority parents who sustain involvement in their children’s education.

A complimentary theory that emerged from my findings in addition to the

perspectives of appreciative inquiry, positive psychology, and humanistic psychology is

the theory of empowerment. The works of educational critical theorists, Giroux, Freire,

and Apple were cited as an optional framework or lens to examine challenges,

motivations, and strategies described by highly involved minority parents in their child’s

education. Empowerment becomes a process of growing the capabilities of individuals or

groups so they can comprehend their choices and transform those choices into preferred

actions or outcomes (Giroux, 2001).

The review of the empirical research focused on five areas: (1) parent perspective

of involvement in their child’s education, (2) barriers to parent participation, (3) extent of

minority involvement, (4) sustaining parent involvement: secondary school research, and

(5) the influence of parent expectations and aspirations. The literature review provided

120
information focused on the study’s purpose to describe the perceptions, motivations,

challenges, and strategies of highly involved minority parents, who have sustained

involvement in their child’s education.

Overview of Methodology

I used a qualitative multiple case study emergent design that allowed me to gain

the participants’ perspectives related to the research questions. There were two cases.

Each case had a separate unit of analysis. The two units of analysis were comprised of 11

African American parents, and 6 Native American parents.

I applied an appreciative inquiry theoretical research perspective to collect data

related to African American and Native American (parent) participants’ perceptions of

how they overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in

their child’s education.

Research Questions

The study was guided by three research questions:

1. How do highly involved minority parents describe their motivation to

be involved in their child’s education?

2. How do highly involved minority parents describe the challenges that

they have overcome in sustaining their involvement in their child’s education?

3. How do highly involved minority parents describe the strategies they

use to sustain involvement in their child’s education?

Findings

The six prominent findings derived from my study are as follows:

121
 Finding 1: Native American and African American parents identified involvement

strategies to improve their child’s education.

Finding 2: African American parents believed there were issues related to

minority relationships within the school and community.

Finding 3: Native American and African American parents set expectations for

their children.

Finding 4: Native American and African American parents expressed pride in

their children’s accomplishments.

Finding 5: Native American and African American parents linked family values

to their role and responsibility as a parent.

Finding 6: Native American and African American parents linked teacher care

and respect for their child to the child’s success.

Discussion of Findings

This section presents a detailed discussion of the major findings from my study.

Each subsection will provide the results of an individual finding, along with the rationale

and causation connected to each finding. Finally, I will discuss my interpretation of the

foundational perceptions and attitudes behind the findings, as seen though the eyes of

Native and African American parents who are highly involved in their children’s

education.

Finding 1: Native American and African American Parents Identified Involvement

Strategies to Improve Their Child’s Education

Native American (N/A) and African American (A/A) parents identified several

involvement strategies they used in attempting to improve educational situations for their

122
children. Many strategies were recognized as being useful, but those focusing on

communication were the most important and pertinent. Some communication-type

strategies were utilized for what I call relationship-building initiatives with school

personnel and the teacher. N/A and A/A parents might not have used these strategies

consciously or purposefully because they were mainly acting as advocates for their

children. They believed in listening to the child and the child’s teacher. They believed in

being proactive in responding to the teacher and being there for their child. In turn, as

parents, they believed that it is the teacher’s responsibility to respond to their requests.

The N/A and A/A participants selected for this study were some of the most

highly involved minority parents in the school district because they had sustained their

support over time through their children’s enrollment in both middle and high school.

Their dedication and persistence served them well in acquiring the skills and knowledge

of how to build relationships with their child’s teachers despite obstacles that were at

times both overt and tacit. They were quick to assess a teacher’s care and respect for their

child, but also intuitively possessed the skills to assess that teacher’s skill level. This was

important to the parent-teacher relationship by creating an honest and open relationship in

many cases. In essence, effective communication was the initial step for good

relationship building between the parent and teacher.

Participants identified 21 strategies to improve their child’s educational success,

13 of them relating to communication with or about their child’s teachers, administrator,

or counselor. I believe the significant data from Finding 1 materialized from this

emphasis. That is, communication strategies were accentuated by participants, who

frequently and dramatically described an existing or a developing teacher-child-parent

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relationship as being ineffective due to lack of communication and rapport with teachers.

In addition, however, there were examples where parents stressed to their children that

despite issues with the teacher, as students in a given class, they were ultimately

responsible for satisfactorily learning the information presented by the teacher. The

implications of the communication strategies and the networking with others that may

grow from that genesis, for the minority parent, may particularly be noteworthy because

without it no other strategies can be set in motion.

An important rationale for conducting this study was to identify minority parents’

voices and the involvement strategies they used with their children’s school community.

Such involvement was found to raise the importance of parents’ roles and the

responsibilities of their children. Research indicates that most parent involvement

strategies have been identified and derived through the school’s perceptions and policies,

not the parents’ perspective (Baker & Snoden, 1998; Epstein, 1992, 1995; Lewis, 1992).

Thus, my study was unique by probing the views of A/A and N/A parents. School

administrators, counselors, and teachers may learn much from inviting minority parents

into the conversation related to involvement strategies.

Finding 2: African American Parents Believed There Were Issues Related to Minority

Relationships Within the School and Community

Finding 2 related to A/A parents’ perceptions about their child’s treatment in

school, specifically because as it relates to their minority status. A/A parents believed

injustices existed in the form of low expectations and some inequitable matters regarding

disciplinary issues. These parents also believed prejudice existed in community

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relationships. The following discussion will first focus on community relationships and

they followed by teacher expectations.

