Linear Algebra

Chapter 3 - Vector space

Dr. Trung Duy Doan

School of Applied Mathematics and Informatics

Hanoi University of Science and Technology [email protected]

March 30, 2019

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Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

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Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 3 / 36
Concepts

Definition
Let V be a non-empty set and K be a field. Two operations are defined as
follows.
i) The first operation, called vector addition or simply addition

”+”:V ×V →V
(u, v ) 7→ u + v

ii) The second operation, called scalar multiplication

”.” : K × V → V
(k, v ) 7→ kv

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Concepts

Definition
Now, (V ; +; .) is called a vector space over K if eight axioms hold
Axiom Meaning
1) Associativity of addi- u + (v + w ) = (u + v ) + w , u, v , w ∈ V
tion
2) Commutativity of addi- u + v = v + u, u, v ∈ V
tion
3) Identity element of ad- There exists an element 0 ∈ V , called the
dition zero vector, such that v + 0 = v , ∀v ∈ V
4) Inverse elements of ad- For every v ∈ V , there exists an element
dition −v ∈ V , called the additive inverse of v ,
such that v + (−v ) = 0

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 5 / 36
Concept

Definition
Axiom Meaning
5) Compatibility of scalar a(bv ) = (ab)v , a, b ∈ K, v ∈ V
multiplication
6) Identity element of 1v = v , where 1 denotes the multiplica-
scalar multiplication tive identity in K
7) Distributivity of scalar α(u + v ) = αu + αv , α ∈ K, u, v ∈ V
multiplication with respect
to vector addition
8) Distributivity of scalar (a + b)v = av + bv , a, b ∈ K, v ∈ V
multiplication with respect
to field addition

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 6 / 36
Vector space

Examples
E1) R, the real number, is the R-vector space with
- The zero vector is 0
- The inverse vector of v is −v
E2) R2 = {(x, y )|x, y ∈ R} with two following operations

(x, y ) + (x 0 , y 0 ) = (x + x 0 , y + y 0 )

λ(x, y ) = (λx, λy )
is a vector space
- The zero vector is (0, 0)
- The inverse vector of v = (x, y ) is −v = (−x, −y )
E3) Let Mmn be a set of matrices with size m × n. Hence, Mmn with the
matrix addition and the scalar multiple is a vector space.

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 7 / 36
Vector space

Properties
Let V be a R-vector space. Hence,
1 The zero vector (0) is unique
2 The inverse vector of each vector v , denoted by −v , is unique.

λ=0
3 If λv = 0, then
v = 0 (The zero vector)

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 8 / 36
Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 9 / 36
Subspace

Definition
Let (V , +, .) be a vector space over field K and W 6= ∅ be a subset of V .
Now, W is called a subspace of V if (W , +, .) is a vector space.

Theorem
Let (V , +, .) be a vector space over field K and W 6= ∅ be a subset of V .
Now, W is called a subspace of V if W is closed under two operations in
V , i.e.
i) ∀x, y ∈ W : x + y ∈ W
ii) ∀x ∈ W , ∀k ∈ K : kx ∈ W .

Remarks
Two above conditions are equivalent to

∀x, y ∈ W , ∀k, l ∈ W : kx + ly ∈ W

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Subspace

Examples
Ex1) Let W = {(x, 0) ∈ R2 } ⊂ R2 be a subset of R2 . Hence, W is a
subspace of R2 .
Ex2) W = {(x, y , z) ∈ R3 |x − y + 2z = 0} is a subspace of R3 ?
Ex3) Are the following subsets a subspace of the corresponding sets?
1 W = {(x, y ) ∈ R2 |x − 2y = 1}
2 M = {x(t) = at 2 + bt + c ∈ P2 [t]|a − b + c = 0}

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Linear combinations, linear spans

Definition
Let V be a vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ⊂ V
i) A linear combination of vectors v1 , v2 , . . . , vn is any vector of the form
c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . + cn vn , where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ R.
ii) The set of all possible linear combinations is called the span:

span(S) = {v = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + . . . cn vn |c1 , c2 , . . . cn ∈ R}

Theorem
W = span(S) is a subspace of V

Examples
Let x1 = (1; −2), x2 = (3; 1) and x = (5; −3). Hence, x is a linear
combination of (x1 , x2 ).

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 12 / 36
Linear combinations, linear spans

Examples
Let x1 = (−1; 0), x2 = (0; −1), x3 = (1; 1) be three vectors in R2 . Hence,
1 2x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 = 0
2 3x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 = 0

Remarks
Pn
1 The perform of x = i=1 λi xi is not unique.
2 The zero vector can be performed by any set of vectors
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ).

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Generator of a vector space

Definition
Let V be a vector space and S = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } ⊂ V . Hence, S is said to
be a generator of V if

x ∈ V : x = λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + . . . + λn xn

i.e.
V = span(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
We also say that V is generated by S.

