K.KARTHIK V.BHANUPRAKASH M.

MANASA

A DISSERATION
ON
LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT
MINI PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED
JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
HYDERABAD
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF

Bachelor of Technology
In
Electronics and Communication Engineering
By
V.BHANU PRAKSH 18M91A0452
M.MANASA 18M91A0441
K. KARTHIK 19M95A0407
Under the esteemed guidance of
Mr. A. MALLAREDDY
ECE HOD

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AURORA’S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE
Aushapur (V), Ghatkesar (M), Medchal Dist - 501 301
2021-2022
1
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AURORA’S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

Aushapur (V), Ghatkesar (M), MedchalDist - 501 301

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that project report entitled "LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT" is work done and submitted
by V.BHANU PRAKASH(18M91A0452), M.MANASA(18M91A0441), K. KARTHIK(19M95A0407),
during academic year 2020-2021 for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree
of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in Electronics and Communication Engineering from AURORA'S
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INISTITUTE affiliated to JAWAHARLAL NEHRU
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, Hyderabad.

The work along with the results presented in this project report at any other place for the award of any other
degree.

PLACE: Hyderabad V BHANU PARAKSH 18M91A0452

DATE: M. MANASA 18M91A0441

K. KARTHIK 19M95A0407
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

AURORA’S SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

(Affiliated to JNTU Hyderabad Approved by AICTE, NEW DELHI)

Aushapur, Ghatkesar, Hyderabad-500088.

CERTIFICATE
This to certify that mini project report entitled “LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT” is a bonafide work done
and submitted by V.BHANU PRAKASH M.MANASA K.KARTHIK(Electronics and Communication
Engineering) 18M91A0452 18M91A0441 19M95A0407 for the Academic Year 2020 – 2022,for the
partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in
Electronics and Communication Engineering to the department of Electronics and communication
engineering AURORA’S SCIENTIFIC ANDTECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE .

Certified further to the best of our knowledge that the candidate has not submitted the work along with the
results presented in this project report at any other place for the award of any other degree.

INTERNAL GUIDE MD. SIRAJUDEEN A. MALLA REDDY

Assistant /Associate Professor, Head, Department of ECE,

ASTI, Ghatkesar. ASTI, Ghatkesar

External examiner
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to thank everyone who helped me in making my project a great success.

First of all, I would like to thank Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University for giving an
opportunity to do a project work as a part of curriculum which has beyond helped and enhanced my skills.

This thesis will certainly not be complete without due heartfelt acknowledgements paid to all those
who have helped me. I wish to express deep sense of gratitude and over whelming thanks to principal Dr.
BSV. RAMA RAO for his encouragement, kind co-operation and valuable help during the period of project
work.

It is my great privilege to acknowledge indebtedness to Asst Prof.A. Malla Reddy, in charge Head of
the Department, Electronics & Communication Engineering, ASTI, for their scholarly guidance,
constructive advice, inter-active communication and constant encouragement which proved to be yardstick
in successful completion of my project work.

Finally, I take this opportunity to express deep sense of gratitude and profound regards to the Teaching
and Non-Teaching staff, to my dear parents, my friends and all well-wishers for their kind co-operation and
timely support directly or indirectly in making this project successfully.

I whole heartedly apologize to all the unnamed and thanks them foe helping me.
 ABSTRACT:

This paper has been designed to build a Line following Robot using IR sensor to follow a designated path
which is provided and runs over it. ROBOT has sufficient intelligence to cover the maximum area of space
provided. It will move in a particular direction specified by the user to navigate the robot through a black
line marked on the white surface. Automatic parking technology has become a popular research topic.
Automatic parking technology can complete parking operations safely and quickly without a driver and can
improve driving comfort, while greatly reducing the probability of parking accidents.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ⅰ
DECLARATION ⅱ
CERTIFICATE ⅲ
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ⅳ
ABSTRACT ⅴ
TABLE OF CONTENTS ⅵ
LIST OF FIGURES ⅶ
LIST OF TABLES ⅷ

CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.2 DEFINITION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.3 FEATURES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.5 APPILICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.6 TYPES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEM

CHAPTER-2

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER-3

LITERATURE SURVEY

CHAPTER-4

SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

4.1 HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

4.2 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

CHAPTER-5

CODE AND RESULT

CONCLUSION

REFERNCES
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM

1.1 Introduction of Embedded System

Each day, our lives become more dependent on 'embedded systems', digital information technology that is
embedded in our environment. More than 98% of processors applied today are in embedded systems, and
are no longer visible to the customer as 'computers' in the ordinary sense. An Embedded System is a special-
purpose system in which the computer is completely encapsulated by or dedicated to the device or system it
controls. Unlike a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, an embedded system performs
one or a few pre-defined tasks, usually with very specific requirements. Since the system is dedicated to
specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product. Embedded
systems are often mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale. The increasing use of PC hardware is
one of the most important developments in high-end embedded systems in recent years. Hardware costs of
high-end systems have dropped dramatically as a result of this trend, making feasible some projects which
previously would not have been done because of the high cost of non-PC-based embedded hardware. But
software choices for the embedded PC platform are not nearly as attractive as the hardware.

Typically, an embedded system is housed on a single microprocessor board with the programs stored
in ROM. Virtually all appliances that have a digital interface -- watches, microwaves, VCRs, cars -- utilize
embedded systems. Some embedded systems include an operating system, but many are so specialized that
the entire logic can be implemented as a single program.

Physically, Embedded Systems range from portable devices such as digital watches and MP3 players, to
large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power
plants.

In terms of complexity embedded systems can range from very simple with a single microcontroller chip, to
very complex with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.