Many A/A parents had overcome personal obstacles in their formative years. With

regard to racial issues, it appeared natural to them and within their capabilities to protest

discrimination. Thus, confronting intolerance was something they did not perceive as

beyond them. When A/A parents discussed challenges in the community related to

discrimination, their chief concern was how minorities who recently moved to

Coffeyville were going to react to the community. A couple of the A/A parents suggested

forming a minority support group for parent involvement within the school district. They

believed that minority families new to the community needed a network as a way to

access and increase social capital.

Social capital refers to a collection of resources that are basic in relationships of

trust and collaboration between people. Social capital is not merely a substitute for

supplying greater fiscal sources and greater community service to those who are

underprivileged, it establishes a vital means for increasing such resources and making

their utilization more efficient (Warren, Thompson, & Saegert, 2001). An example of this

would be pursuing communication with community institutions like churches, schools,

public health, and housing centers as means of financial or social assistance—–not just

exclusively government assisted programs. Also part of social capital networking can be

communicating with key members of agencies within a community for help. Social

networking and social capital were but two ideas parents presented on how minorities

moving to the Coffeyville area might overcome challenges related to perceived

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discrimination and intolerance. A/A parents provided few specific examples of

community discrimination but stated that prejudice existed in Coffeyville.

Discrimination within the school district was expressed in another way by A/A

parents; they believed some teachers’ held low expectations for minority children. It was

a concern not only because of how it reflected on the respect between their child and the

teacher, but also because it enlightened the parents about the personality and character of

the teacher. That is, the teachers’ expectations are a barometer of their attitudes in given

situations and, therefore, were something that needs to be carefully monitored by most

A/A parents—–following up with visits, phone calls to the teacher, and communication

with their child.

Another way to look at the issue of teacher low expectations as perceived by A/A

parents is the discrepancy that exists between the perceptions and expectations of the

educators, on the one hand, and those of the parents, on the other hand. Even if USD 445

educators believe that A/A parents should be more involved, A/A parents believe they are

responsive to the school; they participate and are involved in their child’s education. That

is, what is deemed important from school personnel’s point of view may not be congruent

with the parent’s point of view. This aligns with research that suggests that perceptions of

parental involvement have been found to vary across social classes and ethnicities.

Minority parents may have more trouble conforming to school personnel’s

expectations of parental involvement because the majority of schools in the United States

are governed by the White middle class and, therefore, inherently governed by middle-

class cultural views and values. Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (1995; 1997) with

Deslandes and Bertrand (2005) discovered three attributes that predicted parent

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involvement for minority parents: (a) role construction (how much the parent feels it is

important to be involved in their child’s schooling); (b) self-efficacy (how useful parents

feel they can be to their child’s education); and (c) how inviting the school is to the

parent or family.

I feel that most A/A parents in this study demonstrated qualities of role

construction and self-efficacy because of their assuredness and confidence that what they

are doing on behalf of their child is their responsibility, as well as, their persistence about

this responsibility. The third question of the of Deslandes and Bertrand’s (2005)

attributes concerning the school’s invitation nature still remains. That raises the issue of

continuing alienation of minority parents from many educational institutions. One

possible answer may relate to the dissonance that could be occurring between school

personnel expectations and the parents regarding what constitutes effective and sustained

parental involvement. The perception of low expectations and the belief that A/A

children are being treated unfairly may be manifested in the failure of school personnel

and parents to effectively communicate the dissimilarities in philosophies, cultures, and

backgrounds, thus causing misunderstandings based on ethnic and racial disparities.

School generated initiatives in seeking a resolution to this matter would make A/A

parents feel a greater sense of invitation.

Finding 3: Native American and African American Parents Set Expectations for Their

Children

Both N/A and A/A parents expressed the value of an education for their children.

They instilled that principle through modeling and attitude. Both groups of parents made

their aspirations and expectations clear to their children. Included in those aspirations and

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expectations were that their children would be successful in school and that the parents

would provide assistance and support. As an extension of the value of an education, N/A

and A/A parents instilled in their children aspirations to attend college or receive some

type of postsecondary schooling, advanced training, or certification. Indeed many of their

children attend and/or graduate from college. Other common aspirations for N/A and A/A

children were to be happy, good parents, set high goals, strive to do their best, and be

worthwhile productive citizens.

I believe this finding is linked to the core values and innate character of these N/A

and A/A parents rated by school personnel as effective by their involvement in their

child’s education. That is, one would expect to see a substantially higher degree of

expectations for this set of parents and their children when compared to parents with a

mediocre or low involvement in their child’s education. In addition, when describing this

group of participant parents, one detects a higher sense of responsibility and obligation

toward their children. The research begs the obvious. Are parents’ actions that show they

are more motivated, overcome challenges, and develop strategies that allow them to work

within the school system for their child’s benefit, more optimistic and demonstrate a

higher self-esteem, self-concept, or possess extra feelings of worthiness? Are these skills

God-given traits or are they learned? Either way, it is clear that the parents in this study

reflect positive psychology, showing optimism and humanistic psychology attributes that

explain some of those inner strengths, the “good” in people, and in their ability to make

good choices.