Definition
Let V1 , V2 be two subspaces of V . We say that V is a direct sum of V1
and V2 and write V = V1 ⊕ V2 if V = V1 + V2 , V ∩ V2 = {0}.

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Generator of a vector space

Examples
1 Given a R2 -vector space and a set of vectors
E = {e1 = (1; 0), e2 = (0; 1)}. Hence, E is a generator of R2 .
2 Let S = {e1 = (1; 0; 0), e2 = (0; 1; 0), e3 = (0; 0; 1)} be a set of
vectors of R3 -vector space. Hence, S is a generator of R3 .

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 15 / 36
Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 16 / 36
Linear independence

Definition
Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn be a set of vectors. S is said to be
a) linearly independent if the equation

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + . . . an vn = 0

can only be satisfied by ai = 0, ∀i ∈ [n].

b) linearly dependent, if there exist scalars a1 , a2 , . . . , an , not all zero,
such that
a1 v1 + a2 v2 + . . . an vn = 0

Remarks
1 A subset of a linear independence is linearly independent.
2 A set which contains a linear dependence is linearly dependent.

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Linear independence

How to determine whenever a linear independence of a vector set?

Let X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } be a vector set of a vector space V .
1 Let λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn ∈ R such that λ1 x1 + λ2 x2 + . . . + λn xn = 0
2 Building the system of linear equations from the above equality.
3 Find the rank of the matrix of this system of linear equations, say A.
i) If r (A) = n, then the system has an unique solution (0; 0; . . . ; 0).
Hence, X is linearly independent.
ii) If r (A) < m, then the system has infinitely many solutions. Hence, X is
linearly dependent.

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 18 / 36
Linear independence

Examples
1 Given x1 = (1; 2), x2 = (3; 7), x3 = (2; 4). Since
4x1 + 0x2 − 2x3 = (0; 0), the vector set {x1 , x2 , x3 } is linearly
dependent.
2 Let R3 be a vector space and
S = {x1 = (1; 1; 1), x2 = (1; 1; 0), x3 = (1; 0; 0)} be a vector set. Is S
linearly dependent or linearly independent?
3 Given a vector space V = P2 [t] and a set S of vectors

x1 (t) = t 2 − 2t − 1, x2 (t) = 2t 2 − t, x3 (t) = 3t − 5

Is S linearly dependent or linearly independent?

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 19 / 36
Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 20 / 36
Basis of a vector space

Definition
Let V be a vector space and E be a vector set of V . We say that E is a
basis of V if
1 E is linearly independent
2 E is the generator of V

Examples
1 Prove that the set of vectors E = {e1 = (1; 0), e2 = (0; 1)} is a basic
of the vector space R2 .
2 Prove that the set of vectors
E 0 = {e1 = (1; 0), e2 = (0; 1), e3 = (2; 5)} is not a basis of the vector
space R2

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 21 / 36
Basis

Examples
Are the following vector sets a basis of the corresponding vector space?
1 E1 = {x1 (t) = t 2 , x2 (t) = t, x3 (t) = 1} in the vector space P2 [t].
        
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
2 E2 = A1 = ; A2 = ; A3 = ; A4 = in
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
the vector space M22 .

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Dimension of a vector space
Theorem
Let V be a vector space and B1 = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm }, B2 = {u1 , u2 , . . . un }
be two vector sets of V . If B1 and B2 are two bases of V , then m = n.

Definition
Let V be a vector space.
1 If V has a finite basis, then V is called finite dimension.
2 If V has no finite basis, then V is called infinite dimension.

Definition
The dimension of a vector space V , denoted by dim V , is the number of
vectors in each basis of V .

Remark
If V = {0}, then dim V = 0.
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Dimension of a vector space

Examples
1 dim R2 = 2
2 dim R3 = 3
3 dim P2 [t] = 3
4 dim M22 = 4

Examples
Let v1 = (2; 0; 1; 3; −1), v2 = (1; 1; 0; −1; 1) ,v3 = (0; −2; 1; 5; −3),
v4 = (1; −3; 2; 9; −5)
1 Find the dimension and a basis of span(v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 ).
2 Let V1 = span(v1 , v2 ), V2 = span(v3 , v4 ). Find the dimension and a
basis of V1 + V2 , V1 ∩ V2 .

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Standard basis

Definition
A standard basis, also called a natural basis (canonical basis), is the
special basis of a vector space V . It is defined as follows:
1 In Rn -vector space, the standard basis is E = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }, where
e1 = (1; 0; 0; . . . ; 0)
e2 = (0; 1; 0; . . . ; 0)
.........
en = (0; 0; 0; . . . ; 1)
2 In Pn [x], the standard basis is E = {1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n }
3 In Mmn , the standard basis, denoted by Amn }, is a set of matrices of
size m × n E = { , where

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Basis of a vector space

Theorem
Let V be a vector space of dimension n and B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } ∈ V .
Hence, B is a basis of V if B is linearly independent or B is a generator of
V.

