COIMBATORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University)

COIMBATORE – 641014

RECORD – CUM – OBSERVATION BOOK

19CEL36 – STRENGTH OF MATERIAL LABORATORY

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2021-2022

DEPARTMENT OF CIVL ENGINEERING
 COIMBATORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University)

COIMBATORE – 641014

RECORD – CUM – OBSERVATION BOOK

19CEL36 – STRENGTH OF MATERIAL LABORATORY

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2021-2022

REGISTER NO

NAME: SEMESTER:
BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING SECTION:
 COIMBATORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(An Autonomous Institution Affiliated to Anna University)

COIMBATORE – 641014

LABORATORY RECORD

19CEL36 – STRENGTH OF MATERIAL LABORATORY

REGISTER NO

NAME: SEMESTER:
BRANCH: CIVIL ENGINEERING SECTION:

CERTIFIED THAT THE BONAFIDE RECORD OF WORK DONE BY

Mr. / Ms. ……………………………………………………………………………….

PLACE: COIMBATORE – 14

DATE: FACULTY IN-CHARGE

SUBMITTED FOR THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION HELD ON ……………

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Tests on metals
1. TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

2. SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

3. HARDNESS TEST – BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER

4. HARDNESS TEST – ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER

5. IMPACT FLEXURE TEST ON METALS

6. TEST ON HELICAL SPRING

7. TORSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

8. FLEXURE TEST ON FIXED AND CANTILEVER BEAMS

Tests on Timber
9. DEFLECTION TEST OF WOODEN BEAMS

10. TEST ON WOOD – WOOD UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Tests on Brick
11. COMPRESSION TEST,WATER ABSORBTION,EFFLORESCENCE ON BRICK

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Observations and Calculations

Trail 1 = mm
Diameter of the bar Trail 2 = mm
Trail 3 = mm

Average value of the diameter = (d) = mm

Area of the cross section =A =πd2/4 = mm2
Original length of rod between grips =L = mm
Gauge length of the extensometer =I = mm

Least count of the extensometer = mm = 0.01 mm

LOAD EXTENSOMETER EXTENSION

IN TONS READING IN mm
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0

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Ex. No.:
Date:
TENSION TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD
Aim:
To conduct a tension on the given mild steel rod in the universal testing
machine and to study the various properties of the material.

Equipment required:
Universal Testing machine, extensometer vernier calipers, measuring scale, graph
sheet etc.
Procedure:The diameter of the given rod in two transverse directions at right angles
is measured accurately in three places with vernier calipers. The average value of
the diameter is found out. Two punch marks at a distance of 30cm in between are
made on the given bar, leaving equal lengths at the ends for gripping. A suitable
range(l/0-range) is selected and for that selected range the pendulum of the
universal testing machine is adjusted. The dial of the U.T.M is rotated to read exactly
zero.
The given rod is fixed in the tension grips of the U.T.M such that the top and
the bottom punch marks already made, exactly coincide with the bottom and top of
the wedge grips respectively. Care is taken to see that the rod is fixed vertically. Now
the distance between the grips also measures exactly 30cm. the pencil pointer is
now set on the origin of the graph sheet.
The extensometer is fixed to the rod centrally after noting down the gauge
length and the least count. The dial of the extensometer is rotated if necessary to
give a zero reading. Then the specimen is subjected to a gradually increasing load,
by opening the valve slowly. The extensometer readings are taken for corresponding
loads at intervals of 0.2 tons up to 2 tons. As the load applied on the bar reaches two
tones, the extensometer is taken out. The specimen is loaded further until breaking.
As the material crosses elastic limit and reaches the yield point, for no
increase in load, there will be notable elongation. The load at this point is noted
down as the "Yield Point Load" (In some cases actually there will be a decrease in
load and in such instance both upper and lower yield points are noted).further the

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ultimate load at breaking point are also noted. The specimen after breaking is
removed from the grips, and also the graph sheet from the automatic recorder drum.
From the graph drawn

Increase in load between load considered P = ton = N

Stress developed due to this increases (P/A) = N/mm2

The corresponding extension δl = mm

Hence the strain produced δl/l =

Young's Modulus of elasticity (stress/strain) = N/mm2

From the graph give n by the U.T.M.

Load at elastic limit P = t = N

Stress at elastic limit P/A = N/mm2

Load at yield point P = t = N

Yield Stress P/A = N/mm2 =

Maximum load P = t = N

Ultimate stress P/A = = N/mm2

Load at breaking P = t = N

Diameter of the bar at the neck d1 = mm

Area of C.S at the neck,A1=πd12/4 = mm2

Nominal breaking stress = = N/mm2

Actual breaking stress = = N/mm2

Length of bar after breaking = L1 = mm

% elongation in length = x 100 = %

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Percentage reduction in area of C.S = x 100 = %

Proof resilience = = N.mm

Work done in breaking the specimen = area under load extension curve

= N.mm

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At the breaking point, a reduction in area is effected,in other words a neck is

formed which characterizes mild steel as a ductile material .the diameter of the rod at
the neck is measured in order to find out the percentage reduction in area.Both the
broken parts are kept together, and the length of the rod between the punch marks is
measured, to find the percentage elongation.From the observations taken and
observed from the load extension diagram, the various calculations are made as
shown, and the results are given below. To find the Young's modulus of elasticity
separate graph is drawn as mentioned below.
Graph
With readings taken from the extensometer, a graph connecting load Vs
extension is plotted to a suitable scale. This is found to be a straight line passing
through origin. Any two points in the graph are chosen. The increase in load between
the points and the corresponding extension are noted. From these the Young's
modulus of elasticity is calculated.