The parents in this study who demonstrated these traits represented a committed

group. It means parents in this study could possess a strong self-explanatory style, a

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process that explains how we habitually and meta-cognitively assess our successes and

failures (Seligman, 1998). Experiments with high achievers have shown that when they

fail, they do not attribute that failure to their shortcomings. Instead, they attribute it to

something in the environment or their effort, not lack of ability (1998). High achievers

who exhibit this mental disposition will more likely show resilience in wanting to learn

and will welcome more learning opportunities with a greater chance of succeeding. In

other words, they do not give up.

Highly involved N/A and A/A parents do not give up either. As illustrated in this

study, they show tenacity and perseverance for being involved and wanting to participate

in their child’s education. These values and attitudes are passed along to their children

through modeling and by establishing expectations. Not surprisingly, therefore, a meta-

analysis of parent involvement in relationship to academic achievement disclosed that

parental aspirations/expectations for their children’s educational achievement presented

the strongest relationship among all other variables (Fan & Chen, 2001). Similarly,

Jeynes (2003), who conducted a meta-analysis of 21 studies, found that the effect of

parental involvement was significant across all minority groups. Thus, parent

expectations may be invaluable in instilling the value of an education, and for producing

positive outcomes for children.

Finding 4: Native American and African American Parents Expressed Pride in Their

Children’s Accomplishments

Parental satisfaction was displayed with the efforts and accomplishments of their

children. N/A and A/A parents expressed a belief in the importance of instilling pride in

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their children and taking pride in their children’s accomplishments. I also linked pride to

self-esteem based on the parents’ emphasis on praise, pride, and family history.

It felt like a celebration when parents spoke of prideful moments. They believed

recognizing these moments were beneficial for enhancing their child’s education and

instilling values.

A vehicle for instilling those values and self-confidence arrived in the form of

praise. Parents frequently used praise as encouragement and support for their child’s

struggles. This encouraged the child to realize that their dreams and goals were

achievable and significant, and through that belief, their efforts would be rewarded.

Modeling the value of education and work ethic to their children, as well as

nurturing their self-esteem, were goals for many parents. In addition, modeling in single

parent families was particularly important. These parents took great pride in knowing

what they have accomplished in conjunction with working with their child.

Comprehending the time commitment to be participatory and functioning within those

limitations or boundaries made it challenging, but nevertheless, rewarding. Their peak

experiences and goals for their children, such as watching their son or daughter walk

across that stage at graduation, motivated them to continue being involved in their child’s

education. N/A and A/A parents voiced that a positive role model from their family life

had presented important values for them to emulate as well.

I interpreted this finding as a cyclic reward system; for example, the more the

parent expected and bestowed upon their child, the more the child accomplished. As a

result, the child’s self-esteem, self-worth, and self-efficacy grew. This was true for

130
parents as well. They acquired a secondary gain from working with their child and by

facilitating their child’s growth in their educational careers.

Finding 5: Native American and African American Parents Linked Family Values to

Their Role and Responsibility as a Parent

Finding 5 revealed N/A and A/A parental views on family core values. These

views closely transverse the perspectives of appreciative inquiry, humanistic psychology,

and positive psychology, reflecting on optimism that builds a healthy self for parents and

children. Core values expressed by parents were honesty, possessing a moral compass

such as a belief in God, a strong work ethic, and a commitment to their children. These

represented principles/values expressed by N/A and A/A parents related to this finding.

Family values are also linked to parental roles of responsibility and parental

recommendations for their children.

Native American and African American parents in this study linked family values

to their roles as parents and as their chief responsibility for being involved in their child’s

education. Instilling core and family values was encouraged and modeled by most

parents; however, this was not true for all participating N/A and A/A parents. While

many N/A and A/A parents reported that their parents had modeled the value of an

education and they had consciously instilled and modeled the same values for their

offspring, this was not valid and true for some of the parents.

I described parents who were highly involved in their children’s education

although their parents were not involved and did not value education. Humanistic

psychology claims that acts of self-determination, a quest for good values and

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accomplishment, and acquiring self-respect are all a part of evolving toward a more

meaningful existence, of becoming fully human (Maslow, 1968).

The more recent emergence of positive psychology theory (Seligman, 2002)

supports the foundations of humanistic psychology and adds positive interventions in

people’s lives. It encourages people to use healthy characteristics of optimism, hope, and

aspiration instead of focusing on their limitations in efforts to persevere through difficult

circumstances. These core values and psychological constructs are revealed through the

actions of the N/A and A/A parents who were not taught the value of an education. I

believe this occurred because of those individual’s internal motivations, values, and

mechanisms as human beings, illuminated through positive psychology and positive self-

explanatory habits.

Terminologies and expressions reported through the interviews and focus groups

linked back to parents universally wanting the best for their children, including an

education that would provide for their children’s dreams, financial security,

responsibilities as citizens, and, ultimately, happiness. This connection was developed

through a paradigm whereby parents believed in and were willful in their determination

to work on behalf of success for their children, not only in school, but in life as well.

Almost everything they used in a parent role or strategy related to family values,

responsibility, and role modeling represented a vehicle for teaching their children. These

were demonstrated overtly through modeling and communication, and latently through

values instilled in the child. This role instruction symbolized not only involvement in

their education, but also parent recommendations and expectations for life that the

parents ascertained as their child’s link to knowledge and survival in this world.