1.2 Definition of an Embedded System

Embedded system is defined as, For a particular/specific application implementing the software code
to interact directly with that particular hardware what we built. Software is used for providing features and
flexibility, Hardware = {Processors, ASICs, Memory,...} is used for Performance (& sometimes security)

There are many definitions of embedded system but all of these can be combined into a single
concept. An embedded system is a special purpose computer system that is used for particular task.

1.3Features of Embedded Systems

The versatility of the embedded computer system lends itself to utility in all kinds of enterprises, from the
simplification of deliverable products to a reduction in costs in their development and manufacture.
Complex systems with rich functionality employ special operating systems that take into account major
characteristics of embedded systems. Embedded operating systems have minimized footprint and may
follow real-time operating system specifics.
The special computers system is usually less powerful than general-purpose systems, although some
expectations do exist where embedded systems are very powerful and complicated. Usually a low power
consumption CPU with a limited amount of memory is used in embedded systems. Many embedded systems
use very small operating systems; most of these provide very limited operating system capabilities.

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it, reducing the size
and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-
produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Some embedded systems have to operate in extreme environment conditions such as very high temperature
& humidity.

For high volume systems such as portable music players or mobile phones, minimizing cost is usually the
primary design consideration. Engineers typically select hardware that is just “good enough” to implement
the necessary functions.

For low volume or prototype embedded systems, general purpose computers may be adapted by limiting the
programs or by replacing the operating system with a real-time operating system.

1.4 Characteristics of Embedded Systems Embedded computing systems generally exhibit rich
functionality—complex functionality is usually the reason for introducing CPUs into the design. However,
they also exhibit many non-functional requirements that make the task especially challenging:

• Real-time deadlines that will cause system failure if not met;

• Multi-rate operation;

• In many cases, low power consumption;

• Low manufacturing cost, which often means limited code size.

Workstation programmers often concentrate on functionality. They may consider the performance
characteristics of a few computational kernels of their software, but rarely analyze the total application.
They almost never consider power consumption and manufacturing cost. The need to juggle all these
requirements makes embedded system programming very challenging and is the reason why embedded
system designers need to understand computer architecture.
Overview of an Embedded System Architecture

Every Embedded system consists of a custom-built hardware built around a central processing unit. This
hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded.

The operating system runs above the hardware and the application software runs above the operating system.
The same architecture is applicable to any computer including desktop computer. However these are
significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating system in every embedded system. For
small applications such as remote-control units, air conditioners, toys etc.

1.5 Applications of Embedded Systems

Some of the most common embedded systems used in everyday life are

Small embedded controllers: 8-bit CPUs dominate, simple or no operating system

(e.g., thermostats)

Control systems: Often use DSP chip for control computations

(e.g., automotive engine control)

Distributed embedded control: Mixture of large and small nodes on a real-time

Embedded networks
 (e.g., cars, elevators, factory automation)

System on chip: ASIC design tailored to application area

(e.g., consumer electronics, set-top boxes)

Network equipment: Emphasis on data movement/packet flow

(e.g., network switches; telephone switches)

Critical systems: Safety and mission critical computing

(e.g., pacemakers, automatic trains)

Signal processing: Often use DSP chips for vision, audio, or other signal

Processing (e.g., face recognition)

Robotics: Uses various types of embedded computing (especially

Vision and control) (e.g., autonomous vehicles)

Computer peripherals: Disk drives, keyboards, laser printers, etc.

Wireless systems: Wireless network-connected “sensor networks” and

“Motes” to gather and report information

Embedded PCs: Palmtop and small form factor PCs embedded into

Equipment

Command and control: Often huge military systems and “systems of systems”

(e.g., a fleet of warships with interconnected

Computers)

Home Appliances, intercom, telephones, security systems, garage door openers, answering machines, fax
machines, home computers, TVs, cable TV tuner, VCR, camcorder, remote controls, video games, cellular
phones, musical instruments, sewing machines, lighting control, paging, camera, pinball machines, toys,
exercise equipment
Office Telephones, computers, security systems, fax machines, microwave, copier, laser printer, colour
printer, paging

Auto Trip computer, engine control, air bag, ABS, instrumentation, security system, transmission control,
entertainment, climate control, cellular phone, keyless entry

1.6 TYPES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Based on functionality and performance embedded systems categorized as 4 types

1. Stand Alone embedded systems

2. Real time embedded systems

3. Networked information appliances

4. Mobile devices

1.6.1 Stand Alone embedded systems:-

As the name implies, stand Alone systems work in standalone mode. They take i/p, process them and
produce the desire o/p. The i/p can be an electrical signal from transducer or temperature signal or
commands from human being. The o/p can be electrical signal to drive another system an led or LCD
display

ex digital camera, microwave oven, CD player, Air conditioner etc

1.6.2 Real time embedded systems:-

In this type of an embedded system a specific work has to be complete in a particular period of time.

Hard Real time systems: - embedded real time used in missiles

Soft Real time systems: - DVD players

1.6.3 Networked information appliances:-

Embedded systems that are provided with n/w interfaces and accessed by n/w such as local area n/w or
internet are called Network Information Appliances

Ex A web camera is connected to the internet. Camera can send pictures in real time to any computers
connected to the internet

1.6.4 Mobile devices:-

Actually, it is a combination of both VLSI and Embedded System

Mobile devices such as Mobile phone, Personal digital assistants, smart phones etc are special category of
embedded systems

CHAPTER 2

INTRODUCTION

Robot is a machine that is usually designed to reduce the amount of human work where it is applicable. It is
usually developed for reducing risk factor for human work and increase comfort of any worker. High
performance, high accuracy, lower labour cost and the ability to work in hazardous places have put robotics
in an advantageous position over many other such technologies. In this paper a line tracer or follower has
been presented which will trace a black line on a white surface or vice-versa. We have made use of sensors
to achieve this objective. The main component behind this robot is ATmega328 microcontroller which is a
brain of this robot. The idea proposed in this paper is by using machine vision to guide the robot We have
made a robot that has several works to perform besides following a line. This robot follows a line without
going to other direction. The construction of the robot circuit is easy and small. This can also be used in
many applications such as automatic valet parking in efficient way. The rapid increase in urban car
ownership not only increases the burden of urban traffic but also exacerbates the problem of insufficient
parking spaces. The increased driving distance in the parking process increases energy consumption and
exacerbates parking difficulties, which increasing the number of minor accidents, such as scuffing and
collisions.