STRESS –STRAIN CURVE FOR MILD STEEL

Where,
P– Proportional Limit
E – Elastic limit
YU – Upper Yield Point
YL – Lower Yield Point
S – Ultimate Tensile strength
B – Fracture point

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Result
Young's modulus of elasticity of the material = N/mm2
Stress at elastic limit = N/mm2
Stress at yield point = N/mm2
Ultimate stress = N/mm2
Nominal breaking stress = N/mm2
Actual breaking stress = N/mm2
Percentage reduction in area of C.S = %
Percentage elongation in length = %
Proof resilience = N.mm
Work done in breaking the specimen = N.mm

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Observations and Calculations

Load range- 0 to 10 tons

Name of the given material:

Diameter of the specimen, D 1. Trial 1 = mm

2. Trial 2 = mm
3. Trial 3 = mm

Average diameter, D = mm

Cross sectional area, A= πD2/4 = mm2

Ultimate load in shear = W = N

Ultimate shear strength = = W/2A = N/mm2

DOUBLE SHEAR FIXTURE ASSEMBLY

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Ex. No.:
Date:
SHEAR TEST ON MILD STEEL ROD

Aim
To conduct a shear test on mild steel treble U.T.M.

Apparatus
Universal Testing machine, Shear chucks.

Procedure
The given piece of rod after noting its diameter is inserted in the shear chucks
and it is placed on the lower compression plate of the universal testing machine .
The machine is set for l/IO load range.

The load is applied gradually till the specimen fails. The maximum shear
intensity is calculated and the given problem is done by using the value as shown.

Result

Ultimate Shear strength of mild steel given = N/mm2

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Observation

Load Diameter of Hardness Number

Specimen in kg(P) impression in H=
Trial Average
material mm(d)

1. 3000

Mild steel 2. 3000

3. 3000

1. 3000

Cast Iron 2. 3000

3. 3000

Model Calculations
Material tested =

Load P= Kg

Diameter of the ball D= mm

Diameter of the impression d= mm

Spherical are of the impression = =

Brinell hardness number = =

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Ex. No.:

Date:
BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER
Aim1:
To determine the Brinell hardness numbers for the given specimens, using
the brinell hardness machine.

Equipment
Brinell hardness tester, travelling microscope.

General
Hardness is that property, by virtue of which, the surface of any
material(solid)resists abrasion or penetration. In other words hardness of any
material may be defined as the resistance offered by the surface of the material to
abrasion or penetration. The test for hardness consists of applying to the surface of
the specimen known load through a hardened steel ball of known diameter for a
specified minimum period .The diameter of the resulting impression is measured with
a microscope and the Brinell Hardness.

Description
The load is applied by means of single lever mounted on knife edges, carrying
a Hanger for loose weight .The specimen is supported on a hardened steel plate .A
robust Screw which is adjustable by means of a hand wheel support the platen .An
adjusting wheel Of penetrator column enables the ball holder to be brought into
contact with the specimen. 'Hydraulic power is used to elevate and lower the main
lever, control being by means of hand lever and speed control knob. An indicator in
the front of the machine shows the position of the knob controls the speed of
application of load.

Procedure
The proper ball-holder is selected and the appropriate loads are placed on the
hanger. The motor of the machine is started in the oil circulation is allowed for a few
minutes .The hand lever is moved upwards .When the word “set”: appears in the

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indicator window, the lever is brought down. As the lever is brought down the zigzag
band seen in the window, again starts moving and finally the words "No Test"
appears in the window. These operations of moving the lever up and down are
repeated twice in order. Number is obtained as the ratio of the load applied in
kilograms to the spherical area of the impression in sq.mm.to have the relation
between the diameter of the ball and size of the impression to be with in reasonable
limits, for different materials, standard P/D2 (P being the load in kgs and D-diameter
of the ball in mm)is adopted. If the P/D2 ratio for a particular material is adopted as
30,the loads to be used are 3000 kg with 10mm diameter ball and 750kgs.
The load and choice of the ball depends upon the specimen as indicated below.

P/D2 30 10 5
Material Steel and Cast iron Copper and copper alloys Aluminium

To ensure perfect circulation of oil. The speed, with which the indicator dials
moves, represents the speed of load application and it is adjusted by turning the
control knob. When the word "Set" appears in the window, the specimen is placed on
the platen and It is raised by rotating the hand wheel in the clockwise direction, until
the ball touches the specimen. By rotating the star-handle provided on the ball-
holder, the specimen is perfectly gripped under the ball. Now the load is applied by
operating the hand lever.
When the full load is applied, the indicator ceases to move. This full load is
maintained for 15 seconds and then it is removed by raising the hand lever. The
specimen is taken out and the diameter of the impression is measured in millimeters
using the given microscope. The Brinell hardness number of the material is
calculated as shown, and the same procedure is repeated twice more to find the
average value of the B.H.N.In a similar way the hardness of all the specimens given
are found out.

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Aim2
To establish the relation between the load applied and (i)the depth of
penetration and (ii)the area of impression formed by the penetrator in a Brinell test.

Equipment
Brinell Tester, Microscope etc.

Procedure
The given specimen is taken and the selected ball of known diameter is
allowed to Penetrate into the specimen under a known load, as done previously. The
diameter of the Impression formed is measured and the depth of penetration of the
ball is calculated.

This procedure is repeated for various loads and the observations tabulated
as shown. Observations are made using at least six different loads at intervals of
250kgs.

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Observations
Diameter of Area of Depth of
No. Load P (kg) Impression (d) Impression(A) penetration (Q)
1. 3000
2. 2750
3. 2500
4. 2250
5. 2000
6. 1750

Area of impression =A = = mm2

Depth of penetration = q = = mm2

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Graph:
The following graphs are plotted and the nature of the curves obtained are
studied.