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 Finding 6: Native American and African American Parents Linked Teacher Care and

Respect for Their Child to the Child’s Success

The care and respect bestowed to their child was a key component in evaluating

the “worth” of an educator or teacher, according to N/A and A/A parents. I believe that

the perceptions of minority parents versus the school’s view of parent involvement, and

what constitutes a teacher’s skill and caring differ widely due to cultural, philosophical,

and communicative barriers. Several examples illustrated the misperceptions about the

lack of caring and respect. Middle class values permeate the school culture and create an

existing lack of cultural awareness, and communicative difficulties in responding to

school personnel, and perceived low teacher expectations for their children. Both N/A

and A/A parents spoke to these issues.

Research indicates that parents want to be involved in their children’s education;

yet, they are limited by their perceptions or understanding of teacher’s roles.

Understanding what teacher roles are, particularly in support of the academic success of a

child can be complex. It is apparent that since care and respect travel in reciprocal

directions, a more likely way for parents to empathize with teachers is for them to

increase their time together. This concept is essential to improve parent involvement but

it remains a learning opportunity waiting to happen.

Respect and care for their children were the strongest statements that parents

made about their children’s teachers. The terms respect and care were the two most

prevalent and salient characteristics used to describe how N/A and A/A parents wanted

their children to be treated at school, predominantly by the teacher. Thus, both groups of

parents perceived that teachers who displayed positive expectations and presented

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genuine affection for their children were “good” or “excellent” teachers. It sounded

obvious that even communication strategies had little chance of building a rapport if there

was lack of respect for the teacher.

Nor surprisingly, a teacher’s lack of caring and respect also presented the largest

obstacle to their child’s education and, in turn, their educational involvement. Research

shows that individual teacher decisions have more of an impact on individual students

than school-wide decisions (Marzano, 2003). Furthermore, some research indicates that

the teacher is the key ingredient affecting student learning (2003). An adversarial

relationship with one’s teacher could potentially mean dismal prospects for the academic

and maturational progress of that child.

Both N/A and A/A parents linked a teacher’s care and respect for their child to

their success in school, clearly pointing out the importance of a positive teacher-parent

relationship. The finding indicated a connection between minority parent participation

and teachers who implemented practices that facilitated involvement and reached out to

the minority parents’ children. For these teachers, reaching out meant caring enough

about their students to understand their backgrounds, families, respecting their

differences, and above all, having high expectations for all students.

I note an irony in this finding. Several of A/A or N/A parents supported and

encouraged their child’s teacher despite problems or issues with the teacher. Those

parents placed the responsibility on the child to pursue a resolution to a teacher problem.

I believe this speaks to the self-respect, dignity, and optimistic profile of the N/A and

A/A parents and the values they want to instill in their children. The possibility also

exists because of cultural and ethnic reasons. Minority parents may insist their children

134
not question or take issue with a teacher because they are conditioned not to question

authority.

Implications for Future Research

My study added to the literature on minority parent involvement as it relates to

school initiatives. Specifically, my study sought to contribute to the scholarly literature

and research on minority parental involvement by describing Native American and

African American parents’ perceptions of how they overcame challenges, sustained

involvement, and remained highly involved in their child’s education.

Prior to the current study, there was a lack of information for describing sustained

involvement for minority parents across grade levels (Caplan et al., 1997). Researchers

had not studied the involvement of minority parents or acknowledged the importance of

sustained parents’ involvement in their child’s education (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler,

1997). My study addressed those issues by identifying the motives, challenges, and

strategies for highly involved minority parents to sustain their involvement in their

child’s education. Given the importance of NCLB legislation, including adequate yearly

progress (AYP), this study may increase awareness, services, and policies to create a

more “highly involved” for minority parents.

The Appreciative Inquiry design of my study worked well for examining highly

involved N/A and A/A parents who described their challenges, motivations, and

strategies encountered through their sustained involvement in their children’s education.

Future research applying the appreciative inquiry process using an appreciative inquiry

summit with minority parents might prove immensely important for analyzing minority

involvement in other appreciative ways. Participants at an appreciative inquiry summit,

135
for example, may examine the discovery, dream, design, and destiny model that connect

the power of the positive core to changes within themselves and others. People could

learn to value each other more deeply during a multi-day participation in an appreciative

inquiry summit.

Research built on my existing theoretical perspectives related to positive

psychology and humanistic psychology would be a natural consequence, perhaps to

include populations of other ethnicities such as Hispanic or Asian. It may also be useful

in studying other cultural subgroups such as single parents or students.

Future researchers may consider studying a larger urban setting with a larger

sample size than the minority groups found in this study. Such research could examine

one segment of a parental strategy and its effectiveness or apply a qualitative design to

examine learning groups, involving school personnel and minority parents, and their

effect on increasing parent participation.

Studies could also view self-explanatory styles as predictors for minority parent

or minority student success in school. For example, researchers could pre-select minority

parent participants based on optimism scales provided in Seligman’s works (1998).

Implications for Praxis and Recommendations

Implications for changes in practice in the field based on the findings of this study

are essential because our society is becoming more heterogeneous. The school melting

pot accommodates students with different languages, race, origins, and cultures. This

continues to be problematic within a majority framework of middle-class culture, values,

and middle-class employees in our school systems. Conceptually, it becomes more

136
challenging to understand how to proceed in the same direction that exists within our

contemporary educational institutions.