Line follower is a machine that can follow a path. The path can be visible like a black line on a white
surface. Sensing a line and maneuvering the robot to stay on course, while constantly correcting wrong
moves using feedback from the sensor forms a simple yet effective system. It can be used in automobile,
industrial automations, guidance, etc [1].

As technology becomes increasingly important in today's world, it is invaluable to not only learn how to use
technology, but also to understand how to create it. Since being the engineer one should have sound
knowledge of the other discipline. Most of the projects have limited scope to only specific discipline. This
would limit ones innovation and creativity. This project inspires to make connections across several
disciplines rather than learning topics in isolation as it combines mechanical, electronic, electrical and
programming skills.

 It gives visual grasp of math and science.

 It builds logical thinking.

 It brings out innovation and creativity.

 It enhances problem solving skills. The robot designed in a such way that it not only track the path and
follow it but also visualize the distance travelled through the LCD displays.
How ants always travel in a line, following ani invisible route in search of food, or back home. How on
roads the lanes is followed to avoid accidents and traffic jams. Ever thought about a robot which follows
line? A perfect or near perfect mimic of nature? After all the purpose of robotics is to recreate in terms of
machines what one see around to solve a problem or full-fill a requirement. The area will be benefitted from
the project

 Industrial automated equipment carriers

 Entertainment and small household applications.

 Tour guides in museums and other similar applications.

 Second wave reconnaissance operations.

This app note focuses on making an educational kit to demonstrate the effect of a PID controller on the
response of a DC motor trying to reach a specific position, in this case the zero position. The educational kit
also can modify the PID control to adjust the motor speed to reach a specific desired speed, regardless of any
reasonable load on the motor. The system is divided into three main parts: 1. A rotary encoder, which relays
the position of the DC motor shaft as an Analog signal to be fed to the Analog PID controller. This will be
done using the Dialog GreenPAK SLG46621 programmable mixed-signal matrix IC. 2. An Analog PID
controller with 3 potentiometers to control PID parameters. This takes an Analog signal given from a point
and sets the point as the zero position. This part then outputs an Analog signal which controls the speed of
the motor. This signal is not yet a PWM signal. This part of the system uses the quad op-amp SLG88104. 3.
A PWM generator that takes the Analog signal that controls the speed of the motor and feeds it to the PWM
block in our system. It then feeds the PWM block output to the motor driver to adjust the motor shaft to the
desired position. Note that the direction of the motor is already known from the encoder feedback signals
from part 1. Typically, microcontrollers are used to implement PID controllers. They receive the input
pulses from the encoder, then feed them through a control algorithm to output the motor speed. However,
this requires software development and it can require a lot of time and money to develop a reliable system.
A GreenPAK implementation doesn't require any software development or additional advanced hardware.
Software-based PID has limitations depending upon which microcontroller you use. Conversely, hardware
PID gives you more reliable control upon any parameter you want affecting your response, but hardware is
typically harder to adjust.
Generally, the line follower robot is one of the selfoperating mobile machines that follows a line drawn on
the floor. The path can be a visible black line on a white surface (reverse). The basic operations of the line
follower are as follows:

• Capturing the line position with optical sensors mounted at the front end of the robot. Most are using
several numbers of photo-reflectors. Therefore, the line sensing process requires high resolution and high
robustness.

• Steering the robot to track the line with any steering mechanism. This is just a servo operation; actually,
any phase compensation will be required to stabilize tracking motion by applying digital PID filter or any
other servo algorithm.

• Controlling the speed according to the lane condition. The speed is limited during passing a curve due to
the friction of the tire and the floor.

This kind of robot can be used for military purposes, delivery services, transportation systems, blind
assistive applications. Moreover, there are many annual line follower robots competitions organized by
universities or industries around the world. They usually ask robotic teams for building a small robot with
specific dimensions and weight according to the competition rules.

Navigation technology to guide a mobile robot is essential for the realization of independent locomotion of
mobile robots as well as for construction of the locomotion mechanism and robot control. The basic
technology is designed in such a way as to enable correct tracing of a designated path. Owing to its mobility,
the control of mobile robots is different from finger-tip trajectory control of a manipulator which has a base
point in the working space. To inhibit deviation from the given path the base point must be set in the
environment. For example, induction cables [ I ] and metal tapes [2] are used as base points for unmanned
carrier carts used in factories and warehouses. Methods that provide stationary base points have the
disadvantage that equipment built into the floor has less navigational flexibility and a large initial investment
is required to construct the path route. In addition, the guidance method, which uses interior sensors such as
encoders installed in the wheels, cannot be used independently except for short-range applications in which
deviation is allowed because this method cannot prevent deviation. A mobile system with higher
independence [3-6], in which the robot navigates determining base points by recognition of its own
environment, is ideal, but present pattern recognition technology does not enable the realization of such a
system. On the basis of the present technological situation mentioned above, we have proposed a navigation
system [7] that uses rectangular, monocolored tape called"landmark" installed on the floor. The layout is
given to the robot as environmental information (map). Optical sensor detection enables navigational errors
to be corrected and the position to be recognized. This method intends to solve the problems of the two
systems by combining locomotion control between landmarks using interior sensors, and correcting
navigational errors from the target path route at landmark base points. Although the shape of the landmarks
is simple, the use of artificial objects requires equipment investment for the environment. Therefore, we
propose in this paper a navigation system, developed from the distributed landmark system, which senses
and uses cylindrical objects and flat faces of buildings in the environment instead of artificial objects. We
attempt to verify the procedure experimentally using a test robot with encoders as interior sensors, which
determine the steering angles and turning angles of the wheels, and ultrasonic sensors as exterior sensors.
Herein, we focus on the essential points of the system: (a) the use of interior sensors to enable navigation
between two points; (b) exterior sensors to detect cylindrical and flat face objects; and (c) information to
correct navigational deviations.
 CHAPTER 3