1) Load (Y-axis)Vs area of impression

2) Load (Y-axis)Vs depth of impression

Results
1) B.H.N for Mild Steel =
2) B.H.N for Cast Iron =

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Standard scales covered by BSS No.891/1940 Recommended for various

materials

Dial Scale
Penetrator Load Materials for which scale is used
figure symbol

Observations

Rockwell Hardness Number Range of

S.no Material Load Penetrator
I trial II trial III trial IV trial RHN
l. Brass

2. Aluminium

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Ex.No.:
Date:
HARDNESS TEST - ROCKWELL HARDNESS NUMBER
Aim
To determine the Rockwell hardness of the given test pieces.
General
Rockwell harness test is now extensively used as a comparative test in
production process, with either the Brinell or Diamond Pyramid test as the laboratory
referenced for control. The Standardization Test (B.S.S .No 891/1940 and 18036) is as
described below.
A small initial (minor load) is applied to the penetrator to eliminate the effects on
the final reading of the surface imperfections in the object under test, and to provide a
datum for hardness measurement. The large load (major load) is then added and the
depth of penetration produced by the increment of load is taken as a measurement of
hardness.
A number of combinations of load and penetrator are employed in accordance
with a specified series of hardness scales viz., A,B,C,D,E,F,G and H. the table given
shows the load penetrator combinations for the various scales and the materials for
which the different scales are to be used.
Equipment required
Rockwell hardness tester with the required penetrators.
Descriptions
The various parts of the Rockwell hardness testing machine are named and their
functions explained in adjacent column.
1. Elevating screw
Elevating screw is provided for raising the specimen into contact with the
penetrator and applying the initial load (10 kg)
2. Operating handle
The operating handle is for applying or releasing the major load by raising or
lowering the proportional weights
3. Dashpot
Dashpot is to regulate the rate at which the load is applied .

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4. Main lever
Main lever is provided to apply the major load to the specimen (by proportional
weights)
5. Gauge lever
Gauge lever is provided to magnify the depth of penetration by an extremely
accurate dial gauge .one revolution of the dial indicator represents 0.2 mm movement of
the penetrating cone.
6. Dial indicator and graduation
There are two scales on the dial,'B' marked in red 'C marked in black. Each scale
graduated with 100 divisions (1 divisions 0.002 mm penetration). Zero of one scale is
opposite to figure 30 on the other, so that there is a difference of 30 hardness number
between the two scales at any point.The red figures in "B" scale are used for readings
obtained with ball penetrators irrespective of the size of the ball or the major load
chosen. The black figures on the C scales are read with various loads used with the
diamond cut penetrator .symbols B and C marked on the dial apply only with the loads
of 100 kg and 150 kg respectively . for intermediate loads, The appropriate scale
symbol from the table given is applied. Proportional weights available are marked in 40
kg, 50 kg, and 60 kg giving additional scale ranges D,E,F,G and H with the machine.
The penetrators available and to be, used are 1/8" steel ball and a diamond cone.
7. Various types of specimen supports
For testing the pieces the 2.5" diameter table is used. For thin sheets sections a
raised spot table is used. Soft specimens should not be tested on the spot table. For
testing round specimens two tables are provided one having a large Vee groove and
other a small groove.
Procedure
The table, most suitable for supporting the particular specimen under test is
selected and positioned on the top of the elevating screw, taking care to see that the top
of the screw and the underside of the table are clear, the penetrator chosen is placed in
the holder where it is clamped, automatically, by a spring clamp. The weights to be
attached to the hanger are decided by referring to the standard table. These weights are
attached to the hanger and supported by the platform by pulling the hand lever forward.
Then the specimen is placed on the supporting table and then raised by rotating the
hand wheel until contact is made with the wheel penetrator. The hand wheel is further
rotated, the dial indicates "set” .i.e. Oc and 30B positions coincide with the main

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indicator. In this preliminary operations, a minor load of 10 kg is applied to the

specimen, automatically. Now major load is applied immediately, by pushing back the
hand lever, to its full extend this operation of pushing back the hand lever, lowers the
platform carrying the weights slowly and hence the weights start descending on to the
suspension rod and the major load is applied on the specimen automatically, in 4 to 5
seconds.

As soon as the reading on the dial becomes steady the major load is removed
gently raising the lever, the minor load being retained and the test specimen left
undisturbed. The hardness degree is then read on the dial scale .the number indicated
on the dial expressed along with the scale symbol, as a suffix is the Rockwell hardness
of the material. The initial load is then removed by lowering the elevated screw, for
which purpose the hand wheel is rotated in the anti clockwise direction. The specimen is
taken out and again the test is repeated two or three more times. The test is conducted
on other specimens also in a similar way and the results are tabulated.
Results
The Range of Rockwell Hardness number for the given Specimens are

1) for Brass

2) for Aluminium

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Ex. No.:
Date:
IMPACT FLEXURE TESTS ON METALS
Aim
To determine the impact resistance of (a) mild steel(b) brass, by conducting
flexure tests on Charpy type machine.

Apparatus
a. Notched bars
b. Impact testing machine -Charpy type
c. C scale vernier calipers

General
Many machines and machine parts are commonly subjected to dynamic loads
and the safe performance of these under these under the dynamic loads involves not
only the analysis to determine the general response but also consideration of the
properties of the component materials under such loading. An important type of
dynamic loading is that in which the load is suddenly applied and this type of loading is
called impact loading
As the velocity of striking body is changed, there must occur a transfer of energy,
work is done on the parts, receiving the blow. The energy of a blow may be absorbed by
the members of parts of a system, through plastic deformation of the parts, through
hysteresis effects in the parts through frictional action between the parts, and through
effects of inertia of moving parts.
In the design of many types of structures and machines that must take impact
loading, the aim is to provide for the absorption of as much energy upon some kind of
dampening to dissipate it. In such structures the resilience of the material is a significant
property in most tests to determine the energy absorption characteristics of materials
under impact loads, the object is to utilize the energy of the blow to cause rupture of the
test piece.
The property of the material relating to the work required to cause rupture has
been designated as "toughness". Toughness depends fundamentally upon strength and
ductility and would appear to be independent of the type of loading. The factors which

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affect the toughness of material are the speed of load application, form of test piece and
presence of defects or notches in the specimen.
In making an impact test, the load may be applied in flexure tension,
compression or torsion. Flexural loading is the most common; tensile loading is less
common; compressive and torsional loadings are used only in special instances. The
impact blow may be delivered through the use of dropping weight, swinging pendulum
or a rotating flywheel ; perhaps the most commonly used impact tests are the Charpy
and the Izod test, both of which employ the pendulum principle . Ordinarily these tests
are made on small notched specimens broken in flexure. In the Charpy teat, the
specimen it supported as a simple beam and in the Izod test it supported as a simple
beam band in the Izod test part of the energy absorbed is taken up in a region
immediately adjacent to the notch and a brittle type of fracture is often induced.