A plan for school systems to be more proactive in their multi-cultural curricula

and an awareness of minority needs in the community are of paramount importance to

maximize parent involvement. A purposeful and decisive way to foster communication

between the school and parents is a prerequisite for such efforts. The educational

community must become more aware that minority parents hold the potential for teaming

with school personnel and facilitating the education of children who greatly need to

achieve at higher levels in our schools. Meaningful conversations need to take place

regarding parent participation with an opportunity for all voices to be heard and valued.

Relationship of Findings to Relevant Theory

In this study, I established a connection in several instances with the theoretical

perspectives of appreciative inquiry, humanistic psychology, and positive psychology.

Thus, elements of these perspectives are threaded within each finding, and further

highlighted through the minority parents’ articulation of their core values. These core

values provided the endurance to persist through challenges, and attain their goals of

being involved successfully in their child’s education.

The emerging theory of empowerment (of minority parents and students) as a

complementary theory is based on my findings in addition to the perspectives of

appreciative inquiry, positive psychology, and humanistic psychology. Empowerment

involves growing the capabilities of individuals and groups so they can comprehend their

choices and transform those choices into preferred actions or outcomes (Giroux, 2001).

137
 Empowered individuals are better suited to influence the decisions that affect the

course of their lives. As illustrated in this study, empowerment appears to describe

minority parents who have achieved an effective level of involvement in their

relationship with personnel in their children’s schools.

Summary and Conclusions

Based on the data collection and analysis used in my study, six salient findings

were identified: (a) Native American and African American parents identified

involvement strategies to improve their child’s education; (b) African American parents

believed there were issues related to minority relationships within the school and

community; (c) Native American and African American parents set expectations for their

children; (d) Native American and African American parents expressed pride in their

children’s accomplishments; (e) Native American and African American parents linked

family values to their roles and responsibilities as parents; and (f) Native American and

African American parents linked teacher care and respect for their child to the child’s

success.

Both N/A and A/A parents faced challenges within their communications and

involvement with school personnel; however, through their resourcefulness and

perseverance they overcame those challenges to effectively advocate for their children as

observed by their successes in school. The importance of parent involvement in a child’s

educational success has been documented by several researchers (Baker & Snoden,

1998; Becher, 1984; Chavkin & Williams, 1993; Cotton & Wiklund, 1989; Dauber &

Epstein, ; Henderson & Berla, 1994; Hickman et al., 1995; Lall et al., 2004).

138
 This study found that successful minority parental involvement in children’s

schools was vital. Minority parents wanted an equal partnership with school personnel;

however, in some cases, the involvement and/or partnerships were more of an espoused

theory than a reality. Minority parents represent a potentially powerful, yet under-

utilized, resource for the facilitation of student learning.

The goal for all school systems should be to enact methods for networking,

communicating, and funding avenues of social capital for parents, whereby minority

parents and parents of all cultures are solicited, and actively invited to engage in their

child’s education in a most dynamic, inclusive, and innovative way.

139
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APPENDICES

158
 Appendix A

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Score Directions (SPSIS)

*Directions/Guidelines for using the SPSIS:

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my research study. Your participation is

very important for collecting research data on parents of USD 445. As an administrator,

counselor, or teacher, you have been selected to rate the listed minority parents who have

children in the 11th or 12th grade in high school or recently graduated in May 2006. You

have been asked to identify minority parents as “highly involved,” “moderately

involved,” or “seldom involved” in their children’s schooling, as well as, identifying the

involved category/criteria as “very important”, “moderately important”, and “low

importance” according to the table below. By circling the numerical score in each of the

categories, you attribute a score of 1-3 on importance and involvement for each criteria (1

= seldom involved; and low importance for the importance category 2 = moderately

involved; and moderately important 3 = highly involved and very important).

As there seems to be little consensus for the meaning of parent involvement, the

definition for being ‘highly involved’ in a child’s education also has not been adequately

defined.

There are few studies in the parent involvement research that attempt to define

‘highly involved.’ The words highly involved are frequently expressed without reference

to the context or justification as to its meaning, and without any additional explanation in

terms of frequency and/or type of activities that identify parents as highly involved.

For the purpose of this study the act of parents being “highly involved” (rated 3),

“moderately involved” (rated 2) and “seldom involved” (rated 1) in his/or her child’s
159
education will be defined by this researcher through the following rubric and

corresponding Sheppard Parent School Invitational Scoring instrument (SPSIS). After

designating a score for all five criteria, you will have obtained a total score attributed to

that set of parents (or parent). Continue that procedure for each set of parents (or parent)

on your list until completed.

Please alert this researcher to any questions you may have on scoring the rubric or

if you need more information. Any identifying information used here is to remain

confidential for protection of the participants utilized in the study.

160
 Appendix B

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring Guide

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring 1 2 3

(SPSIS) Guide Low Moderately Very

Importance Important Important

Activity

The parent volunteers to work with teachers, 1 2 3

administrators, students or other parents 1, 2, 3

Examples: a) A parent may assist/work in the classroom on

a somewhat regular basis. (such as more than once a week).

b) Parents may volunteer outside the classroom such as in

Library or Art classes or on a social committee.

c. Parents may volunteer for work involving special school

functions or events throughout the year.