Examples
Prove that the following vector set B = {v1 , v2 , v3 }, where v1 = (1; 1; 1),
v2 = (1; 1; 0), v3 = (1; 0; 1) is a basis of R3 .

Theorem
Let V be a vector space with finite dimension and B be a vector set in V .
If B is linearly independent, then some vectors of V can be added to B to
make it a basis of V .

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 26 / 36
Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 27 / 36
The coordinate of a vector with respect to a basis

Definition
Let V be a vector space of dimension n and B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } be a
basis for V . Hence for every v ∈ V there is a unique linear combination of
the basis vectors that equals v :

v = λ1 v1 + λ2 v2 + . . . + λn vn

The coordinate vector of v relative to B is the sequence of coordinates

(v )B = (λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λn )T

This is also called the representation of v with respect to B.

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The coordinate of a vector with respect to a basis

Definition
A coordinate vector of a finite-dimensional vector space is represented by
matrices as a column  
x1
 x2 
[x]B =  
. . .
xn

Examples
Let v1 = (2; 3; 1), v2 = (1; 2; 1), v3 = (1; 1; 1), u = (9; 14; 6) be vectors in
the vector space R3 .
1 Find the coordinate of u with respect to the standard basis E of R3 .
2 Find the coordinate of u with respect to the basis B = {v1 , v2 , v3 }.

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Change of basis

Problem
Let V be a n-dimensional vector space with two bases

B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } and B 0 = {v10 , v20 , . . . , vn0 }

Let v ∈ V be a vector. Find the relation between [v ]B and [v ]B0 .

The transformation matrix

Let P be a square matrix of size n. The matrix P that satisfies

[v ]B = P[v ]B0 , for each v ∈ V

is called the transformation matrix from B to B 0

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Change of basis

Theorem
Let V be a n-dimensional vector space. For each pair of bases B and B 0 of
V , the transformation matrix from B to B 0 is uniquely determined by

P = [[v10 ]B [v20 ]B . . . [vn0 ]B ]

Theorem
If P is the transformation matrix from B to B 0 , then
1 P is invertible i.e. det P 6= 0
2 P −1 is the transformation matrix from B 0 to B.

Example
Let E = {1, x, x 2 , x 3 } be the standard basis and
B = {1, 1 + x, (1 + x)2 , (1 + x)3 } be a basis of P3 [x]. Find the
transformation matrix from E to B and from B to E .
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Overview

1 Vector space

2 Subspace

3 Linear independence

4 Basis and Dimension of a vector space

5 Coordinates

6 Rank of a vector set

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 32 / 36
Rank of a vector set

Defintion
Let V be a vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm } be a vector set in V .
The rank of S, denoted by rank(S) or r (S), is the maximum number of
linearly independent vectors of S.

Remarks
1 r (S) ≤ m
2 r (S) = m iff S is linearly independent.

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Rank of a vector set

Find the rank of a vector set

Let V be a n-dimensional vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vm } be a
vector set in V .
1 Choose a basis of V , say B.
2 Find (vi )B = (ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain ), ∀i = 1, m
3 Let A = [aij ]mn . Then,
r (S) = r (A)

Examples
1 In P3 [x], find the rank of the following vector set
p1 = 1 + 2x − 3x 2 + x 3 , p2 = 2 − x + x 2 − x 3 , p3 = 3 + x − 2x 2 ,
p4 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 .

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Basis of a subspace

Theorem
Let V be a vector space and S be a vector set in V . If W is a subspace
which is generated by S, then

dim W = dim Span(S) = r (S)

Examples
1 In R4 , find the dimension and a basis of subspace
W = span{v1 , v2 , v3 }, where v1 = (2; 1; −1; 3), v2 = (1; 2; 0; 1),
v3 = (5; 4; −2; 7).
2 In P3 [x], find the dimension and a basis of subspace
W = span{p1 , p2 , p3 , p4 }, where p1 = 1 + 2x − 3x 2 + x 3 ,
p2 = 2 − x + x 2 − x 3 , p3 = 3 + x − 2x 2 , p4 = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 .

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Basis of a subspace

Example
In P3 [x], given the following vectors v1 = 1 − x + 2x 2 + 3x 3 ,
v2 = 2 + x + 2x 3 , v3 = 3 + 2x 2 + 4x 3 , v4 = 5 + x + 2x 2 + 7x 3 .
Let V1 = span(v1 , v2 ), V2 = span(v3 , v4 )
a) Find the dimension and a basis of V1 + V2
b) Is vector v = 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 in V1 + V2 ?

Dr. Trung Duy Doan (SAMI) Linear Algebra March 30, 2019 36 / 36