Description of the machine

The machine(available in the lab) is of the Charpy type (of the simple blow
impact pendulum impact machine). The capacity of the machine is 220 ft lb. If the
principle features of the machine are 1.moving mass whose kinetic energy is great
enough to cause the rupture of the test specimen placed in its path, 2.an anvil and a
support on which the specimen is placed to receive the absorbed energy.
The pendulum consist of relatively light although rigid rods the ends of which are
a heavy mass having the striking edge. The pendulum is suspended from a short shaft
that rotates and swings midway between two rigid upright stands ear the base of which
are the specimen supports and anvils. The knife or striking edge is slightly rounded, and
is so aligned as to make contact with the specimen over its full length at the instant of
impact. The kinetic energy is determined and controlled by the mass of the pendulum
and the height of free fall. The height of free fall of the pendulum can be adjusted by
placing the pendulum support in the notches provided at varying levels on a
semicircular disc near the shaft on which the pendulum is support ed. The pendulum
can be released from its support by pulling the string provided in one of the upright
stands.
The anvil is heavy in relation to the energy of the blow so that no undue amount
of energy is lost by deformation of vibration. The device supporting the specimen is
such that the specimen is held accurately in position prior to the instant of the impact.

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The machine is graduated to directly measure the energy absorbed on a small

scale when the pendulum is released it carries along with it motion, a friction point.
When the pendulum returns back, the friction pointer is left at the maximum height
reached. Then the graduated scale can be moved up or down, as the case may be so
that the zero of the scale coincides with the pointer.The standard flexure specimen is a
piece of 10 mm x 55 mm and notched at its centre. The specimen which is loaded as a
simple beam is placed horizontally between the two anvils, so that the striking edge
strikes opposite of the notch at the midspan.

Procedure
The dimensions of the specimens with the notch are noted. A neat sketch of the
specimen is drawn. Then the pendulum support is placed at the required notch in the
semi- circular disc so that the energy of the falling pendulum is sufficient to rupture the
specimen. The pendulum is hung in the pendulum support and the "friction pointer "is
brought down to it its lowest position in the waxed vertical bar. The machine is
graduated to eliminate the losses occurring in the Machine. This is done by pulling the
string attached to the pendulum swings on its free fall and takes the "friction Pointer" to
its maximum position. The zero of the graduated scale is brought to coincide with the
top horizontal surface of the pointer. The above procedure is repeated once or twice
more to check the initial adjustment each time taking care to bring the ' zero pointer' to
its bottom position.The pendulum is hung on its support and the specimen is then
centrally placed over its lowest position. The pendulum is released by pulling the string.
The striking edge strikes against the specimen and ruptures it. The specimen absorbs
part of the energy due to the fall of the pendulum and this decreases in energy is
directly donated by the friction pointing on the graduated scale. The reading is noted.

Result
Energy absorbed to break the specimen or ' toughness' = Nm.

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OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Number of coils in the spring (n) =

Diameter of the coil (d) = mm

External diameter of the string (D1) = mm

Internal diameter of the core (D2) = mm

Mean diameter of the core (D) = mm

Hence, mean radius of the core (D/2) = mm

FROM THE GRAPH

Load required to produce 10mm deflection = kg/mm
Hence the spring constant = N/mm

Also,

Where N=modulus of rigidity

Hence N= = N/mm2

DEFLECTION LOAD DEFLECTION LOAD

mm kg mm Kg
0 11
1 12
2 13
3 14
4 15
5 16
6 17
7 18
8 19
9 20
10

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Ex. No.:

Date:
TEST ON HELICAL SPRING
Aim
To conduct a compression test on the given spring and to determine (i)the spring
constant and the (ii)modulus of rigidity of the material of the spring.

Experiment
Wood testing machine and calipers.

Procedure
The number of the coils in the given spring, the diameter of the coil and the
diameter of the core are measured accurately measured with help of vernier
calipers.The wood testing machines is adjusted for 0-400 kg range and adjusts the
indicator to read zero on the dial, after pumping oil into the cylinder press. The given
spring is placed between the compression tools and is subjected to compressions.The
load applied to the spring for each 1mm axial deflection (compression) noted, accurately
up to 10mm compression. A graph connecting the load(Y axis) and deflection is drawn
and the values of the modulus of rigidity and the spring constant are calculated.

Result
Modulus of rigidity = N/mm2
Spring constant = N/mm

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OBSERVATION

1. Material of the specimen =

2. Length of the specimen =

3. Length of the specimen between the grips (l) =

4. Diameter of the wire/rod of the specimen (d) =

5. Maximum torque Tmax =

CALCULATION

Ultimate torsional stress =

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Ex. No.:
Date:
TORSION TEST
AIM

To determine the ultimate torsional stress of the given rod

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Torsion testing machine

2. Rod specimen
3. Scale
4. Vernier caliper

PROCEDURE
1. Measure the length (L) and diameter (d) of the specimen
2. Fix the specimen in the grips of the machine and measure the length of the
specimen between the grips (l)
3. Select the lower range of 300 kgf-cm in the torque scale to test wire specimen
and higher range of 600 kgf-cm for testing rod and flat specimens
4. Adjust the torque scale reading to zero position
5. Apply the torque to the specimen till the specimen fails. Note down the
maximum torque (Tmax) applied to the specimen
6. Calculate the ultimate torsional stress by using the following formula,

Ultimate torsional stress =

Where
Tmax = Maximum torque in Nmm
Y = Extreme fibre distance from neutral axis in mm
Y = d/2
d = Diameter of the rod in mm
J = Polar moment of inertia in mm4

J =

RESULT

The Ultimate torsional stress for the given specimen = N/mm2

Observations
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1. Dimensions
A) Fixed Beam

Average in Sectional
Particulars/Trials 1 2 3 4
mm area(mm2)
Width of beam
in cm
Depth of beam
in cm
`

Fixed beam

Deflectometer readings

Deflectometer Reading
Load Deflections Remarks
divisions
S.No
N Kgs Loading Unloading Average Inch mm

2 Fixed beam
1divn=2x0.0005"
3

Fixed Beam

Deflection,

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Ex. No.:
Date:
FLEXURE TESTS FIXED AND CANTILEVER BEAMS
Aim
To conduct flexure tests on (a) a fixed beam of square cross - section, and (b) a
cantilever beam of square cross section and to find out (i) Flexural Rigidity (ii) Young's
modulus of Elasticity.