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents participate in athletic events and/or student 1 2 3

1
(Epstein, 1992, 1995)
2
(Nord & West, 2001)
3
(Catasambis & Garland, 1997)

161
programs and performances 4, 5 Examples: a. Parents

may attend fine arts, academic, or sporting events.

b. Parents assist in coaching or help with sponsoring clubs,

etc.

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents provide emotional support and monitoring of 1 2 3

homework 6, 7, 8

Examples: a. A parent simply monitors homework being

completed.

b. Parents actively engage in discussing homework and help

in that process.

c. Parents give encouragement and emotional support.

4
(Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997)
5
(Wandersman et al., 2002)
6
(Cotton & Wiklund, 1989)
7
(Dodd & Konal, 1999)
8
(Bempechat et al., 1999)

162
 1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents and school are engaged in effective 1 2 3

communication 9, 10

Examples: a. Teacher and parent are in regular

communication about their child’s education.

b. Communication takes on wider parameters involving the

school, district, or community about their child’s education.

c. The communication is positive, purposeful and uplifting

to parent.

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents attend meetings and learning opportunities 1 2 3

provided by the school Parents attend meetings and

9
(Davis, 2000)
10
(Epstein, 1983, 1995)

163
learning opportunities provided by the school. 11, 12

Examples: a. Parents are involved in parent-teacher learning

groups.

b. Parents are involved in other programs of partnership

with the school.

c. The parents are afforded the opportunity for decision-

making, or asserts that into the partnership.

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Total Score

Parent ID #

11
(Smrekar & Cohen-Vogel, 2001)
12
(Nord & West, 2001)

164
 Appendix C

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring Instrument

Sheppard Parent School Invitation Scoring 1 2 3

(SPSIS) Instrument Low Moderately Very

Importance Important Important

Activity

The parent volunteers to work with teachers, 1 2 3

administrators, students or other parents.

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents participate in athletic events and/or student 1 2 3

programs and performances

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

165
 Activity Score

Parents provide emotional support and monitoring of 1 2 3

homework

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents and school are engaged in effective 1 2 3

communication

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Parents attend meetings and learning opportunities 1 2 3

provided by the school

1 Parents participate in this activity

Seldom Involved 0-1 times per year

166
 2 Parents participate in the activity

Moderately Involved 2-3 times a year

3 Parents participate in the activity

Highly Involved 4 times or more per year

Activity Score

Total Score

Parent ID #

167
 Appendix D

Focus Group Questions

* The information you disclose today is confidential and reports will not be

attributed to you in any way, so that your confidentiality is assured. This was previously

explained in the consent form you signed to volunteer as a participant in this study.

Introductory question: Please describe your work background as well as your

highest educational level.

1. What have been some of the best experiences of being involved in your child’s

education?

2. Describe your chief motivations for actively sustaining involvement in your

child’s education?

3. What have been some of the challenges faced in the process of involving

yourself in your child’s education here in USD 445?

4. What has allowed you to successfully address challenges you faced while

being involved in your child’s education?

5. What types of strategies have allowed you to remain highly involved in your

child’s education?

6. What have you modeled/reflected to your child or children about the value of

education?

7. What are your aspirations for your child as a result of your sustained

involvement in his/her education?

8. Imagine having a conversation with a minority parent who has just moved into

the district, how would you describe the USD 445 schools and district?
168
 Appendix E

Interview Questions

* The information you disclose today is confidential and reports will not be

attributed to you in any way, so that your confidentiality is assured. This was previously

explained in the consent form you signed to volunteer as a participant in this study.

Introductory question: Please briefly describe your work background as well as

your highest educational level.

1. Can you describe some of the positive peak experiences and yet some of the

challenges of being involved in your child’s education?

2. How has the meaningfulness of these peak experiences shaped your own core

values and your approach to involvement in your child’s education?

3. Without being modest, what is it that you value most about yourself? How do

you cultivate these positive core values while being involved in your child’s

education?

4. Describe your chief inspirations and motivations to interact with your child in

his/her educational environment?

5. How have these motivations, inspirations, and inner dialogue contributed to the

successful involvement in your child’s education?

6. What personal challenges have you overcome in the involvement in your

child’s education?

7. Describe what strategies and skills you have learned that increase your

opportunities to be highly involved in your child’s education.

169
8. Imagine informing another minority parent how to be more highly involved

over time in their child’s education? How would you describe your experience in

the process?

9. Dream you could change matters with a magic wand, what are three wishes you

might desire for the school organization and parents to enhance parent

involvement for all involved?

170
 Appendix F

Wichita State University Institutional Review Application

APPLICATION FOR APPROVAL OF RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN

SUBJECTS

Please use a typewriter to complete this form.

