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DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR TEMPRATE CLIMATE

CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

 The temperate and upland climate is characterized by three seasons.

 A hot and dry season, usually the longest period, is followed by a wet and
warm season, the monsoon period.
 In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude, temperatures
can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas daytime
temperatures are moderate and the solar radiation intense.

SETTLEMENT PLANNING

The main points

 Topography, south sloping preferred.

Orientation, so as to benefit from the winter sun
 Protection from winter winds.
 Form, semi-compact
Hazards, floods, landslides and falling rocks must be considered.

Basic considerations

 Buildings can be arranged rather freely.

 Settlements should be semi-compact to provide mutual shelter from wind in
the cold season but also to take advantage of the sun radiation.
 Nevertheless, the prevailing breezes in humid and hot seasons should not be
cut off and sufficient shade should be provided.

TOPOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF SETTLEMENTS

 Sun and wind orientation

In lowland regions settlements should be exposed to the wind and protected
from the sun. In winter the opposite is required: Exposure to the sun and
protection from the wind.
 In upland regions, shelter against the wind and orientation for maximum solar
radiation gain are required all the year round. Sites oriented south-southeast
and located in the middle or the lower middle of a slope are preferred. Here
solar gain is best. Excessive wind effects as well as cool air pools should be
avoided. The layout of town structures should follow the same goal of
sheltering against winds and utilizing the effects of the sun's heat.

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Especially in areas of intensive land use buildings should be located on south slopes,
where the sun exposure is adequate.

Depressions should be avoided because cold air accumulates there. Above the
bottom of the valley the microclimate is more favourable.

Houses should be located behind a wind shield, but be assured of exposure to the
sun. This shield can be formed by existing or newly planted vegetation, by other
structures or by topography.

URBAN FORMS AND EXTERNAL SPACE

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 Settlement pattern
Aspects of proper sun orientation and wind protection should already be
considered while working out the basic pattern of a settlement.
 This pattern should be of a semi-compact type.
 The plot dimensions should allow the positioning of a building with its wider
side facing south and sufficient distance from the neighbouring buildings.
Provision for row buildings along the east-west axis may also be favoured.
 Streets
Streets are best planned in the direction of summer winds, avoiding the
direction of winter winds.
 Public external space design
The outdoor space - as in all warm regions - should be actively used. It should
be planned to provide a well-balanced mix of open, sunny areas for the cold
season and shaded, well-ventilated areas for the warm period.
 Deciduous plants
Open squares with groups of trees to provide shade are desirable. Planting of
deciduous trees and pergolas with deciduous creepers are a possibility.

Traditional examples
An analysis of traditional settlements provides valuable hints for appropriate
solutions.

 A good example is Burma, a village in the higher hilly region of West Nepal.
This settlement also provides efficient wind protection and takes full
advantage of the sun's radiation. Flat roofs are actively used as outdoor living
and working spaces, where favourable climatic conditions prevail during the
daytime.

BUILDING DESIGN

The main points

· Orientation and room placement should be south facing.

· Form depends on precipitation pattern.
· Shade in summer and heat gain in winter is necessary.
· Ventilation must be controllable.

ORIENTATION OF BUILDINGS

 Sun orientation
The orientation of the building greatly influences the solar heat gain; it should
thus be carefully considered.

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 Normally, buildings should have an elongated shape along the east-west axis.
The southern front can easily be designed for proper utilization of the winter
sun and for protection against the summer sun.
 Windows on the eastern side receive substantial heat during the morning,
which may be highly appreciated in winter time.
 Usually, larger windows on the west side are to be avoided, as the solar heat
gain through these would coincide with the highest air temperatures.
 To achieve a proper sun penetration for natural lighting, solar heat gains and
hygiene, the depth of the interior should not be excessive.
 Wind orientation
Buildings should be arranged so that they benefit from summer winds
because this season is usually humid and a proper cross-ventilation is required
for cooling and hygienic reasons (prevention of mould growth).
 Shelter should be provided from the winter winds.

SHAPE AND VOLUME

 Buildings are preferably rather compact. However, because of the conflicting

climatic conditions, several solutions are possible, depending on local
topographical conditions and functional requirements.
 Requirements in upland regions
In upland areas, heating in winter becomes more important than cooling in
summer. Hence, rather compact structures with minimal but proper sun-
oriented exterior surfaces are desirable.
 Buildings may be large and grouped close together. Row houses or adjoining
buildings have the advantage of reduced heat loss.
 Courtyard buildings with proper wind protection are a suitable solution.
 The houses of Marpha, a village in the mountains of northern Nepal with a
dry, cold and extremely windy climate, represent a good example.

Schematic layout of a house in Marpha, Nepal

TYPE AND FORM OF BUILDINGS

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 ROOM ARRANGEMENTS
A moderately compact internal room arrangement is of benefit for most of
the year. Courtyard buildings are suitable, terraced buildings facing south may
also be appropriate.
 In cooler areas, exposure of the main rooms to the winter sun is essential,
whereas in warmer areas these rooms can also be placed north facing.
 The concept of thermal zones
Heat losses can be efficiently reduced by dividing the house into zones with
higher and lower heat demands, according to their functions.
 The zone with the higher heat demand, such as living rooms, is placed facing
towards the sun (south).
 The zones with less heat requirements, e.g. sleeping areas, kitchen, stores,
entrance etc., are arranged around the warm zone on the west, north and
east side, providing protection against heat loss and wind.
 This zone functions as a thermal buffer. An external belt of vegetation or
other adjoining buildings and parapet walls may provide additional
protection.
 This concept applies in the colder areas only.

Thermal zone layout for cold zones

VENTILATION IN WARM ZONES

 In the warmer areas, humidity can cause problems during the monsoon
period, Hence, arrangements for a proper cross-ventilation are necessary.
 The separation of humidity-producing areas such as kitchen and bathrooms
from the rest of the building is recommended.
 Building components for different seasons
In this type of climate, it would seem reasonable, to conceive one part of the
building for the cold period and another one for the warm period.
 One solution would be a building type which is also useful in hot-dry and
maritime areas, consisting of a ground floor with massive walls and an upper
floor of a light structure.

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 The ground floor would be relatively cool in the daytime and relatively warm
at night.
 The light structure on the upper floor would perform the opposite way. As a
consequence, in the winter time the inhabitants would use the upper floor in
the daytime and the ground floor at night. In the summer time the pattern
would be reversed.

It would even be possible to use different sites in different climatic regions - a warm
one in winter and a cool one in summer - and to migrate from one place to the other.

EXTERNAL SPACE

 The outdoor space should also be designed as a compromise with ventilation

and shade in summer, and wind protection and solar radiation gain in winter.
 The vegetation should be planned accordingly, to provide partly sunny and
partly shaded spaces. Deciduous trees are an excellent medium with which to
achieve this goal.

BUILDING COMPONENTS
The main points

· Medium heat storage capacity and time lag is required.

· Thermal insulation is needed in upland areas.
· Reflectivity and emissivity is less important.

 Thermal storage and time lag

Heat accumulated during the daytime should be stored by an adequate
thermal capacity of the walls, ceilings and floors to balance the temperature.

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 A properly dimensioned thermal mass means that rooms do not overheat

during days with high temperature and high solar radiation gain, and do not
cool out too much at night, or even during the following cooler day.
 The retention of night-time low temperatures is desirable in the hot-dry
season. In the cold season the retention in the evening of heat gained during
the daytime is desirable.
 Both can be achieved with a solid floor, wall and roof structure with a time lag
of some 9 to 12 hours. This thermal capacity is preferably provided by internal
walls, floors and roof, permitting the outer walls to be used more freely for
large openings which will help to meet the requirements of the warm-humid
period.
 If the thermal mass of the west wall is used for balancing the night
temperature, its time lag should be about 6 hours, as it gains heat in the
afternoon hours only.
 A too excessive thermal mass should be avoided. This is especially important
in upland areas.
 A large thermal mass would make the space almost unbeatable during the
evening hours of the cold season. The time lag should not exceed 8 hours,
which is equivalent to the time lag of a concrete wall of 20 cm thickness.
 If thermal insulation is used, it should be placed on the outside of walls and
roof, so that the beneficial effect of the thermal storage capacity is not
reduced.
 Thermal insulation
In upland areas, conductive and radiant heat losses should be minimized. As a
consequence, the use of thermal insulation material may be appropriate.
 Airtightness
At least as important is, however, an airtight construction. Thermal insulation
is only effective in a building with no or very little air leakage.
 As a rule of thumb, in upland areas, a well-insulated and relatively airtight
building requires about 1-kWh heat storage capacity per 1-m² of south facing
glazed area.
 Reflectivity and emissivity
In cool upland regions it is important that during the daytime radiant heat is
absorbed in the building shell and radiant heat loss at night is minimized.
 As a consequence, the outer surfaces should possess absorption capacity but
low emissivity.
 Absorbent surfaces are generally darker and non-shiny. Such surfaces should,
however, only be used for buildings with a high thermal capacity. Low thermal
capacity buildings would immediately overheat.

FOUNDATION, BASEMENT AND FLOORS

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 The floor may be in direct contact to the ground, with medium insulation and
thermal storage capacity.
 In upland regions, materials with low thermal transmission properties are
suitable (e.g. timber). In addition, thermal insulation may be required.
 Floor areas receiving direct solar radiation should possess absorption
properties and a heat storage capacity.

WALLS

 The cooler the climate, the better the thermal insulation and air-tightness of
the outer walls should be.
 A medium heat storage capacity of internal and outer walls is appropriate to
avoid overheating in the daytime and keep the night temperature at comfort
level.
 Surfaces should generally have medium colours. In warmer regions a bright
surface with higher reflectivity is appropriate. Absorptive, dark surfaces are
possible in recessed areas, where the summer sun does not reach.
 In upland regions joints between construction elements should be well-sealed
against air penetration. The application of a wallpaper to the inner surface is
efficient in this respect.

 OPENINGS AND WINDOWS

Size and placement
Windows should be of medium size with openings on opposite walls for
proper cross-ventilation during the humid period.
 On the west and north side windows should be small. As a rule of thumb, the
total window area should not exceed 25% of the floor area.
 In upland areas, as many windows as possible should be located on the south
side of the building to utilize the heating effect of solar radiation. However,
the glazed area should not exceed 50% of the south elevation because of
extensive heat loss at night.
 Excessive glazing can lead to overheating. This can be counteracted by
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· the provision of adequate shading,

· the provision of ventilation,
· sufficient heat storage capacity.

 Windows should be equipped with tightly closing glazed panels, which

provide protection against heat loss during the cold season and also against
flow of heat and dusty air during the dry and hot season.
 Construction details for windows

a) Joints

The joints between the window frames and the adjoining walls are an often
neglected detail. They should be airtight and, therefore, carefully sealed.

Airtight joints

Double glazing

 Double glazed leaves could be an advantage. However, it is not easy to build

them to function properly, because the space between the two glazed panels
needs to be accessible for cleaning.

Air-tightness

 More important than double glazing is good workmanship, particularly with

regard to the grooves.
 To achieve air-tightness is the most crucial point, because the loss of warm air
through the grooves usually accounts for much more than the loss of heat by
conduction through window panes.
 Double-groove window panels could bring a considerable improvement,
suitable hinges, however, are often not available.

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Double groove window

Double leaves

 Another possible improvement, which utilizes conventional hinges, is the use

of double leaves, one opening to the outside and the other to the inside.
 The technique is simple, but has the disadvantage that the application of
mosquito screens is almost impossible.

Double leaf window

 Solid shutters
 Instead of a second glazed leave a solid timber panel can also be used. This
would provide a better heat insulating effect for cold nights as well as for hot
daytime conditions.
 Curtains
 For additional thermal insulation at night heavy drapes closing rather tightly
against the window frame can also be used.
 Insulated shutters
 A very efficient, but rather expensive solution is the use of insulated internal
shutters, placed inside or outside of the window leaves.
 Timber quality
 For the construction of windows and doors it is very important to use well-
seasoned timber. Only then will panels remain straight and airtight.
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ROOFS

 Waterproofing
The roof should protect the building from precipitation and therefore be
carefully waterproofed.
 Thermal insulation
The roof should provide protection against heat gain in summer and heat loss
in winter. The roof should, therefore, have thermal insulation properties.
 Reflectivity
Usually a multilayer construction is required. The reflectivity and emissivity of
the outer surface is then of minor importance.
 Heat storage
The construction should have a medium heat storage capacity to balance
temperature fluctuations between the daytime and evening hours, and also in
case of sudden weather changes. This storage mass must be situated inside
the insulation layer.
 Airtightness
In upland regions the construction should be airtight, the joints between
construction elements requiring special care.

SHADING DEVICES

 Design
In the hot period, windows must be protected from solar radiation and glare.
In the cold season, however, solar heat gain through openings is desired.
Hence, shading devices should be movable, which involves a somewhat
complicated mechanism and also the attendance of the inhabitants.
 Another possibility is a well-balanced design aiming at an optimal direct solar
gain in winter and good shading in summer.
 A careful climatic analysis will provide an assessment, at what time direct gain
is desirable and when not.

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Solar angle consideration

 Shading of walls
Walls do not need extra shading devices in this type of climate, provided they
possess reasonably good insulation and reflective properties.

VEGETATION

 Deciduous trees are suitable for shading purposes. Such shading trees are
best located on the east and west side of a building.
 Vegetation which is too dense and too close to the building should be avoided
because of dampness effect.

Deciduous trees provide access to winter sun but protect against summer sun

 Vegetation cover on facades

A green cover on outer walls and roof has many advantages:
· It protects the walls against driving rain.
· The wind velocity on the surface is reduced and with it the cooling-off

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period.
· Glare is eliminated
 In winter time, a dense green coverage can be a disadvantage because
desired the solar heat gain may be reduced. By using deciduous plants this
effect can be avoided.

NATURAL VENTILATION

 Relation to winds
Protection against cold winter winds should be balanced by proper ventilation
during hot and humid periods.
 Therefore, regulated air movement is a primary requirement. This can be
achieved by well-planned openings with shutters.
 Ventilation openings
Preferably, special openings for ventilation should be provided. Two small
openings, one at a high level and one at a low level, or ventilating stacks may
be solutions.
 The disadvantage of such special arrangements lies in the fact that they are
often neglected by the inhabitants, with the result that warm or cold air
enters the room at undesired times.
 The warmer the climate and the higher the humidity, the more important is it
to provide cross-ventilation.
 Vegetation
To counteract the winter wind direction, evergreen windbreakers are
desirable. However, trees should not block the prevailing summer breezes.
Evergreen trees are best for wind protection, whereas deciduous trees are
suitable for shading purposes.

Regulation of ventilation by evergreens and deciduous bushes

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Passive heating

Elements of passive solar heating

The possibilities of space heating by means of passive solar radiation have been
excessively dealt with in the technical literature of recent years, but the main
principles have been known for a long time.

Traditional buildings often include a fine synthesis of a balanced use of solar energy.
The advantages are obvious: the consumption of firewood or other fuels can be
reduced, which, in these days, is extremely important ecologically.

1. Summer sun
2. Winter sun
3. Covered veranda
4. Living room
5. Storeroom as thermal buffer zone
6. Insulated wall towards the north

The concept designed by Socrates

 Green effect
The function of the solar gain process using glazed surfaces is based on the
"greenhouse effect".
 This means that solar radiation can easily pass through glass. When it strikes
an absorptive surface behind the glass, it is converted into longwave heat
radiation which cannot pass directly through the glass anymore.
 As a result, the materials behind the glass heat up.
 Passive solar systems
Three main principles used for passive solar gain can be distinguished: direct
solar gain, indirect solar gain and attached green house.
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 Passive solar gain

The sun's rays enter through the windows into the rooms which are required
to be heated and the heat is stored in the walls, floors and ceilings.
 Using direct solar energy in a building requires that the majority of windows
are located on the south elevation.
 The sun's rays enter the building through the windows and strike the floors,
walls and objects in the rooms, where the greatest part is absorbed and
converted into heat.

The floor as collector and heat storage mass

Internal walls as collector and heat storage mass

The ceiling as collector and heat storage mass

 Storage capacity
In order to retain the heat and to avoid overheating of the rooms in daytime
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heat storage capacity is needed. This implies that the major part of the
materials used in the inside of the building (inside the thermal insulation)
must have good heat absorption and heat storage properties.
 Indirect solar gain
The sun's rays are captured by various kinds of solar collectors, where the
accumulated heat can be transferred to the room in a controlled way.

Commonly known systems are:

Trombe wall

 A massive wall with a dark surface is placed behind a glazed surface. It

absorbs the sun's rays and conducts the heat slowly through the wall to the
inside of the building. From here the heat is transferred to the rooms both by
radiation and by convection.
 Adobe and burned clay bricks are the materials with the best properties for
trombe wall constructions.
 A disadvantage of the trombe wall is that it covers a great part of the south
facing elevation and thus prevents the provision of windows on this side.

Trombe wall with insulated shutter on the outside

Solar wall

 The solar wall consists of highly absorptive, light materials between a glazed
surface and heat insulation. Solar radiant heat is collected.
 This is then emitted to the air between the glasspane and the surface of the
collector, which transfers the heat to the rooms.
 Solar walls can be constructed of corrugated, matt black painted metal
sheeting or other building materials which heat up quickly and which are
resistant to high temperatures.
 They can be incorporated into the building elevation, but they can also be
arranged in a detached way.

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 In order to prevent the heat from escaping to the outside, the glazed window
walls in front of the solar walls have to be constructed in a well-sealed way.
The system is also known as air-loop heating.

Solar wall as an air heating device with internal storage mass

During the warm period of the year, solar walls can be used as a cooling device,
creating increased ventilation.

Solar wall as cooling device

Solar collector

 Solar collectors using water as a heat transmitting medium are the most
efficient ones.
 The system also offers more flexibility in the design because water can easily
be transported to the desired place in a controlled manner.
 However, the technology requires more expertise and skill than the
construction of thermal walls. At high altitudes, there is a danger of freezing.

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Solar collector as detached device

 As a rough rule of thumb, in upland regions where the temperature varies

approximately between 0°C and 10°C, the solar collector surface should be
about 1/3rd of the heated floor area, provided the building is moderately well
constructed.

 Danger of freezing
In mountainous regions, with temperatures far below freezing point, the use
of water as a heat transmitting medium is not possible. An anti-freezing agent
would be required, but in many cases its availability and use cannot be
guaranteed. Here, systems using air as a transmitting medium are
appropriate. However, such systems are less efficient.
 Collector at low level
For them to operate in a purely passive way, all these water and air-loop
systems, also called thermo-syphons, require placing the collector at a lower
level than the heat outlet, for them to operate in a purely passive way. The
reason is that a heated medium expands and is thus lighter than a cooler one.
It therefore rises, which is the basic principle of any such system.
 Collector at high level
If, for certain reasons, the collector is located above the heat outlet, an active
element is required to transport the heat to the desired place. Such elements
would be circulation pumps or fans. These systems are more complex in terms
of construction, as well as in terms of operation. They are more expensive and
also depend on a second energy source, usually electricity.

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 WATER WALL
Instead of masonry the wall consists of a metal tank filled with water.
Compared to the trombe wall this system conducts heat much more rapidly
because the wall has far less thermal lag and the water convects during
heating. The great heat capacity of water permits for rather thin walls.

ROOF POND
 Water walls and roof ponds could be suitable, but are technically demanding.

Heat gain through an attached greenhouse

 A greenhouse is built onto the south wall of a house and functions as a solar
collector. During the day excess heat is transferred by convection into the
house, where it is stored in the floor, walls or ceiling, or in a special heat
storage element. The greenhouse can also be combined with the principles of
a trombe or solar wall.
 The floor of a greenhouse as heat storage
The main advantage of the greenhouse is the attractive additional room it
offers, which can be used as living space during cold but sunny hours, and as a
place to raise vegetables and flowers as well.
 To avoid overheating of the greenhouse, movable shading devices, preferably
placed on the outside, have to be considered. Large ventilation openings are
usually also required.
 The walls of the greenhouse as heat storage area
If a greenhouse is used during the cold season when there is no sunshine, it
can easily become a source of heat loss rather than heat gain. This is also the
case during cool nights if it is not properly closed off from the rest of the
building.

Free standing heat storage in greenhouse

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Solar gain by attached greenhouse shown during day and night function
BUILDING MATERIALS USED
• Floor: Lime concrete
• Walls: Stone masonry with lime mortar
• Roof: Stone slabs with lime concrete screed cover for flat roof. Mangalore tiles for
sloping roof.

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