LITERATURE SURVEY

1. Project on LINE FOLLOWING ROBOT:

Line Following is one of the most important aspects of robotics. A Line Following Robot is an
autonomous robot which is able to follow either a black line that is drawn on the surface consisting
of a contrasting color. It is designed to move automatically and follow the line. The robot uses arrays
of optical sensors to identify the line, thus assisting the robot to stay on the track. The array of four
sensor makes its movement precise and flexible. The robot is driven by DC gear motors to control
the movement of the wheels. The Arduino Uno interface is used to perform and implement
algorithms to control the speed of the motors, steering the robot to travel along the line
smoothly.This project aims to implement the algorithm and control the movement of the robot by
proper tuning of the control parameters and thus achieve better performance.In addition the LCD
interface is added in order to display the distance travelled by the robot. It can be used industrial
automated equipment carriers, small household applications, tour guides in museums and other
similar applications, etc.
2. Application Note Position and Speed Control of a DC Motor using Analog PID Controller:
This is a demonstration of how to implement an analog PID controller controlling: the angular
position of a DC motor shaft then editing the design to control its speed as well as tuning PID
parameters for reliable performance. This application note comes complete with design files which
can be found in the References section.
3. A Line Follower Robot from design to Implementation: Technical issues and problems:
the Line follower robot is a mobile machine that can detect and follow the line drawn on the floor.
Generally, the path is predefined and can be either visible like a black line on a white surface with a
high contrasted color or it can be invisible like a magnetic field. Therefore, this kind of Robot should
sense the line with its Infrared Ray (IR) sensors that installed under the robot. After that, the data is
 transmitted to the processor by specific transition buses. Hence, the processor is going to decide the
proper commands and then it sends them to the driver and thus the path will be followed by the line
follower robot. TABAR is a line follower robot designed and tested in order to attend at Tabrize line
follower robots competition. But it encounter with some technical and mechanical problems. In this
Paper, we have illustrated the process of design, implementation and testing TABAR, a small line
follower robot designed for the line follower robots competition. The technical and mechanical
issues and problems also have investigated.
4. A method of autonomous locomotion for mobile robots:
A navigation method is presented which enables a mobile robot to perform autonomous locomotion.
The feasibility of this method was demonstrated using experimental hardware_a prototype robot with
ultrasonic sensors. This method uses objects of simple shape, such as poles and flat surfaces of walls
selected from the environment, as landmarks and a map which indicates the relations of these
landmarks. The robot moves from a given point to another along a designated path using its sensors.
At each point it measures the positions of the objects selected as landmarks and corrects its path. The
following basic problems encountered in realizing this method are discussed: (a) path design
connecting two points in the environment; (b) the control ofthe robot's path; (c) measurement ofthe
objects' positions using an ultrasonic sensor; and (d) correction of error from the designated path. To
navigate a mobile robot it is necessary to be able to control it so that a specified path is followed
accurately. Since absolute positional information is not available, the mobile robot must obtain
accurate positional data from its surroundings. The method uses natural objects to gain such
information. Its advantages include: (a) reduction in the investment of equipment for the supply of
positional data; and (b) simplification of the object detection problem by giving information on the
objects.
 CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

Power supply

Ir sensor 1

L293d Motor
Ir sensor 2
Arduino

Hardware requirements:

 Power supply
  Arduino
 Ir sensor
 L293d
 Motor

Power supply:

Regulated power supply section

In mains-supplied electronic systems the AC input voltage must be converted into a DC voltage with the
right value and degree of stabilization. In these basic configurations the peak voltage across the load is equal
to the peak value of the AC voltage supplied by the transformer’s secondary winding. For most applications
the output ripple produced by these circuits is too high. However, for some applications - driving small
motors or lamps, for example - they are satisfactory. If a filter capacitor is added after the rectifier diodes the
output voltage waveform is improved considerably. The section b-c is a straight line. During this time it is
the filter capacitor that supplies the load current.

The slope of this line increases as the current increases, bringing point c lower. Consequently the diode
conduction time (c-d) increases, increasing ripple. With zero load current the DC output voltage is equal to
the peak value of the rectified AC voltage. Figure shows how to obtain positive and negative outputs
referred to a common ground. In particular they are helpful in determining the voltage ripple for a given load
current and filter capacitor value. The value of the voltage ripple obtained is directly proportional to the load
current and inversely proportional to the filter capacitor value. The performance of a supply commonly used
in consumer applications – in audio amplifiers.

Often the degree of stability provided by the circuits described above is insufficient and a stabilizer
circuit is needed. This circuit is often used as a reference voltage to apply to the base of a transistor of to the
input of an op amp to obtain higher output current. The simplest example of a series regulator is shown in
Figure. In this circuit the transistor is connected as a voltage follower and the output voltage is about 600 -
700mV lower than the zener voltage.