Apparatus
1.Test specimen
2.Deflectometer
3.Loading pan

Procedure

Fixed Beam :
The cross - sectional dimensions of the given beam are noted. Then the beam is
fixed in between the fixed ends provided in the banding table. Care is taken to see that
all the supports of the beam are in the same horizontal plane. The span of the beam is
measured as the clear distance in between the inner faces of the fixed ends. The
loading pan is hung at the specified point of the span and the deflectometer (in any
deflectometer, the value written on the dial is equal to the value of the smallest division
on the graduated scale) is placed under the specified point on the span. The
deflectometer is adjusted to read zero and the value of the smallest division on the
deflectometer is noted.

The load is placed on the loading pan and the corresponding deflectometer
reading is noted.The procedure is repeated for increasing loads, gradually increasing
the loads from zero to maximum (taking care to see that the minimum number of
readings to be not less than six). The deflectometer readings are noted, while the loads
are unloaded from the pan in the reverse order. The readings are tabulated as shown.

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B)Cantilever Beam

Average in Sectional
Particulars/Trials 1 2 3 4
mm area(mm2)
Width of beam
in cm
Depth of beam
in cm

Cantilever beam

Deflectometer Reading
Load Deflections Remarks
divisions
S.No
N Kgs Loading Unloading Average Inch mm

2 Cantilever beam
1divn=2x0.0005"
3

Cantilever Beam

Deflection,

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Cantilever Beam :
The dimensions of the given beam are noted. Then the beam is fixed into one of
the fixed ends on the banding table. Other details are the same as the previous one; the
observed readings are tabulated neatly as shown on the left page.

Result
a. Fixed Beam
(i) Flexural Rigidity = N.mm2
(ii) Young's modulus of Elasticity = N/mm2
b. Cantilever Beam
(i) Flexural Rigidity = N.mm2
(ii) Young's modulus of Elasticity = N/mm2

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Observations
1. Dimensions
Particulars/ Average
1 2 3 4 Section
trials (mm)
Width
Rectangular
Depth

Top width
Trapezoidal
Bottom width

Depth

Diameter Semicircular

Simple supported beam

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Ex.No.:
Date:
BENDING TEST OF BEAMS
Aim
To conduct flexure test on simply supported wooden beams of (a) Rectangular (b)
Trapezoidal (c) Semi circular cross-sections and to find
ii. Flexural rigidity
iii. Modulus of elasticity
iv. Stress at maximum load in the extreme fibers
v. Strain at maximum load in the extreme fibers

Apparatus
1. Arrangement for conducting flexural tests
2. Loading pans with loads
3. Deflectometer
4. Scale, vernier calipers

Procedure
The dimensions of the given beam are noted and the beam is kept on rollers; the
distance in between the supports is adjusted to the given span. The loading pan is hung at
the specified point of the span and the deflectometer is placed under the specified point of
the span. The deflectometer reading (in any deflectometer the value written inside the dial
will be equal to the value of the smallest division on the graduated scale)is adjusted to zero
(if not adjustable to zero, the value shown in the deflectometer is taken to be zero and then
the subsequent values are determined from that point and the value of one small division of
the deflectometer is noted).The load is placed on the loading pan and the corresponding
deflectometer reading is noted. The procedure is repeated for increasing loads, gradually
increasing the load from zero to the maximum. Then the loads are removed from the pan in
the reverse order, and the corresponding deflectometer readings are noted. The readings
are tabulated as shown below. The test is repeated for the other two beams and the results
are tabulated.

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3.Deflections

Deflectometer
Loads Deflections Remarks
No. readings(div)
N Kg(s) Loading Unloading Average Inch mm
1. 1.Deflectometer
2. Divisions
=
3.
4. Rectangular
5. beam
6.

No. Loads Deflectometer Deflections Remarks

readings(div)
N Kg(s) Loading Unloading Average Inch mm 1.Deflectometer
1. Divisions
2. =
3.
4. Trapezoidal
beam
5.
6.

Deflectometer readings
Loads Deflections Remarks
No. (div)
N Kg(s) Loading Unloading Average Inch mm
1. 1.Deflectometer
2. Divisions
3. =
4. Semicircular
5. beam
6.

CALCULATIONS

A) The centre of gravity of the beam is located and the distances to the extreme fibers
are found out.

Rectangular

yt = (d/2) = mm

yc = (d/2) = mm

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Trapezoidal

yt = = mm

yc = h-yt = mm

Semicircular
yt = 4r/3π = mm

yc = r-yt = mm

B) The formula for the moment of inertia of the section is derived and from the observed
reading, Its value is calculated

Irect bd3/12 = mm4

Itrap = mm4

Isemi-cir 0.11r4 = mm4

C) The formula for deflection at the specified point under loading is derived

Rectangular wl3/48EI = δ

Trapezoidal wl3/48EI = δ

Semicircular wl3/48EI = δ

D) A graph is plotted with the load on the Y axis and the deflection on the X axis from
the graph, the value of deflection for the corresponding load range is found out.

Rectangular

For the load of 9.81 N,the deflection is = mm

Trapezoidal

For the load of 9.81 N,the deflection is = mm

Semi circular

For the load of 9.81N,the deflection is = mm

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e) Using the values obtained in (d)in the formula derived in (c) the values of flexural
rigidity is determined.
(El) Rectangular = Nmm2
(El) Trapezoidal = Nmm2
(El) Semicircular = Nmm2
f) Since we the value of l,the value of E is determined from (e)
(E) Rectangular = N/mm2
(E) Trapezoidal = N/mm2
(E) Semi circular = N/mm2
G) The stresses at the extreme fibers are found out using the formula
M/l=f/y
ftop =Myc/l
f bot = Myt/I

Rectangular
Maximum load = Kg = N
Maximum bending moment,M= wl/4 = Nmm
ftop = Myc/ I = N/mm2
fbot = Myt/ I = N/mm2
Trapezoidal
Maximum load= Kg= N
Maximum bending moment,M= wI/4 = N mm
ftop= Myc/ I = N/mm2
fbot = Myt/ I = N/mm2
Semi circular
Maximum load=Kg = N
Maximum bending moment,M=wl/4 = Nmm
ftop= Myc/ I = N/mm2
fbot= Myt/ I = N/mm2
h) The maximum strains at the extreme fibers are calculated using the formula:
strain =e = f/E

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Rectangular
etop =ftop/E=

ebottom =fbot/E =
Trapezoidal
etop =ftop/E =
ebottom =fbot/E=
Semi-circular
etop =ftop/E =
ebottom =fbot/E =

Results
Flexure rigidity Rectangular = Nmm2
Trapezoidal = Nmm2
Semi circular = Nmm2
Modulus of elasticity Rectangular = N/mm2
Trapezoidal = N/mm2
Semicircular = N/mm2
Stress Rectangular top = N/mm2
Rectangular Bottom = N/mm2
Trapezoidal top = N/mm2
Trapezoidal Bottom = N/mm2
Semi circular top = N/mm2
Semi circularBottom = N/mm2
Strain Rectangular top =
Rectangular Bottom =
Trapezoidal top =
Trapezoidal Bottom =
Semi circular top =
Semi circular Bottom =
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Observations and Calculations

Bending Test
Length of span = mm
Depth of beam = mm
Width of beam = mm
Moment of inertia of C.S = mm4
Centre load at failure = Kg = N
Max B.M at the centre or at the section of failure = Kg.mm= N.mm
Distance of extreme fiber from neutral axis = mm
M/l=f/y where f=fiber stress

At failure,fmax = = Kg/mm2= N/mm2

i.e.Modulus of rupture

Area resisting Load at failure Strength (P/A)

Test 2
mm Kg N N/mm2
Compression

Tension

Cleavage

Hardness:
Width of cylindrical impression, d = cm = mm
Load applied=bx10 = Kg = N
Diameter of the tool=D = cm = mm

Hence depth of impression ] = mm

Hence hardness of wood = mm-1

Janka hardness of wood = Kg = N
Impact test:Area of cross section = mm2
Work done in breaking = N.mm
Hence impact strength = N/mm

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Ex. No.:
Date:
TEST ON WOOD -WOOD UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

Aim

To study the various operating parts of the universal testing machine and to
conduct the bending, compression, tension, cleavage, hardness and Janka hardness
and the impact tests on small clear specimens of timber.

Equipment

The universal wood testing machine, all tools and specimens for performing the
tests, a scale, vernier calipers etc.

Descriptive study of the machine

This machine is used for making the following tests on small clear specimens of
timber:

1. Static bending (beam test),compression, tension perpendicular to grain,

cleavage, hardness and Janka indentation test.
2. Dynamic (or impact)bending tests.

Static tests

The measurements of the loads exerted on the test pieces in the above
mentioned static tests (bending compression, tension etc) is effected by means of a
spring dynamometer. The loads are applied by means of a double acting hand -
operated screw -pump.

The frame of the machine consists of a pedestal or a base, two upright columns
and an upper cross -head. The right hand column carries the spring dynamometer and
the pump, the left hand one of the attachments for transverse, compression and tensile
tests. On the upper cross- head are arranged the graduated dial and the diagram-
recording apparatus. At the upper end of the left hand column is the cylinder of the
press, the rams of which support a pulling tackle ending, below the cylinders, in a cross-
piece.

The upper side of this cross-piece carries the transverse beam to which are fixed
the two end supports for bending tests, and which also serves as a platform for the
lower compression tool.
For bending tests, the upper middle support is fixed in a hole in the paste
supporting the cylinder. A scale graduated in mm indicating the deflection is attached to
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one of the rods of the pulling tackle. For compression tests, the upper middle transverse
tool is replaced by the compression tool, and a lower compression tool is placed in the
centre of the bending beam.

To the lower side of the cross piece of the pulling tackle are fastened three grips,
the middle one of which is used for cleavage tests, whilst the two outer ones are used
for tensile tests. To prevent accidental bending moments being applied to the test piece,
the upper grips are suspended and can adjust themselves freely in all directions. Three
lower grips similar to the upper ones are carried on a fixed arm.

The hydraulic cylinder is provided with two rams co-axial to each other. Both are
very carefully lapped so that no packing is required to ensure sufficient oil tightness. If
both the rams are in the maximum load which the machine can exert is 4000 kg but if
the main ram is locked to the cylinder by the bayonet catch provided for the purpose
and the co-axial ram alone is in operation, the maximum load which it is possible to
apply is 400 kg only.

The double acting hand: operated screw pump is fixed to the right hand column
of the machine and a release valve to the plate carrying the cylinder.

Dynamometer acid Diagram Apparatus

The main measuring organ consists of a large and strong helical spring counter
balancing a measuring piston. The deformation of the measuring spring which is in
exact proportion to the load exerted is transmitted to a pointer moving around a dial of
200 mm in diameter.

When the test piece breaks, the final pointer comes back slowly to zero on the
dial. A loose pointer carried round by the indicating pointer in its motion, remains in
place and thus shows the maximum load exerted. The loose pointer should be brought
back to zero by hand before each test. The dial is marked in kg from zero to 400 kg.
When the zero to 4000 kg range is used the readings Obtained from the dial is to be
multiplied by 10 to get the exact load applied.

On the left side of the load indicating dial is placed the recording apparatus. It
consists of a drum by means of a thread receives from the bending beam rotational
movements proportional to the movement of the working ram. On the other hand, a rod
carrying a recording pencil is displaced from left to right by the axis of the indicating
pointer by a distance proportional to the elongation of the spring a complete revolution
of the pointer corresponds to a travel of the recording pencil of 100 mm, 1mm height on
the diagram thus corresponding to 40 kg or 4 kg of load applied to the test piece,
depending upon whether the two rams or only the small ram is working. The travel of
the ram, and consequently the deformation of the test piece, can be drawn on the
diagram full size or double size.

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Impact tests

The operator actuates the release lever by hand and in falling, the hammer
breaks the test beam. Part of the pendulum's kinetic energy is taken by breaking the
specimen. The residual energy causes the pendulum to swing up on the other side from
the vertical position. During the rising motion, after passing the vertical positions, the
pendulum engages a little pointer or cursor, and lifts it along a vertical scale. This cursor
remains stationary at the highest position reached by the pendulum during its rise, and
thus indicates directly in kilogram - meters the energy to break the test beam (not the
residual energy of the pendulum)

A rope brake prevents the pendulum from falling back abruptly at the end of its
upward swing. The striking edge of the pendulum has a radius of 15 mm.The striking
edge of the pendulum has a radius of 15 mm

The test beam rests on two cylindrical supports of 15 mm radius, one of which is
fixed whilst the other is able to move a little, and rests by a ball of 100 mm diameter
against square section aluminum bar.

At the instant the falling weight strikes the test beam, the latter exerts a certain
force on the supports. The force on the movable support causes the ball to penetrate
the aluminum bar, and the diameter of the impression thus made is used for
determining the maximum load supported by the broken beam, by asking the Brinell
hardness of the aluminum bar as the basis.

The machine is mounted on and bolted down to a concrete pedestal.

The following adjustments are to be done before doing the test using the
machine.

a) For transverse bending, tensile and cleavage tests, the small co- axial ram is
used, whilst for compression test both the rams must operate together. As
mentioned previously, in the former cast the maximum load that can be exerted
is 400 kg, and in the latter case it is 4000kg. in order to operate the smaller ram
only, the pin provided on the top of the pre -cylinder is shifted is shifted to the
position marked 400 kg . when using both the rams together, this pin must be set
to the position marked 4000 kg.

b) Before starting a test, the pointer on the dial is adjusted to read zero by loosening
the wing nut provided and revolving the socket below the same. When adjusting
the zero position, the rams should not rest on the cylinder base, but most float on
pressure -oil, which is done by actuating the pump by few turns, after closing the
release valve.

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After conducting any of the static tests on a specimen, the release valve is opened so
that the entire oil in the cylinder will flow back to the reservoir and then the specimen
(which has already failed) is taken out.

Procedure

For all the static tests the test pieces are taken out from the same beam of 300
mm length and 20 mm square section. For dynamic test, a second beam of the same
direction is used for static tests/the beam is first subjected to bending from the
fragments, the other test pieces are made, i.e. prism 20 mm2 pieces, and 30 mm long
for compression test, bars 70 mm long 20 mm square section for tensile tests
perpendicular to the grain and bars 35 mm long and also 20 mm square section for
cleavage tests. Hardness tests can be made on a fragment of any length available ((but
in order to save time, the specimens for all the tests are well in advance.)

1. BENDING TEST
The given beam is taken and all its dimensions are measured. The tool for
applying a transverse a load is clamped in position the beam is placed on the two
vertical supports on the bending table. The span of the beam is measured and is
found to be 240 mm.
The machine is adjusted for a load range of 0-400 kg and the dial is set to read
zero. The fly wheel provided at the top of pulling tackle is rotated, in order to raise
the bending table along with beam, till the beam slightly touches the transverse -
load -tool.

Now the pump is operated and the beam gets loaded at its midspan by an
increasing concentrated load. The readings on the dial are taken for each 1
mm deflection of the beam until failure occurs. The load at failure also is noted
down. The release valve is opened. From the observations made, the
modulus of rupture of the material of the beam is calculated.

2. COMPRESSION TEST
The dimensions of the specimen for compressive test are measured and noted
the lower and upper compression tools are placed in their respective positions.
The machine is adjusted for 4000 kg range and the indicator is adjusted to read
zero on the dial. The specimen is placed on the bottom compression tool and (the
bending table)is raised until the specimen is just gripped between both the tools.
Now the load is applied gradually until failure of the specimen takes place. The
maximum load or the load at the failure is noted. The release valve is opened and
the specimen is taken out. From the observed values the compressive strength of
the specimen is calculated.

3. TENSION TEST

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The tension test specimen is taken and its dimensions are noted the
machine is adjusted for the required range and the dial is set for zero position.
The loading tackle is lowered (if necessary) so that the top and the bottom
parts of the tensile strips are just touching each others. The specimen is
introduced in between the maximum load is note and is located the load at
failure or the maximum load is noted. The release valve is opened and the
specimen taken out. The tensile strength of the specimen is calculated.

4. CLEAVAGE TEST
The dimensions of specimen for cleavage test are measured and noted. The
machine is set for the required range and the initial adjustments are done. The
lower grip for cleavage test is raised and the specimen is gripped between the
lower and upper cleavage grips and is loaded gradually until the specimen
fails. The release valve is opened and the maximum load is noted. The strength
of the specimen in cleavage is calculated.

5. HARDNESS TEST

One of the fragments broken in the transverse test is taken rid is placed on
the lower compression tool. The initial adjustments are done and the
specimen is pressed between the lower compression tool and the upper
transverse tool with a pressure of 100kg.per centimeter width of the bar(i.e.) if
the width of the specimen is 2 cm, a load of 200kg.is applied).While doing this
the grain of wood is at right angles to the edge of the tool.

The load is then released and the specimen is taken out. The Width of the
cylindrical imprint is measured by a scale and its depth is calculated, knowing
the radius of the indenting tool. The reciprocal of this depth gives the
hardness value.

6. JANKA INDENTATION TEST

The steel ball with an equatorial section of 1 cm 2(ball of 11.28 mm) to which
an annular ring is attached is used as indenting tool. The specimens placed
on the lower compression plate and the Janka hardness tool placed in
position. After doing the initial adjustments on the machine the specimen is
pressed between the lower compression plate and the ball of the Janka tool.
When the load on the specimen is increased gradually, the annular rings are
purpose. The ring is fixed to the ball in such a way that if the ball is pressed
into the specimen up to its full diameter, Rotation of the ring becomes
impossible. At this stage the release valve is opened and the specimen taken
out. The maximum load reached is noted. This load is known as the Janka
hardness of the specimen.

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7. IMPACT TEST

The pendulum for impact test is kept up in the raised position. The cursor is
brought down to the lower most level of its travel. The specimen given is placed
on the two supports provided (240 mm apart)after nothing all the dimensions of the
specimen .Now the pendulum is dropped from its position by actuating the release
lever by hand .In falling, the pendulum breaks the specimen and the work done in
breaking is read on the scale provided as the reading against the cursor which has
moved up now.

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RESULTS

Compressive strength of wood = N/mm2

Tensile strength of wood = N/mm2
Cleavage strength of wood = N/mm2
Modulus of rupture of wood = N/mm2
Hardness of wood = mm-1
Janka Hardness of wood = N
Work done in breaking the wood = Nm
Impact Strength = N/mm

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Observation:

Compressive Strength of Brick:

S.no Frog Dimensions in mm Ultimate Ultimate Average
mark compressive compressive ultimate
load in N strength in compressive
2
N/mm strength in
N/mm2

Ultimate Compressive Strength = Load/Area = N/mm2

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Ex No.:
Date:
TEST ON BRICKS

a) COMPRESSION TEST ON BRICK

Aim
To determine the maximum compressive strength of brick by conducting
compression test.

Apparatus
1) U.T.M.
2) Scale, vernier calipers
3) Curing tank Procedure
Brick
The test is done as per IS 3495-1992.Five whole bricks are selected at random
from the sample of bricks and are immersed in water at 25 oC-29oC for 24 hours. Then
they are removed and allowed to dry at room temperature for about 5 minutes and
wiped free from surplus moisture .Their frogs are filled with 1:1 cement mortar and are
stored under damp sacks for 24 hours. After this period, they shall be immersed in
water for three days. At the end of three days, the bricks are taken out, drained and
wiped dry. Then the dimensions of the brick are measured accurately. The brick is
placed with the flat surfaces horizontal and the mortar filled face upwards between a
pair of 3 plywood sheets each approximately 3mm thick and carefully centered between
the compression plates. The compression plate of the testing machine should, in a
standard test, have a ball seating in theorem of a portion of a sphere, the centre of the
face of the plate. The load shall be applied axially at a uniform rate of approximately 28
tones per minute (140kg/sq.cm/minute)until the failure occurs. The maximum load of
failure divided by the area of the brick resisting the load is taken as the compressive
strength and is expressed in kg.per.sq.cm.
RESULT

Compressive strength of Brick = N/mm2

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Water absorption on bricks:

s.no Frog mark Oven dried Weight after Percentage Average

on bricks weight M1 (kg) immersing in water Percentage
water M2 (kg) absorption water
absorption
[(M2- M1)/ M1] x
100

Efflorescence on bricks:

s.no Frog mark on bricks Dimensions in mm Rate of Efflorescence

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 COIMBATORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE 641 014
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b) WATER ABSORPTION TEST FOR BRICKS

Aim:
To find the Water absorption percent by mass of the bricks as per IS 3495 – Part 2
Water absorption:
Water absorption value of bricks largely influences the bond between brick and mortar.
If water absorption in bricks is more and bricks are not soaked before the masonry
work, the water from freshly laid mortar is likely to be absorbed by bricks. This results
into poor mortar strength as the sufficient quantity of water will not be available for
hydration process.
Apparatus required:
Sensitive weigh balance, Ventilated oven
Test procedure:
The detail procedure for water absorption test for bricks as per IS 3495 – Part 2 is given
below
1. The specimen is dried in a ventilated oven at a temperature of 105 to 1150C; till it
attains substantially constant mass. The specimen is cooled to room temperature
and its weight is recorded as M1
2. The dried test specimen is immersed completely in clean water at a room
temperature of 27±20C for 24 hours.
3. The specimen is then removed and any traces of water are wiped out with a
damp cloth and the specimen is weighed. The weighing is completed 3min after
the specimen has removed from water. Record the weight as M2
Calculation of % of water absorption :
Water absorption, percent by mass, after 24-hour immersion in cold water is given by
the following formula:
% Water Absorption = ((M2-M1) / M1) x 100 =
Safety & Precautions
Use hand gloves while removing containers from oven after switching off the oven.
Thoroughly clean & dry the container before testing.
Use apron & safety shoes at the time of testing.
Result:
The Water absorption percent by mass of the bricks =

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 COIMBATORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, COIMBATORE 641 014
19CEL36 - STRENGTH OF MATERIALS LABOTATORY

c) EFFLORESCENCE TEST ON BRICKS

Aim
To determine the liability to efflorescence of bricks as per IS: 3495 – Part(3)-1992
Apparatus required
Shallow flat bottom dish, scale
Procedure
1. A shallow flat bottom dish containing sufficient distilled water to completely
saturate the specimens is used for the test. The ends of the bricks are placed in
the dish, the depth of immersion in water being 25 mm.
2. The whole arrangement is placed in a warm (between 20 0C and 300C) well
ventilated room until all the water in the dish is absorbed by the specimens and
the surplus water evaporates.
3. The dish containing the brick is covered with a suitable glass cylinder so that
excessive evaporation from the dish may not occur.
4. When the water has been absorbed and brick appears to be dry, a similar
quantity of water is placed in the dish and it is allowed to evaporate as before.
Examine the bricks for efflorescence after the second evaporation and the results
are reported.
Reports
The liability to efflorescence shall be reported as „Nil‟, „Slight‟, „Moderate‟, „Heavy‟ or
„Serious‟ in accordance with the following definitions
(a) Nil: When there is no perceptible deposit of efflorescence
(b) Slight: When not more than 10 percent of the exposed area of brick is covered with
a thin deposit of salts
(c) Moderate: When there is a heavier deposit than under „Slight‟ and covering up to 50
percent of the exposed area of the brick surface but unaccompanied by powdering or
flaking of the surface.
(d) Heavy: When there is a heavy deposit of salts covering 50 percent or more of the
exposed area of the brick surface but unaccompanied by powdering of the surface.
(e) Serious: When there is a heavy deposit of salts accompanied by powdering and / or
flaking of the exposed surfaces.
Result
The liability to efflorescence is =

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