Name of Principal Investigator(s):__________Raymond Calabrese, Professor,

Department of Educational Leadership, Wichita State University, Wichita,
KS 67260-0142
__________________________________________________________________
(For a student project, Principal Investigator must be a WSU faculty member;
student is listed as Co-Investigator.)
Departmental/Program
Affiliation: __Educational Leadership ____________________Campus Box:
142__Phone 978-5329

Name(s) of Co-
Investigator(s): _________David Sheppard, Researcher

Co-Investigator(s) is/are: Faculty Member X Graduate Student

Undergraduate Student

Type of Project: Class Project Capstone Project X Thesis

or Dissertation
Funded Research Unfunded Research

If student project, address of student: 2520 Shady Lane Independence, KS

67301_____________________________________________________________
___

Title of Project/Proposal: _ Understanding How Highly Involved Minority

Parents Sustain their Involvement in their Child’s Education
__________________________________________________________________
Expected Completion Date: November 17, 2006_____________Funding Agency

(if applicable):_______________________________

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 Please attach additional sheets, if necessary, with numbers of responses

corresponding to those listed below.

1. Describe the research in non-technical language:

This dissertation seeks to describe the minority parent’s perceptions of how

they overcame challenges, sustained involvement and remained highly
involved in their child’s education. The literature and research on parental
involvement lacks information about minorities and highly sustained parent
involvement in education. Identifying the motives, challenges, and strategies
for highly involved parents to sustain their involvement in their child’s
education will enhance the research on parent involvement particularly for
minorities. The research will take place in a southeastern community
Coffeyville, Kansas and USD 445 during the summer and fall of 2006. The
perceptions of minority parents will be viewed through the theoretical
frameworks of positive and humanistic psychology. The theories of positive
and humanistic psychology complement the utilization of the study’s
qualitative descriptive case study research design, and the appreciative
inquiry theoretical research perspective to describe the minority parent’s
perceptions of involvement in their child’s education.

The research will be guided by these three questions:

1. How do highly involved minority parents describe their motivation
to be involved in their child’s education?
2. How do highly involved minority parents describe the challenges
that they have overcome in sustaining their involvement in their child’s
education?
3. How do highly involved minority parents describe the strategies
they use to sustain involvement in their child’s education?

2. Describe the benefits of the research to the human subjects, if any, and of the
benefits to human or scientific knowledge:

The research goal is to provide parents and the district, USD 445, with
valuable knowledge for initiating and sustaining minority parent
involvement in their schools.

The following are the objectives and outcomes for this study:
1. The study will provide a description of minority parents’
perceptions of their motivations to be involved in their child’s
education.
2. The study will provide a description of the challenges that
minority parents overcame to be highly involved in their child’s
education.

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 3. The study will provide a description of the strategies used by
minority parents to sustain their involvement in their child’s
education.

3. Describe the subjects, how the subjects are to be selected, how many are to be
used, and indicate explicitly whether any are minors (under age 18 per Kansas
law) or otherwise members of "vulnerable" populations, including, but not limited
to, pregnant women, prisoners, psychiatric patients, etc.

No minors or members of vulnerable populations will be asked to participate

in the study.

Participating minority parents will be purposively sampled to include

minority parents who have demonstrated sustained involvement in their
child’s education through middle school and high school. In this study,
minority parents are African-American and Native American residing within
USD 445 geographical boundaries.

The exact number of participants is yet to be determined as they will be

selected through a set of protocols designed to identify highly involved
parents who have sustained their involvement. USD 445 High school and
middle school administrators, counselors, and teachers will be the source of
data for selection to the participant pool. This process will be implemented
through the utilization of the Sheppard Parent School Invitation Score
(SPSIS), a system that the administrators, counselors, and teachers will use
to obtain appropriate scores for identifying the involved parents. The
administrators, counselors, and teachers will be given a list of minority
parents who have children in high school or recently graduated in May 2006.
They will complete a questionnaire identifying minority parents as “highly
involved,” “moderately involved,” or “not involved” in their children’s
schooling, as well as, identifying the involved category/criteria as very
important, moderately important, and not important. A total score on the
questionnaire will be compiled for each minority parent. The group mean
will represent the cut-off score.

Those chosen to complete the SPSIS were selected by the following criteria:
High school administrators, counselors, and teachers who are data sources
for selection to the participant pool must have four consecutive years of
service in the high school. Middle school administrators, counselors, and
teachers who are data sources for selection to the participant pool must have
six consecutive years of service in the middle school. A consent form will be
provided for the administrators, counselors, and teachers completing the
SPSIS as well (Appendix G).

One to two focus groups will be conducted comprising of six to eight

members each from the purposively sampled selection of participants.

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 Eight to 10 interviews will be conducted with parents from the purposively
sampled selection of participants. Parents identified for participant selection
may overlap as focus group and interview participants. The exact number of
interviews will be extended as the data is collected.

4. Describe each procedure step-by-step, including the frequency, duration, and

location of each procedure.
and how they will be minimized.

Permission for data collection was approved by the USD 445 Board of
Education on May 8, 2006. (See attached letter-hard copy).

Focus groups and interviews will be arranged in advance, and at a time and
place mutually designated and convenient for the participants. The sessions
will last approximately 45 minutes to one hour in duration.

The appropriate consent forms will be provided, completed and collected

prior to any interviewing or focus group meetings. The confidentiality of
participants will be protected and participants will be allowed to withdraw at
any time.

5. Describe any risks or discomforts (physical, psychological, or social) and how

they will be minimized.

There are no known risks or discomforts anticipated for any of the

participants.

6. Describe how the subjects’ personal privacy is to be protected and confidentiality

of information guaranteed (e.g. disposition of questionnaires, interview notes,
recorded audio or videotapes, etc.).

Participation in the study is voluntary, and participants may withdraw at

any time. The information collected from the participants is assured of
confidentiality. Following the data collection and during the data analysis,
only the researcher will be able to identify a particular respondent’s identity.

7. Describe the informed consent process and attach a copy of all consent and/or
assent documents. These documents must be retained for three years beyond
completion of the study. Any waiver of written informed consent must be
justified.

A consent form will be signed by all participants to confirm their voluntary

participation; this will be completed prior to any involvement in the study.
The data obtained from the participants will be confidential and only

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 identifiable by the researcher. These consent forms will be maintained for a
minimum of three years beyond the completion of the study.

8. Attach all supporting material, including, but not limited to, questionnaire or
survey forms and letters of approval from cooperating institutions.

The Principal Investigator agrees to abide by the federal regulations for the
protection of human subjects and to retain consent forms for a minimum of
three (3) years beyond the completion of the study. If the data collection or
testing of subjects is to be performed by student assistants, the Principal
Investigator will assume full responsibility for supervising the students to
ensure that human subjects are adequately protected.

_______________________________________________________________
____________
Signature of Principal Investigator
Date

_______________________________________________________________
_______________
Signature of Co-investigator (for student project)
Date

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 Appendix G

Letter of Consent for Parent Participants

Department of Educational Leadership

Dear Parent,

I am conducting research for my graduate studies at Wichita State University. The

purpose of this study is to describe the minority parent’s perceptions of how they overcame

challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in their child’s education.

Research has found parent involvement plays an important role in student success in

school. Studies appear to ignore, however, the involvement of minority parents, nor do they

acknowledge the concept of sustained parent involvement in their child’s education (Hoover-

Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Identifying the motives, challenges, and strategies for highly

involved parents to sustain their involvement in their child’s education over an extended period

will greatly enhance the literature and research on parental involvement for minorities.

It is for this reason, you as a minority parent involved in your child’s education in the

USD 445 school district, have been identified for your input into this study. Given the importance

of parent involvement in their child’s education, the results of this study may help increase

awareness, services, and policies to create a more “highly involved” atmosphere for minority

parents. Findings of this study may be shared in scholarly journals, other publications, or

presented at state or national education conferences.

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 Your responses to the questions will not identify you in any way in the study. The

information you disclose today is confidential and reports will not be attributed to you in any

way, so that your anonymity is assured. You will be given an opportunity to review a summary of

findings, and check for accuracy of your statements with additional time given for feedback prior

to the study’s completion.

Your participation in this study is voluntary and you are under no obligation to become

involved. Should you decide not to participate; it will not affect your relations to USD 445 or

your child’s school. If you have any questions, feel free to call me at 620-331-2744. If you have

any concerns regarding your rights as a research subject, you can contact the Office of Research

Administration at Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas, 67260-0007, telephone (316) 978-

3285.

By signing one copy of this form, you are granting your permission to participate in the

focus group and/or an interview session. Please keep a copy of this form provided to you for your

records. Your signature indicates you have read the information above and voluntarily agree to

participate in the study. You retain the right to withdraw from the study at any time without

penalty or fear of reprisal. Thank you for assisting me in this important study.

Sincerely,

David D. Sheppard

I agree to write to participate in a focus group and/or interview for this research study.

Participant’s Signature _______________________________ Date ___________

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 Appendix H

Letter of Consent for Administrators, Counselors and Teachers

Department of Educational Leadership

Dear USD 445 Staff Member,

I am conducting research for my graduate studies at Wichita State University. The

purpose of this study is to describe the minority parent’s perceptions of how they

overcame challenges, sustained involvement, and remained highly involved in their

child’s education.

Research has found parent involvement plays an important role in student success

in school. Studies appear to ignore, however, the involvement of minority parents, nor do

they acknowledge the concept of sustained parent involvement in their child’s education

(Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). Identifying the motives, challenges, and strategies

for highly involved parents to sustain their involvement in their child’s education over an

extended period will greatly enhance the literature and research on parental involvement

for minorities.

You as an eligible USD 445 staff member have been chosen to help in the

selection process of minority parents for this study (explained in Appendix A of this

proposal) because of your length of service in working with the students and parents

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currently in grades 11-12. Given the importance of parent involvement in their child’s

education, the results of this study may help increase awareness, services, and policies to

create a more “highly involved” atmosphere for minority parents. Findings of this study

may be shared in scholarly journals, other publications, or presented at state or national

education conferences. Your input in the selection process and ratings on the SPSIS

questionnaire will not identify you in any way.

Your participation in this study is voluntary and you are under no obligation to

become involved. Should you decide not to participate; it will not affect your relations to

USD 445. If you have any questions, feel free to call me at 620-331-2744. If you have

any concerns regarding your rights as a research participant, you can contact the Office of

Research Administration at Wichita State University, Wichita, Kansas, 67260-0007,

telephone (316) 978-3285.

By signing one copy of this form, you are granting your permission to participate

in the selection process of minority parents through your ratings on a questionnaire

(SPSIS). Please keep a copy of this form provided to you for your records. Your

signature indicates you have read the information above and voluntarily agree to

participate in the study. You retain the right to withdraw from the study at any time

without penalty or fear of reprisal. Thank you for assisting me in this important study.

Sincerely,

David Sheppard

I agree to participate in the rating/selection of minority parents for this research

study.

Participants Signature _____________________ Date _________________

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