The resistor R must be dimensioned so that the zener is correctly biased and that sufficient base current
is supplied to the base of Q1. For high load currents the base current of Q1 is no longer negligible. To avoid
that the current in the zener drops to the point where effective regulation is not possible a Darlington may be
used in place of the transistor. When better performance is required the op amp circuit shown in Figure is
recommended. In this circuit the output voltage is equal to the reference voltage applied to the input of the
op amp. With a suitable output buffer higher currents can be obtained. The output voltage of the Figure 14
circuit can be varied by adding a variable divider in parallel with the zener diode and with its wiper
connected to the op amp’s input.

The design of stabilized supplies has been simplified dramatically by the introduction of voltage
regulator ICs such as the L78xx and L79xx - three-terminal series regulators which provide a very stable
output and include current limiter and thermal protection functions. Regulated power supply is mainly used
to providing power to this project because it is providing regulated dc power and it converts 220v ac supply
into regulated dc power of 5v, 9v, 12v, 15v etc. Regulated power supply consists of step down transformer,
bridge rectifier which is combination of 4 diodes connected in bridge shape. Bridge rectifier has the
maximum efficiency and it is best than other rectifiers that’s why we prefer it. This rectifier converts ac into
pulsating dc. After rectifier filter circuit is employed, usually capacitor in parallel is used as filter or we can
use number of capacitors in parallel and number of inductors in series. All these filters are low pass filters as
we required dc at the o/p. Then after capacitor voltage regulator is used for observing the pure dc o/p. We
can use various voltage regulators for obtaining pure dc o/p but we prefer 78xx series voltage regulators as
they are simpler, cheaper and easier than others.

Fig. 2.1: Circuit diagram of regulated power supply section

1) AC Input: This is the input supply from the public utility where the device will be energized. It is also
supplied directly to the relay contacts in the device which connects the load to the supply when the supply is
within 200V – 240V range.
(2) Step down transformer: It steps down the AC supply into 5v on the secondary side. It is therefore a
230/5 v transformer. Any change in the primary reflects in the secondary of the transformer. So any
fluctuations in the input are also reflected as a fluctuation in the output.
(3) Rectifier: A center tapped transformer, with four diodes for full wave rectification is used to convert the

ac voltage to a pulsating dc voltage followed by a filter, comprising of a capacitor to filter out (smooth) the
pulsation. After the rectification and smoothening, a sample of the output voltage is fed to the micro
controller. This voltage is unregulated and therefore varies as the input mains voltage varies. Since the
system is to prevent against over voltage, the transformer was designed and the windings were so selected
for the device to be able to sense and withstand input mains voltage up to 600Vac.

Arduino:

Introduction to the Arduino Board

The Arduino is a family of microcontroller boards to simplify electronic design, prototyping and
experimenting for artists, hackers, hobbyists, but also many professionals. People use it as brains for their
robots, to build new digital music instruments, or to build a system that lets your house plants tweet you
when they’re dry. Arduinos (we use the standard Arduino Uno) are built around an ATmega microcontroller
essentially a complete computer with CPU, RAM, Flash memory, and input/output pins, all on a single chip.
Unlike, say, a Raspberry Pi, it’s designed to attach all kinds of sensors, LEDs, small motors and speakers,
servos, etc. directly to these pins, which can read in or output digital or analog voltages between 0 and 5
volts. The Arduino connects to your computer via USB, where you program it in a simple language (C/C++,
similar to Java) from inside the free Arduino IDE by uploading your compiled code to the board. Once
programmed, the Arduino can run with the USB link back to your computer, or stand-alone without it no
keyboard or screen needed, just power.
 Figure Structure of Arduino Board

Figure: Arduino Board

Looking at the board from the top down, this is an outline of what you will see (parts of the board
you might interact with in the course of normal use are highlighted).

Starting clockwise from the top center:

➢ Analog Reference pin (orange)

➢ Digital Ground (light green)

➢ Digital Pins 2-13 (green)

➢ Digital Pins 0-1/Serial In/Out - TX/RX (dark green) - These pins cannot be used for digital i/o
(DigitalRead and DigitalWrite) if you are also using serial communication (e.g. Serial.begin).

➢ Reset Button - S1 (dark blue)

➢ In-circuit Serial Programmer (blue-green)

➢ Analog In Pins 0-5 (light blue)

➢ Power and Ground Pins (power: orange, grounds: light orange)

➢ External Power Supply In (9-12VDC) - X1 (pink)

➢ Toggles External Power and USB Power (place jumper on two pins closest to desired supply) - SV1
(purple)

➢ USB (used for uploading sketches to the board and for serial communication between the board and
the computer; can be used to power the board) (yellow)
Digital Pins

In addition to the specific functions listed below, the digital pins on an Arduino board can
be used for general purpose input and output via the pin Mode(),Digital Read(),and
DigitalWrite()commands. Each pinhas an internal pull-up resistor which can be turned on and
off using digitalWrite() (w/ a value of HIGH or LOW, respectively) when the pin is
configured as an input. The maximum current per pin is 40mA.

➢ Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data.
On the ArduinoDiecimila, these pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the
FTDI USB-to-TTL Serial chip. On the Arduino BT, they are connected to the
corresponding pins of the WT11Bluetooth module. On the Arduino Mini and LilyPad
Arduino, they are intended for use with an external TTL serial module (e.g. the Mini-
USB Adapter).

➢ External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on

a low value, arising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach Interrupt()
function for details.

➢ PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11 Provide 8-bit PWM output with theanalog

Write()function.On boardswith an ATmega8, PWM output is available only on pins
9, 10, and 11.

