COURSE

GUIDE

PHY 101
ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES
OF MATTER

Course Team J. S. O. Oludotun (Course Developer/Writer) -

Distance Learning Institute, University of Lagos
Akoka Lagos
Dr. Sanjay Goupta (Course Editor) – NOUN
Dr. Sanjay Goupta (Programme Leader) – NOUN
Kayode S. Olubiyi (Course Co-ordinator) – NOUN

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

© 2017 by NOUN Press

National Open University of Nigeria
Headquarters
University Village
Plot 91, Cadastral Zone
Nnamdi Azikiwe Expressway
Jabi, Abuja

Lagos Office
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Victoria Island, Lagos

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any

form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed 2017

ISBN: 978-058-485-4

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction..................................................................... iv
What You will Learn in this Course................................ v
Course Aims.................................................................... v
Course Objectives.............................................................. vi
Working through this Course............................................. vii
Course Materials.............................................................. vii
Study Units...................................................................... vii
Textbooks and References................................................ ix
Assignment File................................................................ ix
Presentation Schedule....................................................... ix
Assessment....................................................................... x
Tutor-Marked Assignment .............................................. x
Final Examinations and Grading....................................... x
Course Overview………………………………………….. xi
How to Get the Best from the Course................................ xii
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials.......................................... xiv
Summary.............................................................................. xv

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

INTRODUCTION

Energy, undoubtedly, affect all facets of human life. Energy in form of

heat is intimate to our existence. It is used to cook foods, light houses
and to operate machines. In this way, it is very important to learn about
it. On the other hand, matter is a substance which has certain mass and
occupies certain volume. As you know, this matter can exist in solid,
liquid and gaseous state. Each of these states has distinct and various
properties based on interatomic and intermolecular forces. For example:
a solid has definite shape, size and volume, a liquid has no definite
shape for possesses a definite volume and a liquid has neither definite
shape nor volume. When you go through the material of PHY 101 Heat
and Properties of Matter, you will find that solid state of matter exhibits
elastic properties, liquid state of matter accounts for surface tension and
viscosity and the gaseous state of matter accounts for pressure, diffusion
etc. Therefore, this course introduces to you the concepts of Heat as
well as Properties of matter.

Heat and Properties of Matter is a subject of great interest for our

undergraduate students. This is a one semester 2-Credits core course. It
will be available to all students to take towards their B.Sc. Physics,
B.Sc. Education and other programmes like B.Sc. Computer Science,
Environmental Studies etc. This course comprises 20 Study Units in 4
Modules which involves basic principles of heat and properties of
matter. The themes of these topics we have chosen are most interesting
and relevant in our day-to-day life. The material for this subject has
been developed in such a way that student with at least a credit pass at
the Ordinary Level or equivalent will follow quite easily. This course
will expose the students to the concepts of heat and properties of matter
besides the practical applications of these concepts in out daily life.

There are no compulsory pre-requite for the course. However, you are
strongly advised to have adequate knowledge for Further Mathematics
or Applied Mathematics for clear understanding of this subject.

This Course Guide you briefly what the course is about, what course
materials you will be using and how you can work your way through
those materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the time you are
likely to spend for complete it successfully. It also provides you
guidance on Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs) which will be
available on the Web in due course. There are regular tutorials classes
that are linked to the course.

You are advised to attend these sessions regularly as this is an important

aspect. Details regarding the time and locations of tutorials and

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

practical will be available at your Study Centre and included on the

Web.

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

The overall aim of PHY 101 is to introduce the basic principles,

concepts and the relevance of heat and properties of matter and
appreciate the usefulness of these principles and concepts to make our
life simpler and convenient. During this course, you will learn that what
is the concept of temperature? How heat is related with temperature and
how it can be measures? What are the different gas laws? What are the
different modes of transfer of heat in different substances of matter?
Our quest to answers these and other related questions is contained in
the subject of heat.

So, in the beginning of this course, you would learn about the concept of
temperature, its measurement, gas laws, thermal expansions and molar
heat capacities of gases. Also, you learn about the different states of
matter i.e. solid, liquid and gases. In this way, the concept of heat is
treated first in this course.

Towards the second part of this course, you will be introduced in detail
the various aspects of properties of matter like elasticity, density,
buoyancy, viscosity, surface tension and so on. You will not only read
about these concepts and principles in our daily life.

COURSE AIMS

The aim is to introduce you to the basic principles and concepts of heat
and properties of matter and how to make use of these principles and
concepts ad their applications in everyday life. This will be achieved
by:

● Introducing you to the basic principles and concepts of heat and

properties of matter,
● Demonstrating for you how these basic principles and concepts
can be used in our day-to-day life situations,
● Explaining some phenomena associated with heat and properties
of matter,
● Stimulating your interest in this area for the betterment of the
world through advancement of technology, and
● Giving you some insight into possible future developments in the
areas of material science and engineering, metallurgy, in all types
of mechanical devices such as steam engines, electric power
plants and automobiles etc.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

COURSE OBJECTIVES

To achieve the aims set out above, the course sets over all objectives.
These course objectives tell you what the entire course is all about and
to let you know what you have to achieve at the end of the course. In
addition, such unit has specific objectives. The unit objectives are
always included at the beginning of a unit; you should read them
carefully before you start working through the unit. You may refer to
them during your study of the unit to check your progress. You should
always look at the unit objectives again after completing a unit. In this
way, you can be sure that you have done what was required of you for
the unit.

Mentioned below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole. By

meeting these objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the
course as a whole.

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of temperature and to differentiate between

temperature and heat,
2. Define different temperature scales and to explain their relation
with each other,
3. List the different types of thermometers and their thermometric
properties,
4. Define and explain the different
5. Describe thermal expansion in solids and liquids
6. State and explain different gas laws;
7. Define molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure and
constant volume;
8. Define the thermal conductivity of a good conductor and
insulator and their measurement;
9. Explain the meaning of convection as a mode of transfer of heat
in fluids;
10. Explain the nature of radiation of heat;
11. Explain the existence of molecules in matter and to measure the
size of a molecule of a chosen liquid;
12. Define the concept of stress and strain and their relation;
13. Define young’s Modulus, Shear Modulus and Bulk Modulus of
elasticity;
14. Derive an expression for pressure of a gas in an enclosed system
and then explain the concept of root mean square velocity of gas
molecules;
15. Explain the concept of density and relative density and the
determination of density for different shaped objects;
16. State Archimedes Principle;

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

17. Define pressure exerted by a solid or fluid and its determination;

18. State Bernoulli’s Principle and its applications;
19. Explain the concept of Viscosity; and
20. Explain the concept of surface tension and the determination by
capillary rise.

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

To complete this course you are required to go through the study units,
read set books and read other materials provided by NOUN. You will
also need to do some practical exercises which will be arranged by your
course facilitator/tutor. Each unit contains self-assessment exercise, and
at points in the course you are required to submit assignments for
assessment purposes. The evaluation of your TMAs will be done by the
facilitators/tutors at the study centre. At the end of the course, there is a
final examination. The course shall take you about 15 weeks in total to
complete. Below you will find listed all the components of the course,
what you have to do and how you should allocate your time to each unit
in order to complete the course successfully and on time.

COURSE MATERIALS

You will be provided with:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Assignment File
4. Presentation Schedule

STUDY UNITS

There are 20 Study Units in this course. The names of these units are as
follows:

Module 1

Unit 1 Concept of Temperature

Unit 2 Types of Thermometers
Unit 3 Heat Measurements
Unit 4 Thermal Expansions
Unit 5 Gas Laws

Module 2

Unit 1 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases

Unit 2 Conduction of Heat

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

Unit 3 Convection
Unit 4 Radiation
Unit 5 Molecular Properties of Materials

Module 3

Unit 1 Elastic Property of Matter

Unit 2 Moduli of Elasticity
Unit 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Application
Unit 4 Density
Unit 5 Buoyancy – Archimedes Principle

Module 4

Unit 1 Pressure
Unit 2 Elements of Hydrodynamics
Unit 3 Viscosity
Unit 4 Surface Tension
Unit 5 Other properties of Gases

Each study unit consists of three hours work. Each study unit includes
introduction, specific objectives, directions for study, reading materials,
conclusions, summaries of key issues and ideas and references for
further reading. The unit objectives tell you what the entire unit is all
about. The units direct you to work on exercise related to the required
readings. Each unit contains self-assessment exercise (SAQs). In
general, these self-assessment questions are based on the materials
available in the units and will help you to gauge your progress and to
reinforce your understanding of the material. Together with tutor-
marked assignments (TMAs), these exercises will assist you in
achieving the stated learning objectives of the individual units and of the
course.

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. And Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate

Physics, Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Garg, S. C., Bansal R. M., and Gosh C. K. (1993). Thermal Physics,

Published by Tata McGraw – Hill Publishing Company Limited,
India.

Nelkon and Parker, An Advanced Level Physics’; Published by British

Library Publication.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics Addison – London: Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F., Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold Publisher

Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M. W., Heat and Thermodynamics, McGraw Hill, New

York.

ASSESSMENT FILE

The assignment file will be supplied by NOUN. In this file, you will
find all the details of the work you must submit to your facilitator/tutor
for marking. The marks that you obtain in your assignments will be
counted in your final result you obtain for the course. Further
information on assignments will be found in the assignment file itself
and later in the course Guide in the section on assessment. Therefore
you are advised to take your assignments seriously and regularly.
Before submitting, you must ensure that you have answered all the
questions require from you in all assignments. The assignments will
cover all the topics treated in all the units.

PRESENTATION SCHEDULE

The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you

the important dates for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and
attending tutorials. Remember, you have to complete the assignments in
time and submit these stipulated assignments by the due date.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

ASSESSMENT

There are two aspects to the assessment of your performance for the
course. First are the tutor-marked assignments; second, there is a
written examination. In doing the assignments, you are expected to
apply information, knowledge and techniques gathered during the
course. The assignments must be submitted to your facilitators/tutor for
formal assessments in accordance with the deadlines stated in the
presentation schedule and the assignment file. The work you submit to
your facilitator/tutor for assessment will carry 30% weightage of your
total course work. At the end of your course, you need to appear for a
final written examination of three hours duration. The final examination
will carry 70% weightage of your course mark.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

The TMAs are listed as item 6.0 in each unit. The main aim of
assignments is to test your comprehension of the material provided to
you and to help you by providing feedback to you. Generally, you will
be able to complete your assignments from the information and
materials contained in the study units of the course and other
recommended books. Using other references will give you a broader
viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the subject.

On completion of each assignment, send it, together with a TMA form,

to your facilitator/tutor.

Make sure that each assignment reaches your facilitator/tutor on or

before deadline mentioned by the course coordinator in the presentation
schedule and assignment file. If, for any reason, you can not complete
your work on time, contact your facilitator/tutor before the assignment is
due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be
granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances.

FINAL EXAMINATIONS AND GRADING

The final examination for PHY 113 will be of three hours duration and
carry a weightage of 70% of the total course grade. The examination
will consists of questions which reflect the type of self-testing practice
exercise and tutor marked problems you have previously encountered in
each unit of the course. All areas of the course assessed. It is
required that you must pass in assignments and term-end
examination of a course separately.

You are advised to use the time between finishing the last unit and
sitting the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it

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useful to review your self-test, tutor-marked assignments and comments

on them before appear in examination.

COURSE MARKING SCHEME

The assessment will be two folds – TMAs will carry 30% weightage of
course marks while the final examination will carry 70% marks of the
total marks obtainable.

COURSE OVERVIEW

The table given below brings together the units, the number of weeks
you should spend to complete them, and the assignments that follow
them.

Unit Title of Work Week’s Assessment (End

Activity of Unit)
Course Guide Week 0.5
Module 1
1 Concept of Temperature Week 0.5 Assignment 1
2 Types of thermometers Week 0.5 Assignment 2
3 Heat Measurement Week 1.0 Assignment 3
4 Thermal Expansion Week 0.5 Assignment 4
5 Gas Laws Week 0.5 Assignment 5
Module 2
1 Molar Heat Capacities of Week 0.5 Assignment 6
Gases
2 Conduction of Heat Week 1.0 Assignment 7
3 Convection Week 0.5 Assignment 8
4 Radiation Week 0.5 Assignment 9
5 Molecular Properties of Week 0.5 Assignment 10
Materials
Module 3
1 Elastic Property of Matter Week 0.5 Assignment 11
2 Moduli of Elasticity Week 0.5 Assignment 12
3 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Week 1.0 Assignment 13
Applications
4 Density Week 1.0 Assignment 14
5 Buoyancy- Archimedes Week 0.5 Assignment 15
Principles
Module 4
1 Pressure Week 0.5 Assignment 16
2 Elements of Hydrodynamics Week 0.5 Assignment 17
3 Viscosity Week 0.5 Assignment 18
4 Surface Tension Week 1.0 Assignment 19

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

5 Other Properties of Gases Week 0.5 Assignment 20

Revision Week 2.0
Total 15 Weeks

HOW TO GET THE MOST FROM THE COURSE

In distance learning, the study units replace the lecturer. This is one of
the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and work
through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a
time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecture. In the same way that a lecturer might
set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your
set books or other materials, and when to undertake computing practical
work. Just a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study
units provide exercise for you to do at appropriate points.

Each of the study unit follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Then, there is
a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you
should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You
should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have
finished the unit, you must go back and check whether you have
achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this, you will
significantly improve your chances of passing the course.

The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. It will enhance your understanding of the material in the
unit. Self-tests are interspersed throughout the units and answers are
given within the units. Working through these tests will definitely help
you to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the
assignments and the examination. It is advised that you should do each
self-tests as you come across in the study unit. There will also be
numerous examples given in the study units; work through them when
you come to them, too.

The practical strategy for working through the course is mentioned

below. If you have any trouble, telephone your facilitator/tutor or post
the question on the Web CT OLE’s discussion board. Remember that
facilitators are to help you. Here, you will get an opportunity to discuss
with them your problems pertaining to the courses of your study. So,
when you need help, don’t hesitate to consult your facilitator to provide
it.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

1. First of all, read the Course Guide carefully and thoroughly.

2. Then, organize a study schedule. Refer to the course overview

for more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on
each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important
information’s regarding the details of your tutorials and the date
of the first day of the semester is available from the Web CT
OLE. You need to gather all the information in one place, such
as your diary or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to
use, you should decide on and write in your own dates for
working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they get behind their course work. If you have any differently
with your schedules, please let your facilitator/tutor know before
it is too late for help.

4. Turn to Module 1, Unit 1 and read the introduction and the

objectives for the unit. Assemble the study materials. You will
almost always need both the study unit you are working on and of
your set books on your desk at the same time.

5. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit, you will be instructed to read section of your set
books or other articles. Use the unit objectives to guide your
readings.

6. Update yourself on the Web Ct OLE. Up-to-date information

will be continuously posted there.

7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the assignments
carefully. The assignments have been designed to help you to
meet the objectives of the course and, therefore, will help you
pass exam. Submit all assignments by due date.

8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about nay of the
objectives, review the study materials or consult your facilitator.
After ensuring that you have achieved a unit’s objectives, then
start on the next unit. Proceed unit-wise through the course and
try to keep yourself on schedule.

9. When you have submitted an assignment to your facilitator/tutor

for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

unit. The evaluated assignments will be returned to you with

tutor comments and marks obtained in TMAs. Keep to your
schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay particular
attention to your tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked
assignment form and also written on the assignments. Consult
your facilitator/tutor as soon as possible if you have any
questions or problems.

10. After completing the last unit, give sometime to review the
course and prepare you for the final examination. Check that you
have achieved the unit objectives listed at the beginning of each
unit and the course objectives listed in the Course Guide.

FACILITATORS/TUTORS AND TUTORIALS

There are 5 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, time and location of these tutorials, together
with the name and phone number of your facilitator/tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group. Your facilitator/tutor will evaluate and
comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and
on any difficulties you might face and provide assistance to you during
the course. You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your
facilitator/tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are
required).

They will be marked by your facilitator/tutor and returned to you with

comments at the earliest.

Do not hesitate to contact your facilitator/tutor by telephone, e-mail, or

discussion board if you need help. The following might be
circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your
facilitator/tutor if:

● If you do not understand any part of the study units or assigned

readings.
● You have the difficulty with the self-tests or exercises.
● You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your
tutor’s comments on an assignment or with the grading of an
assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which
are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating in discussion actively.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

SUMMARY

PHY 113 intends to introduce basic principles, concepts and

applications of Heat and Properties of Matter. Upon completing this
course, you will be equipped with knowledge of concept of temperature,
types of thermometers used for various proposes, heat measurements,
gas laws, the different modes of transfer of heat, different properties of
materials like elasticity. Also you will learn about the different
properties of fluids like density, pressure, buoyancy, viscosity, surface
tension etc., and their usefulness in our day to day life. You will be able
to answer these kinds of questions:

1. What is the difference between temperature and heat?

2. What is Zeroth law of thermodynamics?

3. What are the different types of thermometers?

4. How latent heat of fusion is different from latent heat of

vapourization?

5. What happens to a solid when heat is given to it?

6. Define molar heat capacities at constant volume and at constant

pressure?

7. What are the different gas laws?

8. What are the different factors that affect the conduction of heat?

9. Is there any difference between an adiabatic and isothermal

expansion?

10. Discuss the different modes of transfer of heat?

11. How convection is different from radiation?

12. State Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation.

13. How you can measure the size of a molecule?

14. Explain the term elasticity.

15. Define young’s modulus, bulk modulus and Shear modulus.

16. Derive an expression for pressure of a gas in an enclosed system.

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PHY 101 COURSE GUIDE

17. Discuss the concept of Density.

18. State Archimedes Principle.

19. Derive an expression for the pressure due to the column of a

liquid.

20. Discuss the applications of Bernoulli’s Principle.

We hope that you will enjoy studying this course. We wish you
success!

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 MAIN
COURSE

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 ……………………………………………............ 1

Unit 1 Concepts of Temperature…...…………………. 1

Unit 2 Types of Thermometers....................................... 20
Unit 3 Heat Measurement …………………………….. 34
Unit 4 Thermal Expansion ……………………………. 55
Unit 5 Gas Laws ………………………….………….… 71

Module 2 …………………………………………………..... 96

Unit 1 Molar Heat Capacity of Gases ……………....… 96

Unit 2 Conduction of Heat ….……………………...… 108
Unit 3 Transfer of Heat by Convection ……………..... 127
Unit 4 Radiation……….. …………………………….. 137
Unit 5 Molecular Properties of Materials …………….. 148

Module 3 ………………………………………………........ 160

Unit 1 Elastic Property of Materials ………………..… 160

Unit 2 Moduli of Elasticity…….……………………… 169
Unit 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases and
Applications ………………………………... 184
Unit 4 Density ……….. …………………………….. 200
Unit 5 Buoyancy – Archimedes’ Principle ………….. 214

Module 4 ………………………………………………........ 230

Unit 1 Pressure ……………………………………..... 230

Unit 2 Elements of Hydrodynamics ……….……….... 249
Unit 3 Viscosity of Fluids…………………………… 268
Unit 4 Surface Tension ………………………………. 284
Unit 5 Other Properties of Gases …………………….. 311
PHY 101 MODULE 1

MODULE 1

Unit 1 Concept of Temperature

Unit 2 Types of Thermometer
Unit 3 Heat Measurement
Unit 4 Thermal Expansion
Unit 5 Gas Laws

UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Temperature and Heat
3.2 Concept of Temperature
3.2.1 Thermal Equilibrium
3.2.2 The Zeroth Law of Temperature
3.3 Scale of Temperature
3.3.1 Specification of Fixed Points
3.3.2 Factors for Changes in Fixed Points
3.3.3 The Temperature Scales
3.4 Specification of Interpolation
3.4.1 Definition of Temperature on Celsius Scale
3.4.2 Definition of Temperature on Fahrenheit Scale
3.5 Thermodynamic Scale
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You will recall that the concepts of length, mass and time are regarded
as fundamental quantities during the study of elementary mechanics.
You also learn about derived quantities such as force, momentum and
energy. In this unit, you will be introduced to another fundamental
quantity called temperature.

Temperature is a fundamental quantity in the study of heat (thermal

energy) or thermodynamics. Some students usually get confused with
the concept of temperature and heat. Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature is a sensation of hotness and coldness. Hence in this unit
we shall make an attempt to differentiate between the two. We would

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

then explain the concept of temperature by using the zeroth law of

thermodynamic. Having done this, we would then establish how the
temperature of a body is measured through the use of thermometers with
emphasis on their thermometric properties. In the next unit, you will
learn about the types of thermometers.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● differentiate between temperature and heat

● define the concept of temperature
● explain the terms used for the zeroth law of thermodynamics
● state the law of thermodynamics
● define temperature scales
● solve problems on conversion of temperatures on Celsius
Fahrenheit and Absolute scales.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Temperature and Heat

The concepts of temperature and heat are two kinds of concepts in

physics that are so closely related that may confuse you as a learner in
the study of physics. You need to be clear in your mind what exactly
they mean.

You will remember that in your study of mechanics you learnt various
forms of energy. Heat was among them. Heat measurement is usually
referred to as Calorimetry. Also in the study of Integrated Science, you
will also recall that temperature is the degree of coldness or hotness of a
body. Temperature measurement in physics is referred to as
thermometry. Then the question arises: Why Heat a form of energy?
It is a form of energy because we use it to do work for us.

In the history of Industrial Revolution, heat engines were used to

perform various kinds of work as in the textiles factories and in the
locomotive engines used for transport. Besides, at home we use it for
cooking and ironing our clothes.

Heat is an intangible agency that causes increase of hotness of a body.

A body is said to be warmer if it receives heat and colder when it losses
heat. You will therefore observe that increase in heat content of a body
can be caused by any of the following ways:

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

● direct application of mechanical work (as in friction between two

bodies);
● churning of a liquid;
● contact with a hotter body.

Heat therefore flows from a body whose degree of hotness (temperature)

is greater to the body of lower degree of hotness (temperature).
Consequently, it is the heat energy that is transferred and not the
temperature. As a rule, when two bodies of different temperatures are
placed in contact with each other, by definition, the heat lost by one
body is absorbed by the other body provided the two bodies neither lose
nor gain heat from the surrounding. In this case we would describe such
heat energy interaction as being conserved in the system.

In this unit, we would discuss in details what is meant by temperature

and how it is measured using the appropriate scales. Using the zeroth
law of thermodynamics will do this. The concept pf heat and its
measurement will be dealt with later.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Distinguish between the concepts of heat and temperature.

3.2 Concept of Temperature

The concept of temperature is one of the fundamental concepts in

physics. It is rather difficult to define this physical quantity as compared
with, say, the length of a body. A meter is a standard length of a bar of
platinum – iridium kept in Paris. We can directly copy this bar and use it
to find out how many times an object is as long as this bar at anytime
and place. This is not the case with temperature. Temperature is
measured through an indirect method, as you will observe later in our
discussion. But the question you may ask now: What is temperature?
How can we measure the temperature of a body?

Qualitatively, temperature of a body is the degree of hotness or coldness

of a body. However, this answer does not lead us to the quantitative
definition of temperature or its operational definition. This is because
the sensations of hotness and coldness are highly subjective. The way
you feel is not the same as any other person. Other adjectives used
include cold, cool, tepid, warm, etc. Using our feeling of heat to
estimate degree of hotness/coldness (temperature) is very personal and
very unreliable since its measurement is personal and not a standard one.
Hence when we say the temperature of a body is cold, hot or lukewarm
such descriptions are rather too vague to comprehend quantitatively.
Consequently, an independent scale of temperature measurement is

3
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

therefore highly essential. We would now discuss how we have evolved

the scale of temperature measurement.

3.2.1 Thermal Equilibrium

Two bodies may be at different temperature – one hot and the other
cold. The hot one is said to possess more heat energy than the colder
body. In another sense, the temperature of the hot body is higher than
the colder body.

However, if the two bodies are now in contact with each other, heat
energy flows from the hot body to the cold body until the temperatures
of the two bodies are the same. The two bodies are then described as
being in thermal equilibrium with each other.

Therefore, a thermal equilibrium exists between two bodies when they

are in thermal contact with each other and there is no net flow of heat
between them.

It is the temperature of a body that determines the direction of flow of

heat from that body to another. It will flow until two temperatures are
the same i.e. there is a thermal equilibrium. Once, there is a thermal
equilibrium between two bodies, then it means that the two temperatures
are the same – no net flow. But now the basic question arising: How do
we then define the temperature of a body quantitatively? Let us discuss
this concept.

3.2.2 The Zeroth Law of Temperature

The zeroth law of thermodynamics helps us to quantify the concept of

temperature objectively. Quantitative definition of temperature involves
terms of operations that must be independent of our sense perceptions of
hotness or coldness. That is, temperature has to be measure objectively
and not subjectively.

It has been observed that there are some systems in which a measurable
property of the system varies with hotness or coldness of the system.

For example:

(i) the length L of a mercury column in a thin tube will change

variation in temperature (fig. 3.1).

4
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Fig. 3.1: A System Whose State is Specified by the Value L.

(ii) the pressure P of a constant volume container, measured by a

pressure gauge or a manometer (fig. 3.2).

Fig. 3.2: A System Whose State is Given By the Value P

(Pressure)

(iii) the electrical resistance (R) of a wire which varies with hotness or
coldness as with the platinum resistance (fig. 3.3).

Fig 3.3: Platinum Resistance

(iv) the electromotive force (E) of a thermo-junction varies also with

hotness or coldness of the system (fig. 3.4).

5
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 3.4: A Thermocouple

In each case, discussed above the quantity describing the varying state
of the system such as L, P, R and E are called a state of coordinate for
the system.

In thermodynamics, bodies are brought into contact in order to establish

the common temperature using one of these coordinates. The two
bodies may be in direct contact or they may be separated by two types of
wall. The types of wall are namely adiabatic and diathermic walls.
Adiabatic walls are those through which no heat can be transmitted
whereas the walls through which heat can be transmitted are known as
diathermic walls. In thermodynamics, these two words are used to
describe the process of thermal equilibrium that is, of being at thermal
equilibrium. They will help you to understand the zeroth law.

Let us consider two systems A and B such that system A is a mercury-

in-glass tube with a state coordinates L and system B, a constant-volume
gas container with state coordinate P (fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5: Adiabatic Wall

6
PHY 101 MODULE 1

If system A is at a higher temperature than system B, when brought in

contact with each other, then their state coordinates change. However, if
the two systems are separated by insulating such as wood, plastic or
fibre glass, the change in the state coordinate will be low or none. Such
an insulating material is described as an adiabatic wall. Therefore, in
general, an adiabatic wall is such in which, in an ideal situation, there is
no change in the state of coordinates (fig. 3.5).

The opposite of adiabatic wall will then be a wall or a partition that will
allow the systems A and B to influence each other (fig. 3.6).

Fig. 6.3: A Diathermic Wall

In this case it will allow free exchange of heat energy. Such a wall is
called a diathermic wall. Examples of such diathermic walls are copper
and aluminum. Thus when the two systems A and B are separated by a
diathermic wall, initially there may be no change but eventually a state
is reached when no further change in the state coordinates of A and B
takes place. This joint state of both systems that exist when all changes
in the state coordinates have ceased is called thermal equilibrium. Note
the reduction in length of L and the increase in P of the pressure at
thermal equilibrium. These changes are used to measure temperature.
We would use the above illustration to explain the zeroth law of
thermodynamics and subsequently temperature measurement.

The Zeroth Law

Consider two systems A and B separated from each other by an

adiabatic wall but each system is in contact with a third system C

7
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

separated through a diathermic wall. Consider the whole systems

surrounded by an adiabatic wall (fig. 3.7). This is to ensure that no heat
energy is lost to or gained from the surrounding. Experiments have
shown that systems A and B will attain a thermal equilibrium with C. If
however the adiabatic wall is replaced by a diathermic wall as shown in
(fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.7: A and B are each in Thermal Equilibrium with C

Instead of allowing both systems A and B to come to equilibrium with C

at the same time, we can first have equilibrium between A and C and
then equilibrium between B and C making sure that the state of C is the
same in both cases, (fig. 3.7) then A and B are brought in contact
through a diathermic wall, they will be found to be in thermal
equilibrium (fig. 3.8). It means that no further changes occur in systems
A and B

Wall

Fig. 3.8: A and B are in Thermal Equilibrium with Each Other.

8
PHY 101 MODULE 1

That is systems A and B are already in equilibrium with each other.

The above principle is called the zeroth law of thermodynamics. The

zeroth law of thermodynamics states that:

“Two thermodynamics systems A and B are separately in thermal

equilibrium with a third system C, then the systems A and B are in
Thermal equilibrium with each other”.

It is called the zeroth law because the most important principles of

thermodynamics have hitherto been identified as the first, second and
third laws of thermodynamics. You will be introduced to these laws
later in the course of your physics programme.

It is the property called temperature that determines whether or not

given two systems are in thermal equilibrium. The temperature of a
system is that property that determines whether or not it will be in
thermal equilibrium with other system when two or more systems are in
thermal equilibrium, they are said to have the same temperature. If the
two systems are not in thermal equilibrium, their temperatures must be
different.

The zeroth law is thus used in establishing the temperature of a body

quantitatively and objectively. But before it is measured, a scale must
be established with the aid of a physical property which varies with
temperature – the thermometer.

We shall now consider the establishment of scales of temperatures in the

next section.

3.3 Scale of Temperature

There are some principles underlying the establishment of temperature

scales. These principles are based on the fact that when the temperature
of a body changes, all the magnitudes of almost all its physical
properties also change. The condition, of course, is that this variation of
properties must be linear, that is, uniform. Therefore any property of
any substance that varies uniformly with temperature can be used. The
variation of one of these properties is chosen to represent the
accompanying change of temperature.

To measure temperature, therefore, we need to select a physical property

or parameter of a chosen substance which varies uniformly with
temperature. A parameter or property is a variable which is assigned a
constant value during a discussion or event. As we have discussed in
section 3.3.2, that some of the examples of these parameters are:

9
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(i) the volume of a liquid;

(ii) the volume of a gas at constant pressure;
(iii) the pressure of a gas at constant volume;
(iv) the electrical resistance of a conductor;
(v) the emf change of a thermocouple when there is a temperature
difference between the junctions of a thermoelectric
thermometer.

For the establishment of temperature scale, the following are required:

(a) specification of fixed points;

(b) specification of the method of interpolation.

Now we will discuss briefly about these concepts required for the
establishment of temperature scale.

3.3.1 Specification of Fixed Points

Fixed points are temperatures chosen which are fixed and reproducible.
They are useful as reference temperatures. Changes in the parameters
from the fixed points are assigned numbers called degrees on a
calibrated scale. Two such fixed points are:

(i) The Lower fixed point (ice point): That is the temperature of
equilibrium between ice, water and air saturated at standard
pressure. This temperature is) 0oC.

(ii) The Upper fixed point (steam point): That is the temperature of
steam rising from pure water boiling under standard atmospheric
pressure. That is, the temperature of one standard atmosphere.
This temperature is 100oC.

(iii) The fundamental interval: This is the difference between the

upper fixed point and the Lower fixed point divided into equal
parts.

Other fixed points such as the sulphur point also exist for reference.

3.3.2 Factors for Changes in Fixed Points

1. Changes in the atmospheric pressure and latitude cause variation

in freezing and boiling points. Changes caused by pressure in
freezing point can be ignored. That due to impurities cannot be
ignored.

10
PHY 101 MODULE 1

2. Freezing point depression and Boiling point elevation are caused

by impurities of slats. Hence water used in determining these
points is required to be pure.

3. Daily floatation of barometric reading call for the correction of

the boiling point. In the neighbourhood of standard atmospheric
pressure, the boiling point rises by 0.37oC when the height of
mercury barometer increases by 1.0 cm. Therefore true boiling
point is given as on the Celsius scales as:

6oC = 100oC + 0.37 (B - 76)oC……………. (1.1)

Where B is any atmospheric pressure in cm of mercury.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Mention two factors that can change the fixed points on a temperature
scale.

3.3.3 The Temperature Scales

The systems of temperature scales are:

(i) The Celsius scales whose ice point is 0oC and the steam point is
at 100oC. Each part represents 1oC.

(ii) The Fahrenheit scale whose ice point is 32oF while the steam
point if 212oF. The fundamental interval is 180 divisions. Each
division represents 10oF.

(iii) The absolute scale of temperature, the thermodynamics scale.

This will be discussed later.

3.4 Specification of Interpolation

The way we establish the temperature of a body on either the Celsius

scale or the Fahrenheit scale is what we refer to as the specification of
interpolation. This therefore establishes the scale of temperature, which
decides upon the temperature below, between and above the fixed
points, are to be established.

We then choose a thermometric substance and its particular property,

which will serve as a temperature indicator.

11
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.4.1 Definition of Temperature on Celsius Scale

If X represents the property of the thermometric substance, which serves

as temperature indicator, by adopting the Celsius scale. Let Xo be the
values of X of the thermometric substance when surrounds by the
melting ice for a long time. Let X100 be the value of X when the
substance has reached an equilibrium with steam at standard pressure (1
atmosphere).

Hence, the fundamental interval is defined as the change of X between

the ice and steam points = X100 – Xo.

Consequently, the size of the Celsius degree, which results from our
choice of property X, is defined at that range of temperature which
causes a change in property which is Z.

Hence Z = X100 - Xo ……………………………………..…...……. (1.2)

100

If Xt is the value of X of the substance in the neighbourhood of another

body whose temperature is to be determined then, the number of degrees
by which the Celsius temperature tc of the thermometric substance
exceeds the temperature of melting ice 0oC is equal to the number of
items the quantity Z is contained in (Xt – Xo).

∴ (tc – 0oC) x Z = (Xt - X0 )oC ……………………...…..……. (1.3)

But from Eq. 1.2, you know that

Z = X100 - Xo
100

Substituting Eq. (1.2) in Eq. (1.3), we get

∴ (tc - 0) x X100 - Xo = (Xt - Xo )oC

100

∴ tc = (Xt - X0 ) X 100oC ………………..…………….. (1.4)

(X100 – Xo)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

The lengths of the mercury column of a mercury thermometer are

1.06cm and 20.86cm respectively at the standard fixed points. What is
the temperature of body, which produces 7.0cm of this mercury column?

12
PHY 101 MODULE 1

3.4.2 Definition of Temperature on Fahrenheit Scale

In the case of the Fahrenheit scale, one can also state that

(tF - 32) Z = (Xt - X32) oF …………………………..……. (1.5)

Where, Z = (X212 – X32) oF

(212 – 32)

Z= X212 – X32 oF …………………..…………….. (1.6)

180

Substituting Eq. (1.5) in Eq. (1.6), we get the expression

 X t − X32 
  X180 o F
 X 212 − X 32
∴

tF - 32 =

  X t − X 32  
  X180 + 32  F ……………………… (1.7)
o

∴  X − X 
  212  
tF =
32

Furthermore, the value of the property of X at any definite temperature e

is independent of the method of numbering temperature.

Hence X212 = X100 and X32 = Xo

Now inserting these parameters in Eq. (1.7), we get

 Xt − X0  
  X180 + 32  F ………….……………… (1.8)
o

∴  X − X 
  100  
tF =
0

Also from Eq. (1.4), we get

tc X − X0
= t ……………………………………….…. (1.9)
100 X 100 − X 0

Therefore, a relation between tF and tc can be obtained as

 tc 
tF =  X180 + 32  F
o

 100 

9 
∴ tF =  t c + 32  F
o

5 

13
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The Eq. (1.10) enables us to convert a temperature measurement from

one scale to the other.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Covert 50oF to Celsius scale.

Now, let us discuss the examples of X property for different

thermometers with Celsius scale.

(a) Platinum thermometer

X is in terms of resistance (R), thus

Rt − Ro
t= X100 o C ……………………………………. (1.11)
R 100 − R 0

(b) Mercury thermometer

X is in terms of length of mercury L.

Lt − Lo
t= X100 o C ……………………………………. (1.12)
L100 − L 0

(c) Constant Volume thermometer

X is in terms of the pressure P of the gas at constant volume

Pt − Po
t= X100 o C ……………………………………. (1.13)
P100 − P0

(d) Constant Pressure thermometer

X is in terms of the volume of the gas at constant pressure

Vt − Vo
t= X100 o C ……………………………………. (1.14)
V100 − V0

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

A platinum resistance thermometer has a resistance of 10.40 ohms at

0oC and 14.35 ohms at 100oC. Assuming that the resistance changes
uniformly with temperature, what is

(a) The temperature when the resistance is 11.19 ohms?

14
PHY 101 MODULE 1

(b) The resistance of the thermometer when the temperature is 45oC?

3.5 Thermodynamic Scale (Absolute Scale) of Temperature

The thermodynamic scale is the standard temperature scale used in

scientific measurements. The symbol on this scale is T and it is measure
in Kelvin after Lord Kelvin.

On the thermodynamic scale, the reference point is the triple point of

water where saturated water vapour, pure water and melting ice are in
equilibrium to each other. The temperature of the triple point of water
has been found to be 273.16K. The ice point is 273.15K. The slight
difference with the triple point is due to the pressure in the two cases.

There is variation of Pressure (P) with temperature T is shown in fig.

3.9. When the graph is extrapolated, it meets the temperature axis at -
273.15oC. This value of temperature is called absolute zero (ok) by
Kelvin. It is to be noted that the value of pressure at this temperature
reduce to zero.

Fig. 3.9
On the Celsius temperature scale,

-273.15oC = 0
0oC = 273.15K

Hence the change in 1oC on the Celsius scale is equal to the change of
1K on the Kelvin (Thermodynamics) scale.

4.0 CONCLUSION

What you have learnt in this unit concerns the concept of temperature
and how it is measured. The property of a substance which varies with
temperature is used to measure the temperature of a body through an
appropriate scale. You have learnt about the Celsius, Fahrenheit and the

15
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Absolute scale. The property of a substance is used in the construction

of a thermometer.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt:

● the difference between temperature and heat;

● the concept of temperature using the sensation of human feelings
which is always sensitive;
● how the zeroth law is used to conceptualize the concept of
temperature objectively by using some measurable properties
such as length of a liquid, pressure on a gas at constant volume,
resistance and the electromotive force;
● the scales of temperature measurements;
● that on the thermodynamics scale the triple point of water is
chosen as the fixed point and is defined as 273.16K.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

● Heat is a form of energy while temperature is the degree of

hotness or coldness in a body.
● Heat flows from higher temperature to a lower temperature. Thus
the difference in temperature dictates the direction of transfer of
the heat energy.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

See the text.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Using the Eq. (1.4) as

tc = (Xt - Xo ) X 100oC
(X100 – Xo)

Where, Xt = 7.00cm, X100 = 20.86cm, Xo =1.06cm

Substituting this parameter in the Eq. (1.4) we get

 7.00cm − 1.06cm 
tc =   x100cm C
 20.86cm − 1.06cm 
∴ o

16
PHY 101 MODULE 1

5.94cm
= x100 o C
19.80cm

tc = 30oC

ANSWER TO SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Using Eq. (1.10) as

9 
tF =  t c + 32  F
o

5 
Substitute tF = 50oF

9 
∴ 50 F =  t c + 32  F
o

5 
o

On rearranging the terms, we get

9
∴ 50 F = t c + 32
o
5
9
18 = tc
5

o
18X5
∴ tc = C = 10 o C
9

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Use Eq. (1.11) as

Rt − Ro
(a) t= X 100 o C
R 100 − R 0

Substitute Rt = 11.19 ohms, R100 = 14.35 ohms

Ro = 10.40 ohms

11.19Ω − 10.40Ω
∴t= X 100 o C
14.35Ω − 10.40Ω

0.79ohms
t= X100 o C
3.95ohms

= 20oC

17
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(b) Again use Eq. (1.11)

Rt − Ro
t= X 100 o C
R 100 − R 0
Substituting t = 45oC, Ro and R100 take their usual values

On arranging the terms, we will get,

R t − 10.40Ω
∴ 45 C =
o
X100 o C
14.35Ω − 10.40Ω

o R t − 10.40Ω
∴ 45 C = X100 o C
3.9Ω

X3.95Ω = R t − 10.40Ω
45
∴
100

∴ 1.7775 Ω = Rt – 10.40 Ω

∴ Rt = (1.7775 + 10.4) Ω

Rt = 12.18 Ω

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and the Celsius scales

coincide?

2. The normal boiling point of liquid oxygen is -182.97oC, what is

this temperature on the Kelvin and Fahrenheit scales?

3. What is the body temperature of a normal human being on the

Celsius scale? What will this value be on the Fahrenheit scale?

4. An ungraduated mercury thermometer attached to a millimeter

scale reads 22.8mm in ice and 242mm in steam at standard
pressure. What will the millimeter read when the temperature is
20oC?

18
PHY 101 MODULE 1

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, the University of Chicago
Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, Addison – Wesley Publishing Company,
California.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics, London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education.

Zemansky, M. W., (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw Hill.

19
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

UNIT 2 TYPES OF THERMOMETERS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Thermometric Properties
3.2 Types of Thermometer
3.2.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
3.2.1.1 The Clinical Thermometers
3.2.1.2 The Maximum and Minimum Six’s
Thermometers
3.2.2 Constant Volume Gas Thermometers
3.2.3 Platinum Resistance Thermometers
3.2.4 Thermo-Electric Thermometers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In Unit 1, you learnt about the difference between temperature and heat.
You also learnt about the concept of temperature by defining it
qualitatively and quantitatively. The zeroth law was used to define
temperature objectively and quantitatively. This was done by the use of
measurable property of a substance that varies linearly or uniformly with
changes in temperature.

In this unit, we shall go further by considering the thermometric

properties of various substances used in the construction of
thermometers. Finally, we shall describe some types of thermometers.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● state the conditions necessary for the choice of properties and the
substance used for temperature measurement
● list the different types of thermometers and their thermometric
properties
● show the appropriate use of thermometers in life.

20
PHY 101 MODULE 1

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Thermometric Properties

In the last unit, we discussed about the temperature scale. You learnt
that to establish such a scale, there is a requirement of some physical
properties of a substance and the fixed point.

But, suppose you are asked to construct a thermometer which they

may be used to measure the temperature of a body, what are the things
you must consider in the choice of the property of the substance to be
used?

The following are some necessary conditions governing the choice of

properties and materials for temperature measurement by a thermometer.

● The substance must have a considerable variation over a small

increase in temperature. That means, it must be very sensitive to
a small change of temperature.
● The change in the property of the substance must occur readily.
● The range of temperature over which the thermometer can be
used should be as large as possible.
● The thermometric substance should have a small thermal
capacity. This means that it must readily acquire the temperature
of its surrounding.
● The time taken to acquire this temperature should be small. This
will minimize time lag when it is used and when variation of
temperature should follow.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Enumerate five thermometric properties that must be taken into

consideration before choosing a substance to be used to measure the
temperature of a body.

Notice, as we proceed further how these properties are used in the

construction of thermometers that will now be discussed.

3.2 Types of Thermometer

Thermometers may be classified according to the thermometric

properties used in constructing such thermometers. For example, we
have:

● Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers: Such thermometers use the

expansion of the liquid in the glass tube. As the liquid volume

21
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

increases with temperature rise, the length of the liquid along the
tube varies with temperature.

● Constant Volume-Gas Thermometer: Which makes use of a

given mass of gas whose pressure varies with temperature at
constant volume.

● Resistance Thermometer: Makes use of the variation of

resistance of a given conductor such as platinum with
temperature.

● Thermo-electric Thermometer: Which makes use of the

variation of electromotive force (emf) developed between the pair
of junctions of two dissimilar metals with temperature.

We shall now discuss each one of them in details.

3.2.1 Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

The liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of two liquids such as

alcohol or mercury. The mercury-in glass thermometers are commonly
used in the laboratory or in the hospitals as clinical thermometers.
Whereas, the alcohol-in-glass thermometers are used in temperate
countries because alcohol has a much lower melting point than mercury.
(See table 3.1).

Table 3.1 Properties of Mercury and Alcohol as Thermometric

Liquids

Mercury Alcohol
1 Mercury solidifies at -39oC 1 Alcohol solidifies at

Hence alcohol may be used for much lower temperature than mercury’s.

2 Mercury boils at 357oC 2 Alcohol boils at 78oC

Thus, alcohol is not suitable for temperatures above 50oC or 60oC whereas
mercury could be used to measure temperatures well above
500oC even as high as 800oC provided the space above the mercury is filled
with Nitrogen or some inert gases which increases its boiling point.

3 Mercury does not wet glass. It is 3 Alcohol wets glass. The thread of
able to move with jerky action. alcohol has therefore the
tendency to stick to the stem.
4 Mercury expands less than alcohol 4 Alcohol expands more than
for a given rise in temperature. mercury for a given rise in
temperature.

22
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Alcohol thermometers are more sensitive than mercury.

5 Mercury is opaque. Silvery in 5 Alcohol is transparent. It has to

colour it is therefore easily seen. be coloured before it can be seen.
6 A good conductor of heat 6 A poor conductor of heat.
7 It has low specific heat capacity. 7 Has high specific heat capacity.

From the above table it will be observed that in certain areas alcohol has
some advantages over mercury while in some areas mercury also has
some advantages over alcohol.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

State the advantages and disadvantages of the use of alcohol over

mercury as thermometric liquids.

The increase in length (L) of the mercury-in-glass thermometer is used

as a property as the temperature increases. Using the Celsius scale
therefore, the temperature t is defined as:

 L −L 
t =  t  X 100 o C ………………………………..…….(2.1)
 100 − 0 
o

L L

where, Lt = length of the mercury column at toC

L100 = length of the mercury at 100oC
Lo = length of the mercury at 0oC

3.2.1.1 The Clinical Thermometers

The clinical thermometer is usually used in the hospital clinics, hence,

the name. It is specifically adapted for measuring the temperature of the
human body. The stem of the clinical thermometer is graduated from
35oC to 45oC.

Fig. 3.1 The Clinical Thermometer

It has a constriction in the stem near the bulb, which prevents the
mercury from entering the bulb. Thus the measurement can be read at

23
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

leisure. Jerking the instrument in order to drive the mercury back then
returns the broken thread of the mercury.

The laboratory thermometers are longer than the clinical thermometer s

and they have no constrictions in them. Besides, they are usually longer
with longer range of temperatures from -10oC to about 150oC.

3.2.1.2 The Maximum and Minimum Six’s Thermometers

Apart from the laboratory and the clinical thermometers, there is yet
another mercury-in-glass thermometer called the Maximum and
Minimum (six’s) thermometer.

Fig. 3.2: Maximum and Minimum (Six’s) Thermometer

The Six’s thermometer is used to measure the maximum and minimum

temperatures on a particular day (fig. 3.2).

The thermometer is made up of long bulb A that contains alcohol or nay

other suitable liquid. BC is a thread of mercury. Above C, there is more
alcohol which partly fills the bulb D. Above the surface of the mercury
thread at B and C are light steel indices (fig 3.2) with a spring attached
to each steel to prevent it from slipping.

When the alcohol in A expands, the mercury thread in BC is pushed

round sending the index at C upwards and leaving g the index B in
position. When the alcohol in A contracts, the mercury thread BC is
drawn back leaving the C index to record the maximum temperature
reached. The index B similarly records the minimum temperature

24
PHY 101 MODULE 1

reached. A magnet is used to reset each index by drawing them down to

the surface of the mercury thread.

The Minimum and Maximum thermometer is therefore used to record

the minimum and maximum temperatures of the day. The knowledge of
such temperatures over a period of time may be useful in predicting the
weather.

3.2.2 Constant Volume Gas Thermometers

The two properties that are kept constant in the construction of this
thermometer are the volume (V) and the amount of the gas in moles (n).
Thus the varying properties are the pressure (P) on the gas and the
temperature (t).

Consider a fixed mass of gas maintained at constant volume in a vessel

capable of measuring the pressure P. If P0 and P100 are the pressures at
ice and steam points respectively and Pt is the pressure at some
unknown temperature toC. Assuming that equal changes in pressure
denote equal changes in temperature, then

Pt −Po
X 100 o C ………………………...…………………. (2.2)
P100 − P0

Jolly’s Constant volume air thermometer will be described to show how

the pressures are measured at constant volume but at varying
temperatures (fig.3.3).

Glass

Fig. 3.3 Constant Volume Air Thermometer

It consists of a glass bulb of about 100cm3 in volume containing dry air.

This bulb is connected to a fine glass capillary tube and a rubber
pressure tube, which in turn is connected to a moveable reserviour of
mercury.

25
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

There is mark X on the capillary tube. This is the constant volume

mark. The total pressure on the air is (H + h) where H is the atmosphere
pressure and h is the height of the mercury above the mark X.

If P0 = H + h0

P100 = H + h100 and

Pt = H + ht

 Pt − Po 
  x100 o C
 P100 − P0 
Then t =

 ht − ho 
  x100 o C ………………….. (2.3)
 h100 − h0 
t =

The Jolly’s constant-volume gas thermometer is not very convenient to

use, when compared with the mercury-in-glass, resistance and thermo-
electric thermometers.

Fig. 3.4: Standard Constant–Volume Hydrogen Thermometer

Fig. 3.4 is a standard constant-volume hydrogen thermometer as

developed by Chappius. It consists of Platinum Iridium cylinder T
which is connected to a manometer. The constant volume is achieved
through the devise P1. A barometer is also incorporated with the
manometer using a device P2. The vertical distance between P1 and P2
gives the total pressure.

26
PHY 101 MODULE 1

The Chappius version is an improvement of Jolly’s simple gas

thermometer. It is to overcome the inaccuracies in Jolly’s instrument
due to fluctuations in the barometric heights in the course of the
experiment. It is also to reduce errors due to capillary depression on the
mercury which come to play when using tubes of narrow bore in Jolly’s
instrument.

3.2.3 Platinum Resistance Thermometers

As the name of the thermometer suggests, it is a thermometer that

depends on the resistance of a wire whose values change with
temperature.

Callendar found out that the resistance of pure metals increases as the
temperature increases. He showed that the resistance of pure platinum
varies with the gas thermometer temperature t according to the equation.

2
Rt = R0 (1 + At + B t
) …………… (2.4)

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistances at toC and 0oC respectively. A and
B are some constants for a given specimen.

On the platinum resistance scale of temperature, equal changes in

resistance denote equal changes in temperature.

Fig. 3.5 Platinum Resistance

Fig. 3.5 shows a typical platinum resistance which is used in connection

with the Wheatstone (Meter) Bridge devised by Callendar and Griffiths
(Fig. 2.6). The bridge is used to obtain a balance point which enables
the experiment to determine the various values of Rt , R100 and R0

27
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 2.6 Callendar and Griffiths Wheatstone Bridge

Let R0 and R100 be the resistances of ice and steam respectively and Rt
the resistance of the platinum at tpoC.

Rt − Ro
TP = X100 o C …………..………… (2.5)
R 100 − R 0

The platinum resistance thermometer has a wide range noted for its
extreme accuracy over the length of this range. However, its chief
disadvantage is the long time needed for it to assume the temperature of
its surroundings and the time required for making an observation so tat it
cannot follow rapidly changing temperatures. This is where the thermo-
electric thermometer is a good substitute.

3.2.4 Thermo-Electric Thermometers

The thermo-electric thermometer is otherwise called thermo-couple.

This type of thermometer is constructed by using the Seebeck effect.
First, we will discuss about the Seebeck effect.

Seebeck effect simply states that if two dissimilar metals, such as copper
and iron are joined to make a complete circuit, then on heating one end
of the junctions, a current flows round the circuit.

28
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Fig. 3.7: Thermo-Electric Couple

The presence of the galvanometer is to detect and measure the

magnitude of the current that flows in the circuit.

This type of arrangement is called a thermo-couple. The emf

established round the circuits depends on the nature of the metals used
to form the couple and also on the temperature e difference between the
hot and cold junctions.

The cold junction is usually maintained at ice point. It has been shown
experimentally that when the other junction is at some temperature t, the
thermo-electric emf set up depends on the temperature accordingly as
E = A + Bt + Ct2 ………….….. (2.6)

Where A, B and C are constants depending on the metals used. The

graph between emf versus t is shown in fig. 3.8.

Fig. 3.8: emf against t

The temperature where the emf is maximum for the two metals is called
the neutral temperature tN.

29
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

It is however more convenient to observe the thermo-electric behaviour

of the two metals graphically by plotting their thermo-electric power (P)
against temperature.

Thermo-electric power is the change in the thermo-electric emf per

degree Celsius in temperature between the hot and cold junctions.

From the Eq. (2.6) if t is measure from the ice point, then A is equal to
zero. Then,

∴ E = Bt + Ct2 …………………………. (2.7)

The graph of E versus t is either fig. 3.9 (i) or fig. 3.9 (ii) as shown
below.

Fig. 3.9

But Power (P) is given by

de
= B + 2Ct ……………………………………….. (2.8)
dt

de
Thus the plot of of versus t is either given by fig. 3.10 (i) or fig. 3.10
dt
(ii)

Fig. 3.10

30
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Since we are increasing the temperature from zero to higher temperature

fig 3.10 (ii) will be a better choice.

de
The intercept on the t – axis indicates where = 0 and that is the
dt
neutral temperature. It is possible to establish from this graph the emf
when the junctions are kept at temperatures t1 and t2. It is equal to the
area under the curve between t1 and t2.

E = ∫ Pdt …………………………………………….. (2.9)

t2

t1

In theory, it is more satisfactory to measure the electromotive force

(emf) developed instead of the current. This is because the emf depends
on the total resistance of the circuit which alters as the temperatures
changes. In the industrial set up, a high resistance millivoltmeter is
used. The thermo-electric couple is capable of measuring up to 1500oC.

4.0 CONCLUSION

You have learnt in this unit the different types of thermometers used in
measuring temperatures. A thermometer uses the property of a
substance which varies uniformly with changes in temperature. It is this
thermometric property that is used in the construction of thermometers.
Each thermometer has its own range of measurement.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following:

● Thermometers ate constructed using a specified physical property

known as thermometric property.
● Such thermometric properties are volume of a liquid, pressure of
a gas at constant volume, resistance of a metal and the
electromotive force of a thermocouple which vary with
temperature.
● There are different types of thermometers. Each type is grouped
according to the kind of thermometric property used in its
construction. There are:

(i) Liquid-in-glass thermometers

(ii) Resistance thermometers
(iii) Thermo-electric thermometer

● The merits and demerits of each type have been discussed.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Refer to section 3.1 of the text.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Refer to section 3.2.1 for solution.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. State the five conditions necessary for the choice of properties

and the substance used for temperature measurement.
2. Mention the types of thermometers that exist and their
appropriate thermometric properties used for their construction.

3. A body has temperature of about 1200oC. Which thermometer

would you use and why?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: the University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, Addison – Wesley Publishing Company,
California.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F.(1966). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

32
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Limited.

Zemansky, M. W., (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw Hill.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

UNIT 3 HEAT MEASUREMENT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Heat
3.2 Heat Capacity
3.3 Specific Heat Capacity
3.3.1 Simple Method of Mixtures
3.3.2 Inclusion of Calorimeter in Method of Mixtures
3.4 Latent Heat
3.5 Explanation of Latent Heat
3.5.1 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion
3.5.2 Specific Latent Heat of Vapourization
3.5.3 Latent Heat and Internal Energy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Heat and temperature are not the same but they are closely related.
Heat, as you must have learnt is a form of energy while temperature is
the degree of coldness or hotness of a body, may the body be solid,
liquid or gas. This degree of coldness or hotness is measured
objectively and quantitatively by suing the thermometer. The question
arises is: “how would you measure heat energy?” The study of heat
measurement is known as Calorimetry in physics.

The nature of substance plays an important role in the study of thermal

phenomena. For example, a large iron tank and an aluminum kettle have
a different heat capacity. It depends on their respective masses and on
the metal need.

In this unit you will be introduced to the measurement of heat. The

nature of substance plays an important role in the study of thermal
phenomena. For example, a large iron tank and an aluminum kettle
have a different heat capacity. It depends on their respective masses and
on the metal used. Some of the major concepts crucial to the
measurement of heat are: heat capacity, specific heat capacity, specific
latent heat of fusion and vapourization which you will also study here.
You will also learn about how temperature measurement is related to the
measurement of heat energy.

34
PHY 101 MODULE 1

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● explain the concept of heat

● define the heat (thermal) capacity of a substance
● define specific heat capacity of a substance
● define (a) the specific latent heat of fusion (b) specific latent heat
of vapourization
● solve problems involving the concepts mentioned above.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Heat

Prescot Joule first showed that heat is a form of energy in an experiment

in which mechanical work (energy) was transformed into heat. Other
scientists also showed that heat from fuel, such as gasoline in an engine,
may be transformed to mechanical energy when the engine is used to
drive carts, trains and aeroplanes. In an electric power station, heat from
fuel is changed to electrical energy.

The unit of energy is Joule (J) which is also the unit of measuring
mechanical energy and electrical energy. We also have larger units such
as kilojoule (KJ) and megajoule (MJ).

Power, you will remember, is the rate of doing work. It is also defined
as the rate at which heat energy is given out by a source. For example,
the heat energy delivered per second by a gas burner is its power. This
power is measured in watts (W). One watt is therefore defined as one
joule per second (J/s or Js-1). Other larger units are kilowatt (KW) and
megawatt (MW).

Sources of heat energy are the sun, fuels such as coal, gas, oil and
electricity.

Can you think of other sources of heat energy?

3.2 Heat Capacity

You would have observed that a source of heat will transfer its heat
energy to another body. The source is usually at a high temperature
while the other body being heated is at a lower temperature. When the
source and the other body are in contact, the rise in temperature takes
place in colder body.

35
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Let t1oC be the initial temperature of the body and t2oC be the final
temperature when Q joules of heat has been supplied.

Then the change in temperature,

∆θ = (t2 - t1)oC

The amount of heat in joules that is capable of changing its temperature

through 1oC is Q.J
∆θ

This amount of heat to change the temperature of the body is described

as the heat capacity of the body. It is usually represented by the symbol
H.

By definition, the heat (thermal) capacity (H) of a body, is the

quantity heat (Q) in joules required to change its temperature by
one degree (Celsius or one Kelvin).

∴ H = QJ
∆θ oC

Where, ∆θ = (t2 - t1)

∴ H = QJ …………………..…………………… (3.1)
o
(t2 - t1) C

Thus the unit of heat (thermal capacity is expressed in joules per Celsius
or joules per Kelvin (JK-1 or J oC-1).

The values of H for different bodies are not the same. They vary from
one body to another.

EXAMPLE 3.1

A metal container of heat capacity 200J oC-1 is heated from 15oC to 45

o
C. What is the total quantity of heat required to do so?

SOLUTION 3.1

Using Eq. (3.1)

H =Q
∆θ

36
PHY 101 MODULE 1

∴ Q = H∆θ

= H (t2 - t1)

Substituting the values, we get

= 200 J/ oC x (45 – 15)oC
= 200 x 30J
Q = 6000J
Q = 6KJ

3.3 Specific Heat Capacity

If there are different masses of a substance m1, m2 and m3, it will be

observed that to raise their temperatures through 1oC each, they will
require different quantities of heat energy Q1, Q2 and Q3.

Experiments have shown that the quantities of heat (Q) required to

change their temperature through 1oC is proportional to the
corresponding masses (m).

∴ Q α m …………………………………………… (3.2)

However, if we fix the mass of the substance to 1kg an we transfer

various quantities of heat Q to it, there will be various corresponding
changes in temperature∆θ. Again, it will be found that the quantities of
heat Q to change the temperature of 1kg mass of the body will be
proportional to the corresponding changes in temperature∆θ. Hence we
can write
Q α ∆θ ………………………………..……………………. (3.3)

Combining these two factors, we get

Q α m∆θ
Or Q = Cm∆θ ………………………………………… (3.4)

Where C is a constant of proportionality known as the specific heat

capacity of the substance

∴ C = Q
m∆θ

The specific heat capacity of a substance is therefore defined as the

amount of heat Q (in joules) required to raise the temperature of
1kg mass of substance through unit degree (1oC or 1oK).

37
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The unit of C is J/kg oC or Jkg -10C-1 or Jkg -1K-1. It can also be measured
in cal. g -1 k -1

The value of C differs from one substance to another.

The values of specific heat capacity for some common substances are
given in Table 3.1 below.

Table 3.1: Specific Heat Capacity for Some Substances

Substance Specific heat capacity in Jkg -1oC-1

Iron 460
Copper 400
Lead 120
Aluminum 800
Water 4200

EXAMPLE 3.2

How much heat is needed to bring 10g of water from 50oC to boiling
point? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg -1oC-1)?

SOLUTION 3.2

Using Eq. 3.4 Q = mC∆θ

= mC (t2 - t1)

Substituting the values, in the Eq. 3.4 we get,

= 10g/1000kg x 4200J/kg oC x (100 – 50) oC

Q = 2100J
= 2.1KJ

3.3.1 Simple Method of Mixtures

In this section we shall consider exchange of heat between two bodies in

such a way that one body is at a high temperature and the other is at a
low temperature. In the simple method of mixtures, we are simply
looking at hot and cold substances being mixed without considering the
container in which they are being mixed. The principle of conservation
of heat energy is being observed very closely. Here, very briefly, we
will discuss the principle of conservation of heat energy.

38
PHY 101 MODULE 1

This principle states that “the heat lost by a hot body is equal to the
heat gained by the cold body in any system provided there is no heat
exchange between the substances involved and their surrounding”

But you may now ask: Is this always true?

Unfortunately, this heat exchange cannot be completely true. However,

the heat lost to the surrounding or gained from it can be reduced to a
negligible amount by surrounding the container (calorimeter) with a bad
conductor of heat (insulator). This process is called lagging.

In a laboratory, use the calorimeter as the container with which you

observe exchange of heat between two substances, keeping them usually
at different temperatures. The cold body is usually in form of water or
any liquid and the hot body could be a solid body or liquid at a higher
temperature.

Did you understand?

Let me illustrate this principle with this example,

Fig. 3.1

If body A is the hot body at temperature t1 and B is the cold body at

temperature t2, A and B are then mixed up to give a final temperature of
mixture t. Let us see then what has happened?

(1) The hot body has lost some heat to the cold body B. The heat
lost can be find out.

Let Q1 be the amount of heat

Q1 = m1c1∆θ1
∴ Q1 = m1c1∆θ(t1– t)
Or = Q1 = -m1c1∆θ(t - t1) ………………………………………. (3.5)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(2) The cold body B has gained some heat. The heat gained is,

Let Q2 be the amount of heat gained.

∴ Q2 = m2c2∆θ2
Q2 = m2c2∆θ(t - t2) ..………………………….. (3.6)

(3) How do you relate Q1 and Q2? We relate them together by suing
the principle of conservation of heat energy, which says that

“In any heat exchange provided heat is not lost to or gained from the
surrounding.”

Heat lost = Heat gained

∴ Q1 = Q2
∴ m1c1∆θ1 = m2c2∆θ2
∴ m1c1(t1 - t) = m2c2 (t - t2) …….………. (3.7)

Out of all the seven quantities m1, c1, t2, t, m2, c2 and t1 all will be known
except one. Now try to look for this only unknown quantity.

Let us solve an SAQ to understand this more clearly.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A piece of iron of mass 0.20kg is heated to 64oC and then dropped

gently into 0.15kg of water at 16oC. If the temperature of the mixture is
22oC, what is the specific heat capacity of iron?

3.3.2 Inclusion of Calorimeter in Method of Mixtures

In section 3.3.1, we talked about simple method of mixtures in which

the idea of the container taking part in the heat exchange was excluded.
In this section, we are going to consider the calorimeter as one of the
major players in the heat exchange (see Fig. 3.2). Once again, we shall
still consider the principle of conservation of heat energy in our
discussion.

Here we have the hot body A at a higher temperature than the liquid
contained in the calorimeter. Thus, the liquid and the calorimeter are
considered as the cold body gaining heat from the hot body.

40
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Fig. 3.2

Consider the hot body (A) with mass m1, Specific heat capacity C1 its
initial temperature t1 and Final temperature of mixture is = t.

Then, Heat lost by hot body:

Q1 = m1c1∆θ1
Q1 = m1c1(t1 – t) ………………………………...…. (3.8)

Again consider the cold liquid (B) with mass m2, specific heat capacity
C2 with initial temperature t2. The final temperature of the mixture is t.

Heat gained by cold liquid (B) = Q2

Q2 = m2C2∆θ2
Q2 = m2C2 (t – t2) ……………………………...…. (3.9)

Consider the cold calorimeter (C) with mass m3, specific heat capacity
C3, Specific heat capacity = C3 Initial temperature t3 and Final
temperature of mixture t.

Heat gained by cold calorimeter C is Q3.

Q3 = m3C3∆θ3
Q3 = m3C3 (t – t3) ……………………………...…. (3.10)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

It can be noted here that the liquid (B) and calorimeter (C) are both
gaining heat. Therefore their changes in temperature will be the same.

∴ ∆θ2 = ∆θ3 ………………………………… (3.11)

∴ (t – t2) = (t – t3)

∴ Q3 = m3C3 (t – t3) ……………………… (3.12)

In most cases, m3 and C3 may not be provided for you in the heat
exchange. Rather, a property of the container, i.e. the calorimeter may
be provided in the form of the thermal capacity (H) of the calorimeter.
Hence, the quantity of heat gained by the calorimeter is expressed as

Q3 = H∆θ3 = m3C3∆θ3 ……………… (3.13)

∴ Q3 = H(t – t2) …………………..………………… (3.14)

By applying the principle of conversation of heat energy, the relation

between the quantities Q1, Q2 and Q3 is

Heat lost = Heat gained

Q1 = Q2 + Q3 ……………………………. (3.15)

∴ m1C1 (t1 – t) = m2C2 (t – t2) + m3C3 (t – t2)

Or m1C1 (t – t1) = m2C2 (t – t2) + H (t – t2)………..………. (3.16)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A calorimeter contains 0.30kg of water at 12oC. When poured in, the

temperature of the mixture is found to be 52oC. What is the heat
capacity of the calorimeter?

3.4 Latent Heat

When matter is heated, you will recall, there are three observable
effects. Heat causes matter to:

● Expand
● Change its temperature
● Change its state

Let us look closely at the last two effects, changes in temperature and
state. The first effect, expansion, will be considered later. The effect of

42
PHY 101 MODULE 1

the temperature change has been used to measure the quantity of heat
absorbed or given out by a substance. The expression used in = mC∆θ
(where ∆θ is the change in temperature).

But what about the change in state?

We shall now look critically at the effect of heat on a solid ice-block as

it is heated from say -10oC to the boiling point 100oC.

Fig 3.3 shows the graph of temperature versus time which allows us to
understand the concept of Latent heat which is under discussion.

Fig. 3.3

● AB shows increase in temperature as the time increases

● BC shows no increase in temperature with respect to time
At this point the solid ice is observed to change its state from ice
(solid) to water (liquid). This takes place as 0oC – the
melting/freezing point of water. The process is called melting.
The reverse process of melting is freezing.
● CD shows an increase in temperature with respect to time
● DE again shows no increase in temperature as the water is being
heated. This happens at another fixed temperature of 100oC
which is the boiling point of water. The liquid water changes its
state from water to steam (gas). The process is called
vapourization. The reverse process of vapourization is
condensation.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

● EF shows that there is an increase in temperature of steam with

respect to time. In this region water behaves as a gas whose
behaviour will be studied later.

It is significant to note that BC and DE show regions at which water

changes its state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas respectively.
The reverse could also take place by extracting heat from the system
then we have condensation, the reverse of vapourization and then
freezing, the reverse of melting.

But, how do we measure the heat content when water or any substance
changes its state?

To answer this question will therefore be involved with energy-

temperature relationship of the processes of melting and vapourization
or condensation and freezing.

Fig. 3.4

Refer to figure 3.4

● AB indicates the absorption of heat by the solid material to

change its temperature from -10oC to 0oC. The amount of heat
supplied is OB = Q1.

Where Q1 = m1C1∆θ1. Here m1, represents mass of ice, and m1

= mass of ice, C1 is the specific heat capacity of solid ice is the
change in temperature from -10oC to 0oC

44
PHY 101 MODULE 1

∆θ1 = (0 – (-10))oC = 10oC

∴ Q1 = m1C1 x 10J

● BC corresponds to the absorption of heat energy without any

change in temperature. The energy appears latent, that is, hidden
since there is no change in temperature.

The amount of heat supplied to BC is Q2 = mLF, where, m is the

mass of ice and LF is the specific heat of fusion.

Latent heat of fusion LF for ice = 3.3 x 10 5 Jkg -1

Specific latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat

required to change 1kg of mass of solid at its melting point to liquid
at the same temperature”.

● CD corresponds to the increase in temperature of substance in the

liquid state. CP = Q3 = mC2∆θ is the quantity of heat supplied to
change its temperature from its melting point to 100oC, the
boiling point. Here m is the mass of the liquid converted from
solid ice, C2 is the specific heat capacity of water, and ∆θ2 is the
change in temperature from 0oC to 100oC.

● DE shows that there is an increase in heat energy while the

temperature does not change. De therefore corresponds to the
change in state from liquid to vapour. The heat energy appears
latent, that is, hidden, since there was no change in temperature.
The quantity of heat supplied is CP.

CP = Q4 = mLV
Where, m is the mass of water and Lv is the specific latent heat of
vapourization at its boiling point.

Therefore, we can define the specific latent heat of vapourization of a

liquid.

“The specific latent heat of vaporization Lv of a liquid is the

quantity of heat required to change 1kg of a liquid at its boiling
point to vapour at the same temperature”.

The value of Lv for water is 2.4 x 106Jkg -1J at 100oC and external
pressure of 760mmHg.

• EF corresponds to the increase in temperature of the vapour. The

heat absorbed by the vapour will depend on the condition under

45
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

which it is treated i.e. whether it is treated at constant pressure or

at constant volume. These ideas will be discussed under the
concept of molar heat capacity of gases at a later stage of your
physics course.

You therefore need to understand the effects of heat on matter

under consideration and to know the process it is undergoing
when you are solving problems involving changes in
temperatures and or changes in state. For example, the total heat
energy required to change the mass m of ice at -10oC to vapour at
100oC is Q where
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4
Q = m1C1∆θ1 + mLF + m2C2∆θ2 + mLvs …..……. (3.17)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

1. How much heat is needed to melt 1.5kg of ice and then to raise
the temperature of the resulting water 50oC?

2. The water at 0oC is changed to 50oC

Q2 = m1C1∆θ1
= 1.5kg x 4200Jkg-1 oC-1 x (50-0)oC
= 1.5kg x 4200Jkg-1 oC-1 x 50oC
= 3.15 x 105J

3. Total amount of heat required is

Q = Q1 + Q2
= 1.5kg x 3.3 x 105Jkg-1 + 1.5kg x 4200Jkg-1 oC-1 x
50oC
= 4.95 x 105J + 3.15 x105J
= 8.1 x 105J

It can be concluded that there are two kinds of latent heat – the one at
the melting point and the other at the boiling point. Thus we define

• Latent heat of fusion as the heat required to melt a whole

mass of solid at melting point to liquid at the same
temperature.
• Latent heat of vapourization is the heat required to convert a
whole mass of liquid at boiling point to vapour at the same
temperature. It is expressed in joules per kilogram (Jkg-1).

46
PHY 101 MODULE 1

3.5 Explanation of Latent Heat

In this section, we would like to explain the meaning of latent heat of

fusion and vapourization on the basis of kinetic molecular theory of
matter.

3.5.1 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion

A solid consists of atoms or molecules held in affixed structure by

forces of attraction between them. These atoms or molecules vibrate
about their mean position. When heat is therefore supplied to the solid,
the kinetic energy of vibration increases thus increasing the temperature
of the solid. The heat supplied is measure by mC∆θ . At the melting
point, the heat given to the solid is used to overcome the forces of
attraction between the atoms or molecules, which keep the solid in its
rigid form, and then the solid melts.

At this point we define the specific latent heat of fusion (LF) as the
quantity of heat required to change 1kg mass of a solid at its melting
point to liquid at the same temperature.

EXAMPLE 3.3

Explain the statement “the specific latent heat of fusion of ice 3.3 x 10 -5
Jkg -1”

Solution 3.3

This means that 3.3 x 10 5 joules of heat energy is required to change

1kg of solid ice at 0oC to 1kg of water at the same 0oC temperature.

3.5.2 Specific Latent Heat of Vapourization

Unlike solids, a liquid has no definite form; it usually takes the shape of
its container. It molecules move in random manner inside although the
molecules are close enough to attract each other. Some of the
molecules, which have the greatest kinetic energy, are able to escape
through the surface. They then exist as vapour outside the liquid. This
process is called evaporation and it takes place at all temperatures.

However, boiling occurs at a definite temperature, the boiling point

which depends on the external pressure. Water for example boils at
100oC and at a pressure 760mmHg. It does so at a lower temperature
when the external pressure is lower e.g. boiling point of water at the top
of a mountain is less that 100oC. Boiling occurs throughout the whole
volume of the liquid whereas evaporation is a surface phenomenon.

47
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

At this point, we would define the specify latent heat of vapourization as

the quantity of heat required to change 1kg mass of liquid at boiling
point to vapour at the same temperature.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

How much heat is given out when 50g of steam at 100oC cool to water
at 28oC? (Specific latent heat of vapourization of water = 2.3 x 106
J/kg).

3.5.3 Latent Heat and Internal Energy

When a liquid reaches its boiling point, the energy needed to change it
to vapour is:

(i) the energy or work needed to separate the liquid molecules from
their mutual attraction until they are relatively far apart in the
gaseous state.
(ii) the energy or work needed to push back the external pressure so
that the molecules can escape from the liquid.

The latent heat of vapourization is used in point (i) which is needed to

change the internal energy of the liquid whereas point (ii) is the external
work done against the external pressure.

The work done in this case is defined as

W = p∆V …………………………………………………. (3.18)

Where, p is the external pressure and ∆V is the change in volume

1g of water changes to about 1672cm3 of steam

∴ ∆V = (1672 – 1)cm3
= 1671 x 10-6cm3

Assuming the external pressure

P = 1.013 x 105 N m-2

∴ The work done (W) = p∆V is therefore

N
= 1.0 p∆V 13 x 10 5 2
x 1671 x 10 −6 m 3
m
= 169.3J

The latent heat of vapourization per gram of water = 2260J

Thus the internal energy part of the latent heat of vaporization

48
PHY 101 MODULE 1

= (2260 – 169.3)J
= 2090.7J

This is much greater than the external work done.

The latent heat of fusion is about 340J. So the energy needed to

overcome the bonds between molecules in the solid state is much less
than the energy to form the gaseous molecules from the liquid state.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

1g of steam condenses to water 100 oC. Estimate the change in potential

energy per molecule, given that the latent heat of vapourization is 2240J
and that Avogadro’s constant is 6 x 1023 per mole. (Assume no heat is
gained from or lost to the surrounding).

4.0 CONCLUSION

The three basic effects of heat have been identified under this unit. The
effects are expansion, change in temperature and change in state. The
change in temperature and change in state have been associated with the
measurement of heat. With the change in temperature, the quantity of
heat is expressed as Q = mC∆θ, whereas for the change in state the heat
required is given as Q = mLF or Q = mLV .

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that:

● Heat is a form of energy and is measured in joules (J)

● The heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat required
to change the temperature of the body through 1oC.
● The specific heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of heat in
joules that is required to change the temperature of 1kg mass of
the substance through 1oC.
● The specific latent heat of fusion of a solid is the quantity of heat
in joules that is required to change the state of 1kg mass of the
solid at the melting point to liquid at the same temperature.
● The specific latent heat of vapourization of a liquid is the quantity
of heat in joules required to change 1kg mass of the liquid at its
boiling point to gas at the same temperature.

49
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

HOT – IRON COLD – WATER

Heat lost by iron, Q1 = m1c1∆θ1

= m1c1(t1 - t)
= 0.20kg x c1 x (64 – 22)oC

Heat gained by water, Q2 = m2c2∆θ2

= m2c2(t – t2)
= 0.150kg x 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 x (22 – 16)oC

Using the principle of conversation of heat energy,

∴ Heat lost by iron = Heat gained by water

∴ Q1 = Q2

0.2kg x c1 x (64 -22) oC = 0.150kg x 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 x (22 – 16)oC

∴
0.15 x 4200 x 6J
c1 =
0.02kg x 42 o C

c1 = 450Jkg-1oC-1

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

The question is centered on determining H, the heat (thermal) capacity

of the container (Calorimeter).

1. Heat lost by hot water = Q1 and

Q1 = m1C1∆θ1
Where m1 = 0.4kg,
C1= specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 and
∆θ1 = (t1 - t) = (84 -52) oC
Q1 = 0.4kg x 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 x (84 – 52)oC
= 0.4 x 4200 x 32J

50
PHY 101 MODULE 1

2. Heat gained by cold water in the calorimeter = Q2 and

Q2 = m2C2∆θ2
Where m2 = 0.3kg,
C1= specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 and
∆θ2 = (t – t2) = (52 -12) oC = 40 oC
Q2 = 0.3kg x 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 x 40oC
= 0.3 x 4200 x 40J

3. Heat gained by cold water calorimeter = Q3 and

Q3 = H∆θ3 (where H = thermal heat capacity
of the calorimeter)
= H∆θ2
= (t – t2)
= H(52 -12)oC
= H x 40oC

By applying the conversation of heat energy

Heat lost = Heat gained

∴ Q1 = Q2 + Q3

∴ m1C1 (t1 – t) = m2C2 (t – t2) + m3C3 (t – t2)

∴ 0.4 x 4200 x 32J = 0.3 x 4200 x 40J + H40oC

∴ 53760J = 50400J + H x 40oC
∴ 53760J - 50400J = H x 40oCH
∴ H = 3360J
40oC
= 84J/ oC-1

The heat capacity of the calorimeter is 84J/oC

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

0→ 50
 →
o o
C C
SOLID WATER STEAM

1. The ice melts at

Quantity of heat used in melting = Q and
Q1 = mLF
Where, m = mass of ice and LF = specific latent heat of fusion
= 1.5kg x 3.3 x 10 5Jkg -1
= 4.95 x 10 5

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

The steam condensed at 100oC.

Therefore, heat given out is Q1 = mLF

Where m = mass of steam = (50/1000) kg

Lv = specific latent heat of vapourization of water
= 2.3 x 10 6J/kg
∴ Q1 = (50/1000)kg x 2.3 x10 6J/kg
= (50/1000) x 2.3 x10 6J
Q1 = 0.155 x 10 6J

To cool from 100oC to 28oC, Heat given out by steam

Q2 = mC∆θ

Where, m = (50/1000)kg mass of water

C = specific heat capacity of water 4200 Jkg-1oC-1
= change in temperature = (10 – 28)oC
∴ Q2 = (50/1000)kg x 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 x (100 – 28)oC
= (50/1000) x 4200 x 72J
= 15120J

∴ Total heat given out = Q = Q1+Q2

Q = 0.115 x 10 6J + 15120J
= 1.15 x 10 5J + 0.1512 x 10 5J
Q = 1.30 x 10 5J.

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

1 mole of water (H2O) = 18g

If 18g of H2O contains 6 x 1023 molecules
∴1g of water contains
6 x 10 23
molecules
18
Hence the change in Potential energy (∆PE) per molecule

= 2240J ÷
6 x 10 23 molecules
18

= 2240J x
18
23
6 x 10 molecule

52
PHY 101 MODULE 1

=
2240 x 18 J
x 10 − 23
6 molecule

= 6.72 x 10-20
J
molecule

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. An iron casting of mass 30kg at 400oC is being cooled and it

gives out heat on an average of 920J/s. Calculate its temperature
after 1 hour? (Specific heat capacity of iron = 460Jkg -1oC -1).

2. A piece of iron of mass 0.27kg is immersed in boiling water and

then dropped into 0.10kg alcohol at 27oC. If the final mixture is
50oC, what is the specific heat capacity of alcohol? (Specific
heat capacity of iron = 460Jkg -1oC -1).

3. A copper calorimeter of mass 150g contains 100g of water at

16oC. 250g of a metal at 100oC are dropped into the water and
the temperature of the mixture is 37oC. What is the specific heat
capacity of the metal? (Specific heat capacity of copper = 400Jkg
-1o -1
C ).

4. What mass of ice is needed to cool 60g of water from 43oC to

20oC?

5. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Lead is 2.1 x 104J/kg and its

melting point is 328oC. How many joules will be needed to melt
7.0kg of lead at 13oC? (Specific heat capacity of lead = 120Jkg -
1o -1
C )

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press, Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.). Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

53
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.
Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College
Physics, London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F.(1966). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Publisher.

Zemansky, M. W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw Hill.

54
PHY 101 MODULE 1

UNIT 4 THERMAL EXPANSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Thermal Expansion in Solids
3.1.1 Linear Expansion
3.1.2 Determination of Linear Expansion
3.1.3 Superficial Expansion
3.1.4 Cubical Expansion
3.1.5 Applications of Expansivity
3.2 Thermal Expansion in Liquids
3.2.1 Cubical Expansion
3.2.2 Real and Apparent Expansion of Liquids
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In unit 3, we discussed the three effects of matter, namely, expansion,

change in temperature and change in state. We were able to show how
heat can be measured using the ideas of change in temperature, the
specific heat capacity, the mass of the body, specific latent heat of
fusion and vapourization to determine the heat absorbed or given out by
the body in question.

Broadly, there are these states of matter, solids, liquids and gases. We
shall consider the expansion of solid and liquids in this unit. In this unit
we are going to examine the expansion/contraction of a material when it
is heated or cooled. The expansion of gases will be the subject of the
next unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain thermal expansion in solids and liquids

• define linear, superficial and cubical expansion on a matter
• apply the expansion of matter to day-to-day activities
• solve problems on the expansion of solids and liquids.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Thermal Expansion in Solids

We know, from our elementary knowledge, that matter is anything that

has weight and occupies space. In that case, solids, liquids and gases are
forms of matter. When they are therefore heated, experience has shown
that they expand. In this unit, we shall examine the expansion of solids
and liquids only. It is interesting to know that not only expansion is
noticeable in matter when it is heated, but also a change in temperature
is also noticeable as heat is absorbed by or removed from the body.

When solids are heated, the effect of heat on them could be found in the
change of:

• the length
• the area and
• volume of the solids as temperature changes.

The changes in length, area and volume of the solids depends on:

• the material making up the solid;

• the range of the temperature change;
• the initial dimensions of the solid.

From the above three factors we could deduce that

• the expansion of solids varies from one material to the other;

• the greater the range of temperature change, the greater the
expansion;
• expansion depends on the original length, area and volume of the
solid.

3.1.1 Linear Expansion

Here, we shall discuss the linear i.e. straight-line expansion of the

material. This means we are considering the expansion of a solid in one
dimension only.

Consider a metal rod with an original length l O (fig. 3.1(i)). If such a

length of material is heated from an initial temperature t1oC to t2oC, the
change in temperature ∆θ is given as

∆θ = (t2 – t1)oC

56
PHY 101 MODULE 1

It will be noticed that the length of the metal rod increased from l O to l t
(fig. 3.11(ii)) l t is the new length at temperature t2oC and l O is the
original length at temperature t1oC.

Fig. 3.1

The new length l t is therefore given as

lt = lO + ∆l

Where ∆ l is the change in length of the rod when heated from t1oC to
t2oC

∴ ∆l = lt - lO ...……………………… (4.1)

It is found experimentally that for a given material, the increase in

length,∆ l , is proportional directly to

(i) the original length l O and

(ii) the change in temperature ∆θ

∴ ∆l = α l O ∆θ ……………………………………… (4.2)

Where, α is the constant of proportionality which is known as the

coefficient of linear expansion of the solid or in short, linear expansivity.
Consequently α can be given as,

α= ∆l
l O ∆θ

Thus by definition,α, the linear expansivity is “The increase in length

of the material (∆ l ) per the original l O length per degree Celsius
change in temperature (∆θ).”

57
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The unit of α is oC-1or per degree Celsius.

On comparing Eq. (4.1) and (4.2), we get

∴ lt - lO = α l O ∆θ

∴ lt - lO = α l O ∆θ

∴ lt - lO = α l O (t2 – t1)………………… (4.3)

Example 1

An iron rail is 20m long. How much will it expand when heated from
10oC to 50oC (linear expansivity of iron = 1.2 x 10-5 -5oC -1)?

Solution

Let the original length of iron = lO = 20m

Let the initial temperature t1oC = 10 C o

And the final temperature t2oC = 50oC

∴ Change in temperature ∆θ = (t2 – t1)oC
= (50 -10)oC
= 40oC
Given that α for iron = 1.2 x 10-5oC-1
From ∆l = α l O ∆θ
∴ The change in length ∆l = α l O ∆θ

∴ ∆l = 1.2 x 20m x 40oC

= 0.0096m
∆l = 0.96cm.

The iron rail would have expanded by 0.96cm.

After this example, you must have observed the values of α and∆ l .

You would have observed that the value of α is very small not only for
iron but for most materials as you will further observe in Table 3.1.
below.

58
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Linear Expansivities for Some Materials

Table 3.1

Substance Value
Pure Metals

Aluminum 2.55 x 10-5oC

Copper 1.67 x 10-5oC
Gold 1.395 x 10-5oC
Iron 1.20 x 10-5oC
Nickel 1.28 x 10-5oC
Platinum 0.80 x 10-5oC
Silver 1.88 x 10-5oC
Alloys

Brass 1.89 x 10-5oC

Constantan 1.70 x 10-5oC
Invar 0.10 x 10-5oC
Phosphor – Bronze 1.68 x 10-5oC
Solder (2pb: 1Sn) 2.50 x 10-5oC
Steel 1.10 x 10-5oC

3.1.2 Determination of Linear Expansion (α)

In the earlier section, you have learnt about linear expansionα. We can
measure the value of α by various methods.

We have the following methods used in determining the linear

expansivity (α) of a metal:

• Optical lever method

• Screw gauge method
• Comparator method
• Henning’s tube method
• Fizeau’s method

All the above methods are different in the manner in which the increase
in length is measured. The specimen to be measured is in form of a bar
or tube and this involves:

• the measurement of the length of the bar,

• the rise in temperature during the experiment and

59
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• the increase in length of the bar consequent on this rise in

temperature.

The first two measurements do not present any great difficulty, but the
actual measurement of the expansion that takes place. It is therefore this
measurement of the increase in expansion that has called for use of
elaborate vernier microscope, micrometer screw gauge and the optical
lever method. We shall describe the screw gauge method here.

The Screw Gauge Method

This is one of the laboratory methods for determining the coefficient of

linear expansion of a metal. The apparatus used for the determination of
α is as shown in fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Linear Expansivity Apparatus with Screw Gauge

The metal rod which is placed in the tune AB is about a meter in length.
It is supported horizontally by pillars P and Q on affirm base.

The end A of the tube is in contact with the fixed end of the pillar of the
apparatus. The screw gauge makes contact with the other end B as
shown in fig. 3.2.

The reading of the screw gauge is taken when it is initially in contact

with the end B at the room temperature t1.

The screw gauge is then screwed backward to give room for the
expansion of the rod inside the tube.

Steam is allowed into the tube at end A and out through end B for a
considerable length of time so that the rod acquires at temperature of
100oC, the temperature of steam (t2).

The screw is then screwed up to make contact with the rod when fully
expanded. The new reading on the crew gauge is then taken. The
difference of the two readings on the screw gauge gives the increase in
length of the rod due to expansion.

60
PHY 101 MODULE 1

If he original length of the rod is l O, the increase in length is ∆ l and the

change in temperature is ∆θ = (t2 – t1) = (100 – t1)oC, where t1 is the
room temperature, then the coefficient of expansion α is determined as
∆l
α=
l O ∆θ
∆l (m)
α= ………………………………………. (4.4)
l O(m) (100 - t 1 ) o C

3.1.3 Superficial Expansion

Under this section, we shall consider the expansion of material in two

dimensions (-length and breadth) to produce an area expansion.

When a solid is heated, the area increases. In this case the expansion or
the change in area is in two dimensions as shown in fig. 3.3(ii).

Fig. 3.3

Consider a square solid object of length l O (fig.3.3(ii). By definition its

original area at initial temperature t1oC is Ao (= l 2O ).

If the object is heated from temperature t1oC to t2oC, then each length
would have increased by∆ l (fig. 3.3 (ii)).

Then the new area At = ( l O + ∆ l )2

Thus, the change in area ∆ l is given as

∆A = At - Ao
and the change in temperature ∆θ is given as
∆θ = ( t2 - t1)oC

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Again, experiments have shown that for a given material, the change in
area (∆A) is directly proportional to the original area Ao and the change
in temperature∆θ.

∴ ∆A = βAo∆θ ….…………………………….. (4.5)

where, β is the constant of proportionality otherwise known as the

coefficient of superficial expansion or in short area expansivity of the
material.

∴ At - Ao = βAo∆θ
∴ At = Ao + βAo∆θ
∴ At = Ao (1 + βAo∆θ) ……………….. (4.6)

So far we have learnt about α andβ. Let us see, that there is any
relationship between the linear expansivity (α) of a material and the area
expansivity (β) of the same material. We shall proceed to show this
relationship.

Given that from Eq. (4.6), that At = ( l O + ∆ l )2

On expanding the expansion ( l O + ∆ l )2, we get

∴ At = ( l O2 + 2 l O∆ l + ∆ l )2 …………….(4.7)

You know that ∆l = α l O ∆θ ………………………... (4.8)

But

Therefore, Eq. (4.7) becomes

At = l O2 + 2 l Oα l O ∆θ + α2 l O2(∆θ)2
= l O2 + 2α l O2∆θ + α2 l O2(∆θ)2

But l O2 = Ao

On arranging the terms, we get

∴ At = Ao + 2αAo∆θ + α2Ao(∆θ)2 ………………………..(4.9)

You will recall that the value of α is very small (10-5) therefore α2 will
be so small that term α2 the expression can be ignored.

∴ At = Ao + 2αAo∆θ compare with

At = Ao + βAo∆θ

62
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Hence β = 2α ……………………………..… (4.10)

That is, the coefficient of superficial expansion β is twice the value of

the coefficient of linear expansion.

It means that when problems are set on superficial expansion, you will
not be given the value of β but you will be given the value α of for the
material. At this point, you must remember the relationship.

β = 2α

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A square sheet of steel has a side of 15cm at 0oC. Determine its area at
40oC.

Given: coefficient of linear expansivity of steel = 1.1 x 10-5C-1)

3.1.4 Cubical Expansion

The volume of a solid increases as a result of heat. Let the original

volume of the cube as shown in fig. 3.4(i) be Vo at initial temperature
t1oC. If the cube is heated to a temperature t2oC, then the new volume at
temperature t2oC is Vt (fig. 3.4(ii).

There is a change in volume given by

∆V = Vt - Vo

The change in volume is directly proportional to the

( lO = ∆l)

Fig. 3.4

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Original volume Vo and the change in temperature ∆θ

∴ ∆V = γVo∆θ

where γ is a constant of proportionality the coefficient of cubical

expansion, or cubical expansivity. α is defined as,

∆V
γ ……………………………………… (4.11)
Vo ∆θ
The increase in volume per original volume per degree Celsius rise in
temperature.

If ∆V = γVo∆θ
But Vt = Vo + ∆V
∴ Vt = Vo + γVo∆θ
Vt = Vo (1 + γ∆θ)…………………… (4.12)

Again, one can establish between the cubical expansivity γ and the
linear expansivity α.

From fig. 3.4(i) we know that

Vo + l O3 ………………………………….. (4.13)

and from fig. 3.4(ii) we also note the

Vt = ( l O + ∆ l )3……………………………….. (4.14)

by expanding ( l O + ∆ l )3 we obtain
Vt = l O3 + 3α l O3∆θ + 3 l O3α2(∆θ)2 + α3 l O3∆θ3

By using the previous argument that the value of α is very small,

therefore α2, α3 will be so small that the expressions in terms of α2 and
α3 can be ignored.

Consequently
Vt = l O3 + 3α l O3∆θ since l O3 = Vo

Vt = Vo + 3α Vo∆θ ……..………………. (4.15)

But, Vt = Vo + γVo∆θ ....…………...………… (4.16)

On comparing Eq. (4.15) and Eq. (4.16), we can conclude that γ is three
times as large as α

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

That is the volume of expansivity is three times r =3α the linear

expansivity ………………………………………………....…….. (4.17)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

The volume of a small piece of metal is 5.000cm3 at 20oC and 5.014cm3

at 100oC. Determine the cubic expansivity of the metal?

3.1.5 Applications of Expansivity

The following are some practical applications of expansivity:

1. Some metals such as platinum and tungsten have their linear

expanisivity very close to that of glass. Beside the fact that the
linear expansivity of platinum in almost equal to that of glass, the
behaviour of these solids are very much alike. This
characteristics feature therefore enables us to seal electrodes
through glass without the occurrence of breakage through cooling
and heating processes.

2. Linear expansivity is also applied in the formation of bimetallic

element which are used as:

(i) thermostatic control switches;

(ii) in the construction of expansion loops for use in steam
lines;
(iii) bimetallic thermometers.

3. Linear expansivity is also used in the construction of bridges

where gaps are left between the girders to accommodate
expansion. Such gaps are also between the iron rails in the
construction of railway lines.

Example 2

Have you ever noticed that the electric wires on the NEPA poles are
always left sagging? Can you explain why this is so?

Solution

This is to allow for changes in length as the temperature changes. If

they are taut further cooling in the atmosphere may make them snap.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.2 Thermal Expansion in Liquids

As expansion takes place in solids so also in liquids. The expansion in

liquids is a bulk affair hence we would talk of volume expansivity for
liquids.

3.2.1 Cubical Expansion

The coefficient of volume expansion of a liquid is the fractional change

in volume per the original volume fro degree change in temperature.
From Eq. (4.12) given below,

Vt = Vo (1 + γ∆θ)

It is necessary to note that γ for liquids is not of the same order as 3α

where α is the linear expansivity of solids.

In actual fact γ liquids ≈ 10 γ solid

i.e. γ liquids is greater that γ solid

The observed increase in the volume f the liquid is the difference

between the expansion of the liquid and that of the liquid and that of the
container and it is therefore called relative or apparent change in
volume.

For water, between 0oC and 40oC there is a decrease in volume i.e.
increasing in density? But between 4oC and 100oC, the volume of water
increases uniformly while its density decreases. This is what is being
described as the anomalous behaviour of water. Such behaviour of
water preserves the lives of marine creatures.

3.2.2 Real and Apparent Expansion of Liquids

Experience has shown that it is impossible to measure the real or

absolute thermal expansion of a liquid by direct volume determinations.
This is because liquids are contained in vessels which also expand when
heated. Hence, the expansion of the content of a vessel is always
relative or apparent.

Apparent expansion of the liquid is therefore less that the real expansion
of the liquid. Volume dilatometers are used in the determination of
thermal expansion of liquids. The mean coefficient of apparent
expansion of a liquid (αapp ) between temperature t1 and t2 is given as:

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

αapp =
V2 − V1
V1 (t 2 − t 1 )

Where V2 is the finial volume at t2oC, V1 is the initial volume and (t2 -
t1) the change in temperature.

This is a general definition of the coefficient of apparent expansion. It

applies to such experiments as the volume dilatometer, weight
thermometer, relative density bottle and sinker methods of determining
the coefficient of apparent expansion.

In the last three examples, weights of the volumes of the liquid between
t1 and t2 are compared which will be equal if the vessel and the sinker
did not expand.

αapp =
mass of liquid expelled
mass remaining x temperature change
Thus αreal = αapp + γ

where γ is the coefficient of cubical expansion of the material of vessel,

αapp is the apparent coefficient of expansion of the liquid and αreal is the
real coefficient of the liquid.

4.0 CONCLUSION

When matter is heated, it expands. The ways materials expand when

they are subjected to heat are described by their coefficients of
expansion linear, superficial cubical expansivities.

Expansion in liquids is greater than that of solids. Besides, the study of

expansion in liquids is more complicated than solids. This is because as
the liquid expands, its container also expands. Thus we talk of relative
expansion in liquids rather than of expansion. In the next unit we would
consider the expansion in gases. This will be studied under the gas
laws.

5.0 SUMMARY

You have learnt the following in this unit:

• When matter is heated, it expands;

• There are three types of coefficient of expansion - linear
expansivity, superficial expansivity and cubical expansivity;
• Expansion of a material depends on its nature, temperature range
and the initial dimensions of the material;

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• Superficial expansivity is twice the linear expansivity of solid

material;
• The cubical expansivity is thrice the linear expansivity of a solid
material;
• There is no absolute expansion of a liquid because it is contained
in a container, which also expands.

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Using Eq. (4.6), we get

At = Ao + βAo∆θ

where, At = area of the plate at 40oC = ?

Ao = original area of plate = 15cm2

β = 2α = 2 x 1.1 x 10 -5 oC -1
= area expansivity of steel.

∆θ = change in temperature = (40 -0) oC

= 40 oC
∴ At = Ao + 2αAo∆θ
= 15 cm 2 x 2 x 1.1x 10 -5 oC -1 x 40oC x152cm2
2 2+

= (225cm2 + 0.198cm2)
At = 225.198cm2

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Given:
Vo = 5.000cm3
Vt = 5.014cm3
and t1 = 20oC
and t2 = 100oC
∴ ∆θ = t2 - t1 = (100 – 20)oC = 80 oC
∆V = Vt – Vo

Using the Eq. (4.11)

∆V
∴ γ=
Vo ∆θ
V -V
= t o
Vo ∆θ
Substituting the values, we get

(5.014 - 5.000)cm 3
=
5.000cm 3 x 80 o C

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

0.014
=
5.000 x 80 o C
γ = 0.000035oC-1
γ = 3.5 x 10-5oC-1

Cubical expansivity of the metal is 3.5 x 10-5oC-1

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A brass measuring scale is exactly two meters long at 15oC.

Determine its length at 40oC? (α for brass = 1.8 x 10-5oC-1).

2. If the linear expansivity of a metal is 2.0 x 10-5oC-1, calculate the

approximate value of its superficial expansivity.

3. The density of aluminum at 0oC is 2.76g (cm-3). Determine its

density at 200oC (for aluminum = 2.5 x 10-5oC-1).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: the University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics, London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

69
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Limited.

Zemansky, M. W., (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

UNIT 5 GAS LAWS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Gas Laws
3.2 Boyle’s Law
3.2.1 Experimental Proof of Boyle’s Law
3.3 Charles’s Law
3.3.1 Verification of Charles’s Law
3.4 Pressure Law
3.4.1 Constant volume Gas Thermometer
3.5 Equation of State for Ideal Gases
3.5.1 Real Gases and Ideal Gases
3.5.2 Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature
3.5.3 Universal Gas Constant
3.5.5 Real Gas Equation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

When solids and liquids are heated, they are not significantly affected by
changes in pressure as their temperatures change. This is why we did
not consider the effect of pressure during the expansion of solids and
liquids. However, for a given mass of gas, the expansion of a gas is
considerably affected by pressure. It is to be noted that in describing the
behaviour of gases, when subjected to heat, four variables are usually
considered.

They are:

• pressure (P)
• volume (V)
• temperature (T) and
• the number of moles (n) of the gases.

These four properties or parameters are used to describe the state of a

given mass of a gas. In this unit, we shall first discuss the relationship
between the temperature, pressure and volume of a gas. Then we will
examine the behaviour of gases using these parameters to deduce the
various gas laws.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state the different gas laws

• explain the gas laws through the use of graphs
• distinguish between a real gas and an ideal gas
• express the equation of state of an ideal gas
• solve problems on these gas laws.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 GAS LAWS

You will recall that four properties are used to describe the behaviour of
gases; namely:

Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T), and Amount of the gas in
moles (n).

When any two of these properties are kept constant, the other two are
then subjected to change in order to show how the gas behaves. The
first two will be considered while temperature and the number of moles
of the gas is kept constant.

3.2 Boyle’s Law

Boyle (1662) investigated the relationship between the pressure (P) and
the volume (V) of a given mass of gas when the temperature (T) and the
number of moles (n) are kept constant. Boyle’s law states that:

“The pressure on a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its

volume (V) provided its temperature is kept constant”.

Symbolically, this statement is written as:

Pα
1
…………………………………………………...….. (5.1)
V
∴
K
P= where, K is a constant of proportionality.
V
∴ PV = K = Constant …………………………………………. (5.2)

1
If you plot a graph P versus , then the graph would be as given below
V
in fig. 5.1(i) and fig. 5.1(ii).

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

P P

Pα
1
V
0

1/V V
(i) (ii)
Fig. 5.

3.2.1 Experimental Proof of Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s law may be demonstrated by suing a ‘J’ tube as shown in fig.

5.2 such that one end is opened and the other end closed. Thus AB in
fig. 5.2 contains the trapped air by the column of mercury. The mercury
head (h) constitutes the pressure on the trapped air in addition to the
pressure due to the atmosphere (Ho). The cross sectional area of the ‘J’
tube is assumed to be uniform. That is, the circular area is uniform.

Fig. 5.2

You would have noticed that two variables can be identified in this set
up.

(i) the volume of the air trapped V = A l ……………….(5.3)

where A is the area of cross-section of the tube and l is the length
of the air trapped.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(ii) the pressure P on the tapped air which is made up of the

atmospheric pressure Ho and the mercury column h.

From Eq. (5.3),

V = A l we say that Volume (V) is proportional to the length of

the air.

∴ V α l and α …………………………………………. (5.4)

1 1
V l

Thus the measurement of l is proportional to V

As you know, the pressure = hρg

Where, h is the height of the mercury column, ρ is the density of

mercury, and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

ρ and g are constants.

This also means that the pressure P on the gas is proportional to the
height (h) of the mercury.

P∝ h

That is the total pressure on the gas P ∝ (Ho + h) where Ho is the

barometric height – atmospheric pressure and h is the mercury head in
the ‘J’ tube.

Thus the measurement of Ho + h will be proportional to the pressure P.

Pouring more mercury through the open end varies the length l of the air
column. For each measured height h of the mercury, the corresponding
length l of the air column is measured.

First, we then plot the graph of (Ho + h) against l with the (Ho + h) on
the vertical axis and l on the horizontal axis. We would obtain a graph
as shown in fig. 5.3(i). This shows that as (Ho + h) increases, l
decreases.

74
PHY 101 MODULE 1

1
Fig. 5.3: (i) Plot of (Ho + h) versus l (ii) Plot of (Ho + h) versus ( )
l
1
Secondly, if we plot the graph of (Ho + h) against , with (Ho + h) on the
l
1
vertical axis and on the horizontal axis. A graph as shown in fig. 5.3
l
(ii) will be obtained. We find that the plot is a linear graph.

The two graphs are in consonance with Boyle’s law. Fig. 5.3(i) says that
as the pressure increases, the volume decreases while fig. 5.3(ii) is also
saying that the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume of the
gas.
(Ho + h) α
1
…………………...………..…………………. (5.5)
l

or

Pα
1
V

K
P=
V

∴ PV = K

Thus for volume V1 and pressure P1, P1V1 = k and for volume V2 and
pressure P2, P2V2 = K

The meaning of these statements is that when an amount of a gas (n) and
its temperature t are kept constant we can conveniently state that

P1V1 = P2V2 = K …………..….……………………………..…… (5.6)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

However, if n changes then

P1V1 ≠ P2V2 …………..……….……………………….…… (5.7)

and the conditions of the experiment are no longer consistent with the
conditions of the law even when the temperature is kept constant.

Boyle’s law is applied in air compressors and exhaust (vacuum) pumps.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Under a Pressure of 14Nm-2, some air has a volume of 1.5m3.

Determine its volume when its pressure is 10Nm-2. Assuming the
temperature is kept constant.

3.3 Charles’s Law

Charles’s law deals with the behaviour of a given mass of gas at

constant pressure. Under this law, we would consider the variation of
volume (V) with temperature (T) when the pressure (P) and the amount
of the gas (n) are kept constant.

The original Charles’s state that:

“At constant pressure, the volume of a given amount of gas

increases by a constant fraction of its volume at 0oC for each Celsius
degree rise in temperature”.

The Mathematical expression for this can be written as:

V α T (at constant n and P) …………….………………………….. (5.8)

The above statement brings out the idea of volume coefficient, r, where r
is defined as the increase in volume of a unit volume of the gas at 0oC
for each degree Celsius rise in temperature when the fixed mass of that
gas is heated at constant pressure.

The volume coefficient is called volume expansivity. For more detail,

you can see the unit 4, section 3.1.4.

If Vo is the volume of the gas at 0oC and Vo is the volume of the gas at
toC, then r is expressed as:

∆V
r =
Vo ∆θ

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

Vt - Vo
=
Vo (t - 0 )

∴
Vt - Vo
r =
Vo t

∴ Vt = Vo + r Vot
Vt = Vo (1 + rt) ……...…………….… (5.9)

Note that Vo stands for the volume of the gas at 0oC and not just the
original volume at any selected initial temperature. And that t is the
actual temperature using the Celsius scale and not for any selected
temperature rise.

 1 
The valve of r for most gases is   . Now substituting the value of r
 273 
in Eq. (5.9), we get
 273 + t 
Vt = Vo   …………………..……………….. 5.10)
 273 

But as you know from the absolute scale,

(273 + t) = T# and that

273 = To …………….. (5.11)

Then putting the values in Eq. (5.11) into Eq. (5.10), we get

∴
Vo T
Vt =
To

On rearranging the terms, we obtain

∴
Vt V
= o = Constant
T To

∴ Vt = K# i.e. Vt ∝ T

Thus the volume of the gas (V) is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature (T). The equation Vt = KT is a deduction, or consequence
of Charles’s law. It is not the law.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.3.1 Verification of Charles’s Law

We shall describe here, the experimental procedure for the

determination r, the coefficient if volume expansion of a gas. The
experimental set up is as shown in fig. 5.4 below:

Fig. 5.4: Charles’s Law Apparatus

The apparatus is made up of a glass bulb B filled with dry air. The bulb
is continuous with a graduated tube. The mercury column encloses the
dry air. A branch tube C is also connected to the graduated bulb B that
is open to the atmosphere. The mercury levels X in bulb B and raising
or lowering the reservoir R adjusts Y in tube C to the same level. In that
case the pressure on the gas is the same as that of the atmosphere
pressure.

The bulb B and tube C are surrounded by a water bath, which contains
an electric heater H, which is also used as a stirrer. A thermometer T is
inserted to measure the temperature of the bath. The initial volume V1
and the initial temperature t1 of the gas in the bulb are measured. The
temperature of the gas is the same as that of the water in the bath. They
are both recorded when the level X, Y and Z have been adjusted to be
the same.

The heater is then switched on until there is difference of 20oX rise in

temperature. It is then switched off and used to stir the water thoroughly.
The level X, Y and Z are then adjusted again to obtain a new volume V1
and its new corresponding temperature t2oC. The above procedure is
repeated for another set of five or six volume measurements between the
room temperature t2oC and 100oC.

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

When then plot the graph of volumes V on the vertical axis against their
corresponding temperature t on the horizontal axis. A linear graph as
shown in fig. 5.5 is obtained.

Fig. 5.5: A graph of Volume versus Temperature

The volume at 0oC, Vo may be extrapolated so that r, the volume

coefficient could be determined.

Vt - Vo
r =
Vo x t

Further extrapolation of the graph enables us to determine the absolute

zero temperature. This is found to be -273oC. In conclusion, the
coefficient of the volume expansion (volume expansivity) will be found
1
to be 0.003663, which is approximately equal to .
273

Using the absolute scale temperature, it will be observed from the graph
V
that = Constant.
T
∴
V1 V
= 2
T1 T2

Thus, the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its

absolute temperature provided the pressure is kept constant – another
form of Charles’s law.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Some hydrogen gas a volume of 200cm3 at 15oC. If the pressure

remains constant, at what temperature will its volume be 150cm3?

3.4 Pressure Law

In this section we shall once again examine the behaviour of a gas by

observing how its pressure (P) varies with temperature (t), when its
volume (V) and the amount of the gas (n) are kept constant. The study
under this section is described as pressure law or Gay-Lussac’s law.

It will be observed that the law of increase with increase in temperature

art constant volume is the same as the law of increase in volume with
increase in temperature at constant pressure provided there is no change
in the amount of the gas.

The pressure law states that:

“For a given mass of a gas at constant volume, its pressure increases

by a constant fraction of pressure at 0oC for each Celsius degree rise
in temperature”.

Let us consider a fixed mass of gas of volume V1at t1oC and pressure P1.

Suppose the gas is then heated to some temperature t2oC at which the
volume is zV1. Where z is a fraction.

We can reduce this new volume zV1 to V1 at higher temperature by

increasing the pressure to. Using Boyle’s law.

P2V1 = P1 zV1
∴ P2 = zP1

Thus, when the temperature is raised, the volume can be maintained at

V1by increasing the pressure. That is, the rise in temperature, which
causes an increase in volume from V1 to zV1if the pressure is kept at P1,
also causes an increase in pressure from P1to zP1 if the volume is kept
constant at V1. If Boyle’s law is not obeyed perfectly then the
theoretical basis fails.

However, experiment have shown that when a fixed mass of gas is

heated at constant volume, its pressure increase s by a constant fraction
of the pressure at 0oC for each degree Celsius rise in temperature.

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

The above statement thus defines the pressure coefficient β or pressure

expansivity.

The pressure coefficient β is defined as the increase in pressure

expressed as a fraction of the pressure at 0oC for one Celsius degree rise
in temperature when a fixed mass of that as is heated at constant
volume.

If Po is the pressure of he gas at 0oC and P, the pressure at toC, then is

defined as:

∆P
β =
Po t

∴ β
Pt - Po
=
Po t
∴ Pt - Po = β Pot
∴ Pt = Po (1 + βt) ………………………….. (5.13)

3.4.1 Constant volume Gas Thermometer

Jolly’s constant volume air thermometer s used to determine the

pressure coefficient β for a gas (fig. 5.6).

Fig. 5.6: Constant Volume Air Thermometer

It consists of a glass bulb V of volume 10cm filled with dry air. The
bulb V is connected to a glass capillary tube T that in turn is connected

81
PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

to a mercury manometer R which measures pressure. A fixed reference

mark is made on the capillary tube at A.

The moveable arm of the manometer R is usually adjusted up and down

as may be necessary to ensure that the mercury level at A remains the
same. This marks the constant volume before any reading is taken.

The initial pressure of the gas at the room temperature is noted from the
difference in the mercury levels at X and Y. This is done by arranging
the bulb in a water bath, which is well stirred, and with the mercury
thermometer in the water bath. The room temperature is taken as the
temperature of the water bath on which the thermometer is inserted.

The pressure of the atmosphere is read first from the barometer. Then
the initial temperature of the water bath is taken. When the mercury
level is first brought to level A the level Y is noted. The difference
between Y and X given the mercury head, h.

Thus, the total pressure on the volume of gas is

P α (H + h)cm of mercury.

The water bath is gently heated through, about 20oC when the heating is
stopped and stirred thoroughly. The moveable arm of the manometer is
adjusted, the mercury level A at a steady temperature to enable the
reading of anew level of Y. The new temperature is taken and the new
corresponding pressure head h is measured. The above procedure is
repeated for a set of five or six readings. The barometric height is read
again as a check at the end of the experiment. The graph of pressure
readings is plotted against the corresponding values of the temperature
readings. The graph is shown in fig. 5.7.

Fig. 5.7: Graph of Pressure versus Temperature

82
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Our conclusion from this graph is that the pressure on the gas varies
linearly with the temperature. When the graph is extrapolated, the
pressure Po at 0oC can be read from the graph. Further extrapolation
produces the absolute temperature which will be found to be
approximately equal to -273oC.

∆P
The slope of the graph β =
Po t

∴ β
Pt - Po 1
= = …………………..………….. (5.14)
Po t 273

The following precautions are usually taken:

• the mercury level is changed gradually;

• the volume is maintained at constant value at A;

Sources of error could also be found in:

• the dead space of the capillary tube T and

• the expansion of the bulb which also introduces error.

β
1
If =
273
∆P
From, β =
Po t

∴ β
Pt - Po
=
Po t
∴ Pt - Po = β Pot
∴ Pt = Po + β Pot

Pt = Po (1 + βt) ………………..………….. (5.15)

Put β =
1
in Eq. (5.15), we get
273
 1 
Po 1 + t
 273 
=

 273 + t 
Po   ………………………….……………. (5.16)
 273 
Pt =

Using the absolute scale of temperature,

273 + t = T
∴
Po
Pt = xT
273

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Po T
=
To

∴
P Po
= = K ………..…..……….……… (5.17)
T To
∴ Pt = KT

Hence, Pt α T ………………………………………. (5.18)

This means that the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature provided the volume is kept constant. This is
another consequence of the pressure law. The original law states that

That is for a fixed mass of any gas heated at constant volume, the
1
pressure increase by of the pressure at 0oCfor each Celsius degree
273
P
rise in temperature. Whereas, = constant is the deduction or the
T
consequence from the law. It states that the pressure of a given mass of
gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

N
The pressure in a diver’s oxygen cylinder is 1.25 x 106 2
at 20oC.
m
Determine the pressure in the cylinder if it is lowered into water at 10oC

3.5 Equation of State for Ideal Gases

In physics, two kinds of gases are usually discussed. They are real gases
and ideal gases. You may like to know the difference between an ideal
gas and a real gas. We shall now describe the properties of real gases
and ideal gases.

3.5.1 Real Gases and Ideal Gases

At extremely low pressure, all gases closely obey Boyle’s law. Thus if
Boyle’s law is obeyed, the volume coefficient r and the pressure
coefficient β are the same for the same gas.

Starting with a fixed mass of a gas at 10oC at pressure Po and volume

Vo, we then heat to a temperature of toC in two ways.

Firstly, we heat at constant pressure, then cool it down again to 0oC and
then repeat the process at constant volume.

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

(i) at constant pressure Po the volume changes to Vt when heated to

temperature toC
∴ Vt = Vo(1 + rt)

(1) Starting point 0oC Po Vo 1st stage

(2) Heating the gas at toC Po Vt = Vo(1 + rt)

Constant Pressure

0oC Po Vo 2nd stage

Po Pt = Po(1+ βt) Vo
(3) Heating the gas at
Constant volume

At constant pressure the product PV = PoVo(1 + rt) …..…………. (5.19)

(ii) At constant volume Vo, the pressure becomes pt = Po(1+ βt)

The product PV then becomes PoVo(1 + βt) ……………… (5.20)

If Boyle’s law is obeyed, all values of the product PV at the same

temperature toC must be the same.

∴ PoVo(1 + rt) = PoVo(1 + βt) …………...……………. (5.21)

Hence r = β

By plotting the values of r and β against pressure P, a graph shown in

fig. 5.8 will be obtained.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 5.8

By extrapolating to zero pressure, the pressure values of these

coefficients at limiting conditions when Boyle’s law is obeyed are found
to be closely the same. (Table 5.1).

Table 5.1

Gas r β
Helium 0.0036607 0.0036609
Hydrogen 0.0036611 0.0036610
Nitrogen 0.0036609 0.0036606

The table 5.1 shows that the pressure coefficient and the volume
coefficient for each individual gas are very close to one another. Also
the values for different gases are all close to the mean values of
0.0036608. Hence in the limiting case at extremely low density and
pressure, when Boyle’s law is obeyed closely, all gases have the same
volume coefficient 0.036608 and the same pressure coefficient
0.0036608.

Real gases will behave in this way only at extremely low pressures.
This behaviour is what is described as being ideal.

A gas, which would behave in this way at all pressure, is called an ideal
or perfect gas. In practice real gases are not ideal but we consider some
approximations to ideal gas under some specified conditions.

We are now in the position to produce the equation of state for an ideal
gas. At constant pressure,

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

PV = PoVo(1 + rt) ……………….………...……………. (5.22)

At constant pressure,

PV = PoVo(1 + βt) ……………….…...…………………. (5.23)

β
1
But r = = 0.0036608 = (nearly)
273

 1 
PoVo 1 + t
 273 
Thus PV = …………….………….. (5.24)

 273 + t 
PoVo  
 273 
=

where To = 273 and 273 + t = T

 Po Vo 
∴ PV =  T
 To 
 
……………………………...……….. (5.25)

 Po Vo 
∴   = K = Constant
 To 
PV
 
= ………..……….. (5.26)
T

For a given mass of gas PV = KT

This is the equation of state for ideal gases.

3.5.2 Absolute Zero and Absolute Temperature

From the equation of state of an ideal gas we obtained,

Po Vo
PV = (273 + t)
To
∴ PV = K(273 + t)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

If the graph of PV is then plotted against temperature e t for a perfect

gas, a graph as shown in fig. 5.9 is obtained.

Fig. 5.9

The product PV has a value of zero when the temperature t is -273oC.

At this point the product PV for a perfect gas would vanish completely.
The point Z is therefore referred to as the absolute zero of temperature.
If the origin of the graph 0 is now transferred to Z, then the new scale is
denoted by T. This is what is referred to as the absolute scale of
temperature, the SI unit of which is Kelvin. You will notice that both
the Celsius scale and the Absolute scale arte related in such a way that

T = (273 + t)K

The unit of T is Kelvin while that of t is degree Celsius (oC).

3.5.3 Universal gas Constant

From the Eq. (5.27) PV = KT

Po Vo PV
where K= = o o
273 To

The pressure Po and 273 (To) fix the density of the gas when the volume
Vo is proportional to the mass of the gas considered. Therefore K varies
directly as the mass of the gas K is constant in the sense that it has a
fixed value for a given mass of an ideal gas.

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

There are two kinds of units of mass: the gramme and the mole (the
gramme molecular weight) – gramme – mole. If you consider one mole
of a gas, R replaces the constant K.

∴ PV = RT

Hence the equation PV = RT is the ideal gas equation for one mole of
the gas. Generally for n mole of a gas we would write:

PV = nRT ……………...…………………………. (5.28)

Where n = molar fraction

R is the Universal gas constant for a mole of a gas.

It has been experimentally found that under standard temperature

(273K) and pressure (76mm of Hg) one mole of gas occupies
approximately 22.4 litres.

1 litre = 1000cm3
1 cm3 = 10-6m3
∴ 1000cm3 = 1000 x 10-6m3
∴ 22.4 litres = 22.4 x 10-3m3

The number of molecules in a mole of nay gas is

6.03 x 1023 = N = Avogadro’s number.

If m is the mass of gas in gramme and M is the molecular weight of the

gas, the number of moles of the gas is given as:

m
n= …………………………………………..….. (5.29)
M

∴
mRT
PV = ………………...………………….. (5.30)
M

The value of R for 1 mole of a gas

Let P be the pressure on the gas = 76cm of Hg = standard pressure.

Put P = hρg

76 kg m
= m x 13600 3 x 9.8 2
100 m s
= 1.0129 x 105Nm-2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

For a standard temperature T = 273K and standard volume V = 22.4

litres or 22.4 x 103m3and for one mole of the gas, R can be obtained by
suing the Eq. (5.28). The value of R

PV = nRT
∴
PV
R = where n = 1
nT
N
1.0129 x 105 2 x 22.4 x 10 -10 m 3
m
∴R= 1 mole x 273K

J
= 8.31
mole K

R = 8.31 J mole-1 K-1 is the molar gas constant and it is the

same for all gases.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Some hydrogen collected at 25oC and 740mmHg has a volume of

550cm3. What will be its volume at standard temperature and pressure
(s.t.p.) i.e. 0oC and 760mmHg?

3.5.5 Real Gas Equation

An ideal gas will obey Boyle’s law at any temperature. However, real
gases such as air, oxygen, nitrogen and other permanent gases will obey
Boyle’s law within less than one part in a thousand at ordinary pressures
and temperatures. At higher pressures and lower temperature, the
deviations are more pronounced. In other words, the relation PV is no
longer valid.

Kinetic theory of gases suggest that Boyle’s law should be obeyed if the
molecules are themselves infinitesimally small and if they do not attract
each other at all. These assumptions are not true for any real gas. Thus
PV = nRT cannot be used for real gases.

In order to account for the difference between the behaviour of a gas and
that of an ideal gas, we have to allow for the molecular attractions which
converts the pressure P to (P + χ ) and the finite volume occupies by the
molecules which reduces the volume V of the gas to (V - γ ). These
corrections therefore enable us to re-express PV = nRT as:

(P + χ ) (V - γ ) = nRT …..………………….………….. (5.31)

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

We therefore need to find suitable expressions for χ and γ.

It was Van der Waal (1910) a Dutch Professor of Physics who found
a
these expression to be χ = 2 and γ = b ………………………. (5.32)
V

Where, a and b are constants for a unit mass of a gas under

consideration.

Consequently substituting the values of Eq. (5.32) in Eq. (5.31), we now

have the equation:

 a 
 P + 2  (V – b) = nRT ……………………….……….. (5.33)
 V 

This is the Van der Waal’s equation of state for real gases. It is
therefore known as the real equation of state.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, the three gas laws: Boyle’s, Charles’s and the Pressure laws
have been established. We did this by observing the behaviour of the
gas by using the following properties – pressure, volume, temperature
and the amount of the gas in moles. Any two of these properties are
held constant while we study the variation of the remaining two
properties. The equation of state was also stated as PV = nRT.

Further more, we established what real and ideal gases are. We also
showed how van der Waal’s equation of state was used to correct for the
interactive forces, which affect the pressure and the volume occupied by
the molecules, which corrects for the volume of the gas. This was given
as:
 a 
 P + 2  (V – b) = nRT
 V 

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt about:

• The gas laws such as:

(i) Boyle’s law (PV = constant)

V
(ii) Charles’s law ( = constant)
T

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

P
(iii) Pressure law ( = constant)
T
• The three laws were combined to form the equation of state for
ideal gases, which is PV = nRT.
• Pressure, volume, temperature and the amount of the gas in moles
have been used to describe the behaviour of gases.
 a 
• The equation of state for real gases is  P + 2  (V – b) = nRT.
 V 

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

First Condition

P1 = 14Nm-2
V1 = 1.5m3

Second Condition

P2 = 10Nm-2
V2 = ? (to be found)

Using Boyle’s law, Eq. (5.6)

∴
P1 V
V2 =
P2

N
14 2
x 1.5m 3
m
V2 =
N
= 10 2
m
We get,
V2 = 2.1m3

Volume of the gas at 10Nm-2 is 2.1m3

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

V1 = 200cm3 (given)
T1 = 15oC = (273 + 15)K (given) = 288K
V2 = 150cm3
T2 = ?

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PHY 101 MODULE 1

Using Charles’s law Eq. (5.12),

∴
V1 V
= 2 = Constant
T1 T2

∴
VT
T2 = 2 1
V1
150cm 3 x 288K
=
200cm 3
T2 = 216K = 273 + t

∴ t = 216 – 273
t = -57oC

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

P1 = 1.25 x 106Nm-2
T1 = 20oC = (273 + 20)K = 293k
P2 = ?
T2 = 15oC = (273 + 10)K = 283K

Using the pressure law:

P1 P
= 2
T1 T2

∴
P1T2
P2 =
T1

N
1.25 x 10 6 x 283K
m2
=
293K

= 1.21 x 106Nm-2

ANSWER SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

P1 = 740mmHg
V1 = 550cm3
T1 = 25oC = (273 + 25)K
= 298K

P2 = 740mmHg
V2 = ?
T2 = 0oC = 273K

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Using the Eq. given below, we get

P1 V1 PV
= 2 2
T1 T2

∴
P1V1T2
V2 =
P2 T2
= 740mmHg x 550cm3 x 273K
760mmHg x 298K

= 490.60cm3

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. The density of some air at a pressure of 7720mmHg is 1.26kgm-3.

Determine its density at a pressure of 600mmHg.

2. A fixed mass of gas of volume 546cm3 at 0oC is heated at

constant pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at 2oC.

3. A bottle is corked when the air inside is at 2o0C and the pressure
is 1.0 x 105Nm-2. If the cork blows out with a pressure of 3.0 x
105Nm-2, calculate the temperature to which the bottle must be
heated for this to happen. (Assume the bottle does not expand).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). California: The

Feyman Lectures on Physics, Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics, London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

94
PHY 101 MODULE 1

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Limited.

Zemansky, M. W., (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw Hill.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

MODULE 2

Unit 1 Molar Heat Capacity of Gases

Unit 2 Conduction of Heat
Unit 3 Convection
Unit 4 Radiation
Unit 5 Molecular Properties of Materials

UNIT 1 MOLAR HEAT CAPACITY OF GASES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases
3.1.1 Work Done by an Expanding Gas
3.2 Molar Heat Capacities at Constant Volume and Constant
Pressure
3.2.1 Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Volume CV
3.2.2 Molar Heat Capacity at Constant PressureCP
3.3 Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion of Gases
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

So far we have considered the specific heat capacities of solids and

liquids especially when we have to determine how much heat energy is
absorbed when they are heated. We have not considered the specific
heat capacity of gases. This is due to the fact that the behaviour of gases
is quite different from that of liquids and solids.

For example, in gases, we have to consider the following parameters

(properties) when we are examining the behaviour of gases:

• the pressure (P)

• the volume (V)
• the temperature (T)
• the amount of gas in moles (n)

These properties have been studied under gas laws in the Unit 5.
However one property that is crucial to the gases is the heat capacities

96
PHY 101 MODULE 2

under constant volume and under constant pressure. Since the amount
of gases is in terms of number of moles, we shall therefore be talking
about molar heat capacities of gases. Hence in this unit, we shall
examine the concept of molar heat capacities of gases under these two
conditions: constant volume and constant pressure.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the work done by expanding volume of gas

• define molar heat capacity of a gas at constant volume
• define molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure
• explain the meaning of isothermal expansion
• explain the meaning of adiabatic expansion
• relate the molar heat capacity at constant pressure with that at
constant volume.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Molar Heat Capacities of Gases

You will recall that in calculating the quantity of heat (Q) acquired by a
solid or a liquid we used the expression:

Q = mc∆θ ……………………………...… (6.1)

Where, m is the mass of the solid/liquid, c is specific heat capacity of

the substance, and ∆θ is the change in temperature.

It is more convenient to use the concept of mole to describe the amount

of a substance especially gases. So, first we will learn about the mole.

By definition, one mole (1 mol) of any substance is the quantity of

matter such that its mass in grammes is numerically equal to the
molecular mass M (often called the molecular weight). So to calculate
the number of moles n numerically, divide the mass m in grammes by
the molecular mass M.

∴
m
n=
M
∴ m = nM …….…………..……..…………………………….. (6.2)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Therefore the Eq. (6.1), becomes:

∴ Q = nMc∆θ………………………….…….…..….. (6.3)
∴
Q
= Mc ……………………………………….. (6.4)
n∆θ

The product Mc is called the molar heat capacity

∴
Q
C = Mc …………………...…………………….….. (6.5)
n∆θ

Which is defined as the quantity of heat Q in joules required to raise the

temperature of 1 mole of gas through 1 K or 1oC.

∴ Q = nC∆θ………………………………….…..….. (6.6)

Note that small c is the specific heat capacity while the big C is the
molar specific heat capacity. It is the molar heat capacity that is mostly
associated with the gases though it could also be used for solids and
liquids.

You would have noticed that the behaviour of gases under heat is quite
different from the behaviour of solids and liquids. Molecules of a gas
are moving about in different directions with different speeds at any
instant. This therefore describes the random motion of the molecules.

The internal energy of the gas is therefore the Kinetic Energy (KE) of its
random motion. This Kinetic energy, as will be shown later, depends on
the temperature of the gas. He higher the temperature, the greater the
internal energy (kinetic energy) of the gas. Therefore, now

an ideal gas is defined as one which obeys Boyle’s law and whose
internal energy depends on the temperature of the gas and is
independent of its volume.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

3.1.1 Work Done by an Expanding Gas

Consider a given mass of gas in a container shown in fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.1: Work Done by Expanding Gas

If the gas is warmed it expands, the gas does external work because it
will be observed to have pushed back a piston X against some external
pressure P.

The heat supplied is shared between the work done against the external
work and in increasing the internal energy of the gas because the
molecules move faster and its Kinetic energy is increased.

Hence, heat supplied = ∆Q = ∆U +∆W ………………………….... (6.7)

Where, ∆Q is the increase in heat energy, ∆U is the increase in internal

energy and ∆W is the work done as a result of expansion, work done
against external pressure P.

The expression = ∆Q = ∆U +∆W is derived from the first law of

thermodynamics which is also related to the law of conversation of
energy which you will study later.

If the external pressure is constant with a value of P while the volume of

the gas expands by ∆V, and if the area of the piston X is A, moving
through a distance d, then the increase e in work done against the
external pressure P = ∆W
= force x distance
∆W = F x d ………..………………………… (6.8)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

F
But as you know the pressure is defined as P =
A

∴ F = PA
∴ ∆W = PA = P∆V (where, ∆V = Ad)
∴ ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V

In and ideal gas, the work done in separating molecules against

attractive forces between them is ignored. This is not so with real gases
where the Van der Waal’s forces have to be considered. It is also
assumed that there is no frictional force when the piston moves.

3.2 Molar Heat Capacities at Constant Volume and Constant

Pressure

The heat capacity of a gas depends on the condition under which it is

heated namely:

• at constant volume or
• at constant pressure
At constant volume, we would represent the molar heat capacity by CV.
At constant pressure, we would represent the molar heat capacity by CP.

3.2.1 Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Volume CV

At constant volume, the volume of the gas is kept at constant volume in

such a way that there is no work done by the gas when it absorbs heat.
The entire heat is therefore used in changing the internal energy of the
gas.

Fig. 6.2: Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Volume

100
PHY 101 MODULE 2

The molar heat capacity at constant volume CV, is therefore defined

as the heat required to raise 1 mole of gas by 1 Kelvin (or 1 Celsius)
degree when its volume is kept constant.

Q
CV =
n∆θ
∴ Q = n CV∆θ

where, n is the number of moles of gas, CV is the molar heat capacity of

the gas, and ∆θ is change in temperature of the gas.

The unit of molar heat capacity at constant volume CV is J mol-1K-1 or J

mol-1oC-1. The specific heat capacity at constant volume CV is the heat
required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of the gas by 1K or 1oC.

The molar mass of hydrogen is 2g therefore 1kg = 1000g which is 500

times the mass of 1 mole.

∴ CV = 500 CV for hydrogen

Remember the unit of CV is J kg-1K-1 or J kg-1oC-1.

At constant volume, therefore, all the heat supplied to 1 mole of the gas
is used in raising the internal energy of the gas.

From, ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V

Since no external work against pressure is done. Therefore P∆V is zero.

Substitute in the above Eq., we get

∴ ∆Q = ∆U = nCV (T2 – T1) = nCV∆T

Where n = 1 mole

∴ ∆Q = CV∆T ……………………………...…………………. (6.9)

For an ideal gas in which there are no attractive forces among the
molecules and each molecule has negligible volume CV is independent
of the volume of gas. If the temperature of the gas rises from T1 to T2,
the gain in internal energy (∆U) is CV (T2 – T1) for one mole of gas no
matter what volume the gas may be initially or may finally occupy.
Thus the internal change in energy depends only on the temperature
change.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.2.2 Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure CP

In this case, we are supplying heat to the system where the pressure is
constant. Thus, the heat is used in changing the internal energy of the
gas as well as doing some work against the constant external pressure P
(fig. 3.3).

Fig. 6.3: Molar Heat Capacity at Constant Pressure

The molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure CP is the heat

required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas at constant
pressure by 1K or 1oC.

Q
CP = ……………………..…………….…….. (6.10)
n∆θ

Thus the unit of is CP is J mol-1K-1 or J mol-1oC-1

On the other hand, the specific heat capacity at constant pressure CP is

the heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg mass of a gas at
constant pressure by 1kg (or 1oC).

When heat is supplied to change the temperature of the gas from T1 to

T2, there is change in volume ∆V (fig. 3.3(ii)) and increase in internal
energy (∆U). We have known that ∆U, the internal energy of the gas,
which is independent of volume CV, is for 1K or 1oC change in
temperature.

From, ∆Q = ∆U + ∆ W

Where, ∆W is work done by the gas and ∆U = CV∆T for 1 mole of gas.

∴ ∆Q = CP = CV∆ + ∆W # for 1 mole of gas …………………….. (6.11)

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

But as we know that ∆W = P∆V

∴ CP = CV∆T + P∆V ……………...……………………......... (6.12)

For an ideal gas from the equation of state of a gas, we know that
PV = nRT

If there is an increase in volume of ∆T when there is a change in

temperature of ∆T, then

∴ P(V + ∆V) = nR(T + ∆T)

∴ PV + P∆V = nRT + nR∆T
∴ P∆V = nR∆T

For 1 mole of gas n = 1

∴ P∆V = nR∆T

∴ CP = CV∆T + R∆V

Where, ∆T = 1K or 1oC
∴ CP = CV + R
∴ CP - CV = R ………………………………………………. (6.13)

At constant pressure therefore, for an ideal gas CP is always greater than

CV. The difference R is the external work done when the gas is warmed
at constant pressure so that its temperature changes by 1K or1oC.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

One mole of a gas has volume of 2.23 x 10-2m2 at a pressure of 1.01 x

105 Pa (N) at 0oC. If the molar cap city at constant pressure is 28.5J mol-
1 -1
K . Calculate the molar heat capacity as constant volume.

3.3 Isothermal and Adiabatic Expansion of Gases

When a solid or liquid is heated, you would have observed that its
volume increase very slightly. Thus the external work done against
pressure is very small. Consequently the two molar heat capacities for
solids and liquids are practically equal. That is, the specific heat
capacities CV and CP are the same.

However, when real gases expand, some work is done against molecular
attractive forces. This is the internal energy. The Van der waal’s forces
are appreciably significant in this case.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

In CP - CV = R, R represents the external work done when an ideal gas

expands at constant pressure. For real gases CP - CV > R by the amount
of internal work done when the gas expands at constant pressure.

When an ideal gas is allowed to expand under a constant temperature,

the process is described as isothermal expansion.

Under this condition there is no change in internal energy because ∆U

depends on ∆T.

From the First Law of Thermodynamics,

∆Q = ∆U + P∆V
∴ ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V since ∆U = 0 at isothermal condition …...…. (6.14)

The heat supplied to maintain it at constant temperature then is equal to

the external work done. Since the temperature is kept constant, an ideal
gas therefore obeys Boyle’s law

PV = Constant

during isothermal changes.

If a gas, on the other hand, is allowed to expand without heat entering or

leaving the gas (by insulating its cylinder and piston) the energy needed
for the external work is taken from the internal energy of the gas.

This process is described as adiabatic expansion.

From, ∆Q = ∆U + P∆V

Since, ∆Q = 0

∴ P∆V = - ∆U …………………..…………………………… (6.15)

Consequently, the temperature of the system falls. Contrarily, when the

gas is compressed under this condition (adiabatic condition), the work
done on the gas produces a rise in internal energy, which is equal to the
work done. This implies that the temperature of the gas rises. The gas
is then said to have undergone an adiabatic change when no heat
enters or leaves the system.

For adiabatic changes, it can be shown that

• PVγ = Constant ………………….………………… (6.16)

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Where, γ =
CP
CV

• TVγ-1 = Constant …………………………………… (6.17)

Note that isothermal and adiabatic formulae apply to changes in P, V

and T which take place under reversible conditions.
The following assumptions are to be noted:

• no frictional force exists when a piston moves during the gas

expansion or contraction.
• no heat is produced in the gas by eddies or swirls of gas during
expansion or contraction.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In order to determine the quantity of heat lost or absorbed by a

substance, we often use the specific heat capacity to do so as one of the
properties. Another convenient property that we use is the molar heat
capacity. This concept is used when the quantity of heat absorbed is to
be determined with gases. The molar heat capacity of a gas is
considered under constant volume or under constant pressure. When an
amount of gas (n) absorbs heat under constant volume we use the molar
heat capacity at constant volume CV. Under this condition the heat
absorbed is used to change the internal energy only.

Under constant pressure, the heat absorbed is used to change the internal
energy of the gas as well as the work done against a constant pressure.
CP represents the molar heat capacity.

For one mole of gas, heat absorbed at constant volume is given by

∆Q = CV∆T
At constant pressure
∆Q = nCP = nCV∆T + nR∆T

For one mole of gas where n = 1

∆Q = CP = CV∆T + R∆T

For one Kelvin rise in temperature

∆Q = CP = CV + R

∴ CP = CV + R

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt:

• That on the expansion of a given mass of gas by heating, work is

done;
• That molar heat capacity is used for the heat absorbed by a gas
constant volume CV and constant pressure CP;
• That there is a relationship between specific heat capacity c and
molar heat capacity C;
• Molar heat capacity at constant volume CV is defined as the heat
required to raise one mole of gas by 1K when its volume is kept
constant;
• Molar heat capacity of a gas at constant pressure CP is the heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of the gas at constant
pressure by 1K;
• When a gas is allowed to expand at constant temperature the
process is described as an isothermal expansion;
• When a gas is allowed to expand without heat entering or leaving
the gas, the gas is said to undergo an adiabatic expansion;
• Work is done with rise in internal energy.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

From PV = RT
∴
PV
R=
T

N
= 1.01 x 105 2
x 2.23 x 10-2m2
m
273K

= 8.25J mol-1K-1

From, CP = CV + R

∴ CV = CP - R
J J
= 28.5 = - 8.25
molK molK
-1 -1
= 20.25J mol K

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

Two grammes of a gas initially at 27oC is heated at cons tat pressure of

1.0 x 105 pa so that its volume increases from 0.250m3 to 0.375m3,
calculate:

(i) the external work done

(ii) the increase in internal energy
(iii) the heat supplied

(Relative molecular mass of the gas is 2g, CV = 2.0.2J mol-1K-1 CP =

28.5J mol-1K-1).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics, London: Addison – Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1983). Heat and Thermodynamics, London: Edward Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: McMillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M. W., (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics, New York:

McGraw Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

UNIT 2 CONDUCTION OF HEAT

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conduction of Heat Energy
3.1.1 Factors Affecting Conduction
3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity of a Material
3.2 Lagged and Unlagged Bars
3.2.1 Uniform Bar Lagged and Unlagged
3.2.2 Non-Uniform Bar Lagged
3.3 Conduction of Heat through a Good Conductor and Bad
Conductor in Series
3.4 Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Good Conductor
3.5 Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Bad Conductor
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In Physics, we are not only interested in knowing the different forms of

energy but how the heat energy may be transferred from on point to
another. In this module, we shall consider the three ways by which heat
energy is transferred from one source to another. This idea can be
viewed as another property of matter, that is, that matter as solids,
liquids and gases can act as medium of carrying heat energy from one
point to another. The three modes of heat transfer are conduction,
convection and radiation.

At the elementary level, one may be satisfied with the use of molecular
theory in explaining the three modes of transfer of heat. However, at
higher level, we shall go beyond this level by discussing quantitatively
conduction of heat in terms of thermal conductivity of a solid and
radiation of heat energy through space. We shall consider good and bad
conductors (insulators) and conductors in series. We shall deal mainly
with conduction of heat in this unit Transfer by convection will be
discussed in the next unit.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the conclusion of this unit, you should be able to:

● state the factors that affect thermal conductivity

● define the thermal conductivity of a good conductor and insulator
● measure the thermal conductivity of a good conductor
● measure the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor
● solve problems involving thermal conductivity.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Conduction of Heat Energy

Consider a long silver spoon dipped inside a hot soup. After sometime,
the other end of the spoon becomes hot. The transfer of heat energy
through the material by conduction could explain this observation.

You would have noted that one factor is obvious in this conduction of
heat. That is, one end is at a higher temperature than the other. In the
study of conduction of heat through solids, we would like to discuss
what factors affect the rate of conduction of heat through solids. In the
next sub-section, you will study about the factors that affect conduction.

3.1.1 Factors Affecting Conduction

Consider a state of material with parallel faces of cross-sectional area A

at right angles to the direction of the flow of heat. The heat Q as shown
in fig. 7.1 will flow from high temperature region θ2 to a low
temperature region θ1. That means θ2 is greater than θ1. Let the
distance between these temperatures regions be L.

Fig. 3.1

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

If heat Q takes time t to be transferred across the section of this material

of length L, experimentally it have shown that the rate at which the
quantity Q is transferred with respect to the time within this region of
length L is

(i) Proportional to the cross-sectional area A:

α A …………..…………...……………… (7.1)
Q
i.e.
t

(ii) Proportional to the temperature gradient within this region where

the temperature gradient is defined as

Q θ 2 - θ1
i.e. α ……..………………...………… (7.2)
t L

Combining these two ideas (Eq. (7.1) and Eq.(7.2)) by saying that the
rate of transfer of heat is proportional to the area and temperature
gradient, give:
θ -θ
αAx 2 1
Q
i.e.
t L
θ -θ )
∴
Q (
= kA 2 1 ………...…………………..……… (7.3)
t L

where, k is the constant of proportionality. k is a factor depending on

the material.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

State the factors that affect the conduction of heat.

3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity of a Material

We have been able to express the rate at which heat is transferred from a
point A1 to point A2 in Fig. 7.1 as

Q (θ - θ )
= kA 2 1
t L
k is therefore numerically equal to the heat transferred per second per
unit area of cross-section when unit temperature gradient is set up
normal to the area.

Rate x heat transferred

k=
Area x temperature gradient

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Q/t
k= ………………………………….……… (7.4)
A (θ 2 - θ1 )
L

UNIT of k: From Eq.(7.4), k can be expressed as:

k is a constant of proportionality known as the thermal conductivity for

the material for Eq. (7.3) k is written as,

Q/t
k =
Area x temperature gradient

J/s
=
m x ( o C)
2

= Js-1m-1oC-1

= Wm-1oC-1

On in terms of the absolute scale, the unit of k can be written as

k = Wm-1K-1

Copper, which is a very good conductor of heat, has its value k = 400
Wm-1K-1 and that of air = 0.02 Wm-1K-1

One can define the thermal conductivity of a material:

“The thermal conductivity of a material is the rate of transfer of heat

per unit area per unit temperature gradient through the face of the
material with the face perpendicular to the direction of the transfer of
heat provided steady state is maintained.”

Now you may ask: What does it mean by steady state situation?

A steady state is reached when the rate of transfer of heat through a

given cross-sectional area does not change with respect to time. This
therefore brings us to the point to show how a steady state is achieved
and that is through lagging or unflagging. You will discover the
meaning of lagging or unflagging in the next section.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.2 Lagged and Unlagged Bars

Heat may be transferred under two conditions:

● Lagged material – when the material is lagged

● Unlagged material – when the material is unlagged

We shall now describe the conduction of heat through two bars – one
lagged and the other unlagged.

In this section we shall consider the conduction of heat through:

● a uniform bar when lagged and when it is not lagged and

● a non-uniform bar when it is lagged.

3.2.1 Uniform Bar Lagged and Unlagged

In this case we are interested in studying how the temperature gradient

varies with other factors such as the thermal conductivity k, the cross-
sectional A and the rate of transfer of heat per second. Note that k
varies with different materials but is constant for a particular material.

Let us consider a lagged bar PQ of length x, such that P is at temperature

θ2 while Q is at temperature θ1 (Fig. 7.2)

Fig. 7: Temperature Gradient for a Uniformally Lagged Bar

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

In this case θ2 is greater than θ1. Hence, heat will be transferred from P
to Q. If A is the uniform cross-sectional area of PQ, the rate of transfer
of heat from P to Q is given as

Q (θ - θ )
= kA 2 1
t x
(θ 2 - θ1 )
∴
1 Q
= x
x KA t
1 Q
i.e. temperature gradient = x ………..………………… (7.4)
KA t
Q
Under steady state condition, for lagged bar, the part is the same on
t
the two surfaces P and Q since no heat is lost to the surrounding. Thus
with k and A being constant, both sides of the equation are constant.

Consequently, for lagged uniform bar the temperature gradient is

constant as indicated on the graph of θ2 - θ1 against x to produce the line
Q
AB. (Fig. 7.2). In simple words, temperature gradient, , flowing
t
through every cross-section from the hot to cold end is constant as no
heat passes through the sides.

Fig. 7.3: Temperature Gradient for a Uniform Unlagged Bar

However, if the bar is unlagged, then from equation,

(θ 2 - θ1 ) 1 Q
= x ………..…………….…..…… (7.5)
x KA t

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Q
under the unlagged condition will not be the same form face P to
t
face Q. The value decreases from P to Q. Hence the gradient becomes
smaller from the hot end P to the cold end Q. Thus the variation of the
temperature gradient is a curve RS in fig. 7.3 with a diminishing
gradient.

3.2.2 Non-Uniform Bar Lagged

Let us now consider another bar whose cross-sectional area is not

uniform but is lagged as shown in fig, 7.4. It will be observed that

Q
(i) , the rate of transfer of heat will be the same at both ends
t
because the material is lagged.

(ii) The cross-sectional A, decreases from P to face Q, thus from the

expression (7.4) the temperature gradient increases. This is
shown by the gradient MN from hot end to cold end of the bar
(fig. 7.4)

Fig. 7.4: Temperature Gradient – Non-Uniform Bar and Lagged

Q
The concept of rate of transfer of heat may be compared with the rate
t
of flow of current I. From ohm’s law,

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

V
I= ………………………….……………………. (7.6)
R

QUANTITY OF CHARGES (Q)

Where, I =
TIME t TAKEN IN SECONDS
L
But R = ρ …………………...…………………….. (7.7)
A
Where, R = resistance of the resistor
ρ = resistivity of the resistor
L = the length of the resistor
A = average cross-sectional area

Combining Eq. (7.6) and Eq. (7.7), we get

∴
V I
I= x
R R
1 A
= x xV
ρ L

∴
1 V -V
I= x A x 2 1 ……………………………………….. (7.8)
ρ L
1 V
Where, = electrical conductivity of wire and, = potential gradient
ρ L
1 V -V
On comparing Eq. (7.8) I = A 2 1 with
ρ L
Q (θ - θ )
Eq. (7.3), = kA 2 1
t L
where, k = the thermal conductivity

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A long steel rod, insulated to prevent heat losses, has one end immersed
in boiling water (at atmospheric pressure) and the other end in a water-
ice mixture. If the steel rod is 100cm long and cross-sectional area of
5cm2, after establishing a steady state condition, how much heat per
second is transferred from the steam bath to the ice-water mixture? (k
for steel = 50J (smoC)-1?

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3.3 Conduction of Heat through a Good Conductor and Bad

Conductor in Series

In this section, we are interested in comparing the temperature gradient

of the good conductor with that of the bad conductor. Consider a copper
tank of thickness AB which is 5mm and lagged with a felt of thickness
BC and 5cm as shown in fig 7.5.

Fig. 7.5: Copper and Felt in Series

Suppose the temperature of the water in the copper tank is constant at 40

o
C throughout the thickness AB and the temperature of the outside of the
felt is constant at 10oC.

Given that the thermal conductivity of copper is 400Wm-1oC-1 and that

of the felt is 0.04Wm-1oC-1. At a steady state condition, the rate of heat
Q
transfer is the same for copper (AB) and the felt (BC).
t
Using Eq. (7.4), the temperature gradient g is given as

1 Q
g= x ………………………………. (7.9)
KA t

Let gcu be the temperature gradient for copper and gr be the temperature
gradient for the felt.
∴
1 Q
gcu = x and …………………………… (7.10)
g cu Acu t
1 Q
gf = x ………………………………… (7.11)
k f Af t
where, kcu and kf are the thermal conductivities for the copper and felt
respectively.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Acu and Af and are the cross-sectional areas of copper and felt
respectively, which, in this case, are the same.

Now, dividing Eq. (7.10) by Eq. (7.11), we get

g cu k 0.04 4 1
Then, = f = = =
gf K cu 400 4000 1000
1
gcu = gf
1000
This shows that the temperature gradient of copper is 10,000 less than
that of the felt. The consequence of this statement is that the
temperature of the outer surface of the copper tank is not much less than
its inner surface. Hence, the whole lot of the temperature drop from 40
o
C to 10oC occurs across felt, the bad conductor.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Assuming the thermal conductivities of air and brick are 0.02 and 0.6 W
m-1oC-1 respectively, calculate the thickness of air equivalent to a
thickness of 30cm of brick if two of such brick walls are separated by air
gap of 3cm. How much heat per minute would be transferred through
them in the steady state when the outside temperatures of brick are 60oC
and 10oC respectively and the area of cross-section of each is 2m2?

3.4 Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Good

Conductor

It is possible to determine the thermal conductivity of a metal bar such

as copper or iron. The apparatus used in this determination is called the
Searle’s apparatus (Fig. 7.9).

Fig. 7.9: Searle’s Apparatus

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The following are the essential features of the Searle’s apparatus for
measuring the thermal conductivity of a good conductor,

● A thick bar so that appreciable heat is transferred through a cross-

section
● A reasonable long bar AB so that the temperature gradient can be
measured accurately.
● A lagged bar so that no heat escapes and the heat being
transferred is linear along the bar under steady state conditions.

Procedure

The procedure for measuring k, the thermal conductivity is as follows:

● The lagged bar is electrically heated at one end by an electric

supply (H)
● The final steady state temperatures are measured by means of
thermometers P and Q placed in deep holds bored in the bar at a
known distance L apart. The temperature at P is θ2 and that at Q
is θ1
● A coiled tube R is in thermal contact with the bar near the other
end of the bar enables the heat transfer per second to be
measured.
● Water from a constant pressure head flows steadily through the
tubes R.
● The inlet and outlet temperatures θ3 and θ4are measured
● The set up is left until the temperatures are steady
● The rate of transfer of water m is measured using a cylinder and a
stop clock
● The cross-sectional area S of the bar is found using vernier
calipers to measure the diameter.

The value of k can then be obtained from the relation

(θ - θ )
= mCwater (θ4 - θ3) = kA 2 1 ………...……. (7.12)
Q
t L

Q
Alternatively, may be determined by measuring the current I and the
t
Q
potential difference V of the supply. Thus = IV. Thus neglecting the
t
use of the resistance of the coil R.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

3.5 Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Bad

Conductor

This is another useful exercise in the laboratory for the determination of

the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor. Lee designed the apparatus
for this measurement. Hence, the name of apparatus – Lee’s apparatus
for measuring the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor (Fig. 3.10).

Fig. 7.10

The apparatus is made up of a top cylindrical steam chamber C. At the

bottom of this chamber is a thick brass block A with a hole bored into it
to hold a thermometer T2. Next to this brass block A is the bad
conductor specimen D made up of a cardboard or glass in form of a disc
with large diameter with small thickness d so that it gives a greater
temperature gradient.

The bad conductor is sandwiched between the bras block A and another
second cylindrical brass block B which also has a hole bored into it to
hold another thermometer T1.

As a precaution, the slabs must be flat and clean. Some Vaseline may
be smeared over it in order to improve thermal contact (Fig. 7.10). Heat
therefore flows from chamber A through the specimen to the chamber B.

Steam is passed through chamber C until a steady state in temperatures

θ1 and θ2 as measure by T1 and T2 respectively.

(θ 2 - θ1 )
In this situation, the temperature gradient is
L
The next problem is centered on how to measure or determine the rate of
loss of heat by chamber B. We therefore have to examine fig. 7.11 (i)
and (ii).

The steam chamber C is removed with the brass block A. The specimen
is left on top of the lower brass block B. The lower brass block B is
then warmed gently by a Bunsen burner until its temperature is a few
degrees above θ1, say 82oC. The burner is then removed and B is

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

allowed to cool and the readings of its temperature fall with time are
taken. The graph of is plotted θagainst time t (Fig. 7.11 (ii)).

Fig. 7.11
The slope at temperature θ1is then determined as
a
b

Let m be the mass of the brass B and Cbrass the specific heat capacity of
brass.
Q
Therefore = Rate of loss of heat by cooling
t
at θ1 = mCbrass
a
b

When the temperature of B is steady, it is losing heat to the surrounding

from side and base at exactly the same rate the base is receiving heat by
conduction through the specimen D. Thus the rate of losing heat from B
is equal to the rate of heat transfer through the specimen in steady state.

(θ - θ )
∴
Q a
= kA 2 1 = mCbrass …………………… (7.13)
t d b

Given the area A and the thickness L of the cardboard, K can be

determined.

a L 1
K = mC x x ……………………………… (7.14)
b (θ 2 − θ1 ) A

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit we have studied one mode by which heat is transferred

through matter-conduction. Conduction of heat through solids materials
were examined especially through good and bad conductors of heat.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

The thermal conductivity of a solid material was considered as a

property for the transfer of heat through solid materials.

The rate of transfer of heat in joules per second has been found to be
proportional to the surface area of the solid material A, and the
temperature gradient. If a conductor is of length L whose ends are at
temperatures θ2 and θ1 and where θ2 is greater than θ1, the temperature
gradient is defined as the difference in the temperatures per unit length

(θ 2 - θ1 )
L
The rate of transfer of heat at steady state condition in the conduction of
heat. To establish this condition implies that the material under
consideration must be lagged i.e. insulated so that there is no loss of heat
as the heat is being transferred from one end to another.

We would now consider another mode of transfer of heat through

convection in the next unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have studied the following:

● The concept of thermal conductivity is applied to both good and

bad conductors of heat
● The thermal conductivity of a conductor is used to solve
problems under steady state condition
● The rate of conduction of heat, the area of conduction, the
thermal conductivity as well as the temperature are related as
Q (θ - θ )
= kA 2 1
t L
● This relationship was used to consider the temperature gradient
when a conductor is lagged or unlagged or when there is a
variation in the surface areas when lagged

● One principle used in solving problems on conduction of heat

through bad conductors of heat is the use of the equivalent
material.
● Methods of how to determine the thermal conductivity of a good
conductor and that of a bad conductor were described.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

The factors that affect the conduction of heat through a solid material
are:

(i) The cross-sectional area A

(ii) The temperature difference
(iii) The length of the material
(iv) The time for the heat to be transferred

Note: (ii) and (iii) defines for us the concept of temperature gradient

 θ1 − θ1 
 
 L 

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

θ2 = 100oC
θ1 = 0oC
L = 100cm = 1m
A = 5cm2 = 5 x 10-4m2
K = 50.2J (s moC)-1

Q (θ - θ )
From, = kA 2 1
t L
(100 - 0) o C
∴
Q o -4 2
= 50.2J/sm C x 5 x 10 m x
t 1m
-4
= 50.2 x 5 x 10 x 100J/s
= 2.51J/s
= 2.51 Watt

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Fig. 7.6

(a) Let the thickness of air be d1 and that of the brick be d2 which is
given as 30cm = 0.3m. If they are at the same temperature
difference (θ2 - θ1) across the air and the brick. Then the rate of
Q
transfer of heat is defined as
t
Q (θ - θ )
= k1A 2 1 for air
t d1

where, k1 = thermal conductivity of air

Q (θ - θ )
For the brick also, = k2A 2 1
t d2
where, k2 = thermal conductivity of the brick

Q
Since is the same for the two materials.
t

(θ 2 - θ1 ) (θ - θ )
∴ k1A = k2A 2 1
d1 d2

∴
k1 k
= 2
d1 d2
o
0.02Wm -1 C -1 0.6Wm − 1o C −1
∴ =
d1 0.3m

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

∴
0.02 x 0.3
d1 = m
0.6
= 0.01m
= 1.0cm

The thickness of air equivalent to that of the brick is 1.0cm.

(b)

Fig. 7.7

If 30 cm of air is in series with the two bricks, then we have this new
picture for the system (fig. 7.7).
From the solution in (a) this arrangement will be equivalent to the new
picture in fig. 7.8.

Fig. 7.8

We are interested in calculating the quantity of heat, Q per minute that

will pass through from A to D.

Q (θ - θ )
= kA 2 1
t d

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

where, k = thermal conductivity for air = 0.02Wm-1oC-1

A = cross-sectional area of bricks = 2m2
d = AD = 5cm = 0.05m
(θ2 -θ2) = (60 – 10)oC = 50oC= the temperature difference

50 o C
∴
Q W 2
= 0.02 x 2m x
t moC 0.05m
0.02 x 2 x 50J J
= for 1 minute we multiply by 60s
0.5 s
0.02 x 2 x 50J J
= x 60
0.5 min
= 2400J/min

The heat energy transfer per minute is 2400J.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A 100cm long copper rod, insulated to prevent heat losses has

one end maintained at 150oC and the other at 0oC. If the copper
rod has a cross-sectional area of 10cm2 and after establishing a
steady state condition, how much heat per second is transferred
from 150oC end to 0oC end? (Thermal conductivity of copper =
385J (s moC) -1)
2. In double-glazing, two sheets of glass 2mm thick are separated by
10mm of air. The temperatures of the outside glass surface are
20oC and 5oC respectively. Calculate the heat per second per unit
area being transferred by conduction and the temperatures of the
interior glass surfaces assuming steady state condition. (Thermal
conductivities of glass and air are 0.03 and 0.02 Wm-1oC-1
respectively.

3. A closed metal vessel contains water (i) at 30oC and then (ii) at
75oC. The vessel has a surface area of 0.5m2 and a uniform
thickness of 4mm. If the outside temperature is 15oC, calculate
the heat loss per minute by conduction in each case. (Thermal
conductivity of the metal = 400Wm-1 K-1)

4. The following observations were made in an experiment to

determine the thermal conductivity of aluminum by suing

θ2 = 85oC, θ1 = 65oC, θ3 = 32oC and θ4 = 44oC

Mass of water flowing in 1 minute = 9.9g. The distance between
θ2 and θ1 = 0.4m. The diameter of the bar = 3cm.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press Limited.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

UNIT 3 TRANSFER OF HEAT BY CONVECTION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Conduction of Heat in Fluids
3.2 Convection in Fluids
3.2.1 Natural and Forced Convection
3.2.2 Convection of Heat in Liquids
3.2.3 Convection in Gases
3.3 Newton’s Law of Coding
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In Module 2, unit 1, you have learnt about the transfer of heat through
solids by conduction. You should have noticed that we did not discuss
whether conduction takes place in liquids or gases.

You would also observe that in the transfer of heat by conduction, the
material that makes up the solid does not move. The heat energy is
simply passed from one molecule to the other i.e. from the hot end of the
solid to the cold end of it.

The question you may logically ask is: “Does conduction take place in
fluids (liquids and gases)?”

Thus, in this unit, we would show whether conduction takes place in

fluids or not. This, therefore, brings us to the study of another mode of
transfer of heat energy through matter described as CONVECTION. In
the next unit, you will learn about the radiation which is another mode
of transfer of heat in matter.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● show that conduction of heat does not take place in liquids and
gases (fluids)
● explain the meaning of convection as a mode of transfer of heat
in fluids

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

● differentiate between natural convection and forced convection of

heat in matter
● state Newton’s law of cooling.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Conduction of Heat in Fluids

Liquids and gases are usually referred to as fluids. Does conduction of

heat occur in them? You should have realized that all liquids, except
mercury, which is a metal, are poor conductors of heat. Air and gases,
generally are even worse conductors of heat. This idea can be shown by
placing a piece of ice wrapped inside a wire gauze and placed in a long
test tube filled with water (Fig. 8.1).

Fig. 8.1

The upper part of the tube B is observed to boil after heating it for some
time. It will be observed that as the water boils the ice remains
unmelted at the bottom of the tube. This means that the heat is not
conducted down the tube. The heat stays at the top. Experiments have
also shown that air is a poor conductor of heat. Steel wool, crumpled
aluminum foil, wollen materials are bad conductors of heat because of
the large number of small air pockets within these materials.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Describe an experiment to show that conduction of heat does not take

place in a named liquid.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

3.2 Convection in Fluids

The question you may ask now: If conduction of heat does not occur
in fluids, how then is heat transferred in fluids?

Heat is transferred in fluids by convection. Convection is a mechanical

displacement of heated part of a fluid. In simple words, it is a
phenomenon of transfer of heat with the actual movement on the
particles of the body. We usually place a pot of water on top of the
cooker to get boiled water to prepare food or to bath if the weather is too
cold. The liquid will be in contact with the solid wall of the container,
which is usually a metal like an aluminum pot. The container is at a
higher temperature than the fluid. The heat is transferred to the fluid.
The heated portion of the fluid rises up while the cold fluid on the top
comes down. This process continues until the water begins to boil. The
process may be explained in this manner. When the water molecules are
heated, they expand and as a result of this expansion, the density of the
molecules decreases such molecules thus experience an upthrust,
according to Archimedes Principle, which makes them to float. Since
nature does not allow a vacuum, the colder, heavier molecules take the
place of the lighter ones. Thus a current of molecules is created within
the liquid. The viscosity of the fluid i.e. fluid friction naturally
influences the convectional transfer of heat in fluids.

The term convection is usually applied to the transfer off heat in fluids
from one point to another by the actual movement of the particles that
make up the fluid.

3.2.1 Natural and Forced Convection

When the material fluid carries the heat from one place to another due to
the differences in density as a result of thermal expansion, the process of
the heat transfer is called natural convection. An example of this
occurs when water in a pot is made to boil.

On the other hand, when the material of the fluid is forced to carry the
heat from one place to another by a blower or pump, the process is
called forced convection. If you place your hot cup of tea or pap under
a fan, the heat in the tea or pap will be reduced by forced convection.

3.2.2 Convection of Heat in Liquids

Convection in liquids may be demonstrated by placing a crystal of

potassium permanganate carefully in a round bottomed flask and then
heating the bottom of the flask gently (Fig. 8.2).

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Fig. 8.2

You will observe that a rising column of coloured water will occur in the
flask. This shows that convection currents have been set up. This is a
natural convection. This process again can be explained by the
expansion of water molecules at the bottom of the flask due to the heat
acquired. Their density decreases and as such, they float according to
Archimedes’ Principle. The heavier colder molecules then take the
places of the hot ones and so a current is created within the bulk of the
water. This is the principle applied in the domestic hot water system in
cold countries. The hot water circulates by natural convection. However
in large buildings, which have central heating systems, a pump is
usually used to assist in the circulation of the hot water. This gives us
an example of forced convection.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Explain why the coil (element) of an electric kettle is always placed at

the bottom and not on top.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

3.2.3 Convection in Gases

Convection in gases may be demonstrated experimentally by using a

glass box with two chimneys A and B as shown in fig. 8.3.

Fig. 8.3

Below chimney B, inside the box, is a burning candle. When a glowing

splint of wood is placed above the chimney A, the smoke will be
observed to take the path of a convectional current from chimney A to
chimney B.

The hot air around the candle rises up and the cold air from A towards B
as a result of the differences in temperatures and decreases in density on
the expansion of the air particles.

This is the principle behind the formation of land and sea breezes.

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(i) (ii)

Fig. 8.4
Fig. 8.4

Along the coastal regions we usually observe breeze flowing from the
sea at day time which is always reversed in the night to constitute the
land breeze.

During the day, the sun heats up both the land and the water. But as a
result of the difference in the specific capacities of the land and water,
the land is hotter than the water. Thus warm air rises up and its place
taken up by the colder sea breeze (Fig. 8.4(i)).

During the night the land cools faster than the water. Thus the warm air
above the water rises up and is replaced by the cold air from the land,
thereby creating the land breeze (Fig 8.4 (ii)).

Example 8.1

Which of the following position in a room will be reasonable for anyone

to place an air conditioner

• at a height near the ceiling of the room?

• at a height closes to the floor of the room?

Explain your choice.

3.3 Newton’s Law of Cooling

You would have observed that when a hot body is left in the air it cools
down. This can occur under natural convection or forced convection. It
cools naturally when the air is still. But when there is a steady draught,
it can be cooled under what we call forced draught – as in ventilated
cooling in a draught. Newton propounded the law of cooling which is
satisfactory for all temperature excesses.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of loss of heat by a hot
body is proportional to the temperature difference between the hot
body and its surroundings.

Suppose a body is at a temperature of θOC and is allowed to cool in an

environment of temperature θ0OC, Newton’s law stipulates that:

= k (θ - θo) ………………………………………..…….. (8.1)

Q
t
= k (θ - θo) …………………………………………….. (8.2)
Q
or -
t

k is the constant of proportionality whose value depends on two factors

(the negative sign shows that heat is lost to the surrounding):

● The nature of the exposed surface of the material – surface

emmisivitiy ℮
● It’s surface area A

∴ = ℮A (θ - θo) ………………………………………….. (8.3)

Q
-
t

Many scientists have actually worked on this Newton’s law of cooling.

Preston, Dulong and Petit and Lorentz are examples of such people.
The summary of their findings have shown that:

● For forced convection in a strong draught Newton’s law of

cooling prevails, where the rate of loss of heat is proportional to
temperature excess
∴ = ∝ (θ - θo) ………………………………………….. (8.4)
Q
-
t

● For natural convection in still air, the five-fourth power law

predominates. That is the rate of loss of heat is proportional to
the (temperature excess)mmnn

∴ = ∝ (θ - θo)5/4 ……………………………………….. (8.5)

Q
-
t

It is customary to use Newton’s law of cooling for heat loss in

Calorimetry experiments.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, we have learnt that conduction does not take place in fluids
(liquids and gases). In fluids the mode of transfer of heat that takes
place is convection. This is the mode by which the molecules of the
medium carry the heat energy from hotter region to the region to the
colder region of the fluids.

We used the principle of expansion, which involves decrease in density

of the medium, and Archimedes’ Principle to explain convection in
fluids. Newton’s law of cooling was used to quantify the rate of loss of
heat under natural or forced condition, which is proportional to the
excess temperature of its temperature and its surrounding temperature.
In the next unit we shall consider radiation as the third mode of transfer
of heat in matter.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt:

● Conduction does not take place in fluids;

● Heat is transferred in fluids (liquids & gases) by convection;
● There are natural and forced convection in fluids;
● Decrease in the molecules of fluids in the hotter region
constitutes the convectional current in the fluids due to the
expansion of the molecules;
● Convection involves the material medium in the transfer of heat
in fluids;
● Newton’s law of cooling may be used to explain loss of heat by
convection under natural and forced condition; and
● Under the natural convection the five-fourth law of Newton’s law
predominates whereas in the forced convection rate of loss of
heat is proportional to only the excess temperature.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Refer to Text in Section 3.1.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Refer to section 3.2.2 of unit 8.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is the difference between natural convection and forced

convection?

2. With the aid of diagrams how would you show convection of heat
in:

(i) A liquid?
(ii) Air?

3. In most supermarket stores you may discover that the deep

freezer, in which the frozen commodities such as chicken, fish,
meat, shrimps, etc are displayed, could be left open without
closing them. Explain why this action is advantageous to the
storekeeper.

4. The figures below represent the temperature of a cooling

calorimeter at different times.

Time in minutes 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Temperature in oC 45.0 33.0 26.1 21.7 19.1 17.4 16.5

Use a graph sheet to plot the graph of time against the temperature
where time is the vertical axis and temperature the horizontal axis.
Determine the rate of fall of temperature at 2 min.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

136
PHY 101 MODULE 2

UNIT 4 RADIATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Nature of Radiation
3.1.1 Properties of Radiation
3.1.2 Detecting Heat Radiation
3.2 Black Body Radiation
3.3 Provost’s Theory of Heat Exchange
3.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation
3.5 Practical Application of Transfer of Heat
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

So far in this second module, we have learnt about the first two modes
of transfer of heat in matter. We observed that conduction of heat is
effectively done through solids. However, some of these solid materials
could be described as good conductors of heat i.e. metals while some are
classified as bad conductors of heat. We used the property, thermal
conductivity of each material to do this. We also observed that
conduction of heat in fluids (liquids and gases) does not occur, instead,
convection of heat predominates among fluids. Consequently, these two
modes of transfer of heat require material medium before they take lace.
The third mode of transfer of heat is Radiation which we will now
consider in this unit.

In this unit we would examine the nature of radiation of heat, its

properties, how it can be detected and examine the laws governing the
radiation of heat.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

● explain the nature of radiation of heat

● state the properties of heat radiation
● detect heat radiation
● explain the meaning of black body radiation
● state Provost theory of heat exchange

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

● state Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation

● solve problems on radiation of heat.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Nature of Radiation

Have you ever sat near an oven or campfire before? How would
you explain the heat transferred to you? Is it by conduction or
convection? Remember what is between you and the source of heat is
air. So, the idea of using conduction is ruled out. Again you recall that it
is by the rising of hot air around the oven that heat is being transferred.
But you are not above the source of heat but you are by the side. Hence,
we cannot use the concept of convection to explain how the heat travels
to you.

Now let us consider another example:

Have you ever considered how the heat from the sun comes to the
earth?

The planet earth is many kilometers far away from the sun. The heat
energy has to travel through empty space to reach the earth’s
atmosphere. Hence transfer of heat from the sun to the earth’s
atmosphere is mainly by what we describe as radiation.

Then now you may ask: what is Radiation?

Radiation is a way of heat transfer which does not require a material

medium. This is in contrast to conduction or convection which needs a
material medium to convey the heat energy.

Radiant energy consists of electromagnetic waves which travel with the

speed of light. Radiation from the sun consists of the light and the ultra
violet and infrared heat waves. All these travel with the speed of light.
3.0 x 108 m/s.

3.1.1 Properties of Radiation

Similar to light radiation, the study of which comes under waves and
wave phenomena, heat radiation has the flowing properties:

● It can be reflected
● It can be refracted
● It can be diffracted
● It can be polarized

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

● It can produce interference

● It can be absorbed

Like light energy, it is in form of electromagnetic waves. However, its

wavelength is longer than those of red light.

Heat radiation, which is invisible, is therefore called infrared radiation.

The wave length of light waves range form 4 x 10-7m (400nm) in violet
to 7.5 x 10-7m (750nm) in red. Whereas infrared radiation ranges from
750nm to about 100.00nm.

Although, most objects emit heat radiation in the invisible part of their
spectrum or range of wavelengths, some very hot objects such as the sun
emit heat radiation in the visible part of their spectrum.

3.1.2 Detecting Heat Radiation

Experiments have shown that dull or black surfaces are the best radiators
and absorbers of heat radiation respectively. However, bright, shinny,
polished or silvery surfaces are the worst radiators and absorbers of heat
radiation. But the question arises is: How do we detect heat
radiation?

Naturally our skins are capable of detecting heat radiation but a more
sensitive and reliable instrument that is more commonly used to detect
heat radiation is the THERMOPILE.

A thermopile is a series of arrangements of thermocouples made up of

two dissimilar metals such as Bismuth (Bi), Antimony (Ag). Such
arrangement can be used to detect and to give a rough measurement of
the intensity of heat radiation.

Fig. 9.1: A Thermopile

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Refer to fig. 9.1. An arrangement H, made up of Bismuth-Antimony

junctions are blackened so that nay heat radiation falling on them warms
up the junctions. A cone N is fitted on this end of the thermopile to
prevent any stray radiation affecting these junctions. The other set of
bismuth-antimony junctions C are silvered and remain cold or at a lower
reference temperature C is shielded from the direct radiation.

The thermo-electric emf developed produces a deflection on a sensitive

galvanometer G, connected to the outer terminals of the thermopile. The
deflection is a measure of the intensity of the heat radiation. When

calibrated, the actual intensity of heat radiation can be measured.

3.2 Black Body Radiation

You will recall that a black body is the best radiator or absorber of heat
radiation that falls upon it. A perfectly black body is therefore defined
as one which emits every wavelength with the maximum energy for
each wavelength for the particular temperature of the body. This black
body is also known as an ideal radiator. A good example of black body
is a ceramic-lined closed container with a hole in it. It may also be
empty tin with a hole punched on the lid.

Any radiation which enters the hole is reflected several times round the
inside surface and tends to be trapped inside it (fig. 9.2).

Fig. 9.2: Black Body Absorber at Temperature T

The absorber inside a black body may be silvery so that the reflection is
high. With several reflections and absorption, the hole looks black.
Since a good absorber of radiation is a good radiator, we can see that a
hole in a closed container is also a black radiator (fig. 9.3).

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Fig. 9.3: Black Body Radiator

The inside is ceramic-lined and blackened to reduce quickly any

reflected radiation and it is heated to a high temperature in a furnace or
heat chamber. It should be noted that the radiation from a perfectly
black body depends only on its temperature. It does not depend on the
nature of the surface inside. Black body radiation is thus also called
temperature radiation.

Non-black body radiators such as the hot filament of a n electric lamp,

may have some wavelengths of lower intensity compared with those
emitted by a perfectly black body at the same temperature.

3.3 Provost’s Theory of Heat Exchange

In the last section, you have studied about black body. Now, you will
learn about Provost’s theory. In simple words, it states that when an
object is at constant temperature or is in thermal equilibrium, it is
losing and gaining heat at equal rates.

Let us consider an enclosure P at constant temperature T. Inside this

enclosure are two objects A and B. A is cold while object B is hot.

Fig. 9.4

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Temperature T is however greater than the temperature of cold body TA

and less than the temperature of the hot body TB.

TB > T > TA

At first, body A receives more radiation falling on it from B that it

emits. Consequently, the temperature of A rises i.e. it warms up. Also,
body B emits more radiation than it receives from A, hence the
temperature of B decreases i.e. it cools down. Eventually, the
equilibrium temperature T is attained. At this temperature both bodies
are emitting and absorbing radiation at the same rate. The above process
illustrates exchange of heat through radiation of bodies at different
temperatures to reach a thermal equilibrium as opposed to what happens
if they were to be in contact. However, if body A is a black body, then
at temperature T, it radiates an appreciable amount of that heat at the
same rate. If B is however a silvery surface, then, at temperature T, it
radiates and absorbs less heat than A.

3.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law of Radiation

Stefan found by experiment, while Boltzmann showed theoretically, that

the total rate of radiation emitted per unit area by a perfectly black body
was proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature (T) in
Kelvin.
E
∝ T4 …..…….………………………………….. (9.1)
tA

∴ σ T4 …….……………………………………….. (9.2)
E
tA

Where, E = total heat energy emitted

t = time of emission
A = total surface area
T = absolute temperature
σ = constant known as Stefan constant

The value of σ = 5.7 x 10-8 Wm-2k-4.

For any other body or surface different from a black body

E
℮σ AT4 ………………………………………….. (9.3)
tA

E
or ℮σ AT4
tA

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

where, ℮ = emissivity of the surface (℮ is a number characterizing the

emitting properties of a particular surface).

But, the rate of emission is power, which can be represented as:

E
= Power P ……………………………………………….. (9.4)
t

∴ P = ℮A σT4 ………………...……………………………….. (9.5)

If a black body X is placed inside an enclosure at a constant temperature

To, then X will eventually reach the temperature To. From Provost’s
theory of heat exchanges, X receives from the enclosure as much
radiation as it emits, which is σATo4.

If X is initially at temperature T inside an enclosure, the net heat per

second radiated by X is

P = ℮σA(T4 - To4) …………………………………… (9.6)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

A thin square steel plate 10 cm on a side is heated in a blacksmith forge

to a temperature of 800oC. If the emissivity is unity, calculate the total
rate of radiation of energy?

3.5 Practical Application of Transfer of Heat

When we talk about the modes of transferring heat, we also need to

consider their practical applications. Let us now discuss some of these
important practical applications.

Some of the practical applications include: the screening action of

clouds, the green house and the “thermos” flask. Here, you will learn
about the “thermos” flask fully to show how the knowledge of
conduction, convection and radiation has been used to keep materials at
constant temperatures without loss of heat.

The Thermos Flask

The thermos flask was originally designed for the purpose of storing
liquefied gases. But now it is used for maintaining the temperature of
hot and cold liquids for long periods. Some have been designed
nowadays to keep hot or cold solid food as pack for lunch or dinner.

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Fig. 3.5: The Thermos Flask

Basically, the flask is made up of double-walled thin glass. The space in

between the flask is evacuated to create a vacuum between the walls of
the glass. If you examine a broken flask you will observe a small
protruding notch at the bottom. This is where the glass was sealed off
after creating the vacuum with the glass walls.

The open end of the flask is covered with a cork stopper or a plastic
cover, which are non-conductors of heat. The double walled vacuum
flask is sealed again in an insulator in the entire case containing the
flask.

The evacuated space of the flask is to prevent loss of heat by conduction

and convection, which require material medium.

In order to minimize loss or gain of heat by radiation, the surfaces facing

the evacuated space are covered with silver. Thus, radiant heat from the
hot liquid is reflected back at the outer wall. If cold liquid is placed
inside the flask, heat radiation from the surrounding is reflected back
from the silvered face of the inner wall. Consequently, any radiant heat
entering the vacuum space is accordingly arrested.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit, you have learnt about the third mode of transfer of heat by
radiation. This mode of transfer of heat does not require any material
medium. Radiant energy is electromagnetic in nature. It is detected and
measured by the thermopile. We also learnt that black bodies are good
absorbers and emitters of radian heat energy. Whereas silvery and shiny
surfaces are good reflectors of radiant energy. Provost’s theory of heat
exchanges was used to explain how thermal equilibrium is reached
through radiation between two bodies at different temperatures. Finally,
Stefan Boltzmann law of radiation was used to quantify the rate of
emission of radiant energy per area as being proportional to the fourth
power of its absolute temperature. We shall now turn our attention to
the properties of materials in the next module.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt:

● the concept of radiation of heat as a mode of heat transfer;

● that the radiant heat energy is electromagnetic in nature and this
mode of transfer does not require a material medium;
● that radiant heat energy could be detected and measured by the
thermopile;
● the concept of black body in terms of its ability to absorb or emit
heat energy;
● that a black body is a good absorber and a good emitter of heat;
● that more exactly, a black body is one whose radiation depends
on its temperature;
● how Provost theory of heat exchanges produces thermal
equilibrium between two objects at different temperature;
● how Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation is used in solving
problems on radiation of heat energy; and
● that the study of black body radiation is a prelude to the study of
quantum theory which is part of your later physics course.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Total surface area = 2 x 10-4m2

Temperature = 800oC = 1073K
From, Eq. 9.6,

P = σ℮ATo4

Inserting these values in Eq. 9.6 above,

σ = 5.7 x 10-8Wm-2k-4

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

℮=1
A = 2 x 10-4m2
T = 1074k

We get,
∴
W
P = 5.7 x 10-8 2 4
x 1 x 2 x 10-4m2 x (1073)4k4
m k
= 5.7 x 10-8 x 1 x2 x 10-4 x (1073)4W
= 5.7 x 10-8 x 2 x 10-4 x (1.073 x 103)4W
P = 15.12W

The concept of black body radiation will be revisited again at a higher

level of your study of physics. Then you will learn the importance and
the laws of black body radiation, which led to the development of the
quantum theory of heat radiation.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Describe the nature of thermal radiation. How is thermal

radiation detected and measured?

2. State the
(i) Provost’s theory of heat exchanges in radiation of heat.
(ii) Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation.

3. A radiant wall heater black body radiator is a silica cylinder 1.0m

long and radius 0.5mm. It is rated at 1KW. If the room
temperature is 300K, estimate the working temperature of the
heater, stating any assumptions.
(Stefan constant = 5.7 x 10-8 Wm-2 K-4).

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
Chicago and London.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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UNIT 5 MOLECULAR PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Molecules
3.1.1 The Concept of the Atom
3.1.2 Measuring the Size of a Molecule
3.2 Molecular Motion
3.3 Molecular Mass
3.4 Molecular Volume
3.5 Molecular Density
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Matter is a substance that has mass and occupies space. Thus solids,
liquids and gases are forms of matter. Modern ideas will include plasma
as the fourth form of matter. Plasma occurs when atoms are ionized at
high temperatures. At very high temperatures, a substance consisting of
positive ions and electrons is known as plasma. Under this section, we
shall therefore concentrate on the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

Water exists in form of solid (ice block), liquid (water) and gas (steam).
The question you may ask is: What makes water to exhibit these three
states of matter? Can we explain these three different states?

By the time one tries to answer these questions for water and for other
substances on earth, one is mainly looking at the properties of matter
from the molecular point of view.

The theory about the existence of atoms and molecules form the
backbone for the explanation of how matter exists in three states in
terms of the molecular forces that exist between the molecules. That is,
the type of molecular forces that exist among molecules in matter help
us to explain why water can exist in solid, liquid and gas.

In this unit and in other units to follow, we shall study the properties of
mater.

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From your elementary science, you will recall that two kinds of property
of matter are considered:

(i) the physical properties and

(ii) the chemical properties

We shall be concerned here with the physical properties of matter. Your

various courses in chemistry, now and in the nearest future, will deal at
length with the chemical properties of matter. The knowledge of
chemical properties will include the knowledge of matter as an acid or
abase. One is required to know how an element or a compound reacts
with the litmus papers (red and blue), its reactions with water, air
(oxygen), acids, bases etc.

With regards to physical properties, we shall be interested in the

structure, size, mass, volume, density, elasticity, conduction of
electricity, heat etc. However, in this unit we shall be concerned with
the molecular properties of matter.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able:

● explain the existence of molecules in matter

● recognize the molecular motion in matter
● measure the size of a molecule of a chosen liquid
● deduce the density of a molecule from its mass and volume.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Molecules

The idea of the atomic nature of matter dates as far back as the time the
Greek Philosophers proposed that the smallest indivisible unit of matter
is the atom. They further stated that two or more atoms combine
together to form a molecule. This is what constitutes the molecular
nature of matter.

In the modern concept of the atom, we now know that the atom is
divisible. Furthermore, it is not the smallest unit of matter as
experiments have shown that the atom is made up of a nucleus and
electrons, and the nucleus consists of positively charges protons and
neutrons. Neutrons have no charges. Thus the protons, neutrons and
electron have been found to be fundamental particles of matter. The
study of these particles will be done later. Now, “Can you really
imagine how small the atom of matter is?”

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3.1.1 The Concept of the Atom

If you take a piece of square yam, you may decide to start cutting it into
equal pieces with a knife until such a time that you can no longer cut a
piece into two. You may now use a tine blade and with the aid of a
magnifying glass, you can continue to do the cutting. You may continue
with this exercise under the microscope and ultimately under the
electron microscope and you will find it extremely difficult to divide a
piece of the yam. The limit of this divisibility is what the Greeks called
the atom. Since, we now know that the atom is divisible, it is defined as
the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction. As
we said earlier, a combination of atoms constitutes a molecule.

In this section, we want to quantitatively ascribe a figure to the size of a

molecule. In other words, we want to answer the question: How big is
the molecule of a particular substance?

Is it possible to measure the average diameter of a molecule of a liquid

such as paraffin or any other type of oil? To do this, we shall present
you an analogue (example) on how to determine the diameter of a round
bead without actually taking the bead and measuring it directly. We
shall then use the analogue to demonstrate how to determine the
diameter of a molecule, which you can not see with the naked eye. You
can now imagine how small an atom is from this exercise.

An atom may then be considered as the tiniest form of matter that can
exist by itself. However, some of these atoms do not exist alone, two or
more of them combine to form a molecule. Examples of such molecules
are: oxygen (O2), Hydrogen (H2), Water (H2O), Sulphur (S8) and
Phosphorous (existing as P4).

3.1.2 Measuring the Size of a Molecule

(a) An Analogue

In this measurement, we shall measure average diameter of a bead

without measuring a bead physically. Now, let us discuss the procedure
of environment.

1. Collection of beads which are assumed to be spherical.

2. The beads are then spread in a Petridish such that they form a
layer of beads as shown in figure (i) from the side view.

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Fig. 10.1

Fig. 10.1 (i) shows the side view of the beads while fig. 10.1 (ii)) shows
the aerial view of the beads. It should be ensured that no bead is lying
on top of the other.

3. In this position it is possible to estimate the volume occupied by

the beads thus:

Volume (V) occupied = Circular Area x Height of Beads

πD 2
V= x do ..……………………………………. (10.1)
4
where, D = diameter of the dish containing the beads
do = average diameter of the beads since they are of one layer.

4. Now, the beads are poured into a measuring cylinder and the
volume is read as Vcm3. The beads are shaken very well in the
cylinder to make sure that they are well packed together in order
to attain the minimum value for the volume.

5. The volume V measured under step (3) above is equal to the

volume V in step (4) using the conservation principle of matter
and its volume.
Hence,
πD 2
V (cm3) = x do
4
4 Vcm 3
∴ do =
πD 2 cm 2

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4V
do = cm …………………………… (10.2)
πD 2

Thus the average diameter of the bead, do can be determined by using

Eq. (10.2). One may verify the validity of this determination by
measuring some of the beads with a micrometer screw gauge and then
finding the average value. This is the approach that will be used to
determine the average diameter of the molecules of an oil, say paraffin.

(b) Measuring the Molecular Size of Paraffin Oil

Use a wire loop to pick up a drop of paraffin oil as shown in

figure 10.2.

Fig. 10.2

Place the oil drop near a meter rule and with the aid of a magnifying
glass, read the diameter of the oil drop and record it as d.

Using mathematical expression, the volume of this oil drop is

d
V1 = π   …………………………………………… (10.3)
3
4
3 2
d
Where, d is the diameter of the oil drop and is the radius of the oil
2
drop.

Therefore, the Eq. (10.3) becomes

d3
∴
4
V1 = π
3 8
πd 3

V1 = ………………………………………………….. (10.4)
8

Now take a large bowl of water and sprinkle some talcum powder over
the surface. Allow the oil drop to spread on the surface of the water. As
the oil spreads, the powder will be observed to be receding to the side of
the bowl. This process of spreading should be given enough time.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Fig. 10.3: Aerial View of Bowl

NOTE: Let the spread be like a circle of diameter D such that

D = D1 + D2 ………………………………………… (10.5)
2

When the liquid is well spread as shown in figure 10.3, record the
average diameter D of the spread using Eq. (10.5). This corresponds to
the situation where molecules are of one layer.

If the average diameter of the molecules is do, then the volume of the
molecules which occupy one layer is

D
V2 = π   x do
2

2

D2
V1 = π x do ……………………. (10.6)
4
πd 2
But this V2 is assumed to be equal to V1 which is
6
i.e. V1 = V2 …………………………………………………… (10.7)

Using Eq. (10.7)

πd 3 D2
∴ =π do
6 4

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We get the value of do as

πd 3
=π 2
4
do =
6 πD
3
2 d
do = ……………………………………….. (10.8)
3 D2

Now, Can you cross check your answer as you did with the bead?

This is difficult question. There is no way you can cross check;

however, the diameter of such measurement will be of the magnitude of
10-10 m. If your measurement is in the neighbourhood, then it is correct
and valid enough.

3.2 Molecular Motion

The molecules of matter are always in random motion, whether in the

form of solid, liquid or gas. It is easy to demonstrate this concept by
considering the motion of molecules in liquids and gases.

Consider the spread of the odour from a very palatable dish or you may
consider the production of foul air form the corner of a room. The odour
from these sources soon spread round to you. One may say that it is the
wind that is responsible for the spreading. That may be true, but let us
consider this experiment, which will show you what is described as
molecular motion of matter.

The apparatus used in demonstrating molecular motion of matter is

made up of a long glass tube with the two ends closed with the rubber
bungs as shown in figure 10.4.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

Fig. 10.4

A piece of absorbent cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric

acid (HCl) and then placed at one end A of the tube. Another piece of
absorbent cotton wool is soaked in concentrated ammonium hydroxide
(NH4OH) and then placed at the other end B of the glass tube. The two
rubber bungs are used to close the tube. After some time, it will be
observed that a white band of ammonium chloride will be formed in the
tube. This has shown that the molecules of the two compounds have
moved towards C to form ammonium chloride there.

NH4OH(g) + HCl(g)
NH4Cl(g) + H2O(g)

Besides showing the molecular motion of these gaseous substances, it is

possible to show the relative speed at which the gases move. It will be
noticed that the lighter gas (NH3) ammonia, has moved a longer distance
than the heavier one, hydrogen chloride (HCl).

Observe the relative position of the cloud to the two ends of the tube.
This molecular motion may be described as diffusion. Diffusion takes
place very much in nature. It is defined as the process in which
molecules move from area of high concentration to another area of
low concentration until an equilibrium concentration is established
within the system under consideration. The state of equilibrium in
this case does not necessarily mean that the molecules have become
stagnant. It is a dynamic equilibrium. The fact still remains that the
molecules are forever in motion. The diffusion of molecules of a solid
in liquid or liquid molecules in another liquid may also be used to
demonstrate the motion of molecules of matter. First, let us consider

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solid molecules in a liquid. Place a copper sulphate crystal in a glass jar

and then pour water into it very gently as shown in fig. 10.5

(i) (ii)

Fig. 10.5

Allow the jar and content to stay undisturbed for some days. It will be
observed that a time will come when all the crystal would have diffused
throughout the solution. This shows the motion of the solid molecules
through the liquid water. It is also possible to pour water on a high
concentrated copper sulphate solution or any other coloured solution as
shown in figure 10.6.

Fig. 10.6

(i) Initially, there is a clear demarcation of water on top of the

solution.
(ii) After leaving the water and solution for a long time, it will be
observed that the entire content becomes blue as a result of the
motion of the molecules – the ever-moving molecules.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

It is otherwise described as the Brownian motion. Recall also that

molecular motion is described as being random.

3.3 Molecular Mass

You will recall from the definition of matter that it is anything that has
mass and occupies space. Since our molecules have size, they also have
mass. The question that may arise is: How do we measure the mass of
an atom or molecule? This is done by the use of the mass spectroscopy.
This technique has also enabled us to measure the masses of a proton,
neutron and electron. The values are given as:

Mass of proton = 1.673 x 10-27kg

Mass of a neutron = 1.675 x 10-27kg
Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10-31kg

3.4 Molecular Volume

The volume occupied by a molecule is the molecular volume. It is

another property of matter. Experimentally, we have also found the
volume occupied by the molecules of a substance such as that of a gas.

Form Avogadro’s hypothesis, we can describe the volume occupied by a

mole of a gas – hence we have the molar volume.

The molar volume of gases at standard temperature and pressure (S.T.P.)

is 22.4 liters.

A mole of gas contains 6.0 x 1023 molecules.

Hence we can deduce the volume of one molecule to be

4 Vcm 3
= 23
litres = 3.73 x 10-23 litres
6 x10

3.5 Molecular Density

The density of a substance is the mass of that substance per unit volume.
Thus molecular density defines the density of a molecule i.e. the mass of
molecule in kg per 1m3 volumes.

It tells us how heavy or light the molecule is. Hydrogen molecule has
been found to be the lightest gas on earth. Hence its molecular density
is the smallest in value.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Matter is made up of atoms and molecules, which may exist in solid,

liquid or gas. The atom is made up of negatively charged electrons and
the nucleus, which consists of positively charged protons and neutrons
that have no charges. Some matter exists as atoms while others are
made up of molecules, which are combinations of two or more atoms. It
has been shown that it is possible to measure the size of a molecule of a
substance which is of the order of magnitude of 10-10m. Molecules of
matter are forever in random motion when in liquid and gaseous states.
In solid states, molecules are in fixed positions vibrating about a
position. Associated with molecules of matter are their properties of
mass, volume and density.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt:

● About the atom as the smallest particle of matter that can take
part in any chemical reaction,
● Two or more atoms combine to form a molecule,
● Matter exists in three states – solid, liquid and gas,
● The molecules of matter are forever in random motion,
● It is possible to determine the size of a molecule,
● The magnitude is of order of, 10-10m.
● The molecular density is obtained from the knowledge of the
mass and volume of the molecule.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. How would you determine the diameter of a given sample of oil?

Discuss the basic assumptions involved in such a measurement.
2. Describe an experiment to show that matter is in constant motion.
3. Differentiate between atoms and nucleus.

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PHY 101 MODULE 2

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.
Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:
John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.
Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan
Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

MODULE 3

Unit 1 Elastic Property of Materials

Unit 2 Moduli of Elasticity
Unit 3 Kinetic Theory of Gases and Applications
Unit 4 Density
Unit 5 Buoyancy – Archimedes’ Principle

UNIT 1 ELASTIC PROPERTY OF MATTER

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Elasticity
3.2 Hooke’s Law
3.3 The Concept of Elastic Limit and Other Terms
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

As you know, when some objects are stretched or compressed by

applying a force, their shapes change. But when the determining force
is removed from the objects, the objects regain their original form or
shape. Such objects are known as elastic objects.

Matter as a whole may be subjected to lads and forces. We may be able

to see the effects of such load or force on matter. The example of
stretching of a rubber shows where the effect is very obvious. The
bridges are subjected to heavy loads but the effects of such loads are not
very obvious. Thus the steel with which most bridges are built is
usually subjected to all kinds of research in order to know how it can
withstand the forces. The study of such a research in order to know it
can withstand the forces. The study of such a research is referred to as
the study of elasticity of the material.

In the beginning of this unit, we shall discuss about the elasticity. Then
you will read about Hooke’s law. Finally, you will learn about the
concept of elastic limit and related terms: in the next unit we will
discuss moduli of elasticity.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

● explain the term elasticity

● explain the elastic limit of a metal in the form of a wire
● define stress and strain
● state Hooke’s law of elasticity
● solve problems on Hooke’s law.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Elasticity

Elasticity is the property of a material to regain its original shape or

form after removing the deforming force, or load provided the elastic
limit is not exceeded.

There are certain terms used in connection with elasticity; stress and
strain. Let us discuss briefly about these two terms. The stress on a n
elastic material is defined as the force exerted on the material per
unit area. It can also be expressed as:

Force F
Stress = = ……………………..……………….. (11.1)
Area A

The force is measured in Newton’s (N) and the area is in meter square
(m2) then the unit of stress is therefore Newton per meter square (Nm-2).

If an object has an original length of l , when it is stretch or compressed

in such a way that it has an extension or compression value of e, then,
the strain on the object is defined as

Extension produced on the object

Strain =
The original length of the object

e
Strain = ……………...………………………………….. (11.2)
l

Stress is related to the force producing the deformation. Strain is related

to the amount of deformation.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 11.1

Fig. 11.1 shows a typical deformation of a body subjected to a force F

whose cross-sectional area A' changes to A and whose length is
increases by ∆ l . Provided its elastic limit is not exceeded, the material
goes back to the former state.

Materials such as Dough, Lead and Putty, for which elastic limit is small
are called inelastic or plastic material. Steel is highly elastic because it
recovers itself to its original position when the load or force is removed.

3.2 Hooke’s Law

Consider a helical spring of original length l o (fig. 11.2 (i)). When a

weight is attached to it, it will be observed that the spring will be
stretched through a distance ℮. By using slotted weight, we can vary the
force F acting on the spring and with the aid of a ruler we can measure
the extension ℮ for each corresponding weight.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Fig. 11.2

When the various force (F) are plotted against their corresponding
extensions (℮) measured, a linear relationship is obtained as shown in
fig. 11.3, that is, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.

It is on the basis of this experiment that the British Scientist Robert

Hooke formulated the law of elasticity which is known as Hooke’s law.

Fig. 11.3: A plot of Forces versus Extensions Measured

Hooke’s law states that the force applied on elastic material is

directly proportional to the extension produced provided the elastic
limit is not exceeded.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

F α ℮
F = -ke

Where k is a constant of proportionality usually referred to as the spring

constant. K is a property of elastic material. The negative sign is to
show the restoring ability of the material. Later a modified form of this
law was given. According to which “within elastic limit, the stress on
an elastic material is directly proportional to the strain produced in the
material”.

Stress & strain

Stress = M strain

Where M is a constant. The constant is called a Modulus of elasticity of

the material of the body.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

State Hooke’s law and describe an experiment to verify the law.

3.3 The Concept of Elastic Limit and Other Terms

We shall use the experimental set up in fig. 11.4 to show the concept of
elastic limit, yield point and other terms used in the elastic property of
matter. The apparatus is made up of two wires P and Q. Wire P is held
taut by weight A. While Wire P carries a scale M. The second wire Q
carry a vernier scale V is subjected to variation of forces W. The two
wires P and Q are suspended from a common support S.

Fig. 11.4

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

If wire Q is loaded, the length of the wire increases. When it is off-

loaded, it returns to its original position. If a material behaves this way,
such a material is described as being elastic.

The load on wire Q is called the tensile force. When the wire is thus
subjected to various tensile forces its corresponding extension (℮) can
then be observed.

The graph of the force (F) against the extension (℮) can be plotted. A
typical graph obtained from such an exercise is shown in fig. 11.5.

Fig. 11.5: Graph of Extension versus Force

Now let us discuss the shape of the graph obtained. It is made up of

straight line OA followed by a curve ABY rising slowly at first and then
sharply. Along and up to L, which is just beyond A, the wire is capable
of returning to its original length when the load is removed. A is
therefore the limit of proportionality. The force at L is the force of
elastic limit.

Along OL, the metal is said to undergo changes called elastic

deformation. Beyond L, the wire has a permanent extension as shown
by line OP. When the force is at B.

Beyond L, the wire is no longer elastic. With more force the extension
increases rapidly along the curve ABY. At N, the wire thins out and
breaks.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The Yield Point

For mild steel and iron, the molecules of the wire begin to slide across
each other soon after the load (force) has exceeded the elastic limit. At
this stage, the metal is described as being plastic as shown in the slight
kink at B beyond L (fig. 11.5). This is the yield point of the wire.

The change from elastic to plastic stage is shown by a sudden increase in

the extension. In the plastic stage, the energy gained by the stretched
wire is dissipated as heat. Unlike the elastic stage, the energy is not
recoverable when the load is removed.

As the load is increased further, the extension increases rapidly along he

curve YN. The wire then becomes narrower and finally breaks. The
breaking stress of the wire is the corresponding force per unit area of the
narrowest section of the wire.

Ductile Substances

Substances which lengthen considerably and undergo plastic

deformation until they break are ductile substances. Examples of such
substances are Lead (Pb), Copper (Cu) and Wrought Iron (Fe).

Brittle Substance

When substances break just after the elastic limit is attained, then, such
substances are said to be Brittle. Glass, high carbon steel brass, bronze
and other alloys have no yield point.

4.0 CONCLUSION

When a force is applied to a material it changes its shape. When the

force is removed, the material regain its original sate, hen that object is
said to be elastic. However, the amount of force applied to that object
must be such that the elastic limit is not exceeded. If the force is applied
in such a way that the object is permanently deformed, then we say that
the elastic limit has been exceeded. Robert Hooke established the
relationship between the force applied to a material and the extension
produced within the elastic limit. The force applied per unit area of the
material described the stress on the material. The ratio of the extension
produced by the force and the original length of the material known as
strain on the material. Substances are classified as being ductile or
brittle depending on their behaviour when the elastic limit has been
exceeded. A substance is said to be ductile if undergoes a plastic
deformation and breaks. A substance is said to be brittle if it breaks just
when it has exceeded its elastic limit.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that:

● A material is said to be elastic if when deformed by the

application of a force and capable of regaining its original shape
when the applied force is removed;
● The deformation can be in the form of change in length and
shape;
● Robert Hooke showed that within the elastic limit, the force on a
given length of wire is directly proportional to its extension (℮);
● The yield point of an elastic material occurs when the load on it
makes it to exceed the elastic limit and the material becomes
permanently deformed or plastic;
● A material is described as being ductile when it undergoes a
plastic deformation and then breaks;
● A material is described as being brittle if just when it is at its
elastic limit any additional load makes it to break.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Refer to Section 3.2 of Unit 11. To verify the law, you can take a
metallic spring, a scale, and pan to attach with the spring. Also take
some weight to put into pan and note the corresponding extensions from
the lower scale. Draw a graph between load applied and the extension.
Then conclude the result and verify the law.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

The extension in length of a spiral spring varies as different weights are

suspended from it. The result of the experiment with the spiral spring is
as shown below in tabular form:

W(10-2N) 5 10 20 30 40 50 60
Extension (cm) 0.9 1.8 3.6 5.4 7.2 9.0 10.8

Plot the graph of weight versus the extension produced, and deduce the
relationship between the weight and the extension. Determine the spring
constant of the spiral spring.

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7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

UNIT 2 MODULI OF ELASTICITY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Young’s Modulus
3.1.1 Force in Bar Due to Contraction or Expansion
3.1.2 Energy Stored in a Wire
3.2 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
3.2.1 Bulk Modulus of a Gas – Isothermal Bulk Modulus
3.2.2 Bulk Modulus of a Gas – Adiabatic Modulus
3.3 Shear Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you were introduced to the elastic properties of

matter. You learnt about the law that governs the elastic nature of a
material, most especially if it is a solid object. We have also observed
that it is not only solid objects that are elastic or that can be subjected to
stress and strain, what about liquids and gases?

Elastic nature of liquids is not very obvious as compared with that of

gas. If you take a bicycle pump, close the end part with your finger very
hard so that when you push down the piston air does not escape. Then
push down the piston by applying force on the handle. The piston goes
down through a considerable distance but when released the piston
springs back to its original position. This shows the compressibility of
the air molecules and their elastic nature.

Thus in considering the elastic nature of liquids and gases in this unit we
shall embark on the other concepts of elasticity which involves the
moduli of elasticity. These are the Young, Bulk and Shear moduli.
Liquids and gases also experience stresses and strains when forces are
applied on them. Besides, we would also consider the energy involved
in the stretching of a wire.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit you should be able to:

• define Young’s modulus of elasticity

• define Shear modulus of elasticity
• define Bulk modulus of elasticity
• relate Young’s modulus with thermal expansion of a metal
• define energy stored in a stretched wire
• solve problems on moduli of elasticity.

For a given material, there can be different types of modulus of

elasticity. Now in the subsequent sections, we will learn about these. It
all depends upon the type of stress applied and the resulting strain
produced. Let us discuss these facts.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Young’s Modulus

When a force (F) is applied to the end of a wire of cross-sectional area A

and having an initial length L, we define the tensile stress on the wire as
the force per unit area.

Force
Tensile stress =
Area

F
= ………………….…………… (12.1)
A

Where F is measured in Newton’s (N) and Area is in meter-square (m2).

Therefore the unit of tensile stress is Nm-2.

The cross-sectional area A of the wire is expressed as,

πD 2 2
A = πr
4

Where, r is the radius of the cross-section and

D is the diameter of the cross-section.

If on the application of the force F, the wire is extended by (℮) then we

would define its tensile strain as

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

extension
Tensile strain =
initial length
e
= …………………………..……….. (12.2)
L

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

2kg mass is attached to the end of a vertical wire of length 2m with a

diameter of 0.64mm and having an extension of 0.60m. Calculate

(i) the tensile stress

(ii) the tensile strain on the wire (take g = 9.8m/s2)

Stress on a wire is plotted against the strain, a graph shown in fig. 12 is

obtained.

Fig. 12.1: Stress versus Strain

The points and region on the graphs shows

A = proportional limit
L = elastic limit
B = Yield point
C = Breaking Stress
D = wire breaks
OL = elastic deformation
BC = plastic deformation

From this graph, we shall define the Young’s Modules of Elasticity

symbolized as E.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Tensile stress
Thus E=
Tensile Strain

÷ ………………………..……………….. (12.3)
F e
E=
A l

Example 12.1

The Tensile stress and Tensile strain of a wire 6.09 x 107N)m7 and 3 x
10-4 respectively. Determine Young’s Modules of the wire.

Solution

Tensile Stress
E =
Tensile Strain

N
= 6.09 x 107
m2
= 3 x 10-4

= 2.03 x 1011Nm/2

The Young’s Modulus = 2.03 x 1011Nm/2

3.1.1 Force in a Bar Due to Contraction or Expansion

When an iron bar is heated and is prevented from contracting as it cools,

experiments have shown that a considerable force is exerted at the ends
of the bar.

It is possible for us to obtain the force exerted with the knowledge of

Young Modules E, cross-sectional area A, the coefficient of linear
expansion α (linear expansivity) and the change in temperature due to
the contraction or expansion, ∆θ.

From Eq. (12.3), you know that the force F is given by

÷
F e
E=
A L
∴ ×
F L
E=
A e

∴
EAe
F= ……………………………….…………. (12.4)
L

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Also, the coefficient of linear expansion is given as

∆L
α∴
e
=
L∆θ L∆θ

∴ e = αL∆θ ………………………………………….. (12.5)

Substituting Eq. (12.5) in Eq. (12.4), we get

× αL∆θ
EA
Hence F=
L

F = EAα∆θ ……………………………… (12.6)

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A steel rod of cross-sectional area 2.0cm2 heated to 100oC and then

prevented from contracting when it cooled to 10oC. If linear expansivity
of steel is 12 x 10-6 k-1 and Young Modules = 2.0 x 1011N/m2. Calculate
the force exerted on contraction.

3.1.2 Energy Stored in a Wire

As you know that work done is defined as the product of the force and
the distance moved by the force

i.e. Work done = Force x distance

For a given wire, the work in stretching it is given by

Work done = Average force x extension

 F
  xe
2
=

But now you may ask: why we are using the average force rather than
absolute force?

This is because of the fact that the force increases from zero to a given
value, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded. Therefore the amount
of work done in stretching a wire, or the amount of energy stored in the
wire is given by

Fe
W= ………………………….………………………… (12.7)
2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The energy stored is the gain in molecular Potential Energy of the

molecules due to their displacement from their mean positions.

The energy store could be expressed in terms of Young Modulus. Now,

substitute the value of F from Eq. (12.4) in Eq. (12.7), we get

1  EAe 
x  xe
2  L 
W=

1 EAe 2
W= x …………...………………. (12.8)
2 L

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

A vertical wire, suspended from one end is stretched by attaching a

weight of 20N to the lower end. If the weight extends the wire by 1mm.
calculate the energy gained.

3.2 Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Meanwhile, you would have observed that we have always been talking
about elasticity in terms of solids (i.e. wire). What about liquids and
gases? While Young Modulus of elasticity is associated with solid
objects, the bulk modulus deals with liquids and gases.

When a liquid or gas is subjected to an increase pressure, the substance

contracts. A change in the bulk thus occurs. The bulk strain is defined
as the change in volume (∆V) of a gas (or liquid) to the original volume
V.

Change in volume of gas or liquid

Bulk Strain =
Original volume of gas or liquid

Fig. 12.2: Bulk Stress & Bulk Strain

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Since the change in volume is –∆V

And the original volume is V,

- ∆V
Therefore the, Bulk Strain = …………...…………….. (12.9)
V

The negative sign indicates that the volume decreases. Bulk stress is
defined as the increase in force per unit area.

Increase in force ∆F
∴ Bulk Stress = = ………………...… (12.10)
Area A

Then Bulk Modulus of elasticity K is defined as

Bulk Stress
K =
Bulk Strain

- ∆V
= ∆P ÷
V

- ∆VP
K = …………………...………. (12.11)
∆V

∆P
as ∆P and ∆V tend to zero is
dP
The limit of
∆V dV

∆P dP
Limit =
∆V dV
∆P, ∆V → 0
∴
- VdP
k= ……………………………………………….. (12.12)
dV

dP
The reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity K is which is known as
dV
compressibility of the material.
∴
1 1 dV
= ...……...…………………………….. (12.13)
K V dP

3.2.1 Bulk Modulus of a Gas – Isothermal Bulk Modulus

When the pressure and the volume of gas changes at constant

temperature, we have the expression

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

PV = Constant ………………………….……………………….. (12.14)

It is also known as Boyle’s Law. In addition, it is also associated with

what we describe as an isothermal condition. On differentiating this
expression with respect to volume V. we get

dV dP
P +V = 0 ……………………….………………… (12.5)
dV dV
∴
dP
P+V =0
dV
∴
dP
P = -V = K …………………………………………… (12.6)
dV

What does this expression remind you of? You will recall that the bulk
modulus of elasticity is given as

dP
K = -V
dV
∴
dP
P = -V = k ………………………………….. (12.17)
dV

Thus the isothermal bulk modulus of elasticity is equal to the pressure P.

3.2.2 Bulk Modulus of a Gas – Adiabatic Modulus

By adiabatic, we mean a system whereby heat is not allowed to escape

into it or get out of it. The pressure, and volume of a gas can be related
in such a way that

PV¾ = Constant ……………………...……. (12.18)

γ=
CP
where
CV

The symbol r is pronounced as gamma.

CP
is a ratio of the molar heat capacities of a gas at constant pressure
CV
CP and constant volume CV. A state is described as adiabatic when no
heat is allowed to leave the system or enter the system of a gas. The
external work done is wholly at the expense of the internal energy of the
gas. The consequence is that the gas cools down starting from PVr =
Constant

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

On differentiating the Eq. (12.18) with respect to V, we get

d (V γ )
∴
d ( P)
P + Vγ = 0 …………………………….……. (12.19)
dV dV
∴ P x γVγ - 1 + Vγ
dP
=0
dV
V γ dP
∴ Pγ = - γ - 1
V dV

On arranging the terms, we get

V γ V dP
=- γ
V dV

Vγ
Note that Vγ- 1 = VγV-1 =
V

∴ Pγ = -V
dP
dV

dP
But K = -V
dV
∴ Pγ = K …………………………………..……………….. (12.20)

Hence the adiabatic Bulk Modulus is

K = Pγ

The following are the values of K at isothermal and adiabatic conditions:

For air at normal pressure,

K = 1.0 x 105Nm-2 for isothermal bulk modulus, while

K = 1.4 x 105Nm-2 for adiabatic bulk modulus.

These values are of the order of 105 times smaller than liquids as gases
are much more compressible.

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3.3 Shear Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of Rigidity

Consider a block ABCD such as block of rubber as shown in fig. 12.3

Fig. 12.3: Shear Stress and Shear Strain

The lower plane is kept fixed. A force F is applied to the upper side AB
parallel to CD. The effect of this force on the material is a change in
shape from ABCD to A′B ′CD . There is a displacement of the planes in
the body relative to the planes. The angular displacement α is defined as
the shear strain. α is thus the angular displacement between any two
planes of the material. For example planes A′B ′ and CD or planes CD
and P ′Q ′ .

You should note that in shear modulus, no volume change occurs as in

the Bulk modulus of elasticity. Since the force along CD is F in
magnitude, it forms a couple with the force applied to the upper side
AB.

The shear stress is defined as the shear force per unit area on the face
AB or CD. The shear has a turning or displacement effect owing to the
couple that exists. Besides, the solid does not collapse because in a
strained equilibrium position such as A′B ′CD , the external couple is
acting on the solid due to the force F is balanced by an opposing couple
due to stresses inside the material. If the elastic limit is not exceeded
when a shear stress is applied, its original shape when the stress is
removed, the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus G is defined as

Shear Stress
G=
Shear Strain
Force per unit area
G=
Angular displacement α

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Shear modulus is applicable to the helical spring. When the helical

spring is stretched all parts become twisted. The applied force has thus
developed a tensional or shear strain. The extension of the spring
depends on its shear modulus in addition to its dimension. In sensitive,
current measuring instruments, a weak control is needed for the rotation
of the instrument coil. A long elastic wire of phosphor – bronze is used
instead of a spring.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The ratio of stress and strain defines for us the modulus of elasticity.
There are three moduli of elasticity:

• Young modulus
• Bulk modulus
• Shear modulus

When material expands or contracts an enormous force is involved.

Besides, energy or work done in stretching or contracting an elastic
material. Bulk modulus of elasticity may be considered under two
conditions.

• Isothermal condition i.e. at constant temperature

• Adiabatic condition when there is no exchange of heat energy
between the gas and its environment

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that:

• A material is said to be elastic if it is capable of regaining its

original shape when the applied force is removed.
• The deformation can be in form of change in length, volume
(bulk) or shape.
• The stress on an elastic material is defined as the force per
F
unit . The unit of which is Nm-2.
A

The strain of a given wire is defined as the ratio between the extension
(e)
(e) and the original length ( l ) of the wire i.e.
l
• Young Modulus (E) of elasticity is defined as
Tensile Stress
E=
Tensile Strain

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Force per unit area

=
extension / original length

• The force involved in the contraction or expansion of a wire is

given as
F = EA α∆θ where
E = Young Modulus
A = cross-sectional area
α = linear expansivity
∆θ = change in temperature

• The energy stored in a wire (W) is defined as

1 EAe 2
W=
2 l
E = Young Modulus
A = cross-sectional area
e = extension
l = original length

• Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) is defined as

Bulk Stress
K=
Bulk Strain

dP
= -V
dV
dP
Where V is the original volume and is differential rate of change of
dV
pressure with respect to volume.

• The compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of the Bulk

modulus.

1 dP
Compressibility = = -V
K dV

• Under isothermal condition, the bulk modulus of a gas is its

pressure P.
• Under adiabatic condition, the bulk modulus of a a gas is rP
where

γ= P
C
CV

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

the ration of the molar thermal capacity of the gas at constant

pressure CP and the molar thermal capacity of the gas at constant
volume CV , and P the pressure.

• The shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity (G) is defined as

Shear Stress
G=
Shear Strain

Force per unit area

G=
Angular displacement α

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Force
(i) Tensile stress =
Area

mg
=
πD 2
4

m
2kg x 9.8
s2
 0.64 
=
π 
2

 1000 
4 m2

4 x 2 x 9.8N
=
1.287 x 10 -6 m 2

= 6.09 x 107N/m2

e
(ii) Tensile Stress =
L

 0.60 
 m
 1000 
=

2m

0.6
= x 10-4
2

= 3 x 10-4

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Cross-sectional Area of rod = 2cm2

= 2 x 10-4m2
Change in temperature ∆θ = (100 – 10)oC
= 90 oC

From F = EA α ∆θ

∴ Force = 2 x 1011N x 2 x 10-4m2 x 12 x 10-6C-1 x 90oC

= 2 x 2 x 12 x 90 x 1011 x 10-4 x 10-6 N

= 4321 x 101N
= 43.20N
= 4.32 x 104N

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Energy gained = ½ Fe
= ½ x 20N x (1 x 10-3m)
= 10-2J
= 0.01J

Gravitational Energy lost = mgh

= Wh
= 20N x 1 x 10-3m
= 0.02J

The excess energy is dissipated as heat when the weight comes to rest
after vibrating at the end of the wire.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Calculate the maximum load, which may be placed on a steel

wire of diameter 1.0mm if the permitted strain must not exceed
1/1000 and the Young modulus for steel is 2.0 x 1011N/m2.

2. An aluminum rood 300cm long, 0.580cm in diameter would

normally contract 1.32cm in cooling from 225oC to 25oC.
Calculate the force which would be required to prevent this
contraction? (Young modulus for aluminum = 7.0 x 10N/m2).

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

UNIT 3 KINETIC THEORY OF GASES AND ITS

APPLICATION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Assumptions of Kinetic Theory for an Ideal Gas
3.2 Pressure Exerted by a Gas
3.2.1 Root Mean Square Velocity (R.M.S) of Gas
Molecules
3.3 Deduction of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory of Gases
3.4 Variation of the Root Mean Square Speed
3.5 Distribution of Molecular Speeds
3.6 Boltzmann Constant
3.7 Internal Energy of a Gas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you have studied that liquid and gases experience
stresses and strains when forces are applied on them. The substances are
made up of molecules which exists in free state and possess all the basic
properties of the substance. The state (solid, liquid or gas0 of a
substance is determined by the interplay of thermal energy and
intermolecular forces. This gives rise to molecular theory. Later it was
supplemented by the laws of mechanics for individual molecules leads
to kinetic theory.

In this unit, you will learn to derive an expression for pressure exerted
by a gas and deal with kinetic theory of gases and see how it can explain
all the gas laws of an ideal gas. You will also learn about the root mean
square velocity of the molecules of a gas.

Further more the theory enables us to:

(i) Determine the root -mean -square velocity (r,m.s.) of the

molecules of a given mass of gas.
(ii) Show variation of the r.m.s speed.
(iii) Show the distribution of molecular speeds.
(iv) Derive the internal energy of a gas.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

• state the assumption of the kinetic theory for an ideal gas

• derive an expression for the pressure of a gas in an enclosed
system
• explain and derive the root-mean-square velocity (r.m.s.) of gas
molecules
• derive the gas laws from the kinetic theory of gases
• show and explain the variation of r.m.s. speed
• explain Boltzmann constant
• derive the internal energy of a gas.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases and its Applications

In this section, we shall explain the gas laws and other behaviour of
gases by considering the motion of their molecules. That is, we will
derive the gas laws through the Kinetic theory of gases. To do this, we
use the following assumptions about the kinetic theory of gases:

(i) the gas consists of a very large number of exceedingly small -

particles -identifiable with chemical molecules -which are in I
incessant, rapid, haphazard motion. All direction of motions are
equally probable.

(ii) for a given mass of gas, all these particles are identical and the
smallest volume of gas consists of large number of molecules
(i.e. in a 1mm3, under standard condition of temperature and
pressure, there are nearly 3 x 1016 molecules).

(iii) the average distance between the molecules (called the mean free
path) is so large compared with their linear dimensions that the
particles may be considered to be of negligible size, i.e. the
volume occupied by the molecules is negligible compared with
the volume occupied by the entire gas.

(iv) the molecules exert no appreciable force on each other so that

between collisions, they travel in straight paths, i.e. the attractive
forces between molecules are negligible - there is no force of
attraction among the molecules;

(v) collisions molecules between and with the walls are perfectly
elastic. There is thus no loss of Kinetic energy during a collision

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

process and a molecule rebounds from the wall with a velocity

equal to that with which it strikes it;

(vi) the duration of a collision is negligible compared with the time

between collisions.

We shall now use the above assumptions to derive an expression for the
pressure exerted by a given mass of gas enclosed in a cubic container of
length 1.

3.2 Pressure Exerted By Gas

Consider that there are N molecules of gas per cubic metre each of mass
m as shown in fig. 13.1.

Fig. 13.1

Generally, the molecules move in different directions with different

velocities C1, C2…CN. Let us consider the molecules with particular
velocity, say C1. This C1 has velocity components in three directions,
Ox,Oy,Oz parallel to the three edges of the cube passing through the
corner O. Suppose these velocity components are u2, v2, w2 in the
directions respectively. Then one can write,

2
C = u2 + v2 + w2……………………………………….. (13.1)
1
Since u, v, w, are at 90o to each other.

Let us now consider a molecule moving in the direction Ox normal to

one face of the cube. The incident velocity - u and the rebound velocity
after collision is +u. Using the Ox axis as being negative for a molecule
of mass m and initial velocity -u, its initial momentum is -mu. On
rebound its finial velocity is +u hence its finial momentum is +mu]

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Time taken by the molecule to travel across to the opposite face and
back. If the total distance covered is 2l and the molecule has a velocity
2l
u, the time taken = before it makes another impact again. Hence this
u
u
molecule makes collision per second.
2l
Hence the change in momentum per second

= number of collisions per second x change in momentum

mu 2
= = F …………………………….……………. (13.3)
l
But according to Newton’s second law of motion, the change in
momentum per second is force. So the magnitude of the force on the
mu 2
face of the cube = = F ……..………………………………. (13.4)
l

This is the force due to the component u of velocity C1. Adding the
similar components of the velocity of all the other molecules, thus the
total force on this face is
m
F= ( u12 + u 22 + ………… + u N2 ) ……………………… (13.5)
l
The square of velocity u components is the average of all the square
values of

( u12 + u 22 + ………… + u N2 )

∴u2 = u12 + u 22 + ………… + u N2

N

∴N u 2 = u12 + u 22 + ………… + u N2 …………………...…. (13.6)

Substituting Eq. (13.6) in Eq. (13.5), we get

Nmu 2
Hence the total magnitude of the force = = F ……..…….. (13.7)
l

For a large number of molecules in the cube, the mean square of the
components along must be equal.

∴ = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 ……...……………………………….….. (13.8)
But = u 2 + v 2 + w 2 = C 2 ………….……………………..….. (13.9)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Where C 2 is the mean square velocity of all the molecules. When the
gas is in equilibrium there will be no preferred direction of motion i.e.
all direction of velocity will be equally probable and therefore

C2
∴ u2 = ...……………..………………………… (13.10)
3
C2
∴ F = Nm ...……………………………...……… (13.11)
3l
From the concept of Pressure, P, Pressure is defined as the force per unit
area.

∴
Force
P=
Area
F
P= ……………………………….…………… (13.12)
l2

Substituting for F in Eq. (13.11), we get

C2
∴ P = Nm ...……………………………...……… (13.13)
3l

But as you know that l 3 = V, the volume of the cube

C2
∴ P = Nm
3V
∴
1
PV = Nm C 2 ...……………………………..……… (13.14)
3

Since the Nm is the total mass of N molecule which is M and

=, ρ the density of the gas

M
V
C2
∴ P = Nm
3V
∴ = ρ C 2 ...………………………………..……… (13.15)
1
P
3
This is an important result. It relates ρ with P and C. We have derived
this result by assuming a cube.

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3.2.1 Root Mean Square Velocity (R.M.S) of Gas Molecules

From Eq. (13.15), you know that the expression for pressure can be
written as, ρ C 2
1
3

Therefore the root-mean-square velocity of all the gas molecules can be

defined as
∴
3P
C2 =
ρ

∴
3P
C2 = ……………………………………………… (13.6)
ρ

Consequently, if we know the pressure (P) and its density ρ of the gas.
We can calculate the r.m.s. velocity of the gas molecules.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Given that the pressure of 1.013 x 105Pa (Nm-2) is exerted on a given

mass of hydrogen gas which has density 0.09kgm-3 at a temperature of 0-
o
C. Calculate its r.m.s. velocity.

3.3 Deduction of Gas Laws from Kinetic Theory of Gases

Now in the subsequent section, we will discuss about the gas laws which
were derived using the Eq. (13.15).

It has been shown earlier that for N molecules, each mass m, the mass M
of a gas is Nm.

1
PV =Nm C 2 ...……………………………..……… (13.17)
3
By multiplying and dividing by 2 of the R.H.S of Eq. 13.17

2 1 2
 M C  ...…………………………..……… (13.18)
3 2 
PV =

1
But M C 2 in Eq. (13.18) is the average Kinetic energy of translation
2
of the gas molecules.

(Rotational energy of the gas molecules is neglected). Now, heat is a

form of energy and it is reasonable to assume that the gas molecules
have greater energy of movement when its temperature is higher. We

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1
can therefore make the assumption that M C 2 is proportional to its
2
absolute temperature T.

1
Hence, M C2 ∝ T
2
∴
1
M C 2 = KT ………………………………………….. (13.19)
2
Where, K is a constant of proportionality.

Now putting Eq. (13.18) in Eq. (13.19) as given below,

1 2
 MC 
2
2 
PV =
3
We get,
∴
2
PV = KT ……………………….…………….. (13.20)
3
∴ PV = Constant x T
PV = RT ………..………………….……………. (13.21)
Where R is the constant for 1 mole of gas
Furthermore, we can also say that

1
PV = M C2 = RT ……..………… (13.22)
3
On dividing by ½ both sides, we get

∴
1 3
M C2 = RT
2 2

1
But, M C2 = K.E. of the gas molecules
2

∴
3
K.E. = RT …………………………………. (13.23)
2

From, PV = RT
at constant temperature

∴ PV = Constant

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

This is Boyle’s law

PV
=R (The general gas law) ………..……………. (13.24)
T

3.4 Variation of the Root Mean Square Speed

Consider the Eq. (13.22),

1
PV = M C2 = RT
3
1
Then M C2 = RT
3
On rearranging the terms, we get
∴
3RT
C2 =
M
∴
3RT
C2 = ………………………………………… (13.25)
M

Since R is a constant, hence for a given temperature T, it can be

concluded that r.m.s. velocity is inversely proportional to the molar mass
(M) of the gas.
1
r.m.s. velocity ∝
M

This relationship can be sued to compare the r.m.s. velocities of two

gases such as oxygen and hydrogen.

r.m.s. velocity of oxygen MH 2

=
r.m.s. velocity of hydrogen MO 2

Where, MH2 = molar mass of hydrogen = 2 and,

MO2 =molar mass of oxygen = 32

3RT
However from, C2 =
M
For a given mass of gas at different temperatures
r.m.s. velocity C2 ∝ T

i.e. the root-mean-square velocity is directly proportional to the square

root of its absolute temperature.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

The r.m.s. velocity of hydrogen is 1800ms-1 at a given temperature,

calculate the r.m.s. velocity of oxygen at the same temperature. (Molar
mass of hydrogen = 2, molar mass of oxygen = 32).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

The r.m.s. velocity of oxygen molecules is 400ms-1 at 0oC. Calculate its

r.m.s. velocity at 100oC.

3.5 Distribution of Molecular Speeds

In this section we are connected about how the speeds of the molecules
are distributed in a given closed system at a particular temperature. You
will recall the assumption that not all molecules move with the same
speed. So now you may ask: what is the distribution of molecules
speed? So far, we have discussed what is meant by the root-mean-
square speed and the mean speed of molecules in a given gas. The
actual speeds vary from low to high values. At a given temperature, the
variation follows what is known as Maxwellian distribution as shown in
fig. 13.2.

Fig. 13.2: Velocity Distribution of Gas Molecules at Different

Temperatures

The vertical represents the number N of molecules which have speeds

within a given range about a particular value C. The probable speed Co
is the maximum value. The mean speed Cm in the graph is greater than
the probable speed Co by about 13%. While the root-mean-square Cr is
greater than the probable speed Co by about 23%. These variations are
shown with the curve T1. At higher temperatures as shown in the fig.
13.2, by the curve T2, the speed of the molecules increases. You will
note that as the temperature increases, the curve becomes broader and
flattened.

As you will recall that in diffusion we learnt about the average speed C
of the individual molecules. The greater the value of C , the faster the

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

rate of diffusion. However, when it comes to the pressure of a gas, its

value is associated with the mean square C 2 .

3.6 Boltzmann Constant

It will be recalled that when we derived the expression for pressure for a
given mass of gas, we obtained the expression
1 N
PV = m C2
3V

1
Or PV = Nm C 2
3
1 1 2
 mC 
3 2 
PV =

1
Where m C 2 is the average Kinetic energy of the gas.
2

For one mole of a monatomic gas, translational K.E. can be related with
its temperature such that

1 3
m C 2 = RT
2 2

If the member of molecule in one mole of a gas is NA, the Avogadro

constant which is 6.02 x 1023 mole-1
3 RT 3
The average K.E. per mole = = RT ………….. (13.26)
2 NA 2
R
Where K is the Boltzmann constant, thus K = , where R = 8.3 JK-
NA
1 -1
mol
∴
R
K = = 1.38 x 10-23JK-1
NA

The value fro Boltzman Constant is 1.38 x 10-23JK-1.

3.7 Internal Energy of a Gas

In this section we shall consider two types of gas

(i) monatomic gas

(ii) diatomic gas

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No we will discuss the internal energy and the degree of freedom

possessed by each type of gas.

Monatomic Molecule

Fig. 13.3: Degree of Freedom of a Gas Molecule

Consider a monatomic molecule of a gas (like helium, argon and

krypton) at the point o in fig. 13.3. It is capable of moving in Ox, Oy and
Oz directions. We therefore say that it has three translational degrees of
freedom. As you know that the total translational Kinetic energy of a
3
molecule is KT, since all the three directions are equivalent. Hence
2
the K.E. per degree of freedom of a molecule
= KT ÷ 3 degrees = KT.
3 1
2 2

Therefore, the translational Kinetic energy associated with ach

components of velocity is just one third of the total translational kinetic
energy.

Monatomic Molecule

A diatomic molecule consists of two atoms with a bond between them

Fig. 13.4(i)).

Fig. 13.4

(i)
((ii)

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Like a dumbbell, it moves through the air with the following degrees of
freedom:

(i) three translational degrees of freedom x, y and z

(ii) two rotational degrees of freedom. Since it rotates about two
axes at right angles to the line joining them (x &z).
(iii) the vibrational energy is also there but negligible compared with
others.

That is for a diatomic molecule there are five degrees of freedom.

1 5
Hence the total energy of the diatomic molecule = 5 x KT = KT
2 2
Therefore, the molar heat capacity for 1 mole of the gas:

5
Cv = R …………………………………………………. (13.27)
2

∴
5 7
Cp = Cv + R = R = R = R ………...…………………. (13.28)
2 2

Therefore for monatomic molecule, the internal energy U is only

translational K.E.

The molar heat capacity at constant volume Cv is the heat energy

required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of gas by 1K. This is also
the rise in internal energy of an ideal gas when its temperature rises by
1K.
∴ Cv = ∆U = R (T + 1) - RT = R
3 3 3
2 2 2

∆U = C v =
3
R
2

The molar heat capacity at constant pressure Cp is given by

Cp - Cv = R

∴ Cp - Cv = R

∆U = Cp =
5
R
2
Therefore, the ratio of molar heat capacities is given as for monatomic
molecules

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

= γ = = 1.67………………………………. (13.29)
CP 5
CV 3

For diatomic molecule, the ratio of heat capacities can be obtained as:
∆U = C v = R
5
2
∆U = Cp = Cv +R = R
7
2
∆U = Cp = R
7
2
= γ = = 1.40………………………………. (13.30)
CP 7
CV 3

Here r is called (gamma), which is the ratio of heat capacities. This

shows that the ratio of heat capacities decreases with increasing
atomicity of gases.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Some assumptions have been given to the Kinetic theory of an ideal gas.
By using these assumptions the expression for the pressure on a gas has
been derived which is in consonance with Boyle’s law (PV = K) and the
equation of state (PV =nRT). The root-mean-square (r.m.s.) velocity of
a gas molecules have been explained and derived. Finally, the internal
energy of a gas has been derived.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt:

• About the basic assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of gases;

• How these assumptions were used to derive the expression for the
pressure exerted by a given mass of gas in a closed system.
1 N
PV = m C 2 or
3V
1 N
PV = m C 2 = RT
3V
The kinetic energy of translation was given as PV =
1 3
m C 2 = RT
2 2
• That the ideal gas law PV = RT only follows from Kinetic
Theory of gases by assuming that the kinetic energy of translation
is proportional to the absolute temperature T;

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

•
3P
The root-mean-square velocity of the gas C2 = where P
ρ
is the pressure of the gas and is the ρ density of the gas;
• The root-mean-square velocity of the gas is independent of the
pressure, directly proportional to T (the absolute temperature)
and inversely proportional to M where M is the mass of one
mole of the gas;
For a monatomic gas, the molar heat capacity at constant volume
3 5
Cv = R; the molar heat capacity at constant pressure Cp = R;
2 2
the ratio P = γ is just equal to 1.67; and
C
CV

• For a diatomic gas, Cv = R, Cp = R and P = γ is just equal

5 7 C
2 2 CV
to 1.40.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

3P
From C2 =
ρ
3 x 1.013 x 10 5
∴ r.m.s. velocity = 2
C =
0.09
m
= 1840
s
= 1.84kms-1
r.m.s. velocity = 1.84kms-1

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Using the relation (13.25), we can write

C2O 2 MH 2
=
C2H2 MO 2
Substituting the values,

C 2O 2
∴
2 1
= =
m 32 4
1800
s

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

We get

∴
m 1 m
C 2 O 2 = 1800 x = 450
s 4 s

Hence, the r.m.s. velocity of oxygen is 450ms-1

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

We know that
C2 ∝ T
Therefore,
C 2 T1 T1
=
C 2 T2 T2

Substituting the value in this equation:

C 2 0o C 273K
=
C 2 100 o C 273 + 100K

400ms −1
∴
273
=
C 2 100 o C 373
We get,

∴
m 373
C 2100o C = 400 x = 468ms-1
s 273

Thus the r.m.s. velocity of oxygen molecules at 100oC is 468ms-1.

6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. Assuming air has 2% oxygen molecules and 80% nitrogen

molecules of relative molar masses 32 and 28 respectively.
Calculate

(a) the ratio of the r.m.s velocity of oxygen to that of nitrogen;

and
(b) the ratio of the partial pressure of oxygen to that of
nitrogen in air.

2. In a vessel, hydrogen gas contains 1.0 x 1024 molecules per m3

which have a toot-mean-square velocity of 180ms-1. Calculate

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

the pressure of gas assuming that the Avogadro constant = 6 x

1023 mole-1 and the relative molar mass of hydrogen is 2.

3. Given that r.m.s. velocity of hydrogen is 1800ms-1 at a given

temperature. Calculate the r.m.s. of nitrogen at the same
temperature.

4. The r.m.s. velocity of oxygen molecules is 400ms-1 at 0oC.

Determine its r.m.s. velocity at 150oC.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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UNIT 4 DENSITY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Density
3.1.1 Mass of a Body
3.1.2 Volume of a Body
3.1.3 Volume of Regular Objects
3.1.4 Volume of Irregular Objects
3.2 Determination of the Density of an Object
3.3 Density of Mixtures
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Matter is a substance which has certain mass and occupies some

volume. But you must have observed that some substances are denser
than others. It means that the individual particles of a substance are
more closely packed together.

Suppose you are asked this question: “Which is heavier, one kilogram
of copper or one kilogram of feathers?” What would be your answer?

This question has elicited many answers from students. Some students
would say the feathers are heavier. But what is your answer? Think
very well before giving your own solution.

However, the obvious answer is “Neither is heavier.” The two objects

are the same mass of one kilogram. But on a second thought, about
these objects, something seems to make a difference. And what is that
difference?

The difference is in terms of the space (volume) occupied by both

objects. Besides, when the metal copper is placed in water it sinks while
the feathers will float. The idea that relates the mass with volume and
whether an object will sink or not is known as density. Therefore,
density is a physical property of matter that describes the degree of
compactness of a substance.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Thus in this unit we shall deal with the concept of density and its
measurement.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of his unit you should be able:

• explain the meaning of density

• define the concept of density
• describe an experiment on how to determine the density of:
(i) A regular shaped object
(ii) An irregular shaped solid
(iii) A liquid, by method of displacement
• explain the meaning of relative density
• solve problems on density.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Density

The density of an object refers to how heavy or light that object is

relative to water or air.

Density is defined as “The mass of the body per unit volume.”

Mass
Density = That is, the density of a body is the mass of that
Volume
body in kilograms per one meter cube of its volume.

Thus in order to determine the density of a body, the following factors

must be known: its mass and its volume.

What then is the mass of a body? What is the volume of the body?
The answers to these two questions enable us to define the density of the
body.

3.1.1 Mass of a Body

The quantity of matter in a body defines its mass. It is the degree of

inertia i.e. its reluctance to motion. It is measured in kilogram (kg)
using the S.I. unit system. Sometimes we use the smaller units such as
(g) or milligram (mg). The question you may ask now: How do we
measure the mass of an object?

The beam balance or the scale may be used to measure the mass of a
body. The mass of a body is compare with the standard mass of one

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

kilogram of Platinum-Iridium in Paris. Thus by the definition of

density, we need to determine the mass of the object using the beam
balance. Having done this, we then determine its volume.

3.1.2 Volume of a Body

The volume of a body is the amount of space it occupies – its capacity.

It is measured in cubic (m3) of cubic centimeter (cm3).

Observe these various conversations

1
If 1cm = m
100

∴
1 1 1
1cm3 = m x m x m
100 100 100

1
= m3
10 6

∴ 1cm3 = 1 x 10-6m3

or 1m3 = 1x 106cm3

The one cubic centimeter (cm3) is also equal to one milliliter. 1cm3 =
1ml.

The problem now is “How is volume of a body determined?” From

experience you will realize that this can be done in two ways:

• The use of regular method for regular objects

• The use of displacement method for irregular objects.

Now in the next section, we will discuss about the methods of

determination of volume of regular objects.

3.1.3 Volume of Regular Objects

Regular objects include thing like a cube, a cuboid, a cylinder, a sphere,

and a cone. Their shapes are very distinct and unique. Their volume
can then be determined with the knowledge of their dimensions such as
length, breadth, height, radius or diameter.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

A Cube

Fig. 14.1: A Cube

The length, breadth and height of a cube are of the same length l .
Therefore, by definition, the volume of a cube.

V = l x l x l = l 3………………………………. (14.1)

A Cuboid

Fig. 14.2: A Cuboid

A cuboid has a height (h), a breadth (b) and a length ( l ). Hence by

definition the volume of cuboid is

V = h x b x l ………………………….…………… (14.2)

A Sphere

Fig. 14.3: A Sphere

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

A sphere is like a ball with a constant radius r or diameter D. BY

definition, the volume of a sphere is given by

πr
4 3
V= ………….…………………… (14.3)
3
Where, the diameter is given as D, and where D = 2r

∴
D
r=
2
Hence, in terms of the diameter D the volume of the sphere can be
expressed as

4 D
V= π  
3

3 2

π
4 D3
V= …………………….………….……… (14.4)
3 8

Cylinder

Fig. 14.4: A Cylinder

A cylinder is like a drum or tin of milk with a height h and circular

cross-section of radius r (See fig. 14.4).
By definition, the volume of a cylinder is given as

V = πr2h ……………………………..…………… (14.5)

This relation can also be expressed in terms of Diameter D as

D
= π  h
3

2

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

V= π
D2
h………………………………………… (14.6)
4
A Cone

Fig. 14.5(i): A Cone Fig. 14.5(ii): A Sector

A cone is like a toy top with a circular surface, which tapers to a vertex
(fig. 14.5(i)). It is usually made from a sector of a circular sheet. The
vertical height of the cone is h with the circular base having a radius r.
By definition the volume of a cone is given as
π r h …………….…………………… (14.7)
4 2
V=
3
Note that any object may be in form of a combination of the above
objects. For example, we can have a combination of a cone and a
cylinder as shown in fig. 14.6.

Fig. 14.6

Once you can identify the shape of the regular object, you can then
determine its volume using the appropriate formula. But,

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

How do we determine the volume of an irregular object like you? Can

you use your height, breadth and length? No. We shall find out how
to determine the volume of an irregular object in the next section.

3.1.4 Volume of Irregular Objects

Irregular objects, in this case, are those objects that do not have regular
shapes. These objects include stoned or any solid object that does not
conform with any of the regular objects. We use indirect method of
determining their volumes. The method is described as the displacement
method.

Method 1

In this method, we use a measuring cylinder as shown in fig. 14.7 (i) &
(ii).

Fig. 14.7

First, you will pour some water into the cylinder and then observe the
initial level of the water inside the cylinder (V1) as shown in fig. 14.7.

Then, you tie a string on the stone, the irregular object and carefully
lower the stone into the water with the aid of the string making sure
there is no splash. But it is to be assume that the irregular object does
not dissolve or react with the water. You will observe that the level of
the water rises for the object has displaced its own volume of water.
Then the new level of water in the cylinder is read as V2. Thus the
volume of the stone, which is the volume of water displaced, is given as

V = V2 - V1

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Method 2

The second method uses the Eureka can otherwise known as the
displacement can (fig. 14.8).

Fig. 14.8

First the spout of the can is closed with a finger. Then water is poured
into the can until the level is above the spout. The finger is then
removed thus allowing the excess water above the spout to flow out fig.
14.8(i).

The stone, whose volume is to be measured, is then carefully lowered

into the can with the aid of a thread tied to it. It will be observed that the
stone will displace water, which gradually flows out of the spout. It
flows out until it has displaced the volume of water equal to its own
volume (fig. 14.8(ii)).

A measuring cylinder meanwhile has been placed beneath this spout to

collect the volume of water that has been displaced thus giving us the
reading of the volume of water displaced.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Suppose you are given a light floating irregular object like a cork
(wooden). How would you determine its volume?

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Table 14.1: Density of Some Substances

Substance Density ( ∫ )
(gcm-3)
Air 0.0013
Wood 0.6 – 0.9
Water 1.00
Bricks 1.84
Steel 7.80
Gold 19.30

3.2 Determination of the Density of an Object

You will recall, we defined density as

Mass of the Object

Density = ………...………… (14.8)
Volume of teh Object

By using the appropriate scale we can determine the mass of an object

and using the appropriate method also, we can determine the volume of
the object. Thus by dividing the mass of the object by its volume the
density of the object can be determined. Therefore, the common units
used to express density are leg-3, gcm-3 and g/m/. Here first, do some
exercises for clear the concept of density.

The density of some substances is given below in tabular 14.1.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A piece of stone has a mass of 300kg and a volume of 0.12m3. What is

its density?

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Find the volume of a bottle, which will just hold 63g of seawater of
density 1.05g/cm3?

3.3 Density of Mixtures

In this section, we shall consider the problems concerned with mixtures

of objects such as alloys of metals or mixtures of liquids (water and
alcohol). Since different substances have different densities. Other
mixtures will include acid solutions that is acid and water, water and
milk etc. In science, there is usually the need to have such mixtures
and thus determine the densities of such mixtures are useful.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Suppose there are given two substances A and B with the following
properties:

Substance A

Mass of substance A = M1
Volume of substance A = V1
Density of substance A = ρ1

Substance B

Mass of substance B = M2
Volume of substance B = V2
Density of substance B = ρ2

Now the question is: Suppose the two substances are mixed together
how shall we define the density of the mixture (ρ)?

The density of the mixture can be represented as

Mass of A + mass of B
ρ =
Volume of A + volume of B

In terms of the symbols,

M1 + M 2
∴ ρ =
V1 + V2
But M1 = ρ1V1 and M2 = ρ2V2

ρ1 V1 + ρ 2 V2
∴ ρ = ………...…………………… (14.9)
V1 + V2

Thus knowing the values of ρ1, V1, ρ 2 and V2, we are in the position to
determine the density of the mixture ρ.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

What is the density of a mixture of 1.5m3 of water and 0.5m3 of alcohol

of density 800kg/m3? (Density of water = 1000kg/m3).s

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

4.0 CONCLUSION

The density of an object is defined as the mass per unit volume of the
properties of matter. It tells us how heavy or light an object is relative to
water or air. If it sinks in water we say it is heavy, it has a density
greater than water. If it floats in water we say it is light with a density
lower than that of water. The knowledge of the mass and the volume of
the object allow us to operationally define the density of a substance.
We have also discussed the density of alloys (mixture of metals) and of
solutions (mixture of liquids). We would now consider the concept of
buoyancy, Archimedes Principle and the law of flotation in the next unit.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following:

• The concept of density as a property of matter;

• Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a substance;
• The density of a substance can be determined from the
knowledge of its mass and volume;
• The mass of the object may be determined by weighing on a
balance or scale;
• The volume of the object may also be determined by using the
regular formulae of calculating volumes or by the method of
water displacement;
• From the knowledge of mass and volume, the density of the
object can be determined;
• How to determine the density of the mixture of two substances.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

You must first realize that the object will not sink in water. It will float.
So what would you do?

So, to determine the volume of a light, floating object such as a cork,

you will use a sinker (a heavy object), which will assist you in the
method of displacement. First, you will get our usual measuring
cylinder and fill it with water to give an initial volume of water V1 as
shown in fig. 14.9.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Fig. 14.9

Then you will determine the volume of the sinker by immersing it into
the water suing a thread. This gives a new volume of water V2 (fig.
14.9(ii)). Now what would you consider to be the volume of the sinker
alone?

It is (V2 – V1)

We bring out the sinker without losing any water. We tie the cork and
the sinker together and then immerse the two into the measuring
cylinder to produce another volume V3 (fig. 14.9(iii)).

Thus what would you consider as the volume of the cork?

The volume of the cork = V3 - (V2 – V1)

Note that the unit of volume is cm3 or m3.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Using the Eq. (14.8), we get

Mass of Stone
Density of stone =
Volume of Stone
300kg
=
0.12m 3
∫ = 2500kgm-3

Note the unit of density as kg/m3 or kgm-3.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Mass of Sea water

Density of Sea water =
Volume of Sea water

∴
Mass of Stone
Volume of stone =
Density of Stone

63g
=
g
1.05 3
cm
= 60cm3

But the volume of seawater is equal to the volume of the bottle.

Therefore, the volume of the bottle is 60cm3.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

The two liquids are water and alcohol.

Where, Density of water = ρ1 = 100kg/m3

Volume of water = V1 = 1.5m3
Density of alcohol =ρ2 = 800kg/m3
Volume of alcohol = V2= 0.5m3

ρ1 V1 + ρ 2 V2
∴ Density of mixture = ρ =
V1 + V2
kg kg
= 1000 3
x 1.5m3 + 800 3 x 0.5m3
m m
1.5m3 + 0.5m3

= 1500kg + 400kg
2.0m3

= 950kgm-3

The density of the mixture is 950kg/m3 or 950kgm-3

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6.0 TUTOR - MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A bottle has a capacity of 60cm3. What mass of brine (density =

1.2g/cm3) will it hold?

2. Taking the density of air as 12kgm-3, find the mass of air that is in
a room 6.0m long, 4.0m wide and 2.5m high.

3. Some zinc (density = 7100kgm-3) is mixed with twice its volume

of copper (density = 8900kgm-3) to make brass. What is the
density of brass?

4. What volume of water must be added to 40cm3 of glycerine

(density = 1.3gcm-3) in order that the mixture shall have a density
of 1.1gcm-3?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman
Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publisher.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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UNIT 5 BUOYANCY – ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concepts of Buoyancy
3.2 Archimedes’ Principle
3.2.1 Test of Archimedes’ Principle
3.2.2 Relative Density
3.2.3 Application of Archimedes’ Principle
3.3 Measuring the Relative Density of a Liquid Using
Archimedes’ Principle
3.4 The Law of Floatation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

History has it that the concept of Buoyancy was developed by

Archimedes (287 – 212 B.C.). When he solved a riddle for the King of
Greece. What was the riddle? The king gave a piece of gold to his
goldsmith to make a crown for him. The man came back with the well-
made crown. The king was not only impressed by the beautiful crown
made, rather, he became suspicious about the quality of the crown made
from gold. So the King wanted to determine whether a goldsmith had
defrauded him by replacing some of the gold in the crown with silver.

The king, therefore, called on his subjects, his philosophers to solve this
problem. When Archimedes went into bathing pools experience the
buoyant force and then came out of it rejoicing and shouting “Eureka!
Eureka!! ….” Meaning “I have found it”.

What he found out then is what is described now as Archimedes’

Principle, which enables us to determine the density of an object by
immersing it in a fluid like water. It graduated into the law of floatation,
which also help us to explain how huge ships or boats could float on
water.

So in this unit, you will learn about the concept of buoyancy,

Archimedes’ principle and the law of floatation. Come along with me on
the discussion.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of the unit you should be able to:

• explain the concept of buoyancy

• state Archimedes’ Principle
• define relative density in terms of Archimedes’ Principle
• state the law of floatation
• solve problems on Archimedes’ Principle and the law of
flotation.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concepts of Buoyancy

Buoyancy is a concept that describes the floatation of an object in fluids

generally. Buoyancy has therefore got to do with the density of the
object. In simple words, the ability of an object to ‘float’ when it is
placed in a fluid is called buoyant force. For example, a swimmer
experiences this idea of buoyancy, floatation in water as he/she swims in
it.

The water supports the body of the swimmer, which makes him appear
to weigh less. This is the case with any liquid. This is because when
you go into the water, you displace some liquid and the liquid exerts an
upthrust on you.

This is also true of gases but because our body would displace a very
smaller weight of air, the upthrust is much less. There are three possible
situations for a body situated in a fluid as shown in fig. 15.1 below.
Let us see what you think will happen to the body in these three
situations:

Fig. 15.1

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• If its weight (W) is greater than the upthrust (U)

The body sinks. For example a stone placed in water.

W > U⇒ SINKING OF OBJECT

• Now, if the upthrust (U) is greater than the weight (W)

You are right if you say the body rises. For example, if a helium-filled
balloon is left in air, the balloon rises
U > W⇒ RISING OF OBJECT

• If the weight (W) of the object balances if is equal to the upthrust

(U)

The objects float in the fluid. For example, a boat or a ship floating on
the sea.
W = U⇒ FLOATING OF OBJECT

These three conditions explain,

• Archimedes’ Principle and
• The law of floatation.

3.2 Archimedes’ Principle

“Archimedes’ Principle states that when a body is either partially or

totally immersed in a fluid, it will experience an upthrust equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced”.

Suppose the weight of the body in air is W, when the body is now
immersed in a fluid partially or fully, it experiences an upthrust (U).
The new weight registered by the scale (A) is now less than that of the
air (W). A is called the apparent weight i.e. it appears to be the weight
of the object.

The relationship between the apparent weight (A), the upthrust (U) and
the actual weight in air (W) is show below.

Weight in air (W) = Apparent weight in fluid (A) + the upthrust (U)
experienced.

∴ W = A + U
∴ The upthrust U = Weight in air (W) – Weight in fluid (A)

U = W - A …………………………….. (15.1)

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Theoretically, the weight of a body in air is equal to its apparent weight

because the displaced air will exert an upthrust but typically, this
upthrust is so small compared with its weight that it can be ignored.

Note that the upthrust on the body is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. This is the essential aspect of Archimedes’ principle, which
you must always remember.

3.2.1 Test of Archimedes’ Principle

Is it possible to test if Archimedes’ Principle is correct? Yes, it is

possible to do so.

• You can weigh an object in air using a spring balance (fig.

15.2(i))
• You will read the scale on the spring balance, which will indicate
the weight of the object in air. Record this weight as W1 (fi.
15.2(ii))
• Immerse the object totally in the Eureka can as shown in fig
15.2(ii).

Fig. 15.2

• The water displaced is collected in the measuring cylinder as

shown in fig. 15.2(ii)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

• Read the new weight of the object when it is fully immersed in

water and record it as W2 (fig. 15.2(ii))
• Weigh the liquid displaced by using the chemical balance by
finding the difference between the weight of cylinder and water
and the weight of the empty cylinder. Suppose this weight is w.
• Compare the value of w with the difference between the weight
of the object in air w1 and the weight of the object w2 when fully
immersed in water
• You will observe that
W1 - W2 = w …………………….. (15.2)

That is, the weight of water displaced W is equal to the difference

between the weight in air of object and the apparent weight in air. That
is the weight of displaced fluid is equal to the upthrust U.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A piece of metal has a volume 0.50m3. If it is suspended on a rope and

immersed in water, find

(a) The volume of the displaced water

(b) Mass of the displaced water
(c) The weight of the displaced water
(d) The upward force (upthrust) on the metal due to the water.

3.2.2 Relative Density

As you have learnt in Table 14.1 of the preceding unit that then density
of water is 1.00gcm-3. In this table, the densities or other substances are
also given. Now we learn what the concept of relative density is.

When we compare the density of a substance with the density of water

then we are talking about the relative density of that substance. In other
words, we are saying how many times this substance is as heavy as
water.

By definition,

The density of the substance

The Relative Density of a substance =
The density of water

Let ρr = Te relative density of the substance

ρ = The density of the substance
ρw = the density of water

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Therefore, the expression for relative density is

ρ
∴ ρr = ……………………...…………………… (15.3)
ρw
∴ ρ = ρrρw ………………..……………..……………… (15.4)

That is the actual density of a substance is equal to the relative density

of the substance times the density of water. It can be noted from the
definition of relative density, that it has no unit since it is a ratio.

3.2.3 Application of Archimedes’ Principle

From the definition of relative density,

Density of the substance

Relative Density =
Density of water

Mass of substance
Volume of substance
Mass of water displaced
=
Volume of water displaced

Let, m1 = mass of substance

V1 = volume of substance
M2 = mass of water displaced
V2 = volume of water displaced
ρr = relative density of substance

∴ ρr = m1 + 2
m
V1 V2

∴ ρr = m1 x 2
V
V1 m2
m1 + V2
=
m2 V1

But the volume of water displaced V2 is equal to the volume of the

substance V1.
∴ ρr = m1
m2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Hence the relative density of a substance can be defined as

∴ ρr = Mass of the substance

Mass of an equal volume of water
Hence ρr = m1
m2

Alternatively,

ρr = Weight of the substance

Weight of an equal volume of water

ρr = W1 = m1 g …………………………..……………… (15.5)
W2 m2 g

We apply the concept of relative density to derive the density of a solids

or a liquid. The specific gravity bottle or relative density bottle is used
in determining the relative densities of liquids (fig. 15.3).

Fig. 15.3: Relative Density Bottle

The relative density bottle is a special stopper, which ensures constant

volume of the liquid to be measured. The stopper has a narrow opening
which allows excess liquid flow out when the bottle is closed. Thus the
bottle will hold a specific volume of liquid at the time it is used.
Usually the volume of such bottle varies. It could be 25cm3, 50cm3 or
75cm3 capacity. It is usually picked by the neck to avoid the expansion
of the liquid because the glass bottle is so thin that it is sensitive to
temperature changes, which, may cause the expansion of the liquid.

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

A stone hangs from a spring balance graduated in Newton’s, and the

reading is 30N. If the stone is immersed in water, the reading becomes
18N. Determine density of the stone?

The following example relates to the determination of the density of a

liquid through the application of relative density.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

A density bottle has a mass of 12.3g when empty 14.8g when filled with
water and 32.1g when filled with turpentine. What is the density of
turpentine?

3.3 Measuring the Relative Density of a Liquid Using

Archimedes’ Principle

In section 3.2.3, you have applied the concept of relative density to

derive the density of a solid or a liquid. The specific gravity bottle is
used in determining the relative densities of liquid. But can you
determine the relative density of liquid by using the other methods? Let
us discuss it; suppose you are asked to determine the relative density of
liquid using the Archimedes’ Principle, how would you do this?

To do this, you will require an object that sinks in water and the liquid,
which is insoluble in both water, and the liquid (paraffin).

You will need a spiral spring balance to measure the weight of the solid
object when immersed in water and the liquid.

• First weigh the solid in air using the spring balance

• Record this weight as W1
• Then weigh the solid in the liquid using the spring balance
• Record this weight W2
• Wipe the solid properly free from the liquid and then weigh it in
the water using the spring balance
• Record the weight of the solid in water as W3

Now determine what is the weight of the water displaced by the solid?
The weight of liquid displaced by the solid = W1- W2.
Again, what is the weight of the water displaced by the solid? Weight of
water displaced by the solid = W1- W3. Therefore, by definition, the
relative density of the liquid,

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Weight of the liquid displaced

=
Weight of equal volumme of water

W1 - W2
= ……………………………….. (15.6)
W1 - W3

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A block of aluminum of volume 0.25m3 hangs from a wire and the

tension in the wire is 6500N. If the block is completely immersed in a
liquid of density 1100kgm-2. Calculate the tension in the wire.

3.4 The Law of Floatation

What does the law of floatation states?

“The law of floatation states that a floating body displaces its own
weight of the liquid in which it floats”.

This is really a special case of Archimedes’ Principle and it is the

situation in which the weight of the body is exactly balanced by the
upthrust from the fluid. This therefore implies that if a body is to float,
it must displace its own weight of the fluid in which it is floating.

You should remember that if a body is floating in a liquid, the body is

likely to float with certain amount of itself above the fluid or it is totally
immersed. A floating ice block in water and a floating balloon in air are
typical examples.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

A boat of mass 650kg floats on water, what volume of water does it

displace?

When an object at rest floats on a liquid, it is described to be in

equilibrium under the action of two forces, namely:

• Its weight (W) and

• Its buoyant force or upthrust (U) which is equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced (fig. 15.4)

In accordance with the Archimedes’ Principle

Weight of substance = Weight of liquid displaced

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

Fig. 15.4

Weight of object = Upthrust = weight of liquid displaced

Mg = U
VSρSg = VLρLg ……………….………………. (15.7)

Where, VS = volume of solid floating

ρS = density of solid floating
VL = volume of liquid displaced
ρL = density of liquid displaced
g = acceleration due to gravity

∴ VSρS = VLρL

ρS
= ρr
VL
=
ρL VS

Volume of liquid displaced is equal to volume of solid

Mass of solid
= …………………. (15.8)
Mass of equal volume of liquid displaced

Weight of solid
= ………………. (15.9)
Weight of equal volume of liquid displaced

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

An iceberg floats with 87% of its volume above the sea water, the
density of which is 1.03g/cm3. Determine the density of the ice.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

4.0 CONCLUSION

When a body is fully or partially immersed in a fluid, it experiences an

upward force called the upthrust. This upthrsut is equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced. There is a special case for this principle and that is
when the entire body is made to float in the fluid. The law of floatation
explains this, which states that the upthrust experienced by the floating
object is equal to the entire weight of the floating objects. The
Archimedes’ principle and the law of floatation form the embodiment of
the concept known as buoyancy.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt that:

• Buoyancy is the ability of an object to float, sink or rise in a fluid;

• Archimedes’ Principle explains how a substance behaves when it
is fully immersed in a fluid; and
• The law of floatation also explains how the big ships or boats can
float on waters without sinking despite heir weight or mass.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

(a) Since the volume of the metal is 0.5m3, the volume of water
displaced is 0.5m3. This is due to Archimedes’ Principle.

(b) Mass of displaced water is equal to volume of water displaced

times its density
m = Volume x density
= 0.5m3 x 1000kg/m3
= 500kg

(c) Weight of the displaced water

= mg
= 500kg x 10m/s2
= 5000kgm/s2
= 5000N

(d) The upward force (upthrust)

= weight of water displaced
= 5000N

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

If weight of stone in air = W1 = 30N

And weight of stone in water = W2 = 18N
∴ The upthrust on the stone = W1 – W2
= 30N – 18N
= 12N

Which is equal to the weight of equal volume of water displaced by the

stone.
Relative density of stone = Weight in air
Upthrust
= Weight in air
Weight of equal volume of water
= 30
12
∴ ρr = 2.5
∴ ρ of stone = ρrρw
= 2.5 x 1000kg/m3
= 2500kg/m3
Density of stone = 2500kg/m3

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Fig. 15.5

Density of turpentine = relative density of turpentine x density of water

Relative density of turpentine = Mass of Turpentine

Mass of equal volume of water
Mass of turpentine = m3 – m1
Mass of equal volume of water = m2 – m1
Relative density of turpentine = m 3 - m1
m 2 - m1

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

= (32.1 - 12.3)g
(34.8 - 12.3)g
= 19.8g
0.88
Density of turpentine = relative density of turpentine x density of water

(where, density of water = 1gcm-3)

= 0.88 x 1gcm3
= 0.88g/cm3

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

If the volume of Aluminum is 0.25cm3 then it will displace this volume

of the liquid of density 100kgm-3
∴ Mass of liquid displaced = volume x density
= 0.25m3 x 1100kgm-3
= 275kg

∴ Mass of liquid displaced = mg

= 275kg x 10ms-2
= 2750N

This is therefore the upthrust according to Archimedes’ Principle

But, weight of object in air = Apparent weight + upthrust
∴ Apparent weight of aluminum = Tension in air – Upthrust
= 6500N – 2750N
= 3750N

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

Since it floats on water then its weight = upthrust

It will then displace the mass of water equal to its own mass
Thus the mass of water displaced = 650kg
If the density of water = 1000kg/m3

∴
Mass of water
Volume of water displaced =
Density of water
650kg
=
kg
1000 3
m
= 0.650m3
∴ Volume of water displaced = 0.650m3

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6

Let V be the volume of the iceberg

Let ρ be the density of the iceberg
Taking g as the acceleration due to gravity
Weight of iceberg = Vρg

Fig. 15.6

The weight of water displaced = ρwVwg

Where, ρw = density of sea water
Vw = volume of water displaced

We were told that 10.87% of the iceberg is above sea water

 100 − 10.87 
∴ Volume of iceberg below sea = V
 100 
89.13
= V
100
∴
89.13
Vw = V
100
∴
89.13
Volume of sea water displaced = V
100
∴ Weight of liquid = ρseaVseag

g 89.13
= 1.03 3
x Vg
cm 100

But weight of ice = weight of sea water displaced

∴ ρVg = 1.03
g 89.13
3
x Vg
cm 100
∴ ρ
89.13 g
= 1.03 x
100 cm 3
∴ ρ = 1.918g/cm3

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A piece of metal has a volume of 0.75m3. I fit is suspended on a

rope and immersed in glycerine of density 1200kgm-3 find

(a) The volume of glycerine displaced

(b) The mass of the glycerine displaced
(c) The weight of the displaced glycerine
(d) The upward force (upthrust) on the metal due to the
glycerine

2. A piece of rock slat weighs 3.3N in air and appears to weigh 1.5N
when immersed in saturated salt solution of density 1200kgm-3,
what is the density of the rock salt?

3. Full of water, a large flask has a mass of 3.5kg, and when full of
the diesel oil, the mass is 3.2kg. What is the density of the diesel
oil if the flask alone has a mass of 1.5kg?

4. A wooden block of volume 100cm3 and density 0.7gcm-3 is

floating inbrine of density 1.2g/cm3. What is the mass of a body
which when placed on top of the block will push it below the
surface of the brine?

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PHY 101 MODULE 3

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

MODULE 4

Unit 1 Pressure
Unit 2 Elements of Hydrodynamics
Unit 3 Viscosity of Fluids
Unit 4 Surface Tension
Unit 5 Other Properties of Gases

UNIT 1 PRESSURE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concepts of Pressure in Matter
3.2 Concepts of Pressure in Fluids
3.2.1 Force of Pressure in Liquids
3.2.2 Pressure Due to the Weight of a Liquid Column
3.2.3 Atmosphere Pressure
3.3 Transmission of Pressure in Fluids
3.3.1 Pascal’s Principle
3.3.2 Applications of Pascal’s Principle
3.4 Measuring Pressure
3.4.1 The Manometer
3.4.2 The Simple Barometer
3.5 The Hare’s Apparatus
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You may have known that the word pressure is commonly used in every
day life when you travel. The bags and suitcases are provided with
broad handles, so that small pressure exerted can be hard while carrying
them.

• In the medical profession blood pressure of the patient being

made use of to diagnose patients aliment;
• At home, when water in the tap is not running as fast as it should,
occupants may complain about low pressure behind the taps;
• In engineering, physicist and science as a whole the concept of
pressure continues to reoccur in one way or the other. The

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

pressure exists everywhere, but sometimes we don’t feel it, like

the atmospheric pressure on our bodies.

So, by now you must be thinking what exactly is the meaning of

pressure? Why is its knowledge important to us in life?

The answers to these questions will be found in this unit. In this unit,
you will be introduced to the concept of pressure, the applications of
transmission of pressure and how it is measured. In the next unit, you
will learn about elements of Hydrodynamics. The focus of this unit will
be on Bernoulli’s Principle and its applications.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of pressure

• define the pressure exerted by a solid or fluid using the
appropriate units
• explain the transmission of pressure through liquids;
• state Pascal’s principle
• mention some applications of Pascal’s principles
• derive an expression for the pressure due to the column of a
liquid
• measure atmospheric pressure by using a manometer or
barometer
• measure relative density by suing the pressure method (Hare’s
apparatus)
• solve problems on pressure.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concepts of Pressure in Matter

Let us discuss simple examples which we experience in everyday life.

Have you ever been stepped upon by a lady wearing a stiletto-heeled
shoe? Can you compare the pain with that experienced with another
lady wearing a wider non-stiletto-heeled shoe?

A stiletto-heeled shoe is a type of shoe worn by ladies which has a sharp

pointed heel. You must have realized that the pain from such a shoe is
greater than that from a shoe with a wider surfaced heel.

Again, how would you compare the pain given by a slim/moderate lady
wearing a stiletto shoe with that of a very fat lady?

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So two factors are responsible for the gravity of the pain: the force
(weight) and the surface area of the heels. The gravity of the pain is
associated with the concept of pressure, the force and the surface are
affected. So, one can say that Pressure is related to force and area.

Pressure is the force exerted by a body per unit surface area. Pressure is
defined as
Force
Pressure =
Area
Mathematically, it can be expressed as

F
P= ……………………………………… (16.1)
A

Where, F is the force and A is the area.

The force is usually measured in Newton (N) whereas area in meter

square (m2).
∴
F
P=
A

The force is measured in terms Newton (N) and the unit of Area is
metre-square (m2). Hence, the unit of pressure is Nm-2, which also
called Pascal (Pa) in memory of the scientist that worked on pressure
Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

A cubical block of concrete edge 0.25m, rests on a horizontal surface. If

its weight is 300N, what pressure does it exert on the surface?

3.2 Concepts of Pressure in Fluids

The main distinctive feature of fluids in comparison with solid (elastic)

bodies is their mobility (fluidity) – that is they flow. Owing to their
mobility, fluids, unlike elastic bodies, do not offer a resistance to
changes in their shapes. Parts of a liquid can move freely sliding
relative to one another.

The mobility of liquids therefore explains why the free surface of a

liquid in equilibrium under the force of gravity is always horizontal. If
for example, the surface of a liquid at rest were at n an angle to the
horizontal, the particles of a liquid near the surface would slide down
along the surface under the action of gravity like being along an inclined
plane. Such a motion would continue until the surface of the liquid
becomes horizontal.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

The free surface of a liquid in a vessel is slightly bent near the walls of
the container. The bending is due to the force of interaction between the
liquid and the walls. We describe this surface as the meniscus of the
liquid surface. The effect will be fully discussed under surface tension.
Another property of liquids is the pressure, which therefore leads us to
the concept of pressure in liquids.

3.2.1 Force of Pressure in Liquids

Pressure is the force exerted on a unit area of the surface. It has been
observed that liquid exert certain forces on the surface of solids in
contact with them. These forces are referred to as forces of hydrostatics
pressure. If you use your finger to close a tap of water, you will feel this
pressure. A diver at a large depth in the sea experiences pains in his
ears, which is caused by the forces of pressure of water in his ear-drums.
Thermometers used in measuring temperatures at a large sea depth must
be very strong, otherwise water pressure can crush them.

It will be observed also that liquids are incompressible, volume does not
change under high pressures.

The pressure in the lower part of a vessel is higher than that in the upper
part. This is observed when water contained in a jar is allowed to flow
out of a vessel at different points along the height of the vessel (fig.
16.1).

Fig. 16.1

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If the holes of the vessel are sealed with thin membranes, it will be
observed that the membranes bulge out with the thrust of the pressure on
them as you can see in fig. 16.2.

Fig. 16.2

The thrust is greatest where the pressure is greatest. This further

demonstrates the fact that pressure varies with the depth of a liquid. But
now the question you may ask: what is the value of the pressure in a
liquid at a given depth of it?

In the subsequent section, you will find the answer. In this next section,
we shall derive an expression for the magnitude of pressure due to the
weight of liquid.

3.2.2 Pressure Due to the Weight of a Liquid Column

The atoms or molecules of which a liquid is composed are attracted to

the earth in accordance with Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
Hence, liquids collect at the bottom of the containers and the upper
layers exert forces on those underneath. We shall now derive an
expression for the magnitude of this pressure due to the weight of the
liquid. The pressure at a point in a liquid is the force per unit area of a
surface at the point in question. This force depends on the weight of the
liquid column above the point.

Consider a liquid in a container as shown in fig. 16.3, we now want to

find out the magnitude of the pressure at point Q exerted by a column of
PQ of the liquid such that Q is at a height h from the surface of the
liquid.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Fig. 16.3

Let the cross-sectional area of the column PQ be A.

Note that this area A is arbitrary. It could be rectangular in shape. As

we proceed with this derivation it will be observed that the area A could
be any shape. This will not affect the derivation of the pressure.

Let ρ be the density of liquid. Now, determine the volume of this

column of the liquid.
The volume V = area of cross-section x height of column = A x h
From the definition of density, the mass of the liquid column
M = volume x density = Ahρg ……………….……. (16.2)
Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity.
According to the definition of pressure,

FORCE Weight of Liquid

PRESSURE = =
AREA Area of column

∴P=
W Ahρg
= ………………………………………… (16.3)
A A
P = hρg ………………………...………………………….. (16.4)

Thus the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid at point Q is the product of

the height (h), the density (ρ) of the liquid and acceleration due to
gravity (g). The value of pressure is independent of the area of the
cross-section. The unit of pressure is still Nm-2 or Pascal, since the unit
of force is Newton and the unit of area is meter square.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

From, P = hρg, note that ρ is a constant, g is also a constant. Hence, the

pressure P of the liquid is proportional to its height or depth.

P∝h

This is why the pressure due to the mercury head is expressed in form of
its height.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Kerosene is supplied to a tap from a tank in which the kerosene level is

1.2m above the tap. If the density of kerosene is 800kgm-3. Calculate
pressure of the kerosene at the tap.

3.2.3 Atmosphere Pressure

Just as liquids exert pressure, gases also exert pressure. The pressure
due to air around us is described as atmospheric pressure. The tiny
particles of gases that make up the atmosphere of the earth have weight
and as a result exert pressure on all objects on earth just as we have
derived the pressure of a liquid on all objects on earth. Just as we have
derived the pressure of a liquid column, we can also say that the
pressure due to an air column is given as
P = hρg

Air pressure varied therefore with altitude. The higher we go, the lower
the pressure. Air pressure is hihest at sea level. The value of
atmospheric pressure on the surface of earth at sea level is nearly 1013 x
105Pa.

The air pressure – atmospheric pressure is usually denoted as Po or ho,

where ho is the barometric height as shown by the barometer. That is the
height of mercury, which the air pressure can maintain in a tube filled
with mercury. Therefore, when a diver or nay object is at depth h below
the sea level, the total pressure on such a diver or object is made up of

• The atmospheric pressure Po or ho and

• The pressure due to the liquid itself P1 or h1
• Hence, the total pressure P on the object is given as

P = Po + P1

Note that Po or ho is always given in reference to the height

of mercury, therefore the units of pressure must be same.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Find the pressure on a diver working at the depth of 10m in the sea on a
day when the barometer stands at 750mmHg.
(Density of sea water = 1050kgm-3). Express your answer in (a) mmHg
and (b) Nm-2.

3.3 Transmission of Pressure in Fluids

The forces of pressure are transmitted in a liquid in all directions. The

forces of pressure are exerted by a liquid not only on the bottom and on
the piston but also on the vessels walls (fig. 16.4).

Fig. 16.4

This is why, when membranes are used to cover the holes in the wall of
the vessel in fig. 16.2, there are noticeable bulges at the side of wall due
to the forces of pressure exerted by water.

3.3.1 Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s Principle has got to do with the transmission of pressure in

fluids.

Pascal’s Principle states that “Pressure applied to any point to a

fluid in a closed vessel is transmitted equally to every other point in
the fluid”.

Another way to express the principle is as follows:

“The pressure exerted by surface forces is transmitted without loss to

any point of a liquid”.

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This is the principle used in the construction of the hydraulic press in

engineering.

3.3.2 Applications of Pascal’s Principle

Pascal’s Principle is applied in the following machines,

• The hydraulic press

• The hydraulic jack
• The hydraulic brakes

The hydraulic press will be discussed here. The hydraulic press has
many applications like to compress soft materials like cotton, cloth,
paper, etc. into soft bales.
The press consists of two type of cylinders, P an d Q connected by a
horizontal tube R as shown in fig. 16.5

Fig. 16.5

The entire system is filled with a fluid such as water or oil. Let the
applied force f, the effort be applied on the piston with area a. The
pressure P on the liquid is,

f
P= …………………...………………….. (16.5)
a

According to Pascal’s Principle, the same pressure will be developed on

the load of with area A. then,

F
P= ……………………..……………….. (16.6)
A

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Since the pressure are the same,

∴
f F
=
a A
∴
F A
= ……………………………………………. (17.6)
f a

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

Suppose the effort f is 150N. The surface are of a small piston a is

0.01m2 and the surface area of the big piston A is 0.1m2. Calculate the
magnitude of the load F.

The hydraulic press is a simple machine in which when work is done by

the effort f by moving through distance h, while the load moves through
a distance H (fig. 3.8). In theses case, the efficiency of the hydraulic
press E is defined as

Work done by load (F)

E= x 100%
Work done by effort (f)

F.H
= x 100%
f .h
Suppose the ratio of H: h = 1:12. What is the efficiency of the hydraulic
press.

1500N x 1
The efficiency = x 100%
150N x 12

= 83.3%

So far we have discussed, the concept of pressure, atmospheric pressure,

pressure due to the weight of a liquid column. Pascal’s law and its
applications. But in the next section, we will learn how do we measure
pressure?

3.4 Measuring Pressure

The medical doctor uses the instrument called sphygmomanometer

(Sphyg) to measure the human blood pressure. Next time you visit the
doctor ask him to show you his/her “sphyg” and then ask him/her how
the “sphyg” is operated and what it is made up of.

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However in the laboratories we make use of the manometer to measure

pressure due to gas and the barometer to measure the atmospheric
pressure.
Basically, the “sphyg”, the manometer and the barometer make use of
the height of mercury column that can be held by the magnitude of the
pressure in question. We shall describe the manometer and the
barometer.

3.4.1 The Manometer

The manometer is made up of a U-tube open at both ends filled with

mercury or any other liquid (fig. 16.6)

Attached to a gas
cylinder

Fig. 16.6: Manometer

You will observe that the mercury reads in both arms of the U-tube are
on the same level. That is atmospheric pressure.

Suppose we want to measure the pressure of the gas from a cylinder,

then, we connect end B of the U-tube of the cylinder using a rubber tube
as shown in fig. 16.7

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Fig. 16.7

The mercury level rises to a height h in the A arm of the U-tube. The
total pressure of the gas is then equal to that due to the mercury head h
and that of the atmosphere ho .

The pressure due to h is given as P = hρg

The question is how do we measure the atmospheric pressure itself?

We use the barometer and what is a barometer? Now we will learn
about barometer in the next section.

3.4.2 The Simple/Mercury Barometer

A mercury barometer is used to measure the atmospheric pressure. It is

made up of a straight glass tube, sealed at one end of about one meter
long. It is filled with mercury after it has been cleaned and dried.

The tube filled with mercury is turned several times to ensure that no air
bubbles reside in the tube. When the mercury is filled properly to the
end of the tube, the thumb is then placed over it. This end is then
inverted into a vessel of mercury. The thumb is then removed. You will
observe that mercury drops, leaving a space at the top. The space is
called the Torricellian vacuum. The height AB is the column of
mercury supported by the pressure of the atmosphere on the free surface
of the mercury in the vessel. This is usually 76cm of mercury (fig. 16.8).

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 16.8: Simple Mercury Barometer

Fig. 16.9: Fortin Barometer

Most laboratories now have the Fortin barometers placed there to

measure the atmospheric pressure. A Fortin barometer is similar in

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

structure with the simple barometer. It has a fixed scale from which the
barometric height of the mercury column can be read easily.

3.6 The Hare’s Apparatus

The Hare’s apparatus is used to determine the relative densities of

liquids through the use of pressure method. The Hare’s apparatus is as
shown in fig. 16.10

Fig. 16.10: Hare’s Apparatus

It is a U-tube with its limb dipped into two vessels filled with different
liquids 1 and 2 whose relative densities are to be determined. You will
recall that water is always the standard liquid. So one of the liquids
must be water and then we want to find out the relative density of liquid
2 relative to that of water liquid 1.

By sucking the X end of the U-tube, the pressure is reduced in the tube.
The two columns AB and CD exerted the same pressure which is equal
to the difference between that of the atmosphere outside and the reduced
pressure in the tube. We then measure the vertical heights of water h1
and the liquid h2.

The pressure of the water = h1ρ1g

While that of the liquid = h2ρ2g

Since the pressures are the same we can then conclude that
h1ρ1g = h2ρ2g

ρ 2 h1
∴ = = Relative density of the liquid ……………….. (16.8)
ρ 1 h2

4.0 CONCLUSION

Pressure is the force exerted by matter per unit area. Solids and fluids
(liquids and gases) do exerted pressure. The unit of pressure is Nm-2 or
Pascal.

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Pressure transmitted in fluids obeys Pascal’s Principle, which sates that

pressure applied at any point to a fluid is a closed vessel is transmitted
equally to every other point in the fluid. This principle is applied in
machines such as the hydraulic press, hydraulic jack ad hydraulic
brakes. The pressure due to a column of fluid is the product of the depth
of the liquid, its density and acceleration due to gravity (P = hρg).
Manometer and the barometer are used in measuring pressures in the
laboratory. Hare’s apparatus is used to measure the relative density of a
liquid by the use of pressure method.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt that:

• The pressure on a surface is the force per unit area on that

surface;
• The unit of pressure is Newton per meter square which is the
Pascal;
• The pressure in fluids could be expressed as P = hρg – the
product of the height of the liquid column, it density and
acceleration due to gravity;
• Pressure can be transmitted through liquids following the
Pascal’s Principle;
• The hydraulic press, hydraulic jacks or brakes are based on
Pascal’s principles of transmission of pressure in liquids;
• Pressure can be measured using the manometer or the barometer ;
and
• Relative density of a liquid can be measured using the pressure
method as described in the use of Hare’s apparatus.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

The surface areas of the cube are the same

∴
2 2 -4 2
Surface area of each face = m x m = 4 x 10 m
100 100
Weight of the cube = 300N
∴
FORCE
PRESSURE =
AREA
300N
=
4 x 10 -4 m 2
300 N
= x 104 2
4 m
= 7.5 x 105Pa

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Fig. 16.11

Pressure at Q = hρg
kg m
= 1.2m x 800 3
x 10.0 2
m s
kg m
= 1.2m x 800 x 10 2 . 2
m s
N
= 1.2m x 800 x 10 2
m
= 9600Nm-2
P = 9600Pa

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Fig. 16.12

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Pressure due to the sea water

P1 = h1ρ1g
P1 ∝ h1= 10m sea water

We need to convert this to that of mercury

We cannot say that total pressure is 760mm of Hg + 10m of sea water
The conversion equation is

h1ρ1g = h2ρ2g

Where, h1 = 10m of sea water

ρ1 = density of sea water = 14050kgm-3
h2 = height of mercury
ρ2= density of mercury = 13600kgm-3 x g

∴ 10m x 1050kgm-3 x g = h2 x 13600kgm-3

kg
10m x 1050
∴ h2 = m3
kg
13600
m3

10m x 1050
h2 =
13600
= 0.7721m
= 772.1mmHg

But pressure due to atmosphere = 750mmHg

∴ Total pressure = (772.1 + 750) mmHg = 1522.1mmHg

(b) To express this Nm-2

We use p = hρg
1522.1 kg m
= m x 13600 3 x 10 2
1000 m s
= 2.07 x 105Nm-2

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

From,

F A
=
f a

∴F=
A 0.1m 2
x f = x 150N
a 0.01m 2
= 1500N

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

∴ F: f = 1500N: 150N = 10:1

i.e F = 10f

The hydraulic press is a simple machine in which when work is done by

the effort f by moving through distance h, while the load moves through
a distance H (fig. 3.8). In this case, the efficiency of the hydraulic press
E is defined as

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A rectangular block of glass 12cm by 6cm by 2cm is placed on a

horizontal surface so as to exert the least pressure on the surface.
If the density of glass is 2500kgm-3, what will this least pressure
be?

2. A bubble of air having a volume of 0.35cm3 is at the bottom of a

lake 51m deep. Determine its volume when it rises to the
surface? (The atmospheric pressure is 750mmHg).

3. A hydraulic press where the area of the small piston is 0.001m2

while the area of the large piston is 0.1m2. Calculate the weight
of the load that can be lifted by the large piston when an effort of
80N is applied to the small piston.

4. Describe how you construct a simple mercury barometer.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O.O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, RJ (1970). Analytical

Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Feyman, R.P., Leighton, R.B. and Sands, M (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B.H. and Mendoza, E (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M.A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan and

company Limited.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Soars, F.W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H.D. (1980). College

Physics. London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

UNIT 2 ELEMENTS OF HYDRODYNAMICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Streamlines
3.2 Streamlines and Velocity
3.3 Pressure and Velocity
3.3.1 The Change in Kinetic Energy of fluid
3.3.2 The Change in Potential Energy of the Fluid
3.3.3 Bernoulli’s Principle
3.4 Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle
3.4.1 At the Railway Station
3.4.2 Filter pump (Venturi Pump)
3.4.3 Aerofoil Lift
3.4.4 Flow of Liquid from a Wide Tank
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

The past three units have been devoted to the properties of fluid at rest.
In these units, you learnt about density, buoyancy and pressure due to
fluids at rest. Now we focus our attention to the properties of fluids
when they are in motion. Such a study is what is described as
hydrodynamics. Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.
Have you ever wondered about how such a huge object like the
plane can lift itself into space and carry its passengers safely to their
destination/ have you ever compared the small bird’s motion in
space with that of the areoplane?

The ability of both the bird and the aeroplane to fly is dependent on the
knowledge of hydrodynamics especially the Bernoulli’s Principle. So if
you are interested in answering the above questions you will find this
unit very interesting.

There was a time people had the idea that the railway engine has some
magnet around it which it is capable of attracting human beings to it.
Do you think this is true? With your knowledge of Bernoulli’s Principle
from this unit you will be able to accept or refute the idea.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Thus, in this unit we shall discuss about streamlines and the pressure
and how they affect the velocity of a flowing fluid, Bernoulli’s principle
and its applications shall also be discussed.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able:

• explain the term streamlines

• relate streamlines with the velocity of a fluid in motion
• define the work done per unit volume on a fluid in terms of the
pressure difference at two positions
• relate the work done per unit volume with the kinetic energy per
unit volume
• state Bernoulli’s Principle of fluids in motion
• apply Bernoulli’s Principle in nature.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Streamlines

The knowledge of the laws governing fluid flow is very important in the
distribution of water, gas and oil in pipelines and for efficient
transmission of energy in hydraulic machines.

The rate of flow of a fluid is measured by the volume of the fluid that
passes through a cross-section per unit time.

Fig. 17.1

Consider a pipe PQ with some liquid flowing through it (see fig. 17.1).
Consider a section S of cross-sectional area A and length (l) moving
with an average velocity V. The volume of the liquid V moving per
second is given as:

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

V Al
= …………..……………………………….. (17.1)
t t

Since, volume = area x length

length
But its average velocity =
time
∴ length (l) = velocity (v) x time(t)

∴
V Al Avt
= = = Av
t t t

That is the volume per time is equal to the area times the average
velocity of the fluid. When the fluid is at rest, the pressure is the same
at all points at the same elevation of the container. But once in motion,
the pressure is no longer the same. There is a fall in pressure as the fluid
flows. Any detailed description of fluids in motion is somewhat
complicated. However, we shall talk about some elements in the study
of hydrodynamics such as streamlines. But first it is vital to know about
a streamline.

The flow of fluids can be described as being a steady flow or a

stationary flow and turbulent.

When it is a steady flow we have streamlines as shown in fig. 17.2. The

absence of streamlines makes the flow turbulent. The turbulent flow is
shown in fig. 17.3.

Fig. 17.2: Streamline Flow around Obstacles of Various Shapes

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 17.3: Turbulent Flow

Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe as in fig. 17.4

Fig. 17.4

If at position a, a particle of the fluid has a velocity v1, at b, its velocity

is v2 and at c, its velocity is v3.

If after some time, the velocity of whatever fluid particle happens to be

at a is still v1, that at b is v2 and that at c is v3, then the motion is said to
be steady or stationary.

Now, the path followed by a fluid particle in a steady flow as it travels

the length of the pipe is what is described as a streamline. Consequently
the flow of the fluid of the pipe will be made up of streamlines (fig.
17.5).

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Fig. 17.5: Streamlines

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What does it mean by a steady flow in hydrodynamics? With the aid of

diagrams explain what is meant by streamlines.

3.2 Streamlines and Velocity

In this section, we want to examine the streamline flow of a fluid and the
variation of its velocities as the fluid moves from a large cross-sectional
area to a smaller cross-sectional area. In other words, how do the
streamlines behave when there is constriction in the pipe?

Fig. 17.6

Consider a pipe XY as shown in fig. 3.6 such that the end of X is wider
than that of Y. Consider the bulk f water flowing through from X to Y.
Consider the bulk of water flowing through the wider passage PR to a
narrower passage QS as shown in fig. 17.6

V
Volume of water per second through PR = A1v1
t
V
While the volume of water per second through QS = A2v2
t

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Because water is incompressible the volume of water moving per second

through PR must be the same through QS

∴ A1v1 = A2v2…...…………………………………….. (17.2)

Since A1is greater than A2, for the equation to balance, then v1 is less v2.
That is, velocity (v1) between P and R is low while that between Q and S
(v2) is high. It is observed that the water flows slowly at the wider
passage while it flows faster through the narrow openings or
constrictions. In simple words, the larger is the area of cross-section,
smaller will be the velocity of liquid flow and vice versa.

That is, changes in pressure does not cause in fluid density at various
parts. For steady flow therefore, the volume of the fluid per second
must be constant at all points.

The velocity of the fluid does not change at a given point, as time
elapses, but it may be different at different places. When the flow is
steady, the paths actually followed by the moving particles of the fluid
are called streamlines. The streamlines of the flow represent the
directions of the velocities of the particles of the fluid.

A flow is uniform or laminar. Once more, it should be emphasized that

it is assumed that the liquid is incompressible.

If the water moves from PQ to RS the volume of the liquid between P

and R is equal to the volume between Q and S.

∴ A1 l 1 = A2 l 2 …………….…………………. (17.3)

where, l 1 = PR and l2 = QS

On rearranging the terms, we get

∴
A1 l 1
= ………………………..…………………………. (17.4)
A2 l 2

Since A1is greater then A2, therefore

Diving both side by t l 1 > l 2

∴
l 2 l1
>
t t
∴ v2 > v1

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Since velocity is displacement per time.

Consequently the velocity of the liquid at the narrow part (Y) of the tube
(constriction) where the streamlines are closer together than that at the
wider part X where the streamlines are further apart.

You can see an example of this in our everyday life. A slow running tap
can be made to run fast by applying a finger over the tap of narrow its
exit i.e. cause a constriction.

This increase in velocity implies the presence of acceleration. Of this

force to be caused by the fluid surrounding a particular element of the
fluid the presence must be different in differ nt regions.

If the pressure were to be the same everywhere, the net force on any
fluid element would be zero. So, when the cross-section of a flow tube
varies, the pressure must vary along the tube even when there is no
difference in elevation.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Given a pipe AB such that the end A is wider than end B. Show that
when water flows through the pipe the velocity of the water at A is less
than that velocity at the end B. State your assumptions.

3.3 Pressure and Velocity

Pressure and velocity form another set of elements of hydrodynamics. It

was the scientist Daniel Bernoulli (1740) who observed and obtained the
relationship between pressure and velocity at different parts of a moving
incompressible fluid. Bernoulli’s equation is a general expression that
relates the pressure difference between two points in a flow tube to both
velocity changes ad elevation changes. In discussing Bernoulli’s
equation it is assumed that viscosity (fluid friction) is negligibly small,
then there is no frictional force to overcome.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 17.7

Consider a fluid at some initial time t lying between two cross-sections a

and c. At a time interval ∆t, the fluid moves from a to b through a
distance of ∆s1 as shown in fig. 17.7.

∴ ∆s1 = v1∆t ………………………...………………. (17.5)

Where, v1 is the speed at one end of the tube.

Similarly, at the same time interval ∆t, the fluid moves from c to d
through a distance of ∆s2.

∆s2 = v2∆t ………………………...………………. (17.6)

• Where, v2 is the velocity of the fluid at the other end of the tube.
Let A1 be the cross-sectional area at a and A2 is the cross-sectional area
at c.

Change in volume of the fluid = A1∆s1 = A2∆s2……………….. (17.7)

Now, we will determine the work done during this time interval ∆t by
using the relation,

FORCE( F )
= PRESSURE (P)
AREA( A)

We can rewritten the above expression as you know that

F = PA ………………………………………….…………. (17.8)

∴ Work done = force x distance

But the fore at a =. P1A1 Similarly, the force at c = P2A2

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Where P1and P2 are the pressures at the two ends of the flow tube.

Work done at end a = F1∆s1 = P1A1∆s1 ………….….... (17.9)

Similarly, work done at end c = F2∆s2 = P2A2∆s……….. (17.10)

Using the Eqs. (17.9) and (17.10), the

= P1A1∆s1 - P2A2∆s2
But as you know from section 3.2 or from Eq. (17.7) that
A1∆s1 = A2∆s2 = change in volume

∴ net work done = (P1 – P2) x change in volume

∴
NETWORK DONE
P1 – P2 =
CHANGE IN VOLUME

Network Done
Change In Pressure = ………………. (17.11)
Change in Volume

3.3.1 The Change in Kinetic Energy of Kind

We are still considering fig. 17.7 for this section.

At the initial stage, the initial kinetic energy of the fluid (KE1) is given
as

KE1 = ½ x mass of fluid x (velocity)2

1
= m1v12 ………………….……..………..… (17.12)
2

From the definition of density, the mass can be expressed as

m1 = density x volume = PA1∆s1

Therefore, the expression for kinetic energy is as

∴ P (A1∆s1) x v12 ………………………… (17.13)

1
KE1 =
2

Where, the symbols P = density of fluid

v1= velocity of fluid at ab
A1= area
∆s1 = displacement

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

At the end of the time interval the final kinetic energy is where is given
as
P (A2∆s2) x v22
1 1
KE2 = m2v22 =
2 2
P (A2∆s2) x v22 ..................................... (17.14)
1
KE2 =
2

But A2∆s2 = change in volume. These expressions of kinetic energies

can be interpreted in terms of change in volume as

KE1 = ½ P x change in volume x v12..............……. (17.15)

and KE2 = ½ P x change in volume x v22..............……. (17.16)

The net change in kinetic energy

∆KE = KE2 - KE1
1
= P x change in volume x (v22 - v12) …….....……. (17.17)
2

∴
Change in KE 1
= P (v22 - v12) ...............….…. (17.18)
Change in volume 2

3.3.2 The Change in Potential Energy of the Fluid

To determine the change in potential energy of the fluid, refer to fig.

17.7. The initial potential energy of the fluid at a, at height y1 is given as
PE1
PE1 = M1gy1
where, M1 = PA1∆s1
∴ PE1 = PA1∆s1y1g
PE1 = Py1 x (change in volume) x g ……….……. (17.19)

Similarly, at the other end of the time interval ∆t, the potential energy at
d, height y2 is given as PE2 where,

PE2 = M2gy2
where, M2 = PA2∆s2
∴ PE2 = PA2∆s2y2g
2
PE2 = Py2 x (change in volume) x g ……...……. (17.20)

The change in potential energy ∆U is given as

∆U = Pg (y2 – y1) x change in volume

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Change in PE
= Pg (y2 – y1) ……………………………… (17.21)
Change in volume

Since the work done by the pressure difference per unit volume of a
fluid flowing along a pipe is equal to the kinetic energy per unit volume
plus the gain in potential energy per unit volume, we can state that:

W ∆KE ∆U
= + ……………………………..………. (17.22)
∆V ∆V ∆V

where, ∆V – change in volume of fluid

The principle of conservation of energy may also be used to arrive at
this conclusion.

Consequently,
1
P1 – P1 = P (v22 - v12) + Pg (y2 – y1) ……...…………… (17.23)
2
On rearranging the terms in Eq. (17.23), we get

∴
1
P1 – P1 = Pv22 - Pv12 + Pgy2 – Pgy1
2

∴
1 1
P1 + = Pv12 + Pgy1 = + P2 + = Pv22 + Pgy2
2 2
Generally, we can write that

1
P+ = Pv2 + Pgy = CONSTANT …………………...…. (17.24)
2
Consequently, for streamline motion of an incompressible non-viscous
fluid,

“The sum of the pressure at any point plus the kinetic energy per
unit volume plus the potential energy per unit volume is always a
constant”.

The above statement is what describes Bernoulli’s principle.

3.3.3 Bernoulli’s Principle

In the last section (3.3.2) we arrived at the Eq. (17.24) that

1
P+ = Pv2 + Pgy = CONSTANT
2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

This is what we refer to as Bernoulli’s equation from which we derived

the Bernoulli’s principle.

Bernoulli’s principle states that: In a streamline flow of an ideal

fluid, the sum of the pressure energy per unit volume of the kinetic
energy per unit volume are potential energy per unit volume is
always constant at all cross-section of the liquid.

Dividing the Bernoulli’s equation (17.24) by Pg we would obtain this

expression,

P v2
+ + y = CONSTANT …………..………………. (17.25)
Pg 2g

Each of the above terms in the equation has the dimensions of length.
Can you check this? Try to do this before you proceed further. When
we were discussing pressure, we talked about pressure head h in liquids,
fluids generally.

•
P
represents the pressure head
Pg
v2
• represents the velocity head
2g
• y represents the velocity head

Remember that Bernoulli’s principle is correct rigorously for

incompressible, non-viscous liquids; it is often applied to ordinary
liquids with sufficient accuracy for engineering proposes.

Bernoulli’s principle shows that at some points in a moving fluid where

the potential energy change is small or zero, as in the flow through
horizontal pipe, the pressure is low where the velocity is high.
Conversely, the pressure is high where the velocity is low. This
principle has wide applications in life.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

The area of cross-section A1 of X is 4cm2, the area of Y is 1cm and the

water flows past each section in laminar flow at the rate of 400cm3.
Calculate the pressure difference and the pressure head. Consider fig.
17.8 below.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Fig. 17.8

3.4 Applications of Bernoulli’s Principle

After studying about the Bernoulli’s principle in detail, now in this

section we shall try to examine the various applications of the
Bernoulli’s principle in terms of:

• The suction effect of a person at the railway station;

• The venture (filter) pump sometimes called suction pump;
• Aerofoil lift in areoplanes; and
• Flow of liquids from wide tanks.

3.4.1 At the Railway Station

A person standing close to the platform at a railway station experiences

a suction effect when a fast train passes by.

The fast moving air between the person and the train produces decrease
in pressure and the excess air pressure on the other side of the person
pushes him or her towards the train.

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3.4.2 Filter Pump (Venturi Pump)

Fig 17.8

The filter pump is used in most laboratories for fast effective filtration of
precipitates in solutions. The pump has a narrow section in the middle
so that a jet of water from the tap flows fast here see figure 17.8. This
causes a drop in pressure near it and air therefore flows in from the side
tube to which a vessel is connected. The air and water together are
expelled through the bottom of the filter pump.

3.4.3 Aerofoil Lift

The curved shape of an aerofoil or the wings of the areoplanes creates a

fast flow of over its top surface than the lower surface (fig. 17.9).

Fig. 17.9: Flow Lines around an Airfoil

This is shown by the closeness of the streamlines above the aerofoil

compared with those below. From Bernoulli’s principle, the pressure of
the air below is greater than that above. This produces the lift on the
aerofoil.

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3.4.4 Flow of Liquid from a Wide Tank

Here we want to consider the flow of water a wide tank as shown in

fig.17.10

Fig. 17.10

The liquid flows out of the tank through a hole H at the bottom of the
wide tank. We are making the following assumptions,

• The viscosity is negligible

• Streamline flow at a small distance from the hole (an
approximation)

We shall now apply Bernoulli’s principle. At the top of the tank X, the
pressure is atmospheric (B). The height h, the water pressure head from
X to the hole H. The kinetic energy of the flow is negligible if the tank
is wide so that the level falls slowly.

At the bottom Y, near H, the pressure is also atmospheric (B). The

height above H is zero. The kinetic energy of flow is ½pv2 where p is
density of the liquid and v is the velocity of emergency of the liquid.

From Bernoulli’s principle,

B + phg = B + ½pv2
∴ phg = ½pv2
∴ = 2gh
∴ v = 2gh …………………………………………….. (17.26)

Thus the velocity of the emerging liquid is the same as that which would
be obtained if it fell through a height h.

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This is Evangelista Torricelli’s theorem (1641)

v = 2gh
In practice, v is less than v = v = 2gh because of the viscous forces
and the lack of streamline flow.

4.0 CONCLUSION

Streamline are some elements of hydrodynamics in fluids as they flow in

pipes or over obstacles. When fluids flow through pipes that are of
different diameters there are changes in the streamlines and the
velocities of the fluid at different points. Where the diameter is large the
streamlines are spaced and the velocity is low. But when the diameter is
small that is, where there is constriction, the streamlines are close to
each other and the velocity of the fluid is increased. The Bernoulli’s
principle is concerned with the pressure difference in the flow of fluid in
association with the kinetic energy per unit volume and the potential
energy per unit volume of the flow of the fluid. The principle is similar
to the conservation of energy. Bernoulli’s principle has been used to
explain some natural phenomena.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you learnt about the following:

• Streamline and how they affect the velocity of flow of a liquid;

• The velocity of the fluid is increased where there is a constriction
in the streamlines;
• The velocity of the fluid is decreased where they seem to diverge;
• Bernoulli’s principle which states that of streamline motion of an
incompressible non-viscous fluid, the sum of the pressure
energy per unit volume, kinetic energy per unit volume and
the potential energy per unit volume is always constant at all
cross-section of liquid.
1
P + pv2+ pgy = CONSTANT
2
• Bernoulli’s principle could be used to explain certain phenomena
in life such as:
(a) The attraction between an object and a moving train
(b) The filter pump
(c) The aerofoil lift
(d) The flow of liquids from a sprout at the bottom of a tank.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

In steady flow, the path followed by a fluid particle is what is described

as streamline. Consequently, the flow of the fluid in the pipe will be
made up streamlines.

Note: For detail, you can refer the text.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

SEE TEXT - Refer to the section 3.2 of the text.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Volume 1
At X, speed v1 of water = x
second area

Volume
From, = area x speed
second

where, volume per second = 400cm3s-1 and area = 4cm2

cm 3
∴
1
v1 = 400 x
s 4cm 2
= 100cm/s = 1ms-1

Volume 1
Similarly, at Y, speed v2 of water = x
second area
cm 3
∴
1
v2 = 400 x
s 1cm 2

= 400cm/s = 4ms-1

From Bernoulli’s principle,

1
P1 – P1 = P(v22 - Pv12) + Pg(y2 – y1)
2

Assuming there is no change in potential energy and density of water is

100kgm-3.

∴ P1 – P1 = Pressure difference
1
= P (v22 - v12)
2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

1 kg m
= x 1000 3 x (42 - 12) 2
2 m s
1 N
= x 1000 x (16 - 1) 2
2 m
1 N
= x 1000 x 16 2
2 m

Pressure difference = 7.5 x 103Nm-2

From P = hpg

7.5 x 10 3
∴
P
h= = m =0.75m
pg 1000 x 10

Pressure head = 0.75m of water.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A lawn sprinkler has 20 holes each of cross-sectional area 2.0 x

10-2cm2 and is in connection to a hosepipe of cross-sectional area
2.4cm2. If the speed of the water in the hosepipe is 1.5ms-1
estimate the sped of the water as it emerges from the holes.

2. A pipeline 0.2m in diameter, flowing full of water has a

constriction of diameter 0.1m. If the velocity in the 0.2m portion
is 2.0m/s find the velocity of the water in the constriction and the
discharge rate in cubic metres per second.

3. Water enters a house through a pipe 2.0m in inside diameter at an

absolute pressure of 4 x 105 Pa. The pipe lading to the second-
floor bathroom 5cm above is 1.0cm in diameter. When the flow
velocity at the inlet pipe is 4m/s, find the flow velocity and
pressure in the bathroom.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics Addison – London: Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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UNIT 3 VISCOSITY OF FLUIDS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Viscosity
3.2 Velocity Gradient in Moving Fluids
3.3 Coefficient of Viscosity η
3.3.1 Variation ηof with Temperature
3.4 Poiseuille’s Formula
3.4.1 Measurement of η by Capillary Flow Method
3.5 Stokes’ Law and Terminal Velocity
3.5.1 Measuring η by Falling Sphere
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Suppose you are given three identical bottles containing water, engine
oil and honey each. If you are then asked to transfer them into other
containers, how would you compare the time it will take to empty the
liquids?

You would observe that it takes the most time to empty the bottle of
honey while that of water takes the least. What explanation can we
provide for this observation? The explanation that readily comes to
mind is that the rate of flow in each liquid. Each liquid flows with some
difficulties. The difficulty to flow by a liquid is what is being referred to
as the viscosity of a liquid or fluids in general. Viscosity therefore deals
with friction in the flow of fluids. Viscosity is a property of fluids in
motion. Sometimes, it is called fluid friction.

In this unit, we shall again examine the concept of viscosity as it affects

fluids. We will also discuss about the Poiseuille’s formula which helps
us to determine Stoke’s law and the concept of terminal velocity are also
given in this unit.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the concept of viscosity as applied to fluids

• define the coefficient of viscosity of fluids
• explain the rate of flow of liquids through pipes
• state Stoke’s law
• explain the concept of terminal velocity.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Viscosity

Viscosity is the frictional force in fluids. Generally, viscosity in a liquid

in a liquid is an attribute to the effect of the cohesive forces of the
molecules relatively close together in a liquid. When liquids flow
through pipes they have frictional force between their layers. The same
thing happens when gases move or when objects move through air.
However while the molecules of a liquid are very close to each other,
those of gases are too far apart for their cohesion to be effective.

The viscosity of fluids affects the volume of the fluid flowing per
second as the fluid flows in a pipe. Viscosity also affects the lubrication
of moving parts in machines as in car engines. It is not easy to realize
that when a liquid flows along a pipe, there are layers of the fluid
moving with different velocities. The molecules seem to be moving
fastest at the centre along the axis of the pipe. Whereas the velocity
decreases as one move towards the wall of the pipe, the velocity tends to
zero. The variation of such velocity is shown in fig. 18.1.

Fig. 18.1

The length of each line segment is proportional to the magnitude of the

velocity. So you will observe that at Y the line segment is the longest so
the velocity of the fluid is the maximum while at X and Z the line

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

segments are the smallest thus, the velocity of the liquid tends to zero
there.

3.2 Velocity Gradient in Moving Fluids

Let us consider two adjoining layers of a liquid P and Q moving in a

pipe, such that the two layers are rcm apart (fig. 18.2).

5cms-1

3cms-1

Fig. 18.2

If the velocity of the layer P is V1 = 5cms-1 and that of layer Q is V2 =

3cms-1and they are r = 4cm apart, we shall define their average velocity
gradient as
V -V cm cm
Average velocity gradient = 1 2 = (5 – 3) =2 = 0.5s-1
r s s
4cm 4cm

The average velocity gradient G, is therefore defined as the rate of

change of velocity of the moving layers of the fluid per the change in
distance between the moving layers
∆V
∴ average velocity gradient = =G
∆r

From calculus point of view, the limit of G as the change in r tends to

zero is defined as
dV
Limit G = ……………………….…...……………… (18.1)
dr
∆→0

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Explain the meaning of average velocity gradient as it affects the

viscosity of a fluid in a pipe.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

3.3 Coefficient of Viscosity η

As you have learnt about coefficient of friction in mechanics, here you

will study the coefficient of viscosity of fluids. It is a property of fluids
when they are in motion. You will recall, the idea about steady flow or
non-turbulent flow of a fluid is also described as being uniform, orderly
flow or laminar flow. Newton stated that under the condition of steady
flow, the frictional force (F) between two layers moving fluid is
proportional to:

• its velocity gradient G and

• the area (A) parallel to the fluid flow of the liquid under
consideration

Hence, F ∝ AG ………………………………….. (18.2)

∴F = ηAG (where, η = eta, a Greek letter)

This direction of the force (F) is opposite to the direction of velocity. If

A = 1, G = 1, then η = F.
Here η is a constant known as the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. η
is defined as the frictional force required to maintain a unit velocity
gradient between two layers each of unit area. (See fig. 18.3).

Fig. 18.3

What do you think would be the unit and dimensions of η the coefficient
of viscosity?

Let us discuss about them now. You remember that in friction between
two surfaces, the coefficient of friction has no unit. Let us now derive
the unit of the coefficient of viscosity in fluids. The unit of force (F) is

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

N(Newton) and the Unit of area (A) is m2 (meter square). In section 3.2,
you noted that the unit of velocity gradient (G) is s-1. Then, the
∴ unit of η is 2 -1 = Nm-2s.
N
ms
ML
The dimensions of force (F) = for N is unit of force
T2

The dimensions of Area (A) = L2 for m2 is unit of area

The dimensions of velocity gradient (G) = T1 for s-1 is the unit of

velocity gradient.
∴ The dimensions of η = 2 x 2 ÷
ML 1 1
= ML-1T-1
T L T

It can be noted that η is also expressed in terms of stress.

η
Tangential Stress
=
velocity Gradient
Force per unit Area
=
Velocity Gradient
F
A ……………………………………… (18.3)
∆V
=
∆r

In practice, Poise (pronounced as puaz) is adopted for the unit of η after

the name of the scientist Poiseiulle (pronounced as puasoy0. The S.I.
unit of ηis Pa s (Pascal-series or decapoise. 1 decapoise = 1Nsm-2 = 10
poise.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Determine the frictional force (F) due to a fluid if it has an area of 2 x

10-3m2 in a region of velocity gradient 0.5s-1 and whose coefficient of
viscosity η is 1Nm-2s.

3.3.1 Variation η of with Temperature

The viscosity of motor oil is 2 poise at 20oC. The viscosity of water is 1

x 10-3 poise at 10oC. Viscosity decreases with increase in temperature;
however, the values of most of motor oils are such that they are
independent of temperature.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

3.4 Poiseuille’s Formula

Poiseuille’s formula helps us to determine the coefficient of viscosity of

a liquid by observing the rate of low of the liquid. It is an expression that
relates volume of liquid flowing through a pipe per second (V/t), the
coefficient of viscosity (η poises), the radius of the pipe (r) and the
P
pressure gradient ( ).
L

The formula was derived by dimensional analysis

V π Pr 4
= ……………………………… (18.4)
t 8 ηL
π
The value calculated experimentally.
8
Where, p = difference in pressure between the ends of
the pipe
r = radius of the pipe
L = length of the pipe
η = coefficient of viscosity

3.4.1 Measurement of η by Capillary Flow Method

The apparatus used for this method is as shown in fig. 18.4. It consists
of large reservoir below which is connected to a capillary tune of length
l.

Fig. 18.4

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

The capillary tube is arranged horizontally to be at height h below the

free surface of the liquid in the reservoir. The liquid is fed into the
reservoir faster than the way the liquid flows out of the capillary tube.
This is to ensure that the pressure head h is kept constant. The volume
of the liquid flowing through the capillary tube in a given time is
collected and measure. V/t is determined with the knowledge of volume
(V) and time (t). The pressure difference (P) across the ends of the tube
is given as hpg where: h is the height of the liquid, p is the density of the
liquid, and g is acceleration due to gravity. Hence the pressure gradient
P/L is determined by suing the formula:

P hpg
Pressure gradient =
L L

Once using P/L is known, then by using Poiseuille formula, can be

determined easily.
πr 4 P
η= ………………………………………. (18.5)
8V L

So far, we have learnt about viscosity, coefficient of viscosity,

Poiseuille’s formula and also about the method of measurement of by
capillary flow method. Boy now we will learn about Stoke’s law and
terminal velocity in the next section.

3.5 Stokes’ Law and Terminal Velocity

Under this section, we want to describe the motion of an object that

moved through a fluid under gravitational attraction. The example
which comes to mind is a spherical ball moving in a tall cylinder of oil.
Let us discuss the motion of a spherical ball in a specified oil to explain
the concept of terminal velocity before applying it for the Stoke’s law.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

`
Fig. 18.5

Consider an object A in a liquid X. The object will fall in the liquid

under its weight (W). as it moves, it also has an upthrust (U) and
frictional force (F) due to the liquid (fig. 18.5). By applying Newton’s
second law of motion

W–U–F = ma …………………...………. (18.6)

If we now have a tall jar filled with engine oil as shown in fig. 18.6, and
we drop the sphere on its surface X it will be observed that its initial
velocity will be zero and the frictional force will be small because the
velocity is small or zero at the surface.

Fig. 18.6

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Thus at this stage, since F approaches zero then by Newton’s second

law,

W–U = ma ……………………..……………. (18.7)

Fig. 18.7

Now, as the sphere goes further down the liquid, the velocity V
increases and so the frictional force 9f0 due to the liquid increases.
Thus the net force becomes less. A time is reached when this net is then
attained by the sphere which is called the terminal velocity. So in simple
words, we can define terminal velocity is the maximum velocity
acquired by the body while falling forcely in a viscous medium. It is
this terminal velocity that is applied in Stoke’s law. Now we, will learn
that what is Stoke’s law.

When a sphere of radius r moves through a viscous fluid of coefficient

of viscosity η with a velocity v, then the frictional force F acting on the
sphere is given by

F = 6πηrV ………………………………………. (18.8)

The Stoke’s law.

Let us go back to the motion of the sphere in the large jar filled with
engine oil. When the ball is at the surface we said the unbalanced force
is
W - U = ma …...……………….. (18.9)

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Here f is zero or very small since the velocity is zero or very small. But
as the ball passes through points A, B and c we would expect the ball to
have attained its terminal velocity.

∴ W - U – F = 0 since the net force has been reduced to zero

∴ F= W – U ………………………………..………………. (18.10)

But from Stoke’s law, we know that

F = 6πηrVT ……………………………………. (18.11)

Where Vr is the terminal velocity acquired by the ball. Therefore the

above equation expression becomes:

∴ 6πηrVT = W – U ……......………………………………. (18.12)

Where W = mg = ρVsg

Where, ρ = density of sphere

πr
4 3
Vs = volume of sphere =
3
∴ πr ρg …………………...……..……………... (18.13)
4 3
W=
3
∴ and U = upthrust
= volume of liquid displaced x density of
liquid x acceleration due to gravity.
= v1 x ρ ′ x g

Where, V1 = volume of liquid displaced

= volume of sphere
πr
4 3
=
3
∴ πr ρ ′ g …………………………..……………. (18.14)
4 3
U=
3

Substituting these, we get the expression

∴ 6πηrVT πr ρg πr ρ ′ g……...… (18.15)

4 3 4 3
= -
3 3
On rearranging the terms,
∴ 6πηrVT πr ρ ′ g ( ρ - ρ ′ )
4 3
=
3

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

4 πr 3 g
∴ VT = (ρ - ρ ′ )
3 6 πηr

We get,
2 r2
VT = g (ρ - ρ ′ ) …………………………… (18.16)
9 η

So with the knowledge of r, η, g, p and ρ ′ , one can determine the

terminal velocity. However we can also define the coefficient of
viscosity by rewriting the expression as

2 r2
η= g (ρ - ρ ′ ) ….………………………… (18.17)
9 VT

Thus with the knowledge of r, VT, g, p and ρ ′ we can determine the

coefficient of viscosity of the oