MEV-12

EARTH PROCESSES

SCHOOL OF INTER-DISCIPLINARY AND TRANS-DISCIPLINARY

STUDIES (SOITS)
INDIRA GANDHI NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
MAIDAN GARHI, NEW DELHI-110 068
PROGRAMME DESIGN AND EXPERT COMMITTEE
Dr. Himanshu Pathak Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor
Director, ICAR-National Rice Research SOITS, IGNOU
Institute Cuttack, Odisha
Prof. Shachi Shah
Prof. P.A. Azeez Director, SOITS, IGNOU
Director, SACON, Coimbatore
Prof. B. Rupini
Prof. I.S. Thakur SOITS, IGNOU
School of Environmental Sciences, JNU,
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar
New Delhi
School of Environment & Natural
Prof. Uma Melkania Resources, Doon University, Dehradun
Dean, College of Basic Sciences and
Dr. Vijay Kumar Baraik
Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar
SOS, IGNOU
Prof. Nidhi Rai
Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya
University College of Science, M.L.
Department of Civil and Environmental
Sukhadia University, Udaipur
Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology,
Prof. Jitendra Pandey Mesra, Ranchi
Centre of Advanced Study in Botany,
Dr. Pulak Das
BHU
School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar
Prof. R. Baskar University, Delhi
Department of Environmental Science &
Dr. Shubhangi Vaidya
Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar
SOITS, IGNOU
University of Science & Technology,
Hisar, Haryana Dr. Sadananda Sahoo
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi
SOS, IGNOU Dr. Sushmitha Baskar
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Kapoor
SOS, IGNOU Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. P.K. Biswas
STRIDE, IGNOU Dr. Deeksha Dave
SOITS, IGNOU
Prof. S.K.Yadav
SOA, IGNOU Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman
SOITS, IGNOU

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, Director, SOITS, IGNOU, Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, SOITS, IGNOU,
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Unit 1 Unit 3
Dr. Gurmeet Kaur, Dr. Gurmeet Kaur,
Department of Geology, Department of Geology,
Panjab University, Chandigarh Punjab University, Chandigarh
Unit 2 Unit 4
Prof. A. R. Chaudhri, Prof. Meenal Mishra,
Department of Geology, Geology, School of Sciences,
Kurukshetra University, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
Kurukshetra, Haryana New Delhi
COURSE COORDINATOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Transdisciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi

CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. R. Baskar, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guru
Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana

FORMAT EDITOR
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and
Transdisciplinary Studies, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Secretarial/Technical Assistance:
Ms. Sonali, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi; Mr. Vikram, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi

PRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Y. N. Sharma, Mr. Sudhir Kumar
Assistant Registrar (Publication) Section Officer (Publication)
MPDD, IGNOU MPDD, IGNOU
March, 2021
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2021
ISBN: 978-93-90773-70-1
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or any other means, without permission in writing from the Copyright holder.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may
be obtained from the University’s office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or
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Printed and published on behalf of Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
by the Registrar, MPDD, IGNOU
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COURSE INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. The curriculum
prepared for this programme is relevant and significant for your study and in the present-
day scenario. This course focusses on Earth processes. The course has four blocks,
and each block comprises of 4 units. So, there are 16 units in the entire course. The
details of each block is explained in the following paragraphs.
Block 1 deals with the origin and formation of the earth. The block discusses on the
origin of our planet, the formation of the Solar system and planetary differentiation,
formation of the Earth, and its composition and structure. Details on plate tectonics
and the formation of oceans and continents have also been discussed. The earth surface
processes for example erosional, and depositional aspects of rivers, winds, glaciers,
and coastal processes have also been detailed. Finally, the block discusses on the
various types of minerals and rocks, their classification and importance.
Block 2 deals with climatology and meteorology. The block introduces learners to the
concepts of climatology, climate controls, the Earth’s radiation balance, temperature,
global pressure and wind belts, humidity, cloud formation and precipitation, water
balance, spatial and temporal patterns of climate parameters. The weather phenomena
have been explained with suitable diagrams for easy understanding. Then the block
also gives an account on meteorology. The learner will get to know the thermal structure
of the atmosphere and its composition, atmospheric variables, radiation, greenhouse
effect, net radiation budget, atmospheric stability diagrams, thermodynamic diagrams,
and so on. The block finally explains the various aspects related to hydrometeorology
and climate.
Block 3 deals with hydrology. This section focusses on the physiography of oceans,
the origin and evolution of ocean basins. Further the block explains the shelf and
deep-sea sedimentation, the physico-chemical and biological aspects of sea water.
Then finally details on ocean currents, hydrology and hydrogeology have been explained.
Block 4 deals with natural hazards. The learner will get a thorough understanding of
hazard and disaster and its various types. Each section discusses elaborately the various
types of geological, hydrological, and man-made hazards and disasters and its impacts
on life and property. Sufficient case studies have been given both in the national as well
as international context.
Overall, this core course for M.Sc. Environmental Science will equip you well with
knowledge on the various earth processes.
 Course Contents
Introduction Pages

BLOCK 1 EARTH PROCESSES

Unit 1 Origin and Formation of the Earth 13
Unit 2 Plate Tectonics 28
Unit 3 Earth Surface Processes 44
Unit 4 Rocks And Minerals 54

BLOCK 2 CLIMATOLOGY AND METEOROLOGY

Unit 5 Elements of Climate 99
Unit 6 Weather Phenomenon 113
Unit 7 Meteorology 129
Unit 8 Hydrometeorology And Climate 152

BLOCK 3 HYDROLOGY
Unit 9 Introduction to Oceanography 201
Unit 10 Ocean Currents 218
Unit 11 Hydrology 241
Unit 12 Hydrogeology 263

BLOCK 4 NATURAL HAZARDS

Unit 13 Introduction to Natural Hazards 293
Unit 14 Geological Hazards 310
Unit 15 Hydrological Hazards 328
Unit 16 Man Made Hazards 344
 Block 1

EARTH PROCESSES
BLOCK 1: INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the M.Sc. Environmental Science programme of IGNOU. This is the first
block in the course on Earth processes. The block has four units, and the details of
each unit is explained in the following paragraphs.
Unit 1 deals with the origin and formation of the Earth. The formation of our Solar
system and planetary differentiation have been explained with suitable diagrams and
references. The unit also discusses on the composition of the core, mantle, crust,
atmosphere, and hydrosphere of the Earth. Also, the internal structure of Earth, the
thermal, magnetic, and gravitational fields of the earth are explained. The learners will
also get an understanding of the Geological time scale.
Unit 2 deals with plate tectonics. A thorough explanation on the movement of lithospheric
plates, mantle convection and plate tectonics are detailed. The major plates, plate
boundaries, and hot spots are also explained with suitable diagrams. Finally, the sea
floor spreading phenomena and the formation of continents and oceans basins have
been discussed.
Unit 3 deals with earth surface processes. Detailed explanations have been given on
erosional, transportation and depositional aspects of rivers, winds, glaciers, and the
coastal processes.
Unit 4 deals with rocks and minerals. In this unit the important mineral and rock
forming groups and their classification have been detailed. The learner will also
understand the various types of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. The
concepts of weathering and its types have been given with suitable diagrams. Finally,
the unit explains the concepts of major, trace and rare earth elements, the classification
of trace elements and the mobility of trace elements.
Overall, this block in the core course Earth processes will equip you well with knowledge
on the various earth processes.
Earth Processes

12
 Origin and Formation
UNIT 1 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE EARTH of the Earth

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Solar System Formation and Planetary Differentiation
1.3 Formation of the Earth and its Internal Structure (Core, Mantle and Crust)
1.4 Composition of Crust, Mantle and Core
1.5 Thermal Field, Magnetic Field and Gravitational Field of Earth
1.5.1 Thermal Field of Earth
1.5.2 Magnetic Field of Earth
1.5.3 Gravitational Field of Earth
1.6 Atmosphere and Hydrosphere of Earth
1.7 Geological Time Scale
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Our Universe which is almost 13.8 billion years old is an outcome of commonly accepted
Big Bang theory. The Universe broadly comprises galaxies and stars. Our Solar
system is part of the galaxy ‘Milky Way’. The Milky Way galaxy probably comprises
tens of billions of other solar systems identical to ours!!! Our Solar system comprises
Sun (the star at the centre) and its planets i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune which revolve around it. Pluto was earlier considered
the ninth planet of the solar system but has been lately in the year 2006 deprived of the
fame by the International Astronomical Union! The erstwhile ninth planet Pluto is no
longer considered a planet. The eight planets are further divided into the inner set of
planets and outer set of planets. The inner set of planets comprises the first four planets
nearer to Sun i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Our earth is one of the inner four
planets. These inner planets are also known as terrestrial planets. The four planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are designated as outer planets (Figure 1.1).
Besides these planets the solar system has dwarf planets, asteroid belt, comets and
other smaller celestial bodies.

Figure 1.1 Solar system with sun and its planets.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org) 13
Earth Processes
1.1 OBJECTIVES
Recollect your school days when you were taught about the solar system. Our Solar
System, minor part of Universe, consists of Sun and its planets. The Solar System
started forming some 4.6 billion years ago. It is important to know about the solar
system and how it came into being. It is also important to understand the formation of
the planets. In this unit we will learn about the Solar System and its components. To be
precise about earth and its attributes i.e. the structure and composition of earth, thermal,
magnetic and gravitational fields of earth, atmosphere and hydrosphere of earth. We
will also learn about the geological time scale which is scale devised to record the
activities taking place on earth since its inception, i.e. approximately 4.6 billion years!
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• explain the formation of Solar system;
• describe the concept of inner and outer planets;
• explain the formation of Earth;
• discuss the internal structure of Earth; the atmosphere and hydrosphere of Earth;
• describe the gravitational, thermal and magnetic fields of Earth; and
• Outline the concept and significance of geological time scale.

1.2. SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION AND PLANETARY

DIFFERENTIATION
The nebulae hypothesis is the most commonly accepted hypothesis to explain the
formation of our solar system. The nebulae (gaseous material) were composed
predominantly of hydrogen and helium gases besides dust sized material chemically
identical to materials found on earth. The nebula was supposedly rotating slowly under
the influence of gravity. This slow rotation of the dispersed nebulae led to its contraction
because of the influence of gravity. The contraction further led to faster rotation of the
material and finally flattening of the nebulae into a disk shape. Gravity resulted in the
accumulation of matter of the nebulae at the centre giving rise to a proto-Sun, the
predecessor of present Sun. The matter in the proto-Sun condensed, and its temperature
also rose higher to millions of degrees. This led to nuclear fusion where hydrogen
atoms combined to form helium. Partial mass of the proto-Sun converted into energy
released in the form of sunshine.
In 1755, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed nebular hypothesis
for the origin of the solar system.
The proto-Sun concentrated most of the matter from the initial homogeneous nebulae.
The subordinate, minor, leftover material from the nebulae formed solar nebula
comprising a disk of gases and dust surrounding the proto-Sun. The solar nebula
flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the inner region and less
dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion of fine dust materials into
planetesimals, i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals collided and combined to form
larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued with more collisions under the effect
14
of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets. The process of planet formation was Origin and Formation
completed approximately in a time span of 10 million years after the condensation of of the Earth
the nebula. The inner four planets are known as terrestrial planets owing to their being
like earth. The volatile materials from these planets were boiled away because of their
nearness to sun and also blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming
the cold, gaseous outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and
metals like iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky
(silica- and iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium. Pluto after losing
its glory as a planet is given the status of a dwarf planet composed of a frozen mixture
of gases, ice, and rock. The solar system has an asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter which hosts the planetesimals/asteroids. The asteroid belt has over 10,000
asteroids (size of the asteroids varies between > 10 km and dŠ 930 km). The largest
asteroid is Ceres with a diameter of 930 km. The tiny broken pieces from asteroids
strike earth and are called meteorites. Comets are aggregates of dust and ice. There
are probably many millions of comets present beyond the outer planets. At times, a
comet enters the inner solar system identified as a bright object with a tail of gases.

1.3. FORMATION OF THE EARTH AND ITS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE (CORE, MANTLE AND
CRUST)
In this section we will learn about the birth of our planet ‘Earth’. Earth is composed of
three layers i.e. Core (inner most part); Mantle (the middle layer between the core
and the crust); Crust (the outermost layer). Was earth from its inception at about 4.56
billion years, a differentiated body (comprising layers) or was homogenous. Did the
structure of earth change with passaging time? When did the oceans and water bodies
formed on the earth? How did the atmosphere on the earth formed or changed from
the initial atmosphere, which became conducive to survival of various life forms. When
did life originate on this blue planet? Are all the continents at the present time stationed
at the same location during the past 4.5 billion years time span, or have they occupied
different positions? We will try to understand the forces operational within earth which
led to the differentiation of earth’s internal structure. The internal and external geological
processes will be briefly discussed which shaped the earth from its inception to the
present state. We will try to answer the above questions.
The oldest rocks (3.7-3.8 billion years) have been found in western Greenland.
Rocks from southern Africa, western Australia, and the Great Lakes region of
North America are also dated at 3.4-3.6 billion years. The oldest dated minerals
viz. tiny zircons crystals at 4.0-4.2 billion years are found in sedimentary rocks in
western Australia.
The earth no doubt probably formed by accretion of planetesimals and other materials
from solar nebula. The earth was hot and molten at its time of inception/early stages.
The gravitational differentiation (formation of different layers of earth) started
around 4.4 billion years ago. The innermost layer is the Core, followed by the
intermediate layer Mantle and the outermost layer Crust (Figure 1.2). The three
layers are different in terms of physical and chemical properties. The Earth’s internal
structure is proposed based on seismic waves which behave differently in different
layers depending on the composition and physical nature of these layers. The two
15
Earth Processes types of seismic waves i.e. P (compression) and S (shear) waves travel at different
speeds and are also reflected and refracted from the boundaries marked between
different layers through the Earth.
Iron-nickel segregated into the innermost core part, whereas the lighter material i.e.
silicates formed in the uppermost layer of crust. The intermediate layer had both light
and heavy materials which formed the mantle. The lighter material also dissipated heat
from the interior to the surface, thus cooling the earth. This heat transferred from
interior of earth to surface is also defined as primordial heat. This source of heat along
with radiogenic heat is responsible for melting of mantle rocks and is identified as
potential cause of plutonism and volcanism on earth till date. The differentiation process
also led to formation of oceans and atmosphere. The internal and external geological
processes were also set and the face of the earth formed and to date it is changing. All
this make us believe that earth is a dynamic planet!
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. This part of earth is
under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined between
2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core. It was possible
to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The inner solid core
extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core which is molten extends
from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate layer sandwiched between
the core and the crust. This layer extends from the base of crust (which varies from the
average depth of 60-80 Km in case of continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of
oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle is an important link between the core and
crust. The heat from the interior of the earth is transferred by convection in the mantle
to shallower depths. It comprises material intermediate in density between the materials
of the core and crust. This all information has been possible through seismic wave data
retrieved from different depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer, which is the least
dense compared to the mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and
continental crust. The oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared
to continental crust which varies in thickness from 30-100 Km and is less dense
(Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Structure of the Earth.

16 (Source: https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_images.asp)
Check Your Progress 1 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Name the different layers of earth.
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2. What is the average thickness of oceanic crust.
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Briefly discuss the formation of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the components of solar system.
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1.4 COMPOSITION OF CRUST, MANTLE

AND CORE
The enormous pressures and very high temperatures inside the earth make it impossible
for us to venture inside earth even up to a few meters. The underground mining has at
the most been carried out up to 10 km in rare cases. Thus, the nature of the lower
crust, mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical data’s. The nature
of lower crust and upper mantle can be partially assessed by magmas which originate
at these depths. It is through rocks like kimberlites and lamproites and some types of
basalts (source magmas originate in mantle depths) which are enriched in xenoliths
(from lower crust and upper mantle) that we have direct access to these deeper rocks.
Otherwise to assess the physical nature (temperature, density etc) we have to rely on
the indirect geophysical methods such as seismic wave data. The seismic wave data
from different depths have been instrumental in deciphering the structure and composition
of earth to a satisfactory level. Once information on the pressure, temperature,
17
Earth Processes gravitational, magnetic fields and composition of the different layers are assessed, the
same conditions are replicated in the high pressure-temperature laboratories where
stability range of different minerals are assessed and thus we get a fair idea of what
material the deeper earth is made up of. The velocities of P and S waves vary in
different layers of earth depending on the density of the rocks which make up these
layers. The P-wave velocities are higher for denser rocks (Table 1).
Table 1.1: Seismic wave velocities through different rock types
Rock type Typical rocks of Velocity of P waves Density
Granite Upper continental crust 6 Km/sec 2.6 g/cm3
Gabbro Oceanic crust 7 Km/sec 2.9 g/cm3,
Peridotite Upper mantle 8 Km/sec 3.3 g/cm3
Since the P-wave velocities in upper continental crust matches well with granitic rocks,
we conclude the continental crust comprises average granodiorite composition (member
of granitic clan rock). The oceanic crust based on matches with P-wave velocity
shows that it comprises basaltic/gabbroic material (through ocean floor dredging we
also know that ocean floor has basalts!).
The seismic waves also helped in identification of Mohorovic¡ic´ discontinuity which
is commonly addressed as Moho, which divides the crust and mantle. At the Moho
the wave velocity is 8 Km/sec. This shows the rocks beneath i.e. mantle are denser
compared to the crustal rocks. The mantle is 2850 km thick and extends from the
base of the crust to 2890 Km. The P-wave velocity of 8 Km/sec shows that the
upper mantle rocks are composed of peridotites (Table 1). The peridotites are ultra-
mafic rocks (silica deficient and enriched in magnesium and iron).
The upper mantle comprises minerals such as olivine and pyroxene with Mg rich garnet
pyrope. The upper mantle extends up to 410 km from the Moho. Lithosphere is the
rigid, brittle layer and encompasses the upper 100 kms comprising the crust and upper
part of mantle. The base of the lithosphere is marked by a low-velocity zone (LVZ).
It is the zone where low percent partial melting takes place. This zone is identified
based on S-waves which decrease in speed owing to melts present in this zone (S-
waves cannot pass through liquids). The low-velocity zone also marks the beginning
of Asthenosphere, which is a ductile layer. The LVZ extends up to 200 to 250 km
below oceanic crust whereas it is poorly constrained beneath the stable continental
cratons. From depth 410 km to 670 km, commonly known as transition zone,
mineral phases change to high pressure polymorphs because of continuous increase in
pressure (Note: the phase change takes place in terms of structure and not composition).
The mineral phases which forms are denser with more closely packed crystal structures.
The lower mantle beyond 670 km (i.e. the transition zone) is relatively homogeneous
up to 2890 Km. At the core-mantle boundary i.e. 2890 Km, a drastic change in the
velocity of P waves is encountered i.e. a drop from 13 Km/sec to 8 Km/sec. The S-
waves do not pass through the area beneath this boundary indicating it to be of liquid
nature. Seismic wave data indicates that the outer core is liquid in contrast to the
metallic solid inner core. The core of the earth is made up of iron and nickel making the
inner core the densest part of the earth. The other two elements speculated to be the
parts of core are oxygen and sulphur.

18
 Origin and Formation
1.5 THERMAL FIELD, MAGNETIC FIELD AND of the Earth
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF EARTH
1.5.1. Thermal Field of Earth
The earth has an internal heat engine which is evident through volcanism at places on
earth such as mid-oceanic ridges, along ring of fire etc, to name a few. Also at many
places hot springs and geysers are as well surface manifestations of earth’s internal
heat. The two principal sources of heat responsible for earth’s internal heat engine are:
Primordial heat and heat generated through decay of radioactive elements such as U,
Th, K etc. The most important source is the primordial heat, which is the heat given
out since the inception and differentiation of earth. The other important source of
internal heat is the heat given out by radioactive elements concentrated in the earth
(especially in the crust). Convection is the most important process by which heat from
the deep earth is convected to shallower depths. The heat transfer in lithosphere is by
a process called conduction. It has been possible to measure temperatures at depths
up to 10 km (inside mines and boreholes). The geothermal gradient is measurement of
change in temperature/increase of temperature with depth inside earth. The geothermal
gradient varies from place to place inside earth. The average geothermal gradient is
25-30oC / km in the crust. The geothermal gradients at depth have been inferred
through measurements made on lavas and rocks which solidified from these lavas. The
figure 1.3 fairly indicates geothermal gradient inside earth. The geothermal gradient is
very steep near Earth’s surface. If we try to extrapolate the temperatures inside earth
based on the geothermal gradient, it will lead to very high temperatures i.e. tens of
thousands of degrees in the core which is actually not the case (Figure 1.3). The
geothermal gradient can be as low as 10oC/Km in subduction environments where
cold oceanic crust is subducted. The geothermal gradients can be as high as 80o-
100oC / km at mid ocean ridges where lavas are erupted continuously.

Figure 1.3: The geothermal gradient inside earth.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)
19
Earth Processes 1.5.2. Magnetic Field of Earth
We learnt in the preceding section about the structure and composition of different
layers of the Earth. The outer core is the molten layer of earth which comprises iron
and nickel. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The
convective currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic field
which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to earth’s
atmosphere and also far into outer space. Around 400 years back it was believed that
the Earth had a bar magnet at its centre inclined about 11° from this rotational axis
responsible for the earth’s magnetism. This contention was put to rest since earth’s
core has very high temperature and it has been proved through experiments that a
permanent magnet will get destroyed at temperatures beyond 500oC. Thus the earth’s
magnetism is being continuously produced and maintained by the electric field generated
due to the convecting outer liquid core. Earth’s magnetic field keeps changing and the
same has been observed in the past (many magnetic reversals have been recorded in
the ocean floor in the geologic past; Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Schematic illustration of the invisible magnetic field lines generated by the
Earth, represented as a dipole magnet field.
(Source: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/gallery/060410.html).

1.5.3. Gravitational Field of Earth

The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with mass)
and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The gravity of Sun is
responsible for keeping the planets of our Solar system in orbit.
The gravity of earth is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible
for our atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth! Earth’s gravity
is responsible for our existence on this blue planet! Let us also remind ourselves that it
is not simple to define the gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on many
factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For example an
area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface compared to
an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate
Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the variation in earth’s
gravity.
Gravity is a natural force in which things with mass are brought towards each other.
20 The more the mass an object possesses, the more the gravity it exerts on the surrounding
objects. The reason everything is pulled towards the earth is the mass of the earth Origin and Formation
compared to the objects on it. Gravity was a major force in the evolution of the early of the Earth
Universe and its components. It was responsible for the formation of first stars, galaxies,
planets, etc. It was the reason earth formed and differentiated into three layers viz:
Crust, Mantle and Core.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Give compositions of different layers of earth.
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2. What is a Geodynamo?
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Discuss the gravitational field of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the geothermal gradient of earth.
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1.6 ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE OF EARTH

The total water present on, above and under earth comprises the hydrosphere, whereas
the atmosphere is defined as the outer gaseous layer of the earth held intact by gravity.
21
Earth Processes The atmosphere and hydrosphere are an integral part of earth and evolved with time
since the birth of earth, i.e. around 4.56 billion years ago. The earth aggregated from
smaller bodies like planetesimals which contained volatile components such as H2O,
carbon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Some minerals making up rocks had volatiles
locked up in them. These volatiles got released during various geological processes
which segregated earth into different layers. The volatiles were continuously released
through volcanic activity/volcanism on earth’s surface, which started since the inception
of earth. The present volcanoes at the various plate margins emanate volatiles such as
water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen. The water and other
volatiles on earth would have also been added through extra terrestrial bodies that
kept hitting the earth when it formed. The initial earth’s atmosphere and oceans were
impacted more by voluminous bombardment of extraterrestrial bodies with the early
hot earth thus contributing to the various volatiles.
Earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of Earth’s gravity. The Earth’s atmosphere is
divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest layer from earth’s surface);
2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the stratosphere and 5. the troposphere
(nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The
two major components of the Earth’s atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and
Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~
0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases (neon, helium, methane, krypton and
hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash,
etc. The Earth’s atmosphere is a protective layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet
rays emitted from the Sun. The earth’s atmosphere merges with outer space at an
imaginary line known as Karman line at approximately 100 kms from the earth’s
surface. The troposphere, closest layer to the Earth’s surface is 7 to 20 km thick
and contains half of Earth’s atmosphere. It contains almost all the water vapor and
dust in the atmosphere. The clouds are formed in this layer. The stratosphere starts
from where troposphere ends and is about 50 km above earth’s surface. This layer
with abundant ozone absorbs harmful radiation from the sun. The jet aircraft and
weather balloons fly in this layer. The mesosphere begins at 50 km and extends up
to 85 km. This layer is not well studied and according to scientists, meteors burn up
in this layer. The thermosphere starts from about 85-90 km to between 500-
1,000 km. The space shuttles fly in this zone and the International Space
Station orbits Earth in this layer. The exosphere, the farthest layer from the earth’s
surface, is very thin with hydrogen and helium and it merges into outer space.

1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The geological time scale has been devised to understand the geological evolution of
earth regarding time. The International Geological Time Scale is prepared and
regularly updated by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) under
the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The
International Geological Time Scale starts at 4.56 billion years when the earth formed
to the present time. It records the evolution of earth vis-à-vis geological events, life
(which includes all life forms from cyanobacteria, unicellular organisms to the present-
day humans), hydrosphere and atmosphere. The most important basis of formulation
of this scale is rocks, fossil record and stratigraphic units. The International Geological
Time Scale has been divided into Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs. The broadest
division of the Geological time scale is into four Eons viz: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic
22
and Phanerozoic (Figure 1.5).
Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic are together referred to as Precambrian i.e. time Origin and Formation
before the Cambrian which is the oldest Period of Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian of the Earth
encompasses the major part of the Geological time scale almost 4000 Ma. Hadean
eon is the earliest Eon which started at ~4.6 Ga and ended at about 3.9 Ga ago. This
was the time when earth was forming by cooling and records of felsic crust during
Hadean can be ascertained based on zircon dates at 4.4 billion years. Archean eon
began at 3.9 Ga and continued up to 2.5 Ga ago. Archean is further divided into Eo-
archean, Paleo-archean, Meso-archean and Neo-archean eras. During Archean the
continents came into existence and plate tectonic was an important geological
phenomenon. First signs of life in the form of fossils of uni-celled microorganisms have
been reported from Archean Era. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until
0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic,
Meso-proterozoic and Neo-proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional
plate tectonics and well developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen
in Earth’s atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago
and is continuing to the present. The Phaanerozoic Eon has been further divided into
three Eras viz: i. the oldest Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is
further divided into six Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485-
444 Ma), Silurian (444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-
299 Ma) and Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three
Periods namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-
66 Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon. The Stage
Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary Period of the
International Chronostartigraphic Scale, which started at 0.0042 Ma. So we are living
in the Meghalayan age!
The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian and
Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts. The
major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass extinctions
which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic
boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-T boundary. The second
significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary i.e.
Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life forms thriving in the Cretaceous
period perished.

Figure 1.5: The International Geological Time Scale.

(Source: http://www.stratigraphy.org) 23
Earth Processes Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Name the components of atmosphere.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Why is hydrosphere important?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Discuss the Proterozoic.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4. Which major extinctions took place at different geological times?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.8 LET US SUM UP

The Unit on Origin and Formation of Earth deals with various aspects of earth since its
inception from the gaseous state to its present form. Earth is the only habitable planet
of Solar system. It is a planet which was born almost 4.6 billion years ago. The initial
structure and composition differed from its present form and composition. The earth
has been broadly divided into three prominent layers viz. Core, Mantle and Crust. The
Crust which is the most explored layer of earth is divided into: Continental and Oceanic
crust. The Continental crust differs from oceanic crust in terms of its thickness,
composition, and nature. The earth’s oceanic crust is capped by water. The hydrosphere
of earth comprises the total of water present on, above and under earth’s surface.
Earth has its atmosphere which developed over the last 4600 billion years. Earth has
a unique thermal, magnetic and gravitational field, put together these made earth a
viable and unique planet for the sustenance of life! The geologists have recorded the
events of evolution of rocks and life on earth devised in the form a Geological Time
24 Scale which encompasses the journey of earth from its inception to the present time.
 Origin and Formation
1.9 KEYWORDS of the Earth

Eons : Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and

are hundreds of millions of years in duration.
Eras : Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known
as eras. For example Cenozoic, Mesozoic and
Paleozoic eras of Phanerozoic Eon.

1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H. (2014). Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
company, New York. 672p.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-61708-4.
Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). “Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth’s internal
magnetic field”. Nature. 468 (7326). 952–
94. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Herndon, J.M. (2005). ”Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth’s
composition” (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–37.
Herndon, J.M. (1980). “The chemical composition of the interior shells of the
Earth”. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149-54. Bibcode:1980RSPSA.372.149H.
Montagner, Jean-Paul (2011). “Earth’s structure, global”. In Gupta, Harsh
(ed.). Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 134–154. ISBN 9789048187010. https://www.nasa.gov/ https://www.usgs.gov/

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Short question-answer
1. Crust, mantle and core
2. 5-10 Km
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The solar nebula flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the
inner region and less dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion
of fine dust materials into planetesimals i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals
collided and combined to form larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued
with more collisions under the effect of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets.
The process of planet formation was completed approximately in a time span of
10 million years after the condensation of the nebula. The inner four planets are
known as terrestrial planets owing to their being like earth. The volatile materials
from these planets were boiled away because of their nearness to sun and also
blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming the cold, gaseous 25
Earth Processes outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and metals like
iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky (silica- and
iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium.
4. Briefly discuss the three layers of earth.
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. It is the part of
earth is under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined
between 2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core.
It was possible to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The
inner solid core extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core
which is molten extends from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate
layer sandwiched between the core and the crust. This layer extends from the
base of crust (which varies from the average depth of 60-80 Km in case of
continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle
is an important link between the core and crust. The heat from the interior of the
earth is transferred by convection in the mantle to shallower depths. It comprises
material intermediate in density between the materials of the core and crust. This
all information has been possible through seismic wave data retrieved from different
depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer which is the least dense compared to the
mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and continental crust. The
oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared to continental crust
which varies in thickness from 30 to 100 Km and is less dense.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Short question-answer
1. The nature of the mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical
data’s.
2. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The convective
currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces an
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic
field which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to
earth’s atmosphere and also far into outer space.
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with
mass) and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The
gravity of Sun keeps the planets of our Solar system in orbit. The gravity of earth
is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our
atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth. Earth’s gravity is
responsible for our existence on this blue planet. Let us also remind ourselves that
it is not as simple to define gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on
many factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For
example an area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface
compared to an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery
And Climate Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the
variation in earth’s gravity.

26
Answers to Check Your Progress 3 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
Short question-answer
1. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest
layer from earth’s surface); 2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the
stratosphere and 5. the troposphere (nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It
comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The two major components of the Earth’s
atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts
of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~ 0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases
(neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid
particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash, etc.
2. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until 0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic
Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic, Meso-proterozoic and Neo-
proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional plate tectonics and well
developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen in Earth’s
atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago and is
continuing to the present.
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The Phanerozoic Eon has been further divided into three Eras viz: i. the oldest
Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is further divided into six
Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485- 444 Ma), Silurian
(444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-299 Ma) and
Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three Periods
namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-66
Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon (Figure
1.7). The Stage Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary
Period of the International Chronostartigraphic Scale which started at 0.0042
Ma. So we are living in the Meghalayan age!
4. The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian
and Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts.
The major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass
extinctions which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the
Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-
T boundary. The second significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-
Cenozoic boundary i.e. Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life
forms thriving in the Cretaceous period perished.

27
Earth Processes
UNIT 2 PLATE TECTONICS
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Formation of Continents and Ocean Basins
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Continents
2.2.3 Oceans

2.3 Sea Floor Spreading

2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Evidences and Mechanism

2.4 Plate Tectonics

2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Major Plates
2.4.3 Movement of Lithospheric Plates
2.4.4 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics
2.4.5 Plate Boundaries and Hot Spots

2.5 Let Us Sum Up

2.6 Keywords
2.7 References and Suggested Further Readings
2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress

2.0 INTRODUCTION
The surface of earth that we see today is divided into regions submerged under water
and elevated above the mean sea level. We call these vast tracts of earth as oceans
and continents. A curious intellect is eager to know about their origin, antiquity,
permanence and evolution. Historians, geographers, philosophers, and geologists have
divided the earth into differently named units. The ideas about origin of earth and its
supposed early history and evolution are still evolving as new information received
from experimental petrology, geochronology, geochemistry, and space probes pour
in. The mechanism through which the earth’s surface evolves is being closely monitored.
The theory of continental drift advocated by Alfred Wegner suggested that the surface
of earth is dynamic. Sea floor spreading theory gave an evidence of the mechanism
which causes the surface of the earth to move. The more expressive surface
phenomenon like earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes are best understood by learning
the present-day theory of plate tectonics. The quest for comprehending the forces
governing the distributions of continents, oceans, mountains, plateaus, earth resources,
volcanoes, earthquakes, river shifting, natural hazards are best understood by analyzing
the processes of plate tectonics.
28
 Plate Tectonics
2.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Describe the mechanism of formation of continents and oceans;
• Explain the theory of sea floor spreading;
• Enumerate the major plates;
• Explain the different types of plate boundaries;
• Describe mantle convection in relation to plate tectonics; and
• Explain hotspots.

2.2 FORMATION OF CONTINENTS AND OCEANS

BASINS
2.2.1 Introduction
The appearance of our race on this planet is a very recent phenomenon in the 4.5
billion years old history of earth. We are eager like kindergarten students to understand
the processes which shaped our present-day landscape as also the permanence of
these geographic entities which we term as continents and oceans. As a layman, we all
understand that the portions of earth that are above sea water level are termed as
continents and those which are submerged under sea water are termed as sea or
oceans. In this unit we will try to understand the geological characteristics and the
endogenetic processes of earth that created these two ever evolving dynamic landforms.

2.2.2 Continents
Majority of us believe that continents comprise a fundamental, permanent and rather
characteristic feature of Earth. Satellite images of earth vividly depict it as a blue planet.
The pictures tell us that majority of the earth’s surface is covered with water and a few
patches of land pop up. Approximately 71% of the earth surface is covered with
water and the remaining 29% is land. Thus, continents are scattered masses on a
planet, that is largely covered by water. Interestingly, these isolated masses, which
comprise a small fraction of the total earth, are the places which support terrestrial life,
including the human population.
Our general understanding is that continents are the large, discreet, and rather continuous
masses of land jetting above the sea water. In geology, continents include the submerged
continental shelf as also the islands on the shelf which have a similar crustal makeup. If
we view continents as a cultural identity, then perhaps the nearby islands, which do not
share the same geological features are also grouped together, like Greenland with
Europe or Madagascar with Africa. There are three broad continental grouping models,
the four-continent model, six continent model and the seven continent model. The
modern day seven continent model recognises North America, South America, Europe,
Africa, Asia, Australia and Antarctica as the seven distinct continents.
The questions that have always generated curiosity and discussion amongst scientists
and public for a long time are ‘Have the continents been there since the earth originated,
are these the result of some chance factor or natural luck which favoured human
evolution? Which forces sculptured the crust with its immense variations? Do the 29
Earth Processes other planets in our solar system also have a similar distribution of land and sea, as also
similar crustal structure? Our present day understanding of the earth processes and
knowledge gathered through satellites and space probes reveals that perhaps our
planet is unique.
To comprehend the earth history, planetary scientists focussed on planets similar to
earth in terms of size and their distance from sun. In this context, they narrowed down
on Earth and Venus, which have approximately the same size and distance from the
sun and could be termed as twin planets. The radar beams of the Magellan space
probe orbiting Venus gave stunning pictures of its surface in the 1990’s. These revealed
that the surface of Venus is covered with dark fine-grained rocks of basaltic composition,
like the ones that cover the ocean basins on earth. The light coloured continental
granitic crust was rarely observed. Miniscule amount of lava is erupting on Venus.
These suggest that plate tectonics (crust recycling) does not operate on Venus. This
and data from other planetary and extraterrestrial material suggest that there are three
fundamental types of crust, the primary crust, the secondary crust and the tertiary
crust. The primary crust emerged during the earliest phases in planetary formation
when huge fragments of primordial material crashed into a newly formed planet triggering
large scale melting. Secondary crusts form from basaltic lavas which generate due to
mantle melting caused by heat generated from the decay of radioactive elements within
a planetary body. The surfaces of Mars, Venus and Earth’s ocean floors are covered
by secondary crusts created in this way. The tertiary crust form when surface layers
are returned into the mantle of a geologically active planet like Earth. The process of
crust formation is quite slow and proceeds at different rates. Moon generated its white
feldspar rich primary crust (9 % of lunar volume) in a few million years while its
secondary basalt maria crust (1 % of lunar volume) formed in billions of years. Similarly,
the secondary crust of basaltic ocean floors of earth (one tenth of 1 % of earth mass)
was created in about 200 million years. The tertiary crust, of which the continents
(one half of one per cent mass of earth) are made up of, take several billion years to
form.
The comprehension of the overall elemental composition of crust is a necessary starting
point for any investigation about its origin and evolution. Since analysing crustal rock
types at all locations and depths is too time consuming and financially prohibitive, the
eroded material of these rocks, in terms of sediments, gives a good approximation of
the average composition of continental crustal rocks. The soluble minerals, namely
sodium and calcium, are leached away but the fourteen rare earth elements, which are
concentrated in late forming granitic products, are useful in deciphering the crustal
composition. The investigations reveal that the REE patterns found in a variety of
sediments are similar. The REE pattern reveal that the composition of the upper part
of the continental crust is similar to that of granodiorite (low density quartz and feldspar
with miniscule dark colored mafic minerals). At a depth of about 10-14 km dense
basaltic rocks are more probable.
The low density of continental rocks is the primary reason for their elevation above the
sea level. The continents, which dominantly comprise the continental crust, on an average
rise about 125 meters above mean sea level. Further, approximately 15 percent of the
continental area rises over two kilometers the sea level. The highest point of continental
crust, the Mt. Everest, rises 8,848 m. These significant heights contrast markedly with
the depths of ocean floors, which average about four kilometers below sea level—a
direct consequence of their being lined by dense oceanic crust, composed mostly of
30 basalt and a thin veneer of sediment.
The formation of continental crust has been a continuous process throughout the Earth Plate Tectonics
history. At the Archean and Proterozoic boundary, around 2.5 billion years ago, a
distinct change in the rock record occurs. The composition of the upper crust before
this break comprises a mixture of basalt and sodium-rich granites. These rocks comprise
the tonalite-trondjemite-granodiorite, or TTG, suite. This composition strikingly differs
from the present-day upper crust, which is dominated by K rich granites.
This profound change in crustal composition appears to be linked to changes in the
Earth’s tectonic regime. Probably, before 2.5 billion years, higher levels of radioactive
decay produced more heat in the oceanic crust and it was hotter, thicker and more
buoyant and could not subduct. As a result, denser crust melted and resulted in the
production of the sodium-rich igneous rocks of the TTG suite. Plate tectonics, as we
comprehend today, began operating after the late Archean, when the oceanic crust
became cooler, lost its buoyancy and could thus sink back into the mantle. From this
time, the relative height of ocean basins and continental platforms has remained relatively
static. At the beginning of the Proterozoic eon about 2.5 billion years ago, the crust
had already gained much of its present setup.
At a convergent boundary, the oceanic lithosphere sinks back into the mantle. The
descending oceanic lithosphere carries with it wet marine sediments. At a depth of
about 80 kilometers along the benioff zone, the heat drives water, and other volatile
components from the subducted sediments into the overlying mantle. These substances
then act as a flux and start melting of the surrounding material. The magma fractionates
(change in composition), to produce andesite, the bulk material of continents. The
magma generated eventually reaches the surface in the form of arc volcanism. This
process, on an average, adds about two cubic km. of lava and ash to the continents
every year.
The process of addition of continental crust has been continuous, but some spurts in
this activity have been recorded. Significant additions to the continental crust occurred
between 2.0 to 1.7, from 1.3 to 1.1 and from 0.5 to 0.3 billion years ago. The reasons
for this are better understood in the plate tectonic theory. During the Permian period
(250 million years ago), the major continents of Earth came together to create one
enormous landmass called Pangaea. This arrangement was not unique. In the earth’s
history, the formation of such “supercontinents” appears to recur at an interval of
about 600 million years. Major tectonic cycles driving the continents apart and together
have been documented as far back as the Early Proterozoic. It is believed that the first
supercontinent might have formed during the Archean itself. These tectonic cycles
help us to model the rate of crustal growth. When a supercontinent breaks itself apart,
the oceanic crust is at its oldest and hence most likely to form new continental crust
after it subducts. As the individual continents re-converge, volcanic arcs collide with
continental platforms and new crust is added to the margins of the continents. Taylor
and McLennan (2005) suggest that our planet has been fortuitous to maintain the plate
tectonic activity which helped in generation of `sizable patches of stable continental
crust that we find so convenient to live on’.

2.2.3 Oceans
Earth is a blue planet. In fact, it is the only known planet with seas of liquid water on its
surface. The total amount of water on earth has been estimated to be around 1,335
million cubic kilometres. Out of this water, oceans contain about 97.2 percent, ice
31
Earth Processes caps keep 2.15 percent while 0.65 percent is the available fresh water. Oceans and
seas cover over 70 percent of the earth surface.
There are two aspects of origin of oceans, first the origin of ocean floor and second
the origin of ocean water. The oceanic crust is dominantly different from the continental
crust.
The process of formation of ocean floors occurs at mid-ocean ridges. Throughout the
center of major oceans, runs an interconnected ridge system which has been termed
as the mid-oceanic ridge. A crack like valley runs along the crest of this ridge system.
Seismic investigations along the ridge axis suggest that the two sides of the ridge are
moving away from each other. As the crack widens, hot molten rock material from
below pours out and solidifies in the crack. This molten rock material is dominantly
basaltic in composition and contains iron bearing magnetic minerals like magnetite.
These minerals orient themselves along the prevailing magnetic field of the earth. Thus,
the new oceanic lithosphere is magnetised in the direction of the ambient magnetic field
of earth. We know that the magnetic field of earth has been changing throughout its
4.5 billion years of history. For the past 700,000 years, the North magnetic pole has
been close to its present position. As fracturing and consequent filling up of the crack
continues, a strip of magnetised rock is produced. During earth history as and when
the magnetic poles change their location or flip, the lava is magnetised in the changed
direction and a strip of reversed magnetization is preserved between the two split
halves of the earlier strip. The magnetic poles may change after 50,000 years, a
million years or might not change even for 20 million years, as happened during the
Permian period. Along the oceanic ridges, we find younger rocks near to the spreading
zone while the older ones are found farther away from the ridge axis.
The speed of spreading on either side of the MOR (mid-oceanic ridge) varies from
less than a cm. per year to about 8 cm. per year. The East Pacific Rise records the
fastest spreading rate while the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Carlsberg Ridge of the
Indian Ocean are the slowest. The rate of production of new ocean floor at a ridge
axis is the sum of rates of spreading on its two flanks. Thus 8 cm. per year would
translate into 16 cm per year spreading and this rate the entire floor of Pacific Ocean
(15,000 km) could be produced in about 100 million annum. The rates of sea floor
spreading or ocean floor generation can be obtained from the magnetic patterns and
the dates of the reversals.
At convergent plate boundaries, the oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the continental
plate. Such regions mark the zones of consumption of the oceanic crust. This destruction
of oceanic lithosphere explains the absence of sediments over 150 million years old on
the ocean floor. The general phrase used in this context is ‘The tea (ocean water) in
the cup (ocean) is older than the cup itself’. This can be explained because the older
sediments accumulated on the ocean floor have been carried away with the plates and
are chaotically piled up at the edge of a continent or are carried down along with the
subducting oceanic plate and consumed in the manle.
The second aspect of the formation of oceans relates to the origin of ocean water. The
origin of the oceans has to be traced since the time of the earth’s formation 4. 5 billion
years ago, when the process of earth accretion through planetesimals started. There
could be three likely sources for the water. It could have either separated out from the
rocks that make up the bulk of the earth; or it could have arrived as part of a late-
32 accreting veneer of water- rich meteorites, similar to the carbonaceous chondrites that
we observe today; or it could have been added as part of a late-accreting veneer of Plate Tectonics
icy planetesimals or comets. The composition of the ocean offers some clues as to its
origin. Space scientists have studied the isotopic composition of frozen water in Comets
Halley and Hyakutake. They suggest that if all the comets contain the same water ice,
then comets cannot have delivered all the water in the earth’s oceans as the isotopic
composition of both is different. Further, the meteorites could not be considered as
the source of the entire water on land, as it would have resulted in a high concentration
of xenon in earth atmosphere, a parameter, which is not observed in earth atmosphere.
The possibility of the earth water being a mixture of meteoritic water and comet derived
water does not hold true since this combination would contain a higher concentration
of deuterium than is found in the oceans.
The search for a source of water in oceans is an active area of research. They require
more studies about comets and other planets. Current state of knowledge suggests
that the most acceptable hypothesis for the source of the ocean water is a combination
of water derived from comets and water that was caught up in the rocky body of the
earth as it formed. This mixture satisfactorily explains the low xenon concentration and
the deuterium concentration.

2.3 SEA FLOOR SPREADING

2.3.1 Introduction
Alfred Wegner in 1912 proposed the theory of Continental Drift based on the zig-saw
fit of continents and many other evidences. He said that the continents were constantly
moving, and these ploughed through the oceans, a theory that was taken with scepticism
in his own country. The principal reason for doubt was the absence of a plausible
mechanism through which the phenomenon occurred. Harry Hess, a geologist and
naval submarine commander during World War II, was examining the deepest parts of
the ocean floor. In 1946, he observed that the floor of the Pacific ocean was dotted
with hundreds of flat-topped mountains. In 1962, Hess proposed the hypothesis of
sea-floor spreading, which stated that basaltic magma from the mantle rises to create
new ocean floor at mid-ocean ridges.
Definition: Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at sub-marine spreading mid-
oceanic ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity. The
newly created oceanic crust gradually moves away on either side of the ridge axis as
the process continues and fresh oceanic crust is added.

2.3.2 Evidences and Mechanism

Seafloor spreading occurs at the mid-oceanic ridges, which, topographically, are long
mountain ranges extending through the middle of every ocean floor. A ridge forms
along a crack in the oceanic crust. At a mid-ocean ridge, because of extension of the
crust, the oceanic crust thins out and develops cracks and fractures through which
molten material rises from the mantle and erupts. This molten rock material then spreads
out, pushing older rock to both sides of the ridge. This process, called seafloor
spreading, continually adds fresh material to the ocean floor.
Using submarines during world war created an interest in exploring the ocean floor.
Scientists started using magnetometers to measure the magnetism of the ocean floor in
the 1950s. The pattern of magnetism in basaltic rocks observed on both sides of the 33
Earth Processes mid-oceanic ridges helped them identify the process of seafloor spreading. Basalt is a
basic magmatic rock which contains magnetite, besides other ferro-magnesian minerals.
Basaltic lava pours out of the mid-oceanic ridge and solidifies to turn into basalt. The
magnetic minerals present in basaltic lava orient themselves along the ambient magnetic
field direction of the earth (thermal remnant magnetism) prevailing. The scientists found
that the magnetism of the ocean floor around mid-ocean ridges was divided into matching
“stripes” on either side of the ridge. As larger tracts of the seafloor were mapped, the
magnetic variations turned out not to be random or isolated occurrences, but revealed
significant recognizable patterns. When these magnetic patterns were plotted, the ocean
floor showed a zebra-like pattern with one stripe with normal polarity (normal magnetic
field) and the adjoining stripe with reversed polarity (reverse magnetic field). This
pattern of alternating bands of normal and reversely polarized rock, was termed as
magnetic striping. Further, the perfectly symmetrical pattern of stripes on both sides of
a mid-oceanic ridge suggested that the continuous process of lava eruption and
subsequent seafloor spreading separated the stripes in an orderly manner. The process
of seafloor spreading is not the same at all mid-ocean ridges. Slowly spreading ridges
are the sites of tall, narrow underwater cliffs and mountains. Rapidly spreading ridges
have a much gentler slope. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, for example, is a slowly spreading
centre ridge. It spreads at a rate of 2 to 5 centimetres every year and forms an ocean
trench approximating the size of the Grand Canyon, USA. The East Pacific Rise is a
fast spreading centre ridge. It spreads at a speed of about 6 to 16 centimetres per
year. The rapid rate of floor spreading does not permit the development of trenches.
The differences in spreading rate affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also
the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced. The geochronology of the ocean
floor reveals that the newest, thinnest crust on Earth is near the axis of the spreading
centre ridge—the actual site of seafloor spreading. The age, density, and thickness of
the oceanic crust increases with distance from either side of the mid-ocean ridge axis.
Besides the central portion of ocean basins, the process of generation of oceanic crust
might also start in a continent. Usually, sea floor spreading starts as a rift in a continental
land mass, for example, the Red Sea-East Africa Rift System. The process begins
with heating of the continental crust at its base, which makes it more plastic and less
dense. Gradually the area being heated becomes a broad dome. As the crust domes
upward, fractures appear that expand into rifts. A typical rift system comprises three
rift arms at an angle of approximately 120 degrees. These areas are named as triple
junctions. If the spreading process continues, two of the rift arms open while the third
arm stops opening and becomes a ‘failed rift’. As the two active rifts continue to
develop, the continental crust thins out as it stretches. At this juncture, rifting results in
the generation of basaltic oceanic crust between the separating continental fragments.
When one rift opens into the existing ocean, the rift system is flooded with seawater
and becomes an incipient sea. The Red Sea is an example of a new arm of the sea.
The process of sea floor spreading may stop in-between, but if it continues to where
the continent is completely severed, then a new ocean basin is created. The Niger
River has formed in the failed rift arm of the triple junction.
The driving force for continental drift and sea floor spreading was initially explained
based on the convection current hypothesis. The interior of earth is hot owing to the
primordial heat related to the genesis of earth as also because of radioactive minerals
and immense pressure of overlying rocks. It has been postulated that heat transfer
from the interior of the earth to the surface results in the formation of huge convection
34
current cells in the mantle which fuel the crustal movements. The region where two Plate Tectonics
upwelling adjacent hot convection current cells come near the surface is the site of
formation of new oceanic crust. Subsequently, as scientific understanding advanced,
the theory of plate tectonics developed.

2.4 PLATE TECTONICS

2.4.1 Introduction
Plate tectonics is a theoretical scientific model which tries to explain the large-scale
motion of seven large plates and many small plates of the Earth’s lithosphere, over the
past hundreds of millions of years. The theory builds on the concept of continental
drift, an idea proposed by Wegner in 1912. The plate-tectonic theory was largely
accepted in the 1970s after the validation of seafloor spreading theory and inputs by
many workers as detailed below in section on Brief history.
Definition: The theory of plate tectonics states that the surface of earth comprises
rigid plates which behave as brittle solids and travel on a visco-elastic or plastic layer
termed as asthenosphere which deforms readily by creep.
Brief History: After the gradual acceptance of the fact that the surface of earth was
not static but dynamic, scientists were constantly working on some plausible mechanism
to explain the results of the underwater sea bed magnetic exploration findings. Gradually
a theory explaining global movement of earth’s surface took shape. This theory appealed
to the scientists, but it had many shortcomings which the contemporary geoscientists
tried to explain. This initial theory, termed as ‘New Global Tectonics’, was later
termed as ‘Plate Tectonics’ after suitable inputs by many workers which increased its
acceptance by the scientific community. Tuzo Wilson, in 1965, added a new type of
plate boundary termed as transform fault to the plate tectonic concept to make the
global mobility of plates a reality. Edward Bullard and his co-workers (1965) showed
with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic Ocean
would best fit to close the ocean which is popularly known as the “Bullard’s Fit”. In
1966, Wilson introduced the concept of the “Wilson Cycle”. In 1967, Morgan
proposed that the Earth’s surface comprises 12 rigid plates that move relative to each
other. Two months later, Pichon gave a complete model of 6 major plates with their
relative motions, which marked the absolute acceptance of the plate tectonic theory
by the scientific community. In the same year, McKenzie and Parker independently
presented a model similar to Morgan’s using translations and rotations on a sphere to
define the plate motions.
The approximate age of the Earth is 4.54 +_ 0.05 billion years. This figure has been
obtained by radiometric dating of calcium and aluminium rich inclusions in meteorites
formed within the solar system and the earliest recorded dates of terrestrial and lunar
rock material. The initial molten earth slowly cooled for a considerable time, and the
oldest fragments of continental crust found in Acasta Gneiss in Canada and ancient
rock formations in western Greenland date about 3.8 billion years. The gap in geological
record of about 500 million years is thought to reflect the time taken by the earliest
crust to solidify from a molten mass as also the probable consequence of re-melting
triggered after meteoritic effects on early forming earth.
Based on geochronological studies of ancient magmas, comparison of earth crust with
that of Venus, inclusions in diamonds, age of zircons and geochemical studies, the 35
Earth Processes majority of geoscientists think that modern plate tectonics began around 2.5 billion
years ago, but in a markedly different manner and rate. The age of the oldest seafloor
is about 200 million years. The oldest ocean rocks are found in the north-western
Pacific Ocean and the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
As the continents move around the Earth, they occasionally come together. Pangaea
was a super continent that formed about 335 million years ago during late Paleozoic
and began breaking up apart around 175 million years ago. The supercontinent was
surrounded by a super ocean termed Panthalassa. The Pangaea comprised South
America, Africa, Antarctica, India, and Australia. This super landmass had a
characteristic pattern of vegetation, animals, and rocks. Today, these continents are
spaced widely apart and are in different climatic zones. The tell-tale puzzle pieces left
behind by Pangaea, from fossils to the matching shorelines along the Atlantic Ocean,
provided the irrefutable idea that the continents move.

2.4.2 Major Plates

Our planet earth has a three-layered structure. Crust is the outermost layer which is
followed by mantle and then the innermost layer is termed as core. The lithosphere,
which is the outer rigid layer (comprising the crust and the upper mantle), is made up
of numerous rigid brittle fragments termed as tectonic plates. These tectonic plates
move like a ship on the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is highly viscous, mechanically
weak, and plastically deforming region in the upper mantle. It lies below the lithosphere,
at a depth of approximately 80 km to 200 km below the surface of earth. This zone is
characterised by a sudden drop in seismic wave velocities and is termed as the low
velocity zone (LVZ).
The lithospheric plates are made up of dominantly continental crustal material or the
denser oceanic crustal material. At a plate boundary, the interaction between two
plates is interplay of their densities. The denser oceanic plate usually subducts beneath
the lighter continental plate at a continental plate – oceanic plate collision boundary.
The lithospheric fragments which are larger than 20 million sq. km. are termed as
major plates and those between 20 million sq.km and one million sq. km are termed as
minor plates.
Table 2.1: Tectonic plates and their size
S. No. Name of the Plate Area
Major Plates
1 Pacific Plate 103,300,000 km2
2 North American Plate 75,900,000 km2
3 Eurasian Plate 67,800,000 km2
4 African Plate 61,300,000 km2
5 Antarctic Plate 60,900,000 km2
6 Indo-Australian Plate 58,900,000 km2
7 South American Plate 43,600,000 km2

Minor Plates
1 Somali Plate 16,700,000 km2
2 Nazca Plate 15,600,000 km2
3 Philippine Sea Plate 5,500,000 km2
36
 4 Arabian Plate 5,000,000 km2 Plate Tectonics
5 Caribbean Plate 3,300,000 km2
6 Cocos Plate 2,900,000 km2
7 Caroline Plate 1,700,000 km2
8 Scotia Plate 1,600,000 km2
9 Burma Plate 1,100,000 km2
10 New Hebrides Plate 1,100,000 km2
Plates smaller than 1 million sq. Km. are termed as micro plates and are often
grouped with the major plates.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Describe the mechanism of formation of continents and oceans.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Explain the theory of sea floor spreading.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. What are the criteria of plate grouping? Enumerate the major and minor plates.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

2.4.3 Movement of Lithospheric Plates

The movement of lithospheric plates creates three types of plate boundaries. There
are:
• Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Transform Plate Boundaries
1. Convergent plate boundaries or Destructive boundaries or Active margins occur
where two lithospheric plates move towards each other to form either a subduction
zone or a continental collision zone (Fig. 2.1).
a) At zones of ocean-to-continent subduction (e.g. the Andes mountain range in
South America, and the Cascade Mountains in Western United States), the
dense oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the less dense continental plate. 37
Earth Processes Swarm type earthquake activity traces the path of the downward-moving
plate as it descends into asthenosphere. The collision creates a trench where
the thin veneers of oceanic sediments accumulate as the oceanic plate descends
into the mantle. The subducted plate is heated during its downward journey
and it releases volatiles, mostly water from hydrous minerals, into the
surrounding mantle. This addition of water lowers the melting point of the
mantle material above the subducting slab, causing it to melt. The magma that
results typically leads to arc volcanism on the surface.
b) Along zones of ocean-to-ocean subduction (e.g. Aleutian Islands and the
Japanese island arc), older, cooler, denser crust subducts beneath the less
dense crust. This causes earthquakes and a deep trench to form in an arcuate
shape. The subducted plate heats, loses its volatiles, which act as flux for
magma generation at low temperatures, and the molten material rises to form
curving chains of volcanic islands. Deep marine trenches are typically
associated with subduction zones.
c) During collision of two continental plates (e.g., Himalaya) underplating results
in compression, folding and upheaval of continental sediments and the
consequent basin that develops along the active boundary is called as the
foreland basin (e.g. Siwalik Basin).
2. Divergent boundaries or Constructive boundaries occur where two plates move
apart from each other (Fig. 2.2).
a) Along the centre of the major ocean basins runs the mid-oceanic ridge, which
is a worldwide interconnected chain where rifting of the ocean basin occurs.
Divergent boundaries form by the process of seafloor spreading. These are
the sites for the formation of the new ocean basin floor. As the oceanic plate
splits, cracks, and fractures form in the thin oceanic crust. Hot molten rock
material from mantle outpours into these cracks and fractures. As rifting
continues, new oceanic lithosphere is added as the two sides of the ridge
move away from each other. The lava pours out through many vents and the
movement of magma creates rumbling in the substratum. Many small volcanoes
and shallow earthquakes occur along this zone.

Fig. 2.1: Sketch showing a Convergent Plate Boundary

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)

b) Within a continent, rifting occurs. These rift zones result in the formation of a
new ocean basin as the continent splits. Gradually the rift widens out, spreads,
and the central rift collapses. The water from the adjacent sea or ocean fills
the newly created basin.
Active zones of Mid-Ocean Ridges (e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge and East Pacific Rise),
and continent-to-continent rifting (such as Africa’s East African Rift Valley, Red Sea)
38
are examples of divergent boundaries.
 Plate Tectonics

Fig. 2.2: Sketch showing a Divergent Plate Boundary

3. Transform boundaries or Conservative plate boundaries occur where two

lithospheric plates slide past each other along transform faults. In this tectonic
boundary, plates are neither created nor destroyed. The relative motion of the two
plates is sinistral (left side toward the observer) or dextral (right side toward the
observer). Transform faults occur across a spreading centre. The San Andreas
Fault in California is an example of a 1,300 km long continental transform boundary
between Pacific plate and the North American Plate. The fault exhibits dextral
motion (Fig. 2.3).

Fig. 2.3: Sketch showing a Transform Plate Boundary

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)

2.4.4 Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics

Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of the solid silicate mantle of earth.
The interior of earth is hot and is continuously losing heat by mechanisms of convection
and conduction. The convection currents in mantle transfer heat from the interior of the
Earth to the surface (Fig. 2.4). Evidence from seismic tomography, numerical simulations
of mantle convection and gravitational field of earth suggest the existence of whole
mantle convection. Evidence reveal that convection speed is variable but typical mantle
convection speed is around 20 mm/yr near the crust. Further, the small-scale convection
in the upper mantle is much faster than the convection near the core. A single shallow
convection cycle completes in about 50 million years while the deeper convection
takes around 200 million years.
Plate tectonic model tries to explain the tectonics of earth based on plate movements.
The theory assumes that plates are the rigid brittle parts of lithosphere which travel as
ships on a weak layer, the asthenosphere. Tectonic plates are composed of oceanic
lithosphere and thicker continental lithosphere, each topped by its characteristic type
of crust. Divergent plate boundaries are the mid-oceanic ridges and continental rifts
where new lithosphere is being created. Convergent plate boundaries are the zones
where the denser plate is being consumed. The material lost is roughly balanced by 39
Earth Processes the formation of new oceanic crust along divergent margins by seafloor spreading. Sea
floor spreading gave the scientific evidence of sea floor movement based on magnetic
stripes on the ocean floor which are symmetrically placed across the MOR. At
transform boundaries, the two plates slide past each other with no destruction or
addition of the plates. In this way, the total surface of the lithosphere remains in
perpetual motion. This prediction of plate tectonics is referred to as the conveyor belt
principle. Tectonic plates can move because the Earth’s lithosphere has
greater mechanical strength than the underlying asthenosphere. Lateral density variations
in the mantle result in convection. The variations in topography and density of the
crust result in differences in gravitational forces. This along with drag results in the
motion of the seafloor away from the spreading centre ridge. A downward suction
force acts along the subduction zones.
Plate movement is also believed to be a consequence of the forces generated by tidal
pull of the Sun and Moon. The relative importance of each of these factors and their
relationship to each other is still not clearly known.

Fig. 2.4: Sketch showing convection currents in the mantle in relation to plate boundaries

2.4.5 Plate Boundaries and Hot Spots

Hot spots are volcanic regions which are thought to be fed by an underlying mantle
that is anomalously hot compared with the surrounding mantle. They may be on, near
to, or far from tectonic plate boundaries. The concept of hotspots was given by J.
Tuzo Wilson in 1963. He postulated that the Hawaiian Islands result from the slow
movement of a tectonic plate across a hot region beneath the surface. It was later
postulated that hotspots are fed by narrow streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth’s
core–mantle boundary in a structure called a mantle plume. The entire concept has not
been scientifically accepted so far and is the subject of a major controversy in Earth
science. The volcanic regions of Hawaii, Yellowstone and Iceland are thought to be
linked to hotspots. The lava erupting from the majority of the hotspots in oceanic
regions is basaltic in character while that in continental setup is rhyolitic in nature. The
hotspot hypothesis is intricately linked to the mantle plume hypothesis.
There are two views regarding their origin. One suggests that hotspots are because of
mantle plumes that rise as thermal diapirs from the core–mantle interface. The other
theory suggests that lithospheric extension permits the passive rising of melt from shallow
depths and that the mantle source is not anomalously hot.
The mechanism of plate motion has been explained in the convection current hypothesis.
This model suggests that the cold, subducting oceanic lithospheric plate descends
40
along the Benioff zone from the surface to the core-mantle boundary (CMB) and hot Plate Tectonics
plumes rise from the CMB all the way to the surface. The model shows that slab and
plume-like anomalies cross the mantle transition zone. Scientists are trying to find
whether the intra-plate volcanism is caused by shallow, upper-mantle processes or by
plumes from the lower mantle. Many geochemical studies have found that the intra-
plate lavas have different He-3/He-4 ratios as compared to mid-ocean ridge basalts
(MORB). The elevated He-3/He-4 ratio of Ocean Island Basalts (OIBs) suggest that
they might have been sourced from a part of the earth that has not previously been
melted and reprocessed in the same way as MORB source has been. This has been
interpreted as their originating from a different, less well-mixed region, probably the
lower mantle as also the result of inclusion of a minor component of near-surface
material from the lithosphere.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
4. Explain the unique types of plate boundaries. Illustrate your answer with suitable
sketches.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5. Describe the process of mantle convection in relation to plate tectonics.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
6. Write brief notes on hotspots and mantle plumes.
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.....................................................................................................................

2.5 LET US SUM UP

The earth is a blue planet. It is the only planet in our solar system which supports life.
Through a long eventful history of 4.5 billion years, the various endogenetic forces
operating on this planet created the continents and the oceans. These geographical
entities are ever developing and dynamic. The continents, as we know today, had an
entirely different location about 335 million years ago. These have been converging
and diverging during the different time spans in the history of earth. The theory of
Continental drift, sea floor spreading, and the plate tectonics have tried to scientifically
explain the processes and probable mechanisms of the movement of continents and
opening and closing of ocean basins. The role of mantle convection and hot spots in
fuelling the global movement of lithospheric plates and volcanism is interesting. 41
Earth Processes
2.6 KEYWORDS
Tectonic plates : The lithosphere, which is the outer rigid layer
(comprising the crust and the upper mantle), is
made up of numerous rigid brittle fragments
termed as tectonic plates. These tectonic plates
move like a ship on the asthenosphere.
Seafloor spreading : It is a process that occurs at sub-marine
spreading mid-oceanic ridges, where new
oceanic crust is formed through volcanic
activity.
Plate tectonics : A theoretical scientific model which tries to
explain the large-scale motion of seven large
plates and many small plates of
the Earth’s lithosphere, over the past hundreds
of millions of years.
MORB : Mid-ocean ridge basalts.
CMB : Core-mantle boundary.

2.7 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Taylor, S.R and McLennan, S.M., 2005, “The Evolution of Continental Crust” in
Scientific American Special Editions 15, 2s, 44-49 (July 2005) doi:10.1038/
scientificamerican0705-44sp
Kelermen, P.B., 2009, The origin of the ocean floor, Scientific American, 300(2), 52-
57.
Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building by Wolfgang Frisch , Martin
Meschede, et al. ,2010, Springer.
Plate Tectonics & Crustal Evolution by Kent C. Condie, 2013, Pergamon Press.
Plate Tectonics by Arthur N. Strahler, 1998, Geo Books Pub.
Tectonics by Eldridge M. Moores and Robert J. Twiss, 1995, W.H. Freeman.
Plate Tectonics: How It Works by Allan Cox and R. B. Hart, 1986, Wiley-Blackwell.

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answers should include the following points:
1. Continental Crust Formation, Plate Tectonics – Subduction, ARC volcanism,
Continental crustal growth. Convergent Plates boundary, Mid-Oceanic ridges,
Ocean floor generation, source of water.

42 2. Harry Hess, mid-oceanic ridges, magnetic stripes and polarity.

3. Crustal boundary type – Continental or Oceanic, density variation, large and small Plate Tectonics
plates.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Your answers should include the following points:
4. Convergent, divergent and transform plate boundaries with examples and sketches.
5. Heat flow, crustal density, plate tectonic model, conveyor belt, lateral density
variations.
6. Mantle plumes, thermal diapirs, ocean island basalts.

43
Earth Processes
UNIT 3 EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES
Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Surface Processes
3.2.1 Erosional Agents
3.2.2 Weathering
3.2.3 Transportation
3.2.4 Deposition
3.2.5 Burial
3.2.6 Diagenesis
3.3 Depositional Features Formed by Rivers, Winds, Glaciers, and Coastal
Processes
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.5 Keywords
3.6 References and Suggested Further Readings
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.0 INTRODUCTION
External natural agencies like rivers, wind, sea waves, glaciers are operational on
earth since geologic past. These processes are responsible for the continuous changing
landforms on earth’s surface. The present unit deals with an important topic where you
will learn about the role of rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves in the weathering of
rocks, formation of sediments, sediment transportation and finally sediment deposition.
All these natural agents help to shape the dynamic face of earth. After going through
the unit, you will understand how these natural agencies led to destruction and
construction of landforms over millions of years.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• Explain the geological features and geological processes taking place on the earth;
• Comprehend that rivers, wind, glaciers, and sea waves, which are natural agencies,
are important in shaping the face of the earth; and
• Describe the depositional features formed by rivers, winds, glaciers, and coastal
processes and;
• Interpret that the play of these natural processes will keep on changing the face of
44 earth in future and it has done in the past.
 Earth Surface
3.2 SURFACE PROCESSES Processes

3.2.1 Erosional Agents

Erosion is defined as a geological process in which the worn-out earth materials are
transported by natural agencies such as wind, rivers, rains etc. The natural forces such
as wind, water (sea waves, river, waterfall etc.) and ice. These natural agents/agencies
come into play individually or together and erode and transport material from one
place to another depending on many factors such as energy of the eroding agency to
carry/transport the worn out earth material. Erosional agents are responsible for changing
landscapes. The mountain peaks can get flattened as a result of erosion over millions
of years depending at the rate of erosion. Similarly, low lying areas can accumulate the
eroded material and can transform into the new landscape!

3.2.2 Weathering
How do we define weathering? Weathering is breaking of surface rocks into sediments
by any natural process. How many of you recall having seen sediments? Sediments
result from weathering of a preexisting rock by either mechanical / physical or chemical
weathering. The physical weathering involves breaking of rocks and no change in
composition of rocks. Physical weathering implies breakdown of rock because of
extreme temperature change, widening of cracks and crevices of rocks, exfoliation.
The chemical weathering involves a reaction between the rock and the environment,
rainwater, river water, sea water. Both physical and chemical weathering generates
sediments. The weathering of rocks can result by thawing and freezing of water in
cracks and crevices in rocks in cold area, by splitting of rocks because of deeply
penetrating roots of trees, continuously passing of a stream/river over a rocky terrane,
moving glacier over rocks, etc. Once the rock gets weathered it is eroded by different
natural agents such as rivers, winds, glaciers and finally deposited in viable places such
as seas, basins, lakes, depressions on land. It may take millions of years for weathering
processes to produce sediments, and it depends on the climatic conditions and the
nature of the rock. For example, hot humid tropical climates promote sediment formation
whereas in cold climates it takes longer to weather rocks to sediments.
Erosion of the weathered sediments by wind, water and glaciers which act as
transporting agents play an important role in shaping the face of the earth. The earth
has pockets / sinks where these weathered and eroded sediments finally rest and pile
in form of layers. The piled layers finally get lithified and form sedimentary rocks.
Laying off sediments in the basins/sinks is also referred to as sedimentation.

3.2.3 Transportation
The sediments formed by weathering are eroded by rivers, wind, and glaciers to
sedimentary basins. The journey of the sediments may take long to reach the destination.
For example, the load of sediments accumulated by rivers may rest finally in the deltas
formed at the mouth of the river. The accumulation of sediments at the base of a hillock
is another example of transportation of sediments because of gravity. The moving of
boulders by a glacier is an example of transportation by the moving ice. The high
velocity winds can carry on fine sediments to far-off places and drop them when the
winds get milder in terms of velocity (when their energy weakens) and thus can cause
formation of heaps of sand or even sand dunes in desert areas.
45
Earth Processes Oceans are the greatest repositories of all kinds of sediments brought in by rivers and
wind. The currents in the rivers and wind are responsible for the transportation of
sediments. The river-borne sediments contribute annually around 25 billion tons to the
oceans (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2014).
The strength of the water or wind current, which depends primarily on the velocity,
dictates how far they can carry the sediments of different sizes. The strong currents
can carry the large sediments to far off distance, whereas the weak currents will drop
the sediments nearby. The currents are also responsible for segregation of sediments.
For example, the strong currents (velocity around 50 cm/s) which are most prevalent
in the mountainous regions or the regions where a river starts its journey downwards
with gushing waters can carry boulders, pebbles and cobbles along with finer materials.
Whereas, moderate and weak currents will not be as impactful in terms of erosion and
transportation as strong currents are and thus will promote deposition instead. For
example, point bars formed in a meandering river (Figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Meandering river with point bars

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)

3.3.4 Deposition
It is the process which is the outcome of water / wind currents or mass wasting putting
the sediments to rest. The powerful water or wind currents may deposit heavy sediments
like gravels closer to the source, but they can carry on with the lighter sediments such
as sand and clays to far-off places. On the weakening of river and wind currents, they
will deposit the load of sand and clays. The changing intensity of the currents also
helps in sorting of the sediments with the heaviest deposited close to the source and
the lightest carried far away from the source. The mass wasting allows the deposition
of sediments at the base of a slope.

3.3.5 Burial
Deposition is a process where sediments halt and if they keep halting in a same place,
then the older sediments subsequently get buried beneath the newer ones giving rise to
46 what we call burial process. With passaging time a tremendous mass of sediments gets
buried in depressions, basins or sinks on earth viz. Lakes, ponds, continental margin, Earth Surface
and shelf areas, etc. During burial, the older sediments at the bottom get a load of Processes
overlying sediments. The load of the overlying sediments causes compaction of the
sediments in the due course of time. The accumulated sediments remain there unless
some other geological process like exhumation or subduction moves them and again
put them back in rock cycle.
3.3.6 Diagenesis
It is a sedimentary phenomenon where the sediments undergo physical and chemical
changes mainly triggered by pressure. Fluids trapped in sediments are expelled and
heat and chemical reactions cause lithification and formation of a sedimentary rock.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define natural processes and why are they important.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Write brief notes on transportation of sediments.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. How do sediments get buried and converted to a sedimentary rock?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.3 DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES FORMED BY

RIVERS, WINDS, GLACIERS AND COASTAL
PROCESSES
3.3.1 Stream Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
Stream water is one of the widely acknowledged natural agencies which contribute to
erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediments. The important erosional and
depositional features created by running water of streams are prominent features of
earth (V-shaped valleys, deltas, sand bars, point bars, flood plains etc.), which ultimately
shape the earth’s face. Running stream/river water reinforced by mass wasting controls
the landscape of earth (Plummer et al., 2016).
The streams mostly originate in mountains and are in the youthful stage. The headward
waters of the youthful stream leads to formation of V-shaped valley by cutting deeper 47
Earth Processes across the bottom and sideways solid rock. The V shape valley forms by erosion and
eroded material is carried by the stream causing further degradation of the bedrock.
The load varies from bigger blocks called boulders to pebbles to sand-sized grains
and fine clayey materials. These bigger blocks further weather the bedrock and create
potholes. Through the process called attrition, the boulders rub against each other and
the bedrock, reducing in size. In the middle stages, the river becomes sluggish and
deposits the load and result in a meandering river. The different stages of the rivers
such as middle and old stage lead to several depositional features like bars, braided
streams, meandering streams, point bars, flood plains, deltas, alluvial fans. Most of the
sediments get temporarily deposited along the stream course in form of bars, floodplain
deposits. The continuous repeated flow of water in streams may carry these temporarily
deposited sediments to the final resting destinations such as alluvial fans and deltas
where the river ends into a sea or an ocean (Plummer et al. 2016). Let us describe a
few of these depositional features.
Sand and gravel bars (wall of sediments) commonly known as ‘bars’, are formed by
deposition of gravels and sands in the river center or on the sides of the river. The slow
velocity of the water during the middle stages of the river and receding waters after the
floods causes the formation of sand and gravel bars in the middle and at the banks of
the river. The lowering of the water level during recession of flood waters makes the
bars visible. The next cycle of flood may again wash the bars formed and redeposit
again newer brought up sediments.
A flood plain develops when river channel has ample water and sediment load i.e. it is
full of water and suspended sediment load (silt and clay) and it spills the sediments on
either side of the river channel forming a wide strip of sediments. As the water in the
river channel recedes, these sediment deposits become visible and form flood plains
on either side of the river channel. The subsequent cycles of flooding and receding of
water post floods on either side of the river form flood plains.
The destination of a river is a sea or an enormous lake. The final termination of river
with sediment load into calm water commonly forms a delta. It forms delta of sediments
brought by the river at its mouth. The reason it forms a delta is the considerable
reduced velocity of the river water. It splits the water of the river when it deposits load
into distributaries. Example of stream dominated delta is the bird-foot delta of
Mississippi.

3.3.2 Glacial Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Let us first define a glacier. It is a moving mass of ice which is formed on land by
compaction and recrystallisation of snow. In this unit we will study about valley glacier
which like a river flows from higher to lower altitude under the control of gravity. The
rate at which a glacier moves can be variable from less than a few mm to 15 m a day.
The glaciers move fast if the slope is steep. A U-shaped valley forms by glacial erosion
in contrast to a V-shaped valley by river erosion.
The glaciers have power to erode the bedrock over which it creeps. The rock under
the glacier is easily abraded when the meltwater enters the cracks in the bedrock and
freezes. The continuous percolation of meltwater through cracks and its freezing leads
to breaking of the bedrock. The loose bedrock fragments are plucked by the base of
the moving glacier. This process of eroding the bedrock is known as plucking. The
48 thick glacier’s movement over the bedrock also leads to grinding and crushing of the
rock. The grinding of rock leads to formation of rock flour, fine powder resembling Earth Surface
flour. It comprises silt and clay-sized particles. The boulders trapped in the glaciers Processes
also get faceted during the movement of the glaciers.
The rock fragments plucked from the bedrock and scraped from valley walls make up
the glacier’s load. The glacier’s load comprises angular large sized rock fragments,
boulders, particles of all sizes, it is basically an unsorted mix. We term this unsorted
debris carried by the glacier a till. Moraines also form as a depositional feature of
glaciers. The accumulation of till left behind a glacier is called Moraine. Moraines can
be varied. The moraines which form along the sides of a valley glacier are known as
lateral moraines. Like river tributaries, the tributary glaciers can come together and
feed the main glacier. The adjacent lateral moraines of the tributary glaciers join and
form medial moraine. The end moraine forms where a glacier ends. Some end moraines
formed by valley glaciers are crescent or horseshoe shaped. Drumlins are inverted
spoon shaped bodies which resulted by accumulation of till by a past glacial activity.
The drumlins can help determine the direction of ice movement in the past glaciers.
The outwash is another depositional feature formed by meltwaters of glaciers. It is
sorted unlike till deposits and can be easily distinguished from till. Esker is an elongated
meltwater deposited on sinuous ridge associated with huge valley glaciers.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define role of river in erosion of sediments.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. What are the common depositional features formed by river waters.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. How are valley glaciers involved in erosion and deposition?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.3.3 Wind Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

Wind is an important natural agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition. The
loose, dry, and dispersed finer sediments (sand, clay and soil) can be easily removed
and carried by wind and can cause deflation. The deflation in some areas is commonly
known as a blowout. The wind velocity dictates the erosion and transportation of
sediments. The high velocity winds can move sediments easily and to a greater distance. 49
Earth Processes The sand which is heavier compared to silt and clay is carried by wind close to the
land surface. Sand moves by saltation created by the wind currents. Sandstorms can
result because of top speed winds. The suspended sand in the wind near the land
surface can sandblast surfaces on hard rocks in its way. Ventifacts (rocks sculptured
flat) are commonly formed by windblown sediments.
The windblown deposits can form amazing landforms, i.e. loess and sand dunes. Loess
deposits comprise angular grains of quartz, feldspar, clay minerals bounded by calcite
cement. Sand dunes on the contrary contain rounded sand grains, mostly comprising
quartz mineral. Sand dunes are typical of a desert terrain where heaps of loose,
windblown sand accumulate and form mounds of distinct shapes. The sand found in
sand dunes is well sorted and almost devoid of silt and clay.

3.3.4 Sea Wave Erosion, Transportation and Deposition

A sea wave is an important natural agent which can shape up the coastal areas or
areas adjoining a sea. It is a powerful agent of erosion, transportation, and deposition.
The sea waves can erode, whether the coastal areas or build up the coastal areas.
Before going further, let us define a sea wave and how it is driven. The moving wind
over the vast open expanse of oceans and seas creates a wave in the oceans and seas.
The wind created waves have the energy to erode the coastal rocks. The sea waves
have the energy to transport and deposit the sediments in the coastal areas.
Erosional features sculpted by the sea waves are remarkably interesting and quite
unique. The waves can erode rocky coasts. The coastal rocks can undergo physical
and chemical weathering caused by the wave energy and the reactive nature of seawater,
respectively. Both the physical and chemical weathering depends on the coastal rocks.
Granulite, a hard rock, is difficult to physically and chemically weather, whereas
limestone, a soft rock, can be easily physically and chemically weathered. Headlands
in between the bays along the irregular coastlines can be straightened by wave action
i.e. weathering of headland and erosion of the weathered material. Similarly, rocky
cliffs can result from wave erosion on the headlands. The eroded material can get
deposited in the bay areas and result in broader beaches and straightened coastlines.
Most of the time weathering of headland leads to development of sea cliff. Sea caves
form at the base of the sea cliff because of eroding power of sea waves. Sea stacks
are formed by erosive sea waves when the remnant of headland is left behind. Sea
arches form when erosive waves cut headland in the shape of an arch or bridge.
A beach is a depositional feature formed by an accumulation of sand and gravel. The
exposure of sand deposits on beaches is controlled by rising and falling tides. Beach is
part of the coast. Coast is extensive, comprising beach and a band of land inland from
it. Coasts can vary from wide, gently sloping plains to rocky terrains with cliffs (Plummer
et al. 2016).
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define role of wind in transportation of sediments.
.....................................................................................................................
50
.....................................................................................................................
 ..................................................................................................................... Earth Surface
Processes
2. What are the common depositional features formed by wind.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. How are sea waves involved in sculpturing the coastal areas?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

3.4 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have touched upon basics of weathering, transportation, deposition,
burial, and diagenesis. The unit discusses the external natural agencies such as rivers,
wind, glaciers, and sea waves which have helped to shape the face of earth to a great
extent. These natural agencies have the prowess to weather the rocks, transport the
weathered material of varied sizes, and deposit the weathered material at viable places.
The erosion of material can lead to sculpturing of earth’s surface affected by such
activities. Similarly, the eroded materials are carried to different spots and laid off
depending on the transporting ability of the natural agency. The final resting of the
transported material further affects the face of the earth.

3.5 KEYWORDS
Earth processes : They are natural processes such as magmatism,
volcanism, blowing wind, flowing water, moving
ice (glaciers) that occur within and on the earth
and are largely responsible for shaping the earth.
Pothole : It is a depression formed in the riverbed by the
abrasive nature of boulders, gravels, sands (river
load).
Distributary : The main river water is distributed into small,
shifting channels when it deposits sediment load
at the mouth of the river during a delta formation.
Birdfoot delta : Stream sedimentation that forms the fingerlike
distributaries resembling a bird’s foot, thus the
name bird-foot delta.
Headland : A thin piece of land that ventures from a coastline
into the sea
Mass wasting : A process by which soil, sand, regolith,
and rock move downslope under the influence of
gravity.
51
Earth Processes Point bar : A depositional feature characteristic of a
meandering river. The inside bend of the
meandering river commonly accumulates
sediments giving rise to point bars.
Rock Cycle : Changeover from one key rock type to another
viz., igneous sedimentary and metamorphic
through geological processes and geological time.
Saltation : The transport of hard particles over an uneven
surface by air or water.

3.6 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H., 2014. Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
company, New York. 672p.
Plummer, C.C., Carlson D.H. and Hammersley D 2016. Physical Geology.
McGraw Hill Education. New York. 673p.
https://sciencing.com/four-types-physical-weathering-6456598.html
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/CirqueMadeleine.jpg/
1024px-CirqueMadeleine.jpg
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_bar#/media/File:Point_bar_and_cut_bank.jpg

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answers should include the following points.
1. After reading the above text, you can visualize how earth is governed by internal
and external processes. Think of geological features such as beaches, sand dunes
and deltas. How do you think they came into existence? Explain that in your own
words.
2. How do you assess role of wind during a dust storm? Do you think dust and
sediments are carried during dust storms? If ever you are caught in a dust storm
have you felt the fine dust particles causing irritation to your eyes? Think of other
geological agencies which can transfer sediments besides wind.
3. You must have seen a sedimentary rock like sandstone. Think of the red fort of
Delhi, it is made of red sandstone. How a rock is formed from sediments. Try to
explain by reading the section on diagenesis.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Your answers should include the following points.
1. Think of a river starting its journey from a higher altitude. What types of material a
river in different stages i.e. young, middle, and old stages can bring along? Try to
52
 think about the eroding capacity of a river at different times during flow of the Earth Surface
river. Think of the flood time in a river when it has excess water in its channel. Processes

2. Important depositional features of rivers: read the section on rivers and try to
answer this question. How the river load gets deposited into varied features such
as bars, point bars, flood plains and deltas?
3. Valley glaciers can form many sorted and unsorted deposit. Read the section on
glaciers and write about how till, moraines, eskers etc form.
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Your answers should include the following points.
1. Wind is a powerful agency which can transport the sediments of varied sizes
depending on its velocity. It can carry the lighter load as far as 15 kms. Think
about dust and sandstorms.
2. You may describe the loess and sand dunes in this question. Search for literature
on types of sand dunes.
3. You may visualize the sea waves hitting the rocks exposed in the coastal areas.
Think of the features developed because of an erosive power of the sea waves.

53
Earth Processes
UNIT 4 ROCKS AND MINERALS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Minerals
4.3 Chemical Classification of Minerals
4.4 Structural Classification of Silicates
4.5 Common Rock-Forming Mineral Groups
4.5.1 Olivine Group
4.5.2 Garnet Group
4.5.3 Pyroxene Group
4.5.4 Amphibole Group
4.5.5 Mica Group
4.5.6 Feldspar Group
4.5.7 Silica Group
4.5.8 Carbonates
4.6 Rocks
4.7 Classification of Rocks
4.7.1 Igneous Rocks
4.7.2 Sedimentary Rocks
4.7.3 Metamorphic Rocks
4.8 Weathering
4.9 Factors Controlling Weathering
4.10 Types of Weathering
4.10.1 Physical Weathering
4.10.2 Chemical Weathering
4.10.3 Biological Weathering
4.11 Basic Concepts of Geochemistry
4.11.1 Major Oxides
4.11.2 Trace Elements
4.11.3 Rare Earth Elements
4.12 Geochemical Classification of Elements
4.13 Mobility of Trace Elements
4.14 Let Us Sum Up
4.15 Keywords
4.16 References and Suggested Further Readings
4.17 Answers to Check Your Progress
54
 Rocks and Minerals
4.0 INTRODUCTION
You have read about the Earth Surface Processes in the previous unit. In this unit we
will study about rocks and minerals. A rock is composed of combination of some
minerals hence minerals are the building blocks of rocks. Some rocks contain only one
kind of minerals whereas some others contain several kinds of minerals. Geologists
study rocks and minerals to understand the exogenic and endogenic processes and
events that occurred in geological past at some specific part of the Earth. Thespecific
rocks and minerals occurring in particular geological environment also help them to
locate potential deposits of economically important resources. In this unit, we will
learn about minerals and their importance to human beings. We will first introduce
mineral and then discuss about chemical and structural classification of minerals. We
will further discuss about characteristics of common rock forming mineral groups,
weathering and basic concepts of geochemistry.

4.1 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
• Explain the chemical classification of minerals and structural classification of silicates;
• Describe the common rock-forming mineral groups;
• Discussthe classification of rocks into igneous, sedimentary and sedimentary;
• Elaborate controls of weathering and types of weathering;
• Deliberate the basic concepts of geochemistry; and
• Discuss the geochemical classification of elements.

4.2 MINERALS
Let us get introduced to minerals.
If you visit the river front or a sea beach, pick an up handful of sand and inspect it.
What do you observe?
You find that sand contains grains of various colours. What are they? They are different
minerals making up sand. You must wonder, how do we identify these minerals? We
can identify minerals based on their physical properties. The branch of geology that
deals with the minerals, their structure, composition, occurrence and association is
termed as mineralogy. We define a mineral as a naturally occurring inorganic
solid crystalline substance having specific chemical composition.
Now we will discuss each aspect of the definition.
• Naturally occurring: A substance can be called a mineral only when it is found in
nature and is not produced artificially. Substances synthesized or produced in
laboratories does not qualify to be called as a mineral.
• Inorganic: Only the substances formed by inorganic processes qualify to be called
as a mineral.
55
Earth Processes • Solid: Liquids and gases do not qualify to be called as a mineral except the native
mercury.
• Crystalline substance: Solids without form does not qualify to be called as a
mineral. Only the solid substances which are commonly crystalline (but not always)
can be called as a mineral.
• Specific chemical composition: Uniqueness of mineral comes from its chemical
composition and the arrangement of its atoms in an internal structure. Chemical
composition of a mineral is fixed or it ranges within particular limits.
You can call a substance a mineral if it:
• is naturally occurring
• is a solid
• is inorganic
• has an orderly internal structure, and
• has a specific chemical composition.
After reading about the mineral, the next question which comes to our mind is how
minerals are formed?
Minerals are formed by different geological processes under various physicochemical
conditions in nature. These natural physicochemical conditions are determined by the
concentration of the chemical components, temperature, pressure, and the interaction
of minerals with existing rocks. This happens in a cooling magma (molten rock material
in Earth’s interior) or lava (molten rock material at Earth’s surface), but it can also take
place in evaporating fluids such as water.
Let us read about the processes and conditions under which a mineral can form. We
can group them as following:
• Crystallisation: It takes place during the cooling of molten materials.
• Evaporation: When a solution evaporates the solute stays behind, which is an
element or compound i.e. the mineral e.g. halite or table salt.
• Precipitation: When a mineral precipitate from a solution such as the calcite
dripstones form from calcite saturated groundwater in a cave.
• Metamorphism: This takes place at high temperatures and pressures when new
crystals may grow in solid materials such as diamonds from coal, metamorphism.
Minerals play a significant role in our lives. Just to name a few, like edible salt which is
derived from halite mineral (NaCl) to the utensils we use which comprise metals like
steel or aluminum or copper. These metals are derived from different ores, which are
minerals. Ceramic mugs, glass tumbler, battery, filament of light bulbs, etc. all are
made from various minerals in some or other form. The bricks, cement, tiles, and
paints which we use in the construction of our houses, all of them make up of minerals.
You will appreciate knowing that different components of the automobiles, computers,
mobiles, etc. comprise various minerals. Even toothpaste, automobile fuels, lead of
pencils, mirror glass, cosmetics we use, the jewelry and the gems we wear are all
56
minerals.
So, now you have understood how significant these minerals are to our lives. We Rocks and Minerals
cannot imagine our lives without minerals because they have become an integral part
of our lives.
Let us discuss the chemical classification of minerals.

4.3 CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS

Do you know that 4500 minerals are known to occur in nature?
Minerals can be classified based on their chemical composition and crystal structure.
However, majority of the mineralogists prefer to classify minerals into families or groups
based on their chemical composition.
The chemical classifications begin with the elements and then they are further subdivided
based on anion groups present. The classification scheme given by Professor James
Dana of Yale University in 1848 is used most. In this scheme, minerals have been
divided into eight basic classes mentioned below. Minerals are chemical compounds
composed of anions (e.g. oxygen - O-2) or anionic groups (e.g. carbonate - CO3-2)
bonded to positively charged cations in a regular geometric atomic structure or lattice.
Let us read about Dana’s classification of minerals.
1) Native Elements: This includes the category of pure metals. Nearly 40 chemical
elements occur in nature as relatively pure minerals and in a native state. Carbon
(C), sulphur (S) and copper (Cu) are often found in a native state (Fig. 4.1a).
2) Silicates: Silicates form the largest group of minerals on Earth’s crust. Most rocks
are composed of e”95% silicates. Silicates are composed largely of silicon and
oxygen along with the addition of ions such as Al, Mg, Fe, and Ca. Further in this
section we will read about important rock-forming silicates like feldspars,
quartz(Fig. 4.1b), olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, garnets, and micas.
3) Oxides: This group ranges from dull ores like bauxite to gems like rubies and
sapphires. The most widespread minerals of this group are oxides of silicon,
aluminum, iron, manganese, and titanium. Common oxides include hematite
(Fe2O3)(Fig. 4.1c), magnetite (Fe3O4), chromite (iron chromium oxide), ilmenite
(iron titanium oxide) and rutile (titanium dioxide). The oxide class also includes the
hydroxide minerals.
4) Sulfides: Sulfides are made up of compounds of sulfur, usually with a metal. Many
metal ores belong to this group like the pyrite (FeS), copper (CuS), lead (PbS)
(Fig. 4.1d), zinc (ZnS), galena (PbS), etc. Many sulfide minerals are economically
important as metal ores.
5) Sulfates:They are made of compounds of sulfur combined with metals and oxygen.
Sulfates commonly form in evaporite settings where highly saline waters slowly
evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides. Common sulfates
include anhydrite (CaSO4), baryte (BaSO4 (Fig. 4.1e)), gypsum (hydrated calcium
sulfate) and celestine (SrSO4).
6) Halides: They form from halogen elements like chlorine, bromine, fluorine, and
iodine combined with metallic elements. They are incredibly soft and easily dissolved
in water. Halite (NaCl) is a well-known example of this group.
57
Earth Processes 7) Carbonates: They are a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen, and a metallic
element. The carbonate mineralscomprise those minerals containing the anion
(CO3)2- and include calcite (Fig. 4.1f) and aragonite (both calcium carbonate),
dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate).
8) Phosphates: This mineral group includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO4
where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium.

Fig. 4.1: Ore Minerals (a) sulphur-native mineral, (b) quartz, (c) magnetite-oxide, (d) lead-
sulphide, (e) Baryte-sulphateand (f) calcite-carbonate.

4.4 STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES

We have read that silicates are the most abundant minerals in Earth’s crust. They are
composed of oxygen (O) and silicon (Si) which are the most abundant elements found
in combination with the cations of other elements. We can classify the silicates based
on their structure.
The basic building blocks of all silicate mineral structures (SiO44-) is the silicate ion,
which is formed by four oxygen ion (O2-) that surround and share electrons with a
silicon ion (Si4+). This four-sided pyramidal form is known as tetrahedron(Fig. 4.2a
and b). Each side of the tetrahedron forms a triangle (Fig. 4.2c). The silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron is an anion which has four negative charges. The negative charges must be
balanced by four positive charges to make it electrically neutral mineral which may
happen in the following two ways:
• The ion can bond with cations such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium
(Ca+), magnesium (Mg2+) and iron (Fe2+), or
• The ion can share oxygens with other silicon-oxygen tetrahedra.

Fig. 4.2: (a) A model of the silicate tetrahedron which has one silicon ion shared by four
oxygen ions, (b) blown up view of the same tetrahedron, and (c) triangles on each side of the
58 tetrahedron.
We classify the silicate minerals based on how the silica tetrahedra are linked. Tetrahedra Rocks and Minerals
may be isolated or be linked in rings, single chains, double chains, sheets, or frameworks.
• Nesosilicates (Independent/Isolated tetrahedral group) [(SiO4)-4]: The
isolated tetrahedra are linked by the bonding of each oxygen ion of the tetrahedron
to a cation (Fig. 4.3a). Thus, the tetrahedra are isolated from one another by
cations on all sides. The ratio of oxygen to silica is 4:1. Examples of such silicate
minerals are olivine, garnet, zircon, etc.
• Sorosilicates (Double Tetrahedral group) [(Si2O7)-6]: In this type two tetrahedra
are linked by a single oxygen atom or two tetrahedra share one oxygen (Fig.
4.3b). The ratio of oxygen to silica is 2:7 or 3.5:1. Example of this silicate structure
is epidote, melilite.
• Cyclosilicates (Ring structure) [(Si6O18)-12] or [(Si3O9)-6]: When the angular
position of tetrahedra is such that it forms a ring. The closed rings of tetrahedral,
each sharing 2 oxygen (Fig. 4.3c). The ratio of oxygen to silica is 3:1. It forms
following three types of closed rings:
− each of 3 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral benitoite
− each of 4 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral axinite
− each of 6 tetrahedra sharing an oxygen ion such as in mineral beryl
• Inosilicates: They can be single chain or double chain.
- Single Chain (SiO3)-2: Single chains also form by sharing two oxygens of
each tetrahedron bond to adjacent tetrahedra but in an open-ended chain
instead of a closed ring, as we had discussed in Cyclosilicate. Single chains
are linked to other chains by cations (Fig. 4.3d and e). The ratio of oxygen to
silica is 3:1. For example, pyroxene group of minerals like augite.
- Double Chain (Si4O11)-6: In this case there are continuous double chains of
tetrahedral alternatively sharing two and three oxygen. Two single chains
combine to form double chains linked to each other by shared oxygens (Fig.
4.3d). The adjacent double chains linked by cations form the structure of the
amphibole group of minerals like hornblende. The ratio of oxygen to silica is
2.75:1.
• Phyllosilicates (sheet silicates) [(Si2O5)-2]: In sheets structure each tetrahedron
shares three of its oxygens with adjacent tetrahedra to build stacked sheets of
tetrahedra. Cations may be interlayered with tetrahedra sheets (Fig. 4.3e). The
ratio of oxygen to silica is 2.5:1. The micas and clay minerals are the examples of
sheet silicates.
• Tectosilicates (3-D Framework) [(SiO2)0]: Three-dimensional framework form
when each tetrahedron shares all its oxygens with other tetrahedra (Fig. 4.3f). In
this silicate structure, the ratio of oxygen to silica is 2:1. Minerals of feldspars and
quartz are the examples of tectosilicates.

59
Earth Processes

Fig. 4.3: Crystal structure of (a) nesosilicate, (b) sorosilicate, (c) cyclosilicate minerals,
(d) single chain, (e) double chain silicate, (f) phyllosilicate minerals and
(g) tectosilicate minerals
(Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/nesosilicate)

Check Your Progress 1

Note: (a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
(b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Define minerals.
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2. List Dana’s chemical classification of minerals.
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3. What is tetrahedron?
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60 .....................................................................................................................
4. List the structural classification of silicates. Rocks and Minerals

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4.5 COMMON ROCK FORMING MINERAL GROUPS

We have discussed the definition and classification of minerals. Now we will read
about the common rock-forming mineral groups.
Rock-forming minerals are essential components of rocks commonly occurring in the
Earth’s crust. It will surprise you to know that there are over 4500 minerals but only
about 30 minerals are the most common minerals abundantly found on the Earth’s
crust (Deer, Howie and Zussman, 1992). About 96 percent of the minerals found in
Earth’s crust are silicates. They are building blocks of the common rock-forming
minerals. Silicates are minerals that contain silicon and oxygen and usually one or more
other elements. Each group of rocks characteristically has its own rock- forming
minerals. The common rock-forming minerals, as the name suggests are those common
minerals which make up the rocks. Some of these minerals are the essential components
of the rocks are called essential minerals and the other as accessory minerals.
The most common rock-forming minerals have been discussed.
Silicates: Silicate minerals are the most important rock-forming minerals and are
building blocks of the common rock-forming minerals. Silicate minerals make up about
90% of rocks in the Earth’s crust.
The common rock- forming silicate minerals(Fig. 4.4) are grouped as mentioned below:
• Olivine Group
• Garnet Group
• Pyroxene Group
• Amphibole Group
• Mica Group
• Feldspar Group and
• Silica Group
Among all the minerals, plagioclase feldspar is the most abundant mineral in the Earth
crust (Fig. 4.5).

4.5.1 Olivine Group

Olivine is the name of a group of common rock-forming minerals, mostly found in
dark-colored mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks. It is a magnesium iron silicate with
the following chemical composition:
(XY)2SiO4 where, X is Fe, andY is Mg
61
Earth Processes Olivine group minerals are usually green and have compositions that typically range
between Mg2SiO4 (Fosterite - Mg rich) and Fe2SiO4 (Fayalite - Fe rich). The ratio
of magnesium and iron varies between the two end members of olivine group. Olivine
is not a separate mineral, and the term is used instead of “forsterite” or “fayalite”.

Fig. 4.4: Common rock-forming minerals.

4.5.2 Garnet Group

Minerals of garnet group are used as gemstones and abrasives. Garnet has the following
generalized chemical composition:
X3Y2(SiO4)3
where,
X can be Ca, Mg, Fe2+ or Mn2+, and
Y can be Al, Fe3+, Mn3+, V3+ or Cr3+.
There are two subgroups of garnets: pyralspites and ugrandites. Pyralspites (pyrope,
almandine, spessartine) are reddish and occur in aluminum-rich metamorphic rocks or
igneous rocks. Ugrandites (uvarovite, grossular, andradite) are brownish and occur
mostly in calc-silicate rocks.

4.5.3 Pyroxene Group

Pyroxene group of minerals are the most significant and abundant group of rock-
forming ferromagnesian silicates. They are found in almost every variety of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. Pyroxenes crystallize in both the orthorhombic and monoclinic
crystal systems and occur as stubby prismatic crystals. They are chemically analogous
to the amphiboles except that hydroxyls are absent in the pyroxene structure. Because
of the absence of hydroxyls pyroxenes have slightly higher densities otherwise they
have physical properties like amphiboles.
The chemical composition of minerals of the pyroxene group has the following general
formula:
XYZ2O6
where,

62 X= Na+, Ca2+, Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Li+;

Y= Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, Al3+, Cr3+, Ti4+; and Rocks and Minerals

Z= Si4+, Al3+
The range of chemical substitutions in pyroxene is constrained by the sizes of the sites
in the structure and the charge of the substituting cations. The most common pyroxene
mineral is augite. Augite is dark green to black and forms short, stubby crystals.

4.5.4 Amphibole Group

Amphiboles are common minerals in metamorphic rocks (amphibolite, glaucophane
schist) and some igneous rocks (especially diorite). Amphiboles are hydrous minerals.
Therefore, amphiboles are not stable in anhydrous and high-temperature conditions
where they transform to pyroxenes. The most common amphibole is hornblende.
Hornblende is quite like augite in that both are dark minerals, however hornblende
crystals are longer, thinner and shinier than augite.
They occur in metamorphic rocks derived from mafic igneous rocks with dark-coloured
ferromagnesian minerals. They are important constituents in a variety of plutonic and
volcanic igneous rocks ranging in composition from granitic to gabbroic. Amphiboles
decompose to anhydrous minerals (mainly pyroxenes) at elevated temperatures.

4.5.5 Mica Group

Micas comprise about 4% of the crust. Mica is easily distinguished by its characteristic
of peeling into many thin flat smooth sheets or flakes. This is like the cleavage in
feldspar except that with mica the cleavage planes are in only one direction and no
right-angle face joins occur.
General formula for the mica group of minerals is given here:
X2Y4-6Z8O20(OH, F)4
where,
X= K or Na
Y= Mg, Fe2+, Fe3+ or Al, and
Z= Si or Al
Mica may be white and pearly (muscovite) or dark and shiny (biotite). Muscovite is
a very common mica found in many rock types having chemical composition
KAl2(AlSi3O10) (OH)2.

4.5.6 Feldspar Group

Feldspars are the most abundant minerals in the crust. Feldspar is the common, light-
coloured, rock-forming mineral. Instead of being glassy like quartz, it is generally dull
to opaque with a porcelain-like appearance. Color varies from red, pink, and white,
i.e. orthoclase to green, grey, and white, i.e.plagioclase. Feldspar is also hard but
can be scratched by quartz. Feldspar in igneous rocks forms well developed crystals
which are roughly rectangular, and they cleave or break along flat faces. The grains, in
contrast to quartz, often have straight edges and flat rectangular faces, some of which
meet at right angles.There are two subgroups: alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars.
Alkali feldspars are usually Potassium-rich. Hence, they are often named K-feldspars, 63
Earth Processes i.e. orthoclase, microcline, and sanidine belongs to this group. Plagioclase feldspars
form a solid solution between Na- and Ca-rich end-members.

4.5.7 Silica Group

Minerals that belong to this group share the same chemical composition, i.e. SiO2.
The most important mineral in this group is quartz. Quartz is a glassy looking, transparent
mineral which varies in color from white and grey to smoky. When there are individual
crystals, they are clear, while in larger masses quartz looks milkier white. Quartz is
hard, it can easily scratch a steel knife blade. In many rocks, quartz grains are irregular
because crystal faces are rare and quartz does not have a cleavage (i.e., it does not
break on regular flat faces).

Fig. 4.5: Average mineralogical composition of Earth’s crust

(Source: Ronov and Yaroshevsky, 1967)

4.6 ROCKS
We live on rocks even though we do not always see them; Strange! Unbelievable?
These rocks are sometimes hidden deeply beneath our feet by soil cover, and sometimes
they are exposed on Earth’s surface when we can see them. Rocks have been fascinating
human beings since times immemorial. Stones were among the first tools and weapons
used by humans. The rock caves provided shelter to the prehistoric man. He could
ignite a fire by rubbing pieces of rocks. Rocks have been and are being explored by
men for extraction of metals, minerals and building materials. Later, metals became the
basis of wealth and the foundation of empires.
Now let us discuss some basic aspects related to rock and try to answer queries like-
• What are rocks?
• How do they look like?
• Where do they occur?
• How do they form?
To a geologist, rock is a coherent, naturally occurring solid, comprising an aggregate
of minerals and/or, less commonly, a mass of glass. For example, a rock like basalt
may have glass and fine-grained minerals.

64 Now let us analyze the unique aspects of this definition.

• Coherent:Minerals are held in a rock together and can be separated back. A pile Rocks and Minerals
of unattached mineral grains, e.g. loose sands, does not constitute a rock.
• Naturally occurring: For geologists in occurring naturally material brick do not
qualify.
• Aggregate of minerals or a mass of glass:You have read that rocks comprise
aggregate of mineral grains grown or stuck together. Volcanic rock products often
comprise glass which may be a homogenous mass or an accumulation of tiny glass
shards.
We must have learnt to appreciate that a single mineral crystal is considered as a
“mineral specimen” and not a rock, even if it is meters long. Though there are some
rocks such as limestone that contain grains of only one kind of mineral made up of
mineral calcite, where grain is any mineral, rock or glass fragment.
If a rock is made of over one mineral, it is called a monomineralic rock for example
dunite, anorthosite.If the rock comprises many minerals it is known as polymineralic
rock. Granite is a fine example of polymineralic rock. It comprises light and dark
coloured minerals.
Let us look carefully at granite sample (Fig. 4.6) with a hand lens; we observe some
rock that is translucent parts which is probably the mineral quartz. Pink with tabular
habit and pearly luster is pink K feldspar (potash feldspar). Other white mineral with
tabular habit and striations, shows properties of plagioclase feldspar and brown mineral
grains occur in thin sheets and show pearly luster is mineral biotite mica. Dark minerals
that occur in stubby crystals are probably hornblende, the most common mineral of
the amphibole family. Other minerals can occur in granite, but they are not as common
as these four.

Fig. 4.6: Constituent minerals of granite rock

A characteristic of rock is that each of the component’s mineral keeps its properties in
the mixture. A few rocks are composed of non-mineral matter. Coal is rock as it often
occurs in layered structure, although it comprises organic material. Obsidian and pumice
are volcanic rocks even though they are made of glassy material. 65
Earth Processes What determines the physical appearance of a rock? Rocks vary in colour, in the
crystal or grain sizes and the kinds of elements that compose them. Let us examine a
road cut to visualise it. You might find a rough white and pink speckled rock composed
of interlocking crystals, large enough to be seen with the naked eye (may be igneous
rock-granite). Nearby you might see greyish rock containing many enormous glittering
crystals of mica and some grains of quartz and feldspar (possibly micaceous sedimentary
rock-sandstone). Elsewhere we might see a rock wherein dark and light minerals are
aligned, forming bands (may be metamorphic rock-gneiss). The identity of a rock is
determined partly by its mineralogy and partly by its texture. Here the term mineralogy
refers to its constituent minerals of the rock. Texture describes the sizes, shapes, and
mutual relationship thereof. If mostcrystals or grains are a few in diameter in rocks, are
large enough to be seen with the naked eye, the rock is categorised as coarse grained.
If they are not large enough to be seen, the rock is categorised as fine grained.
Rock occurs at the Earth’s surface either as broken chunks (pebbles, cobbles or
boulders) that have moved down a slope or by being transported in ice, water or wind
or as bedrock that is still attached to the Earth’s crust. Geologists refer to an exposure
of bedrock as an outcrop. An outcrop may appear as a rounded knob in a field, as
cliff or ridge, along road-cuts or on the face of a stream cut (Fig. 4.7).

James Hutton, a Fig. 4.7: Field photographs showing appearance of rocks.

Scottish
According to the estimation made by Clarke and Washington, the lithosphere comprises
gentleman farmer
and doctor, with 95% igneous rocks, 5% sedimentary rocks, including shale, sandstone and limestone
many others (the metamorphic rocks being the altered equivalent of one or other of these rocks).
fostered the idea
of the genetic Now you must be curious to know about the origin of rock.
scheme of
classification of The discovery of the origin of rock was a century-long struggle. Neptunists, led by
rocks. Modern Abraham Werner (1749–1817) believed that all rocks were derived by the processes
geologists revere of chemical precipitation from the ocean. Volcanism (or plutonist) championed by
Hutton as the James Hutton (1726–1797) were of the belief that most rocks initially formed were of
“Father of
igneous origin. Hutton used careful observation to refute Neptunists’ claims by
Geology”.
demonstrating the presence of igneous rocks and showing evidence of Earth’s internal
heat.
66
Check Your Progress 2 Rocks and Minerals

Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.

b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Name the groups of common rock-forming minerals.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Define rock.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3. Differentiate between monomineralic and polymineralic rocks.
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4. What is outcrop?
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4.7 CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

We classify rocks into three groups; three major types of rocks are igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks (Fig. 4.8)on the basis of their origin.
• Igneous rocks: These rocks, also referred as primary rocks, are solidified from
molten or partly molten material called magma.
• Sedimentary rocks: It is a rock resulting from the consolidation of loose sediment
or chemical precipitation from solution or an organic rock comprising secretions
or remains of plants and animals. When rocks crop out on the surface it subjects
them to geological agents and disintegrated into pieces called sediments or
decomposed or chemically precipitated from a solution, practically, at a normal
temperature and pressure, they are sedimentary rocks. They are also termed
secondary rocks because they are derived from pre-existing rocks.
• Metamorphic rocks: A rock derived from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks when undergo mineralogical, chemical and/or structural changes
are called metamorphic rocks.
Let us try to differentiate between the igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rock. 67
Earth Processes Earlier you have noted that the igneous rocks form from cooling and consolidation of
the hot molten magma. Therefore, they comprise crystals of minerals. The crystals can
be big or small and fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle. Igneous rocks
do not contain fossils and but may contain gas bubbles.
Sedimentary rocks comprise grains of sediment that have resulted from weathering
and disintegration of the pre-existing rock. The grains can be big or small; and angular
or rounded. The grains are often cemented to each other. Sedimentary rocks may be
layered and may also contain fossils.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when a pre-existing rock is subjected to heat and/or
pressure. They may show evidence of recrystallisation resulting in the formation of
bigger crystals, banding of minerals or foliation can be seen.
Now let us discuss about these rocks one by one.

4.7.1 Igneous Rocks

Country rocks are Igneous rocks (derived from the Latin ignis, meaning “fire” or “to ignite”) are formed
the rock bodies by cooling and crystallisation of hot molten material called magma, which rises from
which enclose an the mantle inside Earth and cools. This cooling may happen either below or on the
intrusive mass of Earth’s surface. When melted rock material is below Earth’s surface (magma), the
igneous rock.
cooling is slow; it takes a long time to cool resulting in coarse grained igneous rock.
Glassy is used for When melted rock moves above the Earth’s surface (lava), it does not take long to
those igneous cool as it is in contact with air or water. It cools rapidly and gets less time for
rocks which do growth therefore the rocks are fine grained. They may have air cavities, showing
not possess
discrete
that gas has escaped from the site on release of pressure. In extreme cases they
crystalline unit or may appear glass like.
structure.
Thus, igneous rocks may be intrusive or extrusive.
Intrusive igneous rocks:Rocks formed from magma at depth are known as intrusive
or plutonic rocks.Intrusive igneous rocks crystallise when magma cools in the magma
chamber or intrudes the country rocks. The magma beneath the surface of the Earth
undergoes slow cooling resulting in the formation of enormous crystals giving rise to
coarse-grained rocks, recognized by their large, interlocking crystals visible in hand
specimen. For example, granite is a commonly occurring intrusive igneous rock. Other
examples are granite (Fig. 4.8a), granodiorite, gabbro, and diorite.
Extrusive igneous rocks: They are known as extrusive or volcanicigneous rocks.They
are formed when the hot molten material erupts at Earth’s surface as lava and undergoes
rapid cooling in the contact with air and water. If the overlying rock has fractures, then
the pressures may be released and a sizeable volume of molten rock will extrude to the
surface. Molten or partly molten rock is called lava, will flow, and spread out. Because
lava cools and crystallises rapidly, it is fine grained or glassy. Extrusive igneous rocks,
such as basalt (Fig. 4.8b), rhyolite, trachyte are easily recognised by their glassy or
fine grained texture.
Three types of igneous based on their mode of occurrence have been identified:
• Plutonic rocks: The term plutonic is derived from Pluto the Roman god of the
underworld. These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation beneath (Fig. 4.8a) the
surface of the Earth or with in the magma chamber such as granite, gabbro. Plutonic
68 rocks occur as intrusive bodies like batholith e.g. Mount Abu, Ladakh batholith.
• Volcanic rocks: These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation at the surface of Rocks and Minerals
the Earth in contact with air or water such as basalt, rhyolite. They occur as extrusive
bodies like lava flow e.g. Deccan basalts (Fig. 4.8b), Maharashtra, Malani rhyolite,
Jodhpur.
• Hypabyssal rocks: These rocks undergo cooling and consolidation at the shallow
level/ near the surface of the Earth such as dolerite (Fig. 4.8c). They are medium
grained and occur often as dykes or sills.Let us learn about the common minerals of
igneous rocks.
We have read in earlier section that most of the minerals of igneous rocks are silicates,
partly because silicon is so abundant in Earth’s crust and partly because many silicate
minerals melt at the high temperatures and pressures reached in deeper parts of the
crust and in the mantle. The silicate minerals most found in igneous rocks include
quartz, feldspar, mica, pyroxene, amphibole and olivine.
We study igneous rocks as feed back for geological processes. Igneous rocks contain
three essential sources of information: their minerals, overall chemical composition,
and texture. These features offer a clue to decipher the place and time that the rock
formed.

(a)

(b)

(c)
Fig. 4.8: (a) Plutonic igneous rock, observe the coarse-grained granite, (b) Volcanic igneous
rock, (c) Hypabyssal igneous rock, photograph shows medium grained dolerite 69
Earth Processes 4.7.2 Sedimentary Rocks
By now we have learnt that sedimentary rocks are formed on decomposition and
disintegration of the pre-existing rocks- igneous, metamorphic, or even earlier formed
sedimentary rocks. Sediments are produced by weathering (physical, chemical,
and biological) by geological agents such as wind, river, glaciers, oceans and
groundwater. Therefore, they are categorised as secondary rocks.
The sedimentary rock is rock that forms at or near the surface of the Earth in one of
several ways: by the cementing together of loose clasts (fragments or grains) that had
been produced by physical or chemical weathering of pre-existing rock; by the growth
of shell masses or cementing together of shells and shell fragments; by the accumulation
and subsequent alteration of organic matter from living organisms; or by the precipitation
of minerals from water solutions.
One can compare the layers of sedimentary rocks to the pages of a book that record
stories of earlier events and environments of our dynamic planet Earth.
Sedimentologist‘sare geologists who study sedimentary rocks.
Sediments are the precursors of sedimentary rocks that are found at Earth’s surface
Sediment
consists of loose as layers of loose particles, such as sand, silt, and the shells of organisms. These
fragments of particles originate in the processes of weathering and erosion. The loose grains of
rocks or minerals sediment transform into sedimentary rock by following five steps-
broken off the
bedrock, mineral • Weathering refers to the entire chemical, physical and biological processes that
crystals that break up and decay rocks into fragments and dissolved substances of various
precipitate sizes. These particles are then transported by erosion, a set of processes that
directly out of
water, and shell
loosen soil and rock and rock and move them downhill or downstream to a place
or shell fragment. where they are deposited as layers of sediments.
This veneer
ranges in • Erosion refers to the combination of processes that separate rock or regolith
thickness from such as abrasion, plucking caused by moving air, water, or ice.
nonexistent, in
places where • Transportation can occur by gravity, wind, water, or ice. They can carry
bedrock crops sediments. The ability of a medium to carry sediment depends on its viscosity and
out at Earth’s velocity.
surface to few
kms. • Deposition is the process by which sediments (a) settles out of transporting
medium because of decrease in velocity or (b) precipitate from a solution because
of saturation or change in temperature/pressure.
• Lithification is the transformation of the loose sediment into solid rock. During
Siliciclastic rocks llithification the sediments accumulate in layers, compress under their own weight
are clastic and/or what buries them and form a hardened mass.
noncarbonate
sedimentary The sedimentary rocks may be:
rocks that are
almost 1) Clastic sedimentary rocks: They comprise siliciclastic sediments which comprise
exclusively silica- physically deposited particles such as grains of quartz and feldspar derived from
bearing, either as
weathered pre-existing rock (the term ‘clastic’ is derived from the greek word
forms of quartz or
other silicate klastos, meaning “broken”). These sediments are laid down by water, wind, and
minerals. ice. Common minerals in siliciclastics rocks are silicates because silicate minerals
predominate in the rocks that weather to form sedimentary particles (as shown in
70 Fig. 4.9a). The most abundant silicate minerals in siliciclastics sedimentary rocks
 are quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals. Clay minerals are formed by weathering Rocks and Minerals
and alteration of pre-existing silicate minerals, such as feldspar. Some dark minerals,
pyroxene and amphiboles, micas and garnet may also be present.
2) Non clastic sedimentary rocks: They comprise the biological and chemical group
of sediments that form by the process of precipitation with or without organic
materials. For example, Halite is a chemical sediment that precipitates directly
from evaporating seawater. Calcite is precipitated by marine organisms to form
shells or skeletons, which form biological sediments when the organisms die. The
most abundant minerals of chemical and biological sediments are carbonates such
as calcite, the main constituent of limestone (as shown in Fig. 4.9b). Dolomite is a
calcium magnesium carbonate formed by precipitation during lithification.
Different kinds of sedimentary rocks are identified based on their mineral composition.
According to some estimates, 70% to 85% of all sedimentary rocks on Earth are
clastic, whereas 15%-25% are carbonate biochemical or chemical rocks. The
sedimentary rocks were once sediments; they are the records of the conditions at
Earth’s surface when and where the sediments were deposited. Using evidence provided
by a sedimentary rock’s texture, physical structure, and environment mineral content.
Geologists can work backward to infer the sources of the sediments from which the
rocks were formed and environment of their deposition.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.9: (a) Clastic sedimentary rock, coarse and medium grained sandstone; (b) Non
clastic sedimentary rock, limestone
71
Earth Processes 4.7.3 Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks take their name from the Greek words meta, meaning ‘change’
(meta) and morphe, meaning form. A metamorphic rock is one that (a) forms when a
pre-existing rock or protolith; (b) undergoes a solid-state change in response to the
modification of its environment. This process of change is called metamorphism.
You can consider an analogy of a caterpillar and a butterfly. Caterpillars undergo
metamorphosis because of hormonal changes in their bodies. Rocks undergo
metamorphism when they are subjected to heat, pressure, compression and shear,
and/or extremely hot water.
These rocks are produced when high temperature and pressures deep within Earth
and cause changes in the mineralogy, texture, or chemical composition of any kind of
pre-existing rock-igneous, sedimentary or other metamorphic rock-while maintaining
its solid form. The temperatures of metamorphism are below the melting point of the
rocks (about 700oC) but high enough (above 250oC) for the rocks to be changed by
recrystallisation and chemical reactions. Metamorphism can produce a group of minerals
which together make up a metamorphic mineral assemblage. Their texture is defined
by the new or re-arrangement of mineral grains. Commonly, the texture results in
metamorphic foliation defined by the parallel alignment of platy minerals (such as mica)
and/or alternating light coloured and dark coloured bands. For example, the
metamorphism of granite, a rock with randomly oriented crystals can produce a
metamorphosed rock like schist showing parallel alignment of platy minerals (such as
mica) or gneiss with alternating light coloured and dark coloured bands.
The formation of metamorphic minerals and textures takes place slowly-it may take
thousands to millions of years. The most common processes are:
• Recrystallisation, which changes the shape and size of grains without changing
the identity of the mineral making up the grains
• Phase change which transforms one mineral into another mineral with the same
composition but with a different crystal structure.
• Metamorphic reactionor neocrystallisation (from the Greek neos, for new)
which results in the growth of new mineral crystals that differ from those of the
protolith.
• Pressure solution which happens when a wet rock is squeezed more strongly in
one direction than in others, producing ions that migrate through the water to
precipitate elsewhere.
• Plastic deformation,which happens when a rock is squeezed or sheared at
elevated temperatures and pressures. Under such condition minerals behave like
soft plastic and change shape without breaking.
Common minerals of metamorphic rocks are silicate minerals. They are the most
abundant minerals in metamorphic rocks because most of the parent rocks from which
they are formed are rich in silicates. Typically, they include quartz, feldspar, micas,
pyroxenes, and amphiboles. Several other silicate minerals like kyanite, andalusite and
some varieties of garnet, are good indicators of metamorphism. Calcite is the mineral
of marble, which is metamorphosed limestone. Similarly, quartz is the mineral of
72 quartzite, which is metamorphosed sandstone.
 Rocks and Minerals
4.8 WEATHERING
You have read about weathering earlier in your school textbooks. Weatheringrefers to
the natural processes of disintegration and decomposition of rocks. It includes activities
whereby the rocks at or near the surface, break, decay, or crumble. The process of
weathering is triggered with the change of environmental conditions to a new
environment. For example, when a depositional basin is uplifted, the rocks are exposed
to a different environmental setup. Because of this change, the rocks may be
disintegrated, fragmented, or decomposed to survive in the new conditions they are
imposed to. Weathering, one of the major processes in the rock cycle, is the first step
in flattening the mountains that have been uplifted by endogenic processes. It shapes
Earth’s surface topography/configuration and alters rock materials, converting them
into sediments and soils.
Weatheringcan also be defined as a set of physical, chemical, and biological
Weathering and
processes that break down rocks and minerals in the crust to create sediments, new sedimentation are
minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds (Fletcher, 2011). the geochemical
processes of
There are three processes of weathering. Let us read about them. greatest
importance to
• Physical weathering takes place when solid rock is fragmented into pieces by humans, since
physical disintegration or mechanical breakdown that does not change the chemical they provide us
composition. It is also known as mechanical weathering. with our basic
economic
• Chemical weathering occurs when the minerals in the rock undergo chemical resources, the
alteration or dissolution. soil. Human
culture and
• Biological weatheringoccurs when rock disintegrates or decomposes because civilization can be
of physical and/or chemical activity of the living organisms. closely correlated
with the pattern
Physical, chemical, and biological weathering may work together in unison to breakdown of soil fertility.
the crustal rocks. Chemical weathering results through chemically active fluids operating
on the exposed surfaces. Physical and biological weathering causes the rock(s) to
fragment into smaller particles, which increases the surface area that is vulnerable and
thus enhances effectiveness of chemical weathering.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. How do you classify rocks based on their origin?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2. Distinguish between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................... 73
Earth Processes 3. Define weathering. List three types of weathering.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4. Write the names of the processes which transform sediment to sedimentary rocks.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.9 FACTORS CONTROLLING WEATHERING

Before discussing the factors affecting the weathering, you would realise that weathering
produces all the sediments / soils of the world and dissolved substances that streams
carry to the seas and oceans. All the rocks exposed on the Earth’s surface weather
varyingly. Following four key factors effect weathering:
1) Parent rock: As you recall from your school texts, following properties of a
parent rock affect the weathering process. Let us review these factors.
• Nature of the parent rock: The mineralogy and crystal structure of parent
rock play an important role that affects the rate of weathering. You would read
in this unit that rocks are composed of various minerals which weather
differently. Stability of minerals plays an important role in affecting the
susceptibility of parent rock material to cracking and fragmentation. You might
have observed that the hillocks or ridges comprise resistant parent material
while the vallcomprisingsting of weathered materials.
• Topography: It also plays an important role as factors like elevation, slope
and landscape position may either hasten or retard the weathering process.
Steep slopes encourage rapid soil loss by erosion and allow less rainfall to
enter soil before running off. Therefore, soil on steep terrain has rather shallow
and poorly developed profiles.
• Structures: Geological structures such as folds, faults and shear zones also
control topography. Shear zones have a good capacity of holding water. The
rivers follow the course of major fault zones.
2) The climate:Climate influences the weathering processes to a larger extent. It
includes rainfall, temperature, aridity, and humidity in a region. The rates of physical,
chemical, and biological weathering not only vary with the properties of parent
rock but also with the climate, especially the temperature and amount of rainfall in
the region where parent rock is located. Water is essential for the entire major
chemical weathering reactions. It may be present as reactant and/or carrier. For
effective weathering, water must be available to the parent rock. Now let us test
how water is important for chemical weathering reactions. The rainwater dissolves
atmospheric carbon dioxide from carbonic acid enough to dissolve substantial
quantities of rock over lengthy periods. You can study the reaction involving feldspar
74 (an important mineral constituent of crustal rocks) as given below:
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H2CO3 + H2OàAl2Si2O5(OH)4 + 2K+ + 2HCO3- + SiO2 Rocks and Minerals

Feldspar Carbonic acid Kaolinite Potassium Bicarbonate Silica

dissolved ions dissolved
The climate is affected by topography or relief of a region. Its setting may either
enhance or retard the chemical action. Topography affects the absorbance of
solar energy in a given landscape. Rainfall or humidity of a region affects vegetation.
Vegetation enhances biological weathering. Thus, you have seen that climate affects
biological weathering this is because vegetation is controlled by temperature, rainfall,
aridity, and humidity.
3) The presence and absence of soil: You have already learnt that acidic water
weathers feldspar. Let us discuss why chemical reactions are faster in feldspars
that are buried in damp soils than on bare rock outcrops. The obvious explanation
behind this is thin soil cover over the weathered surface which enhances longevity
of interaction aiding the weathering process. This basic concept would help you
better appreciate that why feldspars on bare outcrops are better preserved than
those buried in damp soils. This also answers the question that why the chemical
weathering process is more rapid in the tropics than in temperate and cold climates.
This is mainly because plants and bacteria grow more quickly in warm humid
climates and they contribute more of carbonic acid and other acids that promote
weathering. You will read more about the role of biota in weathering under biological
weathering discussed later in this unit.
4) The time of exposure:The time to which a rock is exposed to weathering conditions
is also particularly important. Longer the operating time, more will be the impact.

4.10 TYPES OF WEATHERING

Now we shall discuss three types of weathering discussed in the above section.

4.10.1 Physical Weathering

You have already learnt that physical weathering plays a crucial role by increasing the
surface area of rocks (as shown in Fig. 4.). It also changes the appearance of Earth’s
surface because of several processes: temperature, pressure release, abrasion, freeze-
thaw, hydraulic action and action of gravity. It involves the mechanical breakdown of
minerals and rocks by a variety of processes, hence physical weathering is also known
as mechanical weathering. It occurs when rock is fragmented by physical processes.
This does not involve change in the chemical composition of the parent body. Rocks
can physically break because ofa variety of reasons:
• Temperature: You might have observed that the rocks expand with the rise of
temperature and contract on cooling like any other substance or material. During the
day time the temperature rises and the nights are cold. Different rocks expand and
contract differently because of varying mineralogical composition. As stresses develop
differently within the rocks, the constituent minerals are affected differently. Dark
coloured minerals absorb more heat than the light-coloured minerals and hence may
be more affected. Effects of temperature changes are more important in deserts and
high mountains because the rocks are barren. The strain develops because of unequal
expansion, giving rise to cracks and fractures (as shown in Fig. 4.10). 75
Earth Processes

Fig. 4.10: A granite boulder of ~5m height, displaying fracture developed due to excessive
temperature variation

• Pressure release:Rocks are brittle, and they break when overlying pressure is
released on cap unloading.The pressure released leads to the development of
fractures and joints. Exfoliation is the physical weathering process in which large
flat or curved sheets are detached from the outcrop.It is common in rocks like
granite. These sheets may look like the layers of peeled onion. The projections
and corners are affected to the maximum. The hills become dome shaped and
boulders become rounded as shown in Fig. 4.11a and b.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.11: (a) Sketch of exfoliated boulders; (b) Exfoliated granite boulder
76
• Abrasion: It is an important process of physical weathering. This happens when Rocks and Minerals
small particles of rock carried by wind, water or ice collide with larger rocks.
When rock particles collide with one another or a stable rock mass, it leads to
grinding on their surfaces. Blowing wind and running water are usually laden with
suspended particles that can abrade any surface they encounter. Fig. 4. shows an
example of an effect of abrasion.
• Freeze-Thaw:Joints and cracks in the rocks play an important role in the frost
action. Frost wedging is an important phenomenon where water episodically freezes
and thaws, as in temperate climates and mountainous regions. Frost wedging is
an efficient mechanism for widening cracks in rocks. The breakage results from
expansion of the freezing water. During the day, water enters the cracks and joints,
and at night, when temperature falls below 0°C, it freezes. On freezing, its volume
increases by 1/10th of the original. By this process, the rocks break and cracks
widen. As water freezes, it expands, exerting an outward force strong enough to
wedge open a crack and split a rock (as shown in Fig. 4.12). The process is
followed further and finally results in breaking of rocks into smaller pieces.

Fig. 4.12: Sketch of disintegration of rock by frost action

• Frost heavingis the slipping ofthe boulders on the sloping surface. During the
day, water enters below the boulder. In the night it freezes and lifts the boulder a
little because of increase of volume of frozen film of water. The next day when ice
below melts, the boulder moves further down the slope under the action of gravity.
After a period, it reaches down the slope covering a considerable distance as
shown in Fig. 4.13.

Fig. 4.13: Boulders slip because of melting of under ice

• Hydraulic Action: On rocky shorelines, the powerful force of breaking waves

forces water into cracks and fractures in the rocks. Wave action widens the crack
and hydraulic action damages cliffs and other types of coastal outcrops (Fig. 4.14). 77
Earth Processes

Fig. 4.14: Hydraulic action at rocky shoreline. (Photo credit: Dr. S. D. Shukla)

Weathering
processes
performed by
microbes is
studied in a
branch called
Geomicrobiology

Fig. 4.15: Box diagram showing creep (b) Field photograph depicting creep. Notice the bulge
in the trunk toward creep. (Photo credit: Dr.PiyooshRautela)

• Action of Gravity: It is important as it exposes a fresh surface of rocks for

weathering agents to work upon. Weathered rock material falls downwards under
the action of gravity. Rockslide orland slideis the falling of the rock and weathered
material downwards under the action of gravity. Creepinvolves the slow movement
of weathered products downwards under the action of gravity (as shown in Fig.
4.15). The dislodged broken material obtained on weathering of rocks from a hill
or cliff, fall under the action of the gravity to the base of the hilltop. It forms a
conical feature which is broad at the base and tapers upwards and is called Talus(as
shown Fig. 4. a and b). Scree is the mass of varying sizes and shapes of rock
fragments which constitutes talus. We shall read about these features again while
discussing mass wasting.

4.9.2 Chemical Weathering

You have already been introduced to chemical weathering earlier in this section. It
78 occurs when minerals react with air and water. In these chemical reactions, some
minerals dissolve while others combine with water and atmospheric components such Rocks and Minerals
as oxygen and carbon dioxide to form new minerals. Chemical weathering has a special
place in weathering processes as water along with other chemicals and dissolved
gases may enter even in thin cracks produced by physical weathering or along bedding
and joint planes. With time these cracks and joints are widened for more percolation
along them, leading to faster chemical weathering. In the chemical weathering,
decomposition takes place by bonding with and removal of cations from a solid mineral
surface. Water plays an important role and is highly effective in dissolving many
substances. All the chemical processes involve an increase in volume. These result in
development of stresses and strains in the rock and cause the rocks to crumble.
Chemical weathering involves following reactions:
• Dissolution: It is a chemical weathering reaction in which carbonic acid dissolves
minerals like calcite, found in limestones (a common sedimentary rock). Water is
exceptionally good solvent and dissolves many minerals. Limestone, dolomite, common
salt, and gypsum are dissolved in water. As you have read earlier, water reacts with
CO2 and forms carbonic acid, which is a weak acid but dissolves limestone rapidly.
H2O + CO2 → H2CO3
water carbon carbonic acid dioxide
CaCO3 + H2CO3 → Ca (HCO3)2
limestone soluble insoluble
You have learnt that rocks are aggregates of minerals. If one mineral of the rock is
dissolved even slightly, the adhesion of minerals is loosened and the rock crumbles.
• Carbonation:It is a chemical union of a mineral with CO2 to form carbonate.
Carbonate reacts with water forming bicarbonate which is in dissolved state. Granite
is the most commonly occurring rock on Earth and is weathered in the same way.
Its feldspar changes to kaolin. This process is called as kaolinisation. Fault is a crack or
fracture in the
4NaAlSi3O8 + 4H2CO3 + 18H2O → Al4Si4O10(OH)8 + 4Na+ + 4HCO3- + Earth’s crust,
8H4SiO4 which involves
displacement of
feldspar carbonic acid kaolinite dissolved sodium ion the rocks on one
side relative to
• Oxidation:It involves the loss of an electron from a cation in a crystal. The reaction those on the
involves chemical union with oxygen. Readily oxidised elements include iron, sulphur, other.
and chromium. Pyrite (FeS2) on oxidation gives rise to limonite (Fe2O3.nH2O)
The Earth’s
and free sulphur. This sulphur is mixed up with water to form sulphuric acid
surface contour
(H2SO4). It is strong acid and brings about rapid decomposition. The electrons is called
lost by iron are gained by oxygen atoms in a process called oxidation. topography or
relief.
FeS2 + O2 → Fe2O3.nH2O + S Topography
describes
pyrite limonite sulphur differences in
elevation, slope
Sulphur + water → Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and landscape
position.
• Hydration:This reaction involves the chemical union with water. For example,
mineral anhydrite may be converted to gypsum.
79
Earth Processes CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4 .2H2O
anhydrite gypsum
Spheroidal weatheringresults from chemical weathering. Let us discuss how it takes
place. When water containing dissolved CO2 enters a rock mass through joints,
fractures, a chemical reaction takes place and there is an increase in volume. Initially,
corners and edges of the rock fragments are attacked giving rounded or spheroidal
appearance. Gradually, there is peeling away of layers like those of onion (as shown in
Fig. 4.16a and b).
It is important for you to distinguish between the process of exfoliation and spheroidal
weathering. Exfoliation is flaking or stripping of a rock body which occurs mainly
because of physical/mechanical weathering and is product when concentric folia are
developed. Spheroidal weathering refers to peeling off small rock bodies into onion-
like layers produced mainly by chemical weathering.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 4.16: (a) In spheroidal weathering, the solutions move along the joints and dissolve
the rock corners and edges; (b) Deposit the weathered products in the cracks;
(c) Field photograph showing spheroidal weathering

4.10.3 Biological Weathering

You have already been introduced to biological weathering. It is the product of organisms
causing wea thering that is physical and chemical or a combination of the two. The
organisms that can cause weathering range from bacteria in soil and rock, to plants, to
animals. Biological weathering can take place by the processes listed below, let us
discuss them:
• Movement and mixing of materials: You might have observed burrows on
shores created by burrowing organisms. These burrowing organisms cause mixing
in the soil by their movements also known as pedoturbation. This movement
exposes fresh surfaces to weathering processes found at distinct depths below the
surface that are attacked by chemical weathering.
80
• Simple breaking of particles: Rocks can also be fractured because of burrowing Rocks and Minerals
by animals or the pressure from growing roots, known as root wedging (Fig.
4.17). You might have observed the roots of trees penetrating in the cracks and
joints of the hard rocks. As roots penetrate in the cracks or joints, widening and
breaking them. Quarryingof material by man may also be one factor responsible
for mechanical weathering.
• Production of carbon dioxide by animal respiration or organic decay: You
have read that during the process of respiration plants release carbon dioxide.
Now let us analyse the role of released carbon dioxide in weathering processes.
You have learnt earlier in this unit that carbon dioxide increases the acidity of
water, which attacks and dissolves minerals in rocks by chemical weathering,
processes viz. hydrolysis, dissolution, and oxidation. Apart from these plants and
animals decay in the absence of oxygen produce an organic product known as
humus and humic acid, fulvic acid. These organic acids, though weak, also help in
decomposition by process of biological weathering.
• Changes in the moisture content of soils: Organisms influence the moisture
content of soils and enhance weathering. You might have observed that shade from
leaves and stems, root masses and organic material increase soil moisture. Higher
moisture content enhances physical and chemical weathering processes.
• Bacteria, Fungi, lichens and moss: It might surprise you to learn that fungi,
lichens, bacteria also play a significant role in the disintegration and decomposition of
rocks. A group of bacteria has the power of forming HNO3 which is a powerful acid.
It attacks and alters several minerals. Fungi, lichens and bacteria during their metabolic
activity produce organic acids which attack minerals and cause biological weathering.

Fig. 4.17: The roots penetrating the granite boulder. Note the physical
pressure exerted by the growing roots.

4.11 BASIC CONCEPTS OF GEOCHEMISTRY

Let us get introduced to geochemistry.
Geochemistry a science that deals with the chemical composition and chemical
changes/reactions in the solid earth and its various components (lithosphere:rocks,
minerals, hydrosphere and oceans, rivers, lakes, and atmosphere: agaseousshello four
planet). It also includes the study of chemical species in natural environments and the
effects of human activities upon them.
81
Earth Processes Environmental Geochemistry is the study of the chemical species in natural
environments and the effects of technology upon them. It involves the comparison of
natural systems with those affected by human activities investigates the impact of natural
geochemical processes, andhuman induced (anthropogenic) environmental
perturbations, onournatural systems (e.g.rivers, lakes, soils, forests) and on human
health.
Humans can alter the environment physically, i.e., they can cause excess erosion that
silts a river which causes water clarity and light transmission to go down, which can
affect the temperature and chemistry of the riverine system (and therefore its biology
as well). Humans can also alter the environment chemically: i.e., they can add materials
to an environment which changes the way it functions by affecting either its biota or its
natural chemical condition (e.g., pH).
V.M. Goldschmidt (1888-1947) is known as the Father of Modern Geochemistry.
He described geochemistry in the following terms:
• The primary purpose of geochemistry is on the one hand to determine quantitatively
the composition of the earth and its parts, and on the other to discover the laws
which control the distribution of the individual elements. The main goals of
geochemistry may be summarized as:
• The determination of the relative and absolute abundances of the elements and of
the atomic species in the earth.
• The study of the distribution and migration of the individual elements in the various
parts of the earth (the atmosphere, hydrosphere, crust, etc.), and in minerals and
rocks, with the object of discovering principles governing this distribution and
migration.
We have been introduced to geochemistry. Conventionally geochemical data have
been subdivided into four major categories:
• major oxides
• trace elements
• radiogenic isotopes
• stable isotopes

4.11.1 Major Oxides

In this unit we will discuss major oxides and trace elements including rare earth elements.
Major oxides are those whose abundance exceeds 1 percent of the total mass of
elements present in the Earth. Eleven elements are described as major elements
because they form over 99 wt% of most igneous rocks. These major elements are:
SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, MnO, K2O, Na2O, P2O5.
The elements making up major oxides are in the first four periods of the periodic table;
all other elements typically occur in lower abundance. They can be arranged in order
of increasing atomic number O, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, K, Ca, Ti, Mn and Fe (Table 4.1).
Their concentrations are expressed as a weight percent (wt%) of the oxide. The relative
82 abundance of major elements in a rock are determined by the proportions of rock-
forming minerals such as feldspar, quartz, micas, olivine, pyroxenes and amphiboles. Rocks and Minerals
The major elements are the elements which predominates any rock, mineral or soil
analysis.
Major element determinations are usually made only for cations, and it is assumed that
they are accompanied by an appropriate amount of oxygen. Thus the sum of the major
element oxides will total to about 100% and the analyses total may be used as rough
guide to its reliability. Iron may be determined as FeO(tot) or Fe2O3(tot). Volatiles
such as H2O, CO2 and S are normally included in the major element analysis.Major
elements are analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Mass
Spectrometer (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Atomic Emission Spectrometer
(ICPAES).
Table 4.1: Abundance of the elements in the Earth’s crust
Element % by weight
Oxygen (O) 46.6
Silicon (Si) 27.7
Aluminium (Al) 8.1
Iron (Fe) 5.0
Calcium (Ca) 3.6
Sodium (Na) 2.8
Potassium (K) 2.6
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1
All others 1.5
Total 100

4.11.2 Trace Elements

We have discussed major oxides now let us discuss trace elements.
A trace element is a chemical element whose concentration (or other measure of
amount) is extremely low (a trace amount). Trace element geochemistry has been of
enormous use in understanding the evolution of the Earth. Trace elements are defined
as those elements present at less than the 0.1% or 1000 ppm and their
concentrations are expressed in parts per million (ppm) or rarely in parts per
billion (ppb; 1 billion=109) of the element.
The exact definition depends on the field of science:
• In analytical chemistry, a trace element is one whose average concentration of less
than 100 parts per million (ppm) measured in atomic count or less than 100
micrograms per gram.
• In biochemistry, a trace element is a dietary element that is needed in very minute
quantities for the proper growth, development, and physiology of the organism,
i.e. magnesium is a trace metal.
• In geochemistry, a trace element is one whose concentration is less than 1000 ppm
or 0.1% of a rock’s composition. The term is used mainly in igneous petrology.
Element Zr (zirconium) may be a trace element in all other minerals but in zircon
(ZrSiO4) mineral it is a major oxide.
Trace elements are analyzed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Inductively Coupled Mass 83
Earth Processes Spectrometer (ICP-MS), Inductively Coupled Atomic Emission Spectrometer
(ICPAES).
Trace elements, by definition, make up only an infinitesimal fraction of a system of interest,
they provide geochemical and geological information out ofproportion to their abundance.
There are several reasons for this. First, variations in the concentrationsof many trace
elements are much larger than variations in the concentrations of major components, oftenby
many orders of magnitude. Second, in any system there are far more trace elements than
majorelements. In most geochemical systems, there are 10 or fewer major components
that together accountfor 99% or more of the system. This leaves 80 trace elements. Each
element has chemical propertiesthat are unique, hence there is unique geochemical information
in the variationof concentration for each element. Thus the 80 trace elements always contain
information notavailable from the variations in the concentrations of major elements. Third,
the range in behavior oftrace elements is large and collectively they are sensitive to processes
to which major elements are insensitive.Trace element is an element whose activity obeys
Henry’s Law in the system of interest.

4.11.1 Rare Earth Elements

The rare earth elements (REE) are the most useful of all trace elements and REE
studies have important applications in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic petrology.
The REE comprises the series of metals with atomic numbers 57-71-La to Lu (Table
4.2). In addition, the element Y with an ionic radius similar to that of REE Ho is
sometimes included. Typically, the low atomic number members of the series are termed
as Light Rare Earth Elements (LREE). Those with higher atomic numbers are termed
as Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREE). REE’s has remarkably similar chemical and
physical properties. This arises from the fact that they all form stable 3+ ions of similar
size. Such differences as there are in chemical behaviour are a consequence of the
small but steady decrease in ionic size with increasing atomic number. Cerium (Ce)
and Europium (Eu) exhibit other oxidation states other than 3+.
According to Oddo-Harkins rule elements with an even atomic number are more
common than elements with an odd atomic number.
Table 4.2 Rare earth elements
Atomic Number Element Symbol
57 Lanthanum La
58 Cerium Ce
59 Praseodymium Pr
60 Neodymium Nd
61 Promethium Pm
62 Samarium Sm
63 Europium Eu
64 Gadolinium Gd
65 Terbium Tb
66 Dysprosium Dy
67 Holmium Ho
68 Erbium Er
69 Thulium Tm
70 Ytterbium Yb
84 71 Lutetium Lu
 Rocks and Minerals
4.12 GEOCHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS
Goldschmidt was the first to point out the importance of this primary geochemical
differentiation of the elements. He classified the elements into four broad categories
(Fig. 4.18; Table 4.3)and coined the terms like:
• atmophile
• lithophile
• chalcophile,
• siderophile
Atmophile elements are volatile (i.e., they form gases or liquids at the surface of the
Earth) and are concentrated in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.
Lithophile, siderophile and chalcophile refer to the tendency of the element to partition
into a silicate, metal, or sulfide liquid respectively.
Lithophile elements are those showing an affinity for silicate phases and are
concentrated in the silicate portion (crust and mantle) of the earth.
Chalcophile elements have an affinity for a sulfide liquid phase. They are also depleted
in the silicate earth and may be concentrated in the core. Many sulfide ore deposits
originated from aqueous fluids rather than sulfide liquid.
Siderophile elements have an affinity for a metallic liquid phase. They are depleted in
the silicate portion of the earth and presumably concentrated in the core.
Most elements that are siderophile are usually also somewhat chalcophile and visa
versa.

Fig. 4.18: Periodic Classification indicating Goldschmidt’s Classification of the Elements

(Source: Chauvel and Rudnick, 2016)
85
Earth Processes Table 4.3: Goldschmidt’s Classification of the Elements

Siderophile Chalcophile Lithophile Atmophile

Fe*, Co*, Ni* (Cu), Ag Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs (H), N, (O)
Ru, Rh, Pd Zn, Cd, Hg Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe
Os, Ir, Pt Ga, In, Tl B, Al, Sc, Y, REE
Au, Re†, Mo† (Ge), (Sn), Pb Si, Ti, Zr, Hf, Th
Ge*, Sn*, W‡ (As), (Sb), Bi P, V, Nb, Ta
C‡, Cu*, Ga* S, Se, Te O, Cr, U
Ge*, As†, Sb† (Fe), Mo, (Os) H, F, Cl, Br, I
* Chalcophile and lithophile in the earth’s crust
† Chalcophile in the earth’s crust
‡ Lithophile
Goldschmidt’s classification is relevant mainly to distribution of elements in meteorites
and to how elements distribute themselves between the Earth’s major geochemical
reservoirs: the core, the mantle and crust, and the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Since
there is an overabundance of O in the outer part of the Earth, metallic liquids do not
form, and siderophile elements have little opportunity to behave as such. Similarly,
sufficient S is rarely available to form more than a trace amount of sulfides. As a result,
siderophile elements such as Ni and chalcophile elements such as Pb occur mainly in
silicate phases in the crust and mantle.
The elements can be classified based on their geochemical behaviour (Fig. 4.19).
Now let us discuss.
Large-ion-lithophile elements: The alkali and alkaline earth elements have
electronegativities less than 1.5 and a single valence state (+1 for the alkalis, +2 for the
alkaline earths). The difference in electronegativity between these elements and most
anions is 2 or greater, so the bonds these elements form are strongly ionic (Be is an
exception, as it forms bonds with a more covalent character). Ionic bonds are readily
disrupted by water because of its polar nature. The low ionic potential (ratio of charge
to ionic radius) makes these elements relatively soluble in aqueous solution. Because
of their solubility, they are mobile during metamorphism and weathering. Because
bonding is predominantly ionic, the atoms of these elements behave approximately as
hard spheres containing a fixed-point charge at their centers. Thus, the factors that
most govern their behavior in igneous rocks are ionic radius and charge. K, Rb, Cs,
Sr, and Ba, are often collectively termed the large-ion-lithophile (LIL) elements. These
elements thus be concentrated in the melt phase when melting or crystallization occurs.
Such elements are called incompatible elements. Incompatible elements are defined
as those elements that partition readily into a melt phase when the mantle undergoes
melting. Compatible elements, conversely, remain in the residual minerals when melting
occurs.

86
 Rocks and Minerals

Fig. 4.19: Periodic table in which elements are grouped according to

their geochemical behaviour
(Source: White, 2013)

High field strength (HFS) elements: Theyare so called because of their high ionic
charge: Zr and Hf have +4 valence states and Ta and Nb have +5 valence states. Th
and U are sometimes included in this group. As we noted, Th has a +4 valence state
and U either a +6 or +4 valence state. Because of their high charge, all are relatively
small cations, with ionic radii of 64 pm for Nb5+ and Ta5+, and 72 and 76 pm for Zr4+
and Hf4+ respectively (U4+ and Th4+ are larger, however). Although they are of
appropriate size for many cation sites in common minerals, their charge is too great
and requires one or more coupled substitutions to maintain charge balance. As we
noted earlier, such substitutions are energetically unfavorable. Thus, Hf and Zr are
moderately incompatible elements, while Nb and Ta are highly incompatible elements.
These elements are less electropositive than the alkalis, and alkaline, and rare earths.
Transition elements: The chemistry of the transition elements is considerably more
complex than that of the elements we have discussed. There are several reasons for
this. First, many of the transition elements have two or more valence states in nature.
Second, the transition metals have higher electronegativity than the alkali and alkaline
earths, so that covalent bonding plays a more important role in their behavior. Bonding
with oxygen in oxides and silicates is still predominantly ionic, but bonding with other
nonmetals, such as sulfur, can be covalent. The solubility of the transition metals, though
lower than that of the alkalis and alkalineearths, is variable and depends upon valence
state and the availability of anions with which theycan form soluble coordination
complexes.
Noble metals: The platinum group elements (Rh, Ru, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt) plus gold are
often collectively called the noble metals. These metals are so called for two reasons:
first they are rare, second, they are unreactive and stable in metallic form. Their rarity
is in part a consequence of their highly siderophilic character. The concentration of
these elements in the silicate Earth is only about 1% of their concentrations in chondrites.
Presumably, the bulk of the Earth’s inventory of these elements is in the core. Because
of their low concentrations, their behavior is still poorly understood. 87
Earth Processes Check Your Progress 4
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) You can check the answers given at the end of the unit.
1. Mention the factors controlling processes of weathering.
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2. Define major oxide.
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3. Define trace element.
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4. Mention the broad categories of Goldschimdt’s classification.
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4.13 MOBILITY OF TRACE ELEMENTS

Geochemical behaviour of trace elements is quite different from major elements. Absolute
and relative abundance of trace elements, such as Zr, Y, Nb, Ga, and Sc, are stable
during the geological processes such as alteration, metamorphism, hydrothermalism
and weathering. The behaviour of immobile elements is sometimes related to those of
major elements. Immobile elements, especially high field strength elements (HFSE,
e.g. Nb, Zr, Ta, Hf and Ti), are convenient for classification of altered rocks On the
other hand, large ion lithophile elements (LILE, e.g. K, Rb, Sr, and Ba) and the light
rare earth elements (LREE), especially Ba, are mobile and easily transferred by fluids.
In addition, certain elements, such as REEs, show geochemical behaviour different
from major elements, providing unique information on magma generation and evolution.
The factors affecting the environmental mobility are:
• Chemistry (inorganic, organic, physical)
• Geology (lithology, structure, mineralogy)
• Hydrology (flow rates, permeability, flow paths)
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• Microbiology (affects chemistry) Rocks and Minerals

• Gas transport (air permeability and flowpaths)

• Weather and climate
Metals like chromium, nickel, copper, manganese, mercury, cadmium, and lead, and
metalloids, including arsenic, antimony, and selenium, in the natural environment is of
great concern (Adriano, 1986; 1992), particularly near former mine sites, dumps,
tailing piles, and impoundments, but also in urban areas and industrial centres. Metals
of major interest in bioavailability studies, as listed by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA), are Al, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Ni, Pb, Se, and Sb (McKinney and
Rogers, 1992). Other metals that are presently of lesser interest to the EPA are Ag,
Ba, Co, Mn, Mo, Na, Tl, V, and Zn. These metals were selected because of their
potential for human exposure and increased health risk.

4.14 LET US SUM UP

We have read about minerals, rocks and basic concepts of geochemistry. Now let us
sum up what we have read in this unit:
• Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid crystalline substance having specific
chemical composition.
• Dana’s classification of minerals includes (1) Native Elements, (2) Silicates, (3)
Oxides, (4) Sulfides, (5) Sulfates, (6) Halides, (7) Carbonates, and (8) Phosphates.
• The structural classification of silicate includes (1) Nesosilicates, (2) Sorosilicates,
(3) Cyclosilicates, (4) Inosilicate (single chain and double chain), (5) Phyllosilicates,
and (6) Tectosilicates.
• The common rock- forming silicate minerals are grouped as Olivine Group, Garnet
Group, Pyroxene Group, Amphibole Group, Mica Group, Feldspar Group and
Silica Group. Among all the minerals, plagioclase feldspar is the most abundant
mineral in the Earth crust.
• Rocks can be defined as aggregate of minerals. They can be classified on the basis
of origin as (1) igneous, (2) sedimentary, and (3) metamorphic rocks.
• Igneous rocks are also referred as primary rocks, are solidified from molten or
partly molten material called magma.
• Sedimentary rocks result from the consolidation of loose sediment or chemical
precipitation from solution or an organic rock comprising secretions or remains of
plants and animals.
• Metamorphic rocks are derived from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks when undergo mineralogical, chemical and/or structural changes
are called metamorphic rocks.
• Three types of igneous based on their mode of occurrence have been identified,
i.e. plutonic, volcanic and hypabyssal.
• Sediments are produced by weathering (physical, chemical, and biological) by
geological agents such as wind, river, glaciers, oceans and groundwater.
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Earth Processes • The loose grains of sediment transform into sedimentary rock by following five
steps: weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition and lithification.
• The most common processes are: recrystallisation, phase change, metamorphic
reaction or neocrystallisation pressure solution and plastic deformation.
• The factors controlling weathering are: parent rocks, climate, presence and absence
of soil and time of exposure.
• Conventionally geochemical data can be subdivided into four categories: major
oxides, trace elements, radiogenic and stable isotopes.
• Goldschmidt has classified the elements into four broad categories like: atmophile,
lithophile, chalcophile and siderophile.
• The elements can be classified based on their geochemical behaviour as: large-
ion-lithophile elements, high field strength (HFS) elements, transition elementsand
noble metals.

4.15 KEYWORDS
Mineral : A mineral can be defined as a naturally occurring
inorganic solid crystalline substance having
specific chemical composition.
Sediments : are the precursors of sedimentary rocks that are
found at Earth’s surface as layers of loose
particles, such as sand, silt, and the shells of
organisms.
Environmental : is the study of the chemical species in natural
Geochemistry environments and the effects of technology upon
them. It involves the comparison of natural systems
with those affected by human activities investigates
the impact of natural geochemical processes, and
human induced (anthropogenic) environmental
perturbations, on our natural systems (e.g. rivers,
lakes, soils, forests) and on human health.
Weathering : can also be defined as a set of physical, chemical,
and biological processes that break down rocks
and minerals in the crust to create sediments, new
minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds
(Fletcher, 2011).
Physical weathering : takes place when solid rock is fragmented into
pieces by physical disintegration or mechanical
breakdown that does not change the chemical
composition.
Chemical weathering : occurs when the minerals in the rock undergo
chemical alteration or dissolution.
Biological weathering : occurs when rock disintegrates or decomposes
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 because of physical and/or chemical activity of Rocks and Minerals
the living organisms.

4.16 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Adriano, D.C., (editor), 1992, Biogeochemistry of trace metals, Lewis Publications,
Boca Raton, Fla, 514 p.
Adriano, D.C., 1986, Trace elements in the terrestrial environment, Springer-Verlag,
N.Y., 533 p.
Chauvel, Catherine and Rudnick, Roberta L. (2016) Large-Ion Lithophile Elements.
Encyclopedia of Geochemistry, W.M. White (ed.), Springer International Publishing
Switzerland. DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39193-9_232-1
Deer, W. A., Howie, R. A. and Zussman, J. (1992) An Introduction to the Rock-
Forming Minerals, 2nd edition. London (Longman Scientific & Technical), 696 pp
Fletcher, Charles (2011) Physical Geology, The Science of Earth. John Wiley & Sons,
679p.
https://www.britannica.com/science/nesosilicate (Website accessed on 16th August
2020)
McKinney, James, and Rogers, Ron, 1992, Metal bioavailability: Environmental Science
and Technology, v. 26, p. 1298-1299.
Ronov, A. B. and Yaroshevsky, A. A. (1967) Chemical structure of the Earth’s crust.
Geochem. lntl 4, 1041-1075.
White, W.M. (2013) Geochemistry. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, UK, 660p.
Dutta. A.K, 2010 (Reprinted), Introduction to Physical Geology, Kalyani Publishers,
Ludhiana.
Mahapatra, G.B, 2012 (Reprinted), A Textbook of Geology, CBS Publishers, New
Delhi.

4.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Your answers should include the following points.
1) Mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic solid crystalline substance having specific
chemical composition.
2) Native elements, silicates, oxides, sulfides, sulfates, halides, carbonates, phosphates.
3) The basic building blocks of all silicate mineral structures (SiO44-) is the silicate
ion, which is formed by four oxygen ion (O2-) that surround and share electrons
with a silicon ion (Si4+). This four-sided pyramidal form is known as tetrahedron.
4) Nesosilicates, sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, tectosilicates.
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Earth Processes Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Your answers should include the following points.
1) Olivine Group, Garnet Group, Pyroxene Group, Amphibole Group, Mica Group,
Feldspar Group and Silica Group.
2) Rock is an aggregate of minerals.
3) If a rock is made of over one mineral, it is called a monomineralic rock for example
dunite, anorthosite. If the rock comprises many minerals it is known as polymineralic
rock, for example granite.
4) Rock exposed on the surface of the earth is called as outcrop.
Answers to Check Your Progress 3
Your answers should include the following points.
1) Igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
2) Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma at depth are known as intrusive
or plutonic rocks. Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks are formed when the hot
molten material erupts at Earth’s surface as lava and undergoes rapid cooling in
the contact with air and water.
3) Weathering can also be defined as a set of physical, chemical, and biological
processes that break down rocks and minerals in the crust to create sediments,
new minerals, soil and dissolved ions and compounds. Physical, chemical biological.
4) Weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition and lithification.
Answers to Check Your Progress 4
Your answers should include the following points.
1) Please refer to section 4.8.
2) Major oxides are those whose abundance exceeds 1 percent of the total mass of
elements present in the Earth.
3) Trace elements are defined as those elements present at less than the 0.1% or
1000 ppm and their concentrations are expressed in parts per million (ppm) or
rarely in parts per billion.
4) Atmophile, lithophile, chalcophile and siderophile

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