➢ BT Reset: 7.(Arduino BT-only) Connected to the reset line of the bluetooth module.

➢ SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communication, which,although provided by the underlying hardware, is not
currently included in the Arduino language.

➢ LED: 13. On the Diecimila and LilyPad, there is a built-in LED connected to digital
pin 13. Whenthe pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

Analog Pins
 In addition to the specific functions listed below, the analog input pins support 10-bit
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) using the analog Read()function. Most of the analog
inputs can also be used as digital pins: analog input 0 as digital pin 14 through analog input 5
as digital pin 19. Analog inputs 6 and 7 (present on the Mini and BT) cannot be used as
digital pins.

Power Pins:
➢ VIN (sometimes labeled "9V"): The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's
using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or
other regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin. Also note that the
Lily Pad has no VIN pin and accepts only a regulated input.5V: The regulated power
supply used to power the microcontroller and other components on the board. This
can come either from VIN via an on-board regulator, or be supplied by USB or
another regulated 5V supply.

➢ 3V3 (Diecimila-only) :A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board FTDI chip.
➢ GND:Ground pins.

Other Pins
➢ AREF:Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog reference().

Reset: (Diecimila-only) Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to
add are set button to shields which block the one on the board.

Ir sensor:

An infrared sensor is an electronic device, that emits in order to sense some aspects of
the surroundings. An IR sensor can measure the heat of an object as well as detects the
motion. These types of sensors measures only infrared radiation, rather than emitting it that is
called as a passive IR sensor. Usually in the infrared spectrum, all the objects radiate some
form of thermal radiations. These types of radiations are  invisible to our eyes, that can be
detected by an infrared sensor. The emitter is simply an IR LED ( Light Emitting Diode) and
the detector is simply an IR photodiode which is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength
as that emitted by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, The resistances and
these output voltages, change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.

IR Sensor Circuit Diagram and Working Principle

An infrared  sensor circuit is one of the basic and popular sensor module in an electronic
device. This sensor is analogous to human’s visionary senses, which can be used to detect
obstacles and it is one of the common applications in real time. This circuit comprises of the
following components
 LM358 IC 2 IR transmitter and receiver pair
 Resistors of the range of kilo ohms.
 Variable resistors.
 LED (Light Emitting Diode).

In this project, the transmitter section includes an IR sensor, which transmits

continuous IR rays to be received by an IR receiver module. An IR output terminal of the
receiver varies depending upon its receiving of IR rays. Since this variation cannot be
analyzed as such, therefore this output can be fed to a comparator circuit. Here an operational
amplifier (op-amp) of LM 339 is used as comparator circuit.
When the IR receiver does not receive a signal, the potential at the inverting input
goes higher than that non-inverting input of the comparator IC (LM339). Thus the output of
the comparator goes low, but the LED does not glow. When the IR receiver module receives
signal to the potential at the inverting input goes low. Thus the output of the comparator (LM
339) goes high and the LED starts glowing. Resistor R1 (100 ), R2 (10k ) and R3 (330) are
used to ensure that minimum 10 mA current passes through the IR LED Devices like
Photodiode and normal LEDs respectively. Resistor VR2 (preset=5k ) is used to adjust the
output terminals. Resistor VR1 (preset=10k ) is used to set the sensitivity of the circuit
Diagram. Read more about IR sensors.

Different Types of IR Sensors and Their Applications

IR sensors are classified into different types depending on the applications. Some of
the typical applications of different types of sensors are
The speed sensor is used for synchronizing the speed of multiple motors. The temperature
sensor is used for industrial temperature control. PIR sensor is used for automatic door
opening system and  Ultrasonic sensor are used for distance measurement.
IR Sensor Applications

IR sensors are used in various Sensor based projects and also in various electronic devices
which measures the temperature that are discussed in the below.
Radiation Thermometers

IR sensors are used in radiation thermometers to measure the temperature depend upon the
temperature and the material of the object and these thermometers have some of the
following features

 Measurement without direct contact with the object

 Faster response
 Easy pattern measurements
Flame Monitors

These types of devices are used for detecting the light emitted from the flames and to monitor
how the flames are burning. The Light emitted from flames extend from UV to IR region
types. PbS, PbSe, Two-color detector, pyro electric detector are some of the commonly
employed detector used in flame monitors.

Moisture Analyzers

Moisture analyzers use wavelengths which are absorbed by the moisture in the IR region.
Objects are irradiated with light having these wavelengths(1.1 µm, 1.4 µm, 1.9 µm, and
2.7µm) and also with reference wavelengths. The Lights reflected from the objects depend
upon the moisture content and is detected by analyzer to measure moisture (ratio of reflected
light at these wavelengths to the reflected light at reference wavelength). In GaAs PIN
photodiodes, Pbs photoconductive detectors are employed in moisture analyzer circuits.

Gas Analyzers

IR sensors are used in gas analyzers which use absorption characteristics of gases in the IR
region. Two types of methods are used to measure the density of gas such as dispersive and
non dispersive.

Dispersive: An Emitted light is spectroscopically divided and their absorption characteristics

are used to analyze the gas ingredients and the sample quantity.
Non dispersive: It is most commonly used method and it uses absorption characteristics
without dividing the emitted light. Non dispersive types use discrete optical band pass filters,
similar to sunglasses that are used for eye protection to filter out unwanted UV radiation.
This type of configuration is commonly referred to as non dispersive infrared (NDIR)
technology. This type of analyzer is used for carbonated drinks, whereas non dispersive
analyzer is used in most of the commercial IR instruments, for an automobile exhaust gas fuel
leakages.

IR Imaging Devices

IR image device is one of the major applications of IR waves, primarily by virtue of its
property that is not visible. It is used for thermal imagers, night vision devices, etc.

IR Imaging Devices

For examples Water, rocks, soil, vegetation, an atmosphere, and human tissue all features
emit IR radiation. The Thermal infrared detectors measure these radiations in IR range and
map the spatial temperature distributions of the object/area on an image. Thermal imagers
usually composed of a Sb (indium antimonite), Gd Hg (mercury-doped germanium), Hg Cd
Te (mercury-cadmium-telluride) sensors.

An electronic detector is cooled to low temperatures using liquid helium or liquid nitrogen’s.  Then
the Cooling the detectors ensures that the radiant energy (photons) recorded by the detectors comes
from the terrain and not from the ambient temperature of objects within the scanner itself an IR
imaging electronic devices.

L293d driver:

L293D is a typical Motor driver or Motor Driver IC which allows DC motor to drive
on either direction. L293D is a 16-pin IC which can control a set of two DC motors
simultaneously in any direction. It means that you can control two DC motor with a single
L293D IC. Dual H-bridge Motor Driver integrated circuit (IC).

The l293d can drive small and quiet big motors as well, check the Voltage Specification at
the end of this page for more info.

Concept:

It works on the concept of H-bridge. H-bridge is a circuit which allows the voltage to
be flown in either direction. As you know voltage need to change its direction for being able
to rotate the motor in clockwise or anticlockwise direction, hence H-bridge IC are ideal for
driving a DC motor.
 In a single L293D chip there are two h-Bridge circuit inside the IC which can rotate
two dc motor independently. Due its size it is very much used in robotic application for
controlling DC motors. Given below is the pin diagram of a L293D motor controller.

There are two Enable pins on l293d. Pin 1 and pin 9, for being able to drive the motor,
the pin 1 and 9 need to be high. For driving the motor with left H-bridge you need to enable
pin 1 to high. And for right H-Bridge you need to make the pin 9 to high. If anyone of the
either pin1 or pin9 goes low then the motor in the corresponding section will suspend
working. It’s like a switch.

TIP: you can simply connect the pin16 VCC (5v) to pin 1 and pin 9 to make them high.

 
Working of L293D

There are 4 input pins for l293d, pin 2,7 on the left and pin 15 ,10 on the right as
shown on the pin diagram. Left input pins will regulate the rotation of motor connected
across left side and right input for motor on the right hand side. The motors are rotated on the
basis of the inputs provided across the input pins as LOGIC 0 or LOGIC 1.

In simple you need to provide Logic 0 or 1 across the input pins for rotating the motor.

L293D Logic Table.

Let’s consider a Motor connected on left side output pins (pin 3,6). For rotating the
motor in clockwise direction the input pins has to be provided with Logic 1 and Logic 0.   

• Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Clockwise Direction

• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Anticlockwise Direction
• Pin 2 = Logic 0 and Pin 7 = Logic 0 | Idle [No rotation] [Hi-Impedance state]
• Pin 2 = Logic 1 and Pin 7 = Logic 1 | Idle [No rotation]

In a very similar way the motor can also operate across input pin 15, 10 for motor on the right
hand side.
Voltage Specification

VCC is the voltage that it needs for its own internal operation 5v; L293D will not use
this voltage for driving the motor. For driving the motors it has a separate provision to
provide motor supply VSS (V supply).  L293d will use this to drive the motor. It means if
you want to operate a motor at 9V then you need to provide a Supply of 9V across VSS
Motor supply.

The maximum voltage for VSS motor supply is 36V. It can supply a max current of 600mA
per channel. Since it can drive motors Up to 36v hence you can drive pretty big motors with
this l293d.

VCC pin 16 is the voltage for its own internal Operation. The maximum voltage ranges from 5v and
upto 36v.

Motor:

DC motors like this are great for battery-powered toys (things like model trains, radio-
controlled cars, or electric shavers), but you don't find them in many household appliances.
Small appliances (things like coffee grinders or electric food blenders) tend to use what are
called universal motors, which can be powered by either AC or DC. Unlike a simple DC
motor, a universal motor has an electromagnet, instead of a permanent magnet, and it takes its
power from the DC or AC power you feed in:

 When you feed in DC, the electromagnet works like a conventional permanent
magnet and produces a magnetic field that's always pointing in the same direction.
The commutator reverses the coil current every time the coil flips over, just like in a
simple DC motor, so the coil always spins in the same direction.
 When you feed in AC, however, the current flowing through the electromagnet and
the current flowing through the coil both reverse, exactly in step, so the force on the
coil is always in the same direction and the motor always spins either clockwise or
counter-clockwise. What about the commutator? The frequency of the current
changes much faster than the motor rotates and, because the field and the current are
always in step, it doesn't actually matter what position the commutator is in at any
given moment.

There are two ways to overcome this problem. One is to use a kind of electric current that
periodically reverses direction, which is known as an alternating current (AC). In the kind of
small, battery-powered motors we use around the home, a better solution is to add a
component called a commutator to the ends of the coil. (Don't worry about the meaningless
technical name: this slightly old-fashioned word "commutation" is a bit like the word
"commute".
It simply means to change back and forth in the same way that commute means to
travel back and forth.) In its simplest form, the commutator is a metal ring divided into two
separate halves and its job is to reverse the electric current in the coil each time the coil
rotates through half a turn. One end of the coil is attached to each half of the commutator.
The electric current from the battery connects to the motor's electric terminals.
These feed electric power into the commutator through a pair of loose connectors called brushes,
made either from pieces of  graphite (soft carbon similar to pencil "lead") or thin lengths of springy
metal, which (as the name suggests) "brush" against the commutator. With the commutator in place,
when electricity flows through the circuit, the coil will rotate continually in the same direction.

Software requirements:

Download Arduino Software

You’ll need to download the Arduino Software package for your operating system from
the Arduino download page.

When you’ve downloaded and opened the application you should see something like this:
This is where you type the code you want to compile and send to the Arduino board.

The Initial Setup

We need to setup the environment to Tools menu and select Board.

Tools Menu < Board

Then select the type of Arduino you want to program, in our case it’s the Arduino Uno.
 Arduino Uno

The Code
The code you write for your Arduino are known as sketches. They are written in C+
+.
Every sketch needs two void type functions, setup() and loop(). A void type function doesn’t
return any value.
The setup() method is ran once at the just after the Arduino is powered up and
the loop() method is ran continuously afterwards. The setup() is where you want to do any
initialisation steps, and in loop() you want to run the code you want to run over and over
again.

So, your basic sketch or program should look like this:

1
2
void setup()
3
{
4
}
5
void loop()
6
{
7
}
8
9

If you notice on the top edge of the board there’s two black rectangles with several
squares in. These are called headers. Headers make it easy to connect components to the the
Arduino. Where they connect to the board is called pins. Knowing what pin something is
connected to is essential for programming an Arduino.

The pin numbers are listed next to the headers on the board in white.

The onboard LED we want to control is on pin 13.

In our code above the setup() method let’s create a variable called ledPin. In C++ we

need to state why type our variable is before hand, in this case it’s an integer, so it’s of
type int.

int ledPin = 13;

void setup()
{
}
void loop()
{
}

Each line is ended with a semicolon (;).

In the setup() method we want to set the ledPin to the output mode. We do this by
calling a special function called pinMode() which takes two variables, the first the pin number,
and second, whether it’s an input or output pin. Since we’re dealing with an output we need
to set it to a constant called OUTPUT. If you were working with a sensor or input it would
be INPUT.
 1
2
int ledPin = 13;
3
void setup()
4
{
5
pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
6
}
7
void loop()
8
{
9
}
10
11

Next we want to compile to machine code and deploy or upload it to the Arduino.
Compiling the Code
If this is your first time you’ve ever compiled code to your Arduino before plugging it in to
the computer go to the Tools menu, then Serial Port and take note of what appears there.

Here’s what mine looks like before plugging in the Arduino UNO:

Plug your Arduino UNO board in to the USB cable and into your computer. Now go back to
the Tools > Serial Portmenu and you should see at least 1 new option. On my Mac 2 new
serial ports appear.

They tty and cu are two ways that computers can talk over a serial port. Both seem to work
with the Arduino software so I selected the tty.* one. On Windows you should
see COM followed by a number. Select the new one that appears.
Once you have selected your serial or COM port you can then press the button with the arrow
pointing to the right.

Once that happens you should see the TX and RX LEDs below the L LED flash. This
is the communication going on between the computer and the Arduino. The L may flicker
too. Once this dance is complete your program should be running. And your LED should be
off.
Now let’s try and switch it on using the HIGH constant.
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

 WITHOUT WORKING

WITH WORKING

Conclusion:

The Robot follows a specific line path simultaneously. This line follower robot with multiple
modes compatibility works perfectly fine as it is designed to do .And thus attempt will be
made to solve the unplanned and unauthorised parking problems in the resident area using
prototype valet parking robot. The slot type and state of the slot will been identified using
Sharp IR Sensor. And simultaneously we can perform the operation of Buzzer beep
operation, object identification, Lcd display, robot direction control operation and will finally
execute parking near to the end.
 ADVANTAGES:
 Robot movement is automotic.

 Fit and Forget systems.

 Used for long distances applications.

 Defense applications.

 Used in home, industrial, automation.

 Cost effective.

 Simplicity of building.

APPLICATIONS
• Industrial automated equipment carriers.

• Automted cars.

• Tour guides in musems and other similar applications.

• Deliver the mail within the office building.

• Deliver medications in a hospital.

• Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc..

• Industrial applications.

Home applications

FUTURE SCOPE
• Software control of the line type(dark or light)to make automation detection
possible.

• “Obstacle detecting sensors” to avouid physical obstacles and cobntinue on the

line.

• Distance sensing and position logging & transmission

References:

[1] Line follower robot. Retrieved from http://www.engineersgarage.Com/contribution /line-

follower- robot

[2] How to make a line follower robot. Retrieved from http://www.instructables. Com /id/

[3] Retrived from circuitstoday.com www.duino4projects.com, techfeasta.com,

[4] Mobile Robot. Retrieved From https ://en.wikipedia. org/wiki /Mobile_ robot

[5] letsmakerobots.com
 APPENDIX

#define LS 2 // left sensor

#define RS 3 // right sensor

/-------defining Outputs------/

#define LM1 4 // left motor

#define LM2 5 // left motor

 #define RM1 6 // right motor

#define RM2 7 // right motor

void setup()

pinMode(LS, INPUT);

pinMode(RS, INPUT);

pinMode(LM1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(LM2, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RM1, OUTPUT);

pinMode(RM2, OUTPUT);

void loop()

if(digitalRead(LS) && digitalRead(RS)) // Move Forward

digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);

if(!(digitalRead(LS)) && digitalRead(RS)) // Turn right

 {

digitalWrite(LM1, LOW);

digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);

if(digitalRead(LS) && !(digitalRead(RS))) // turn left

digitalWrite(LM1, HIGH);

digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM1, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);

if(!(digitalRead(LS)) && !(digitalRead(RS))) // stop

digitalWrite(LM1, LOW);

digitalWrite(LM2, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM1, LOW);

digitalWrite(RM2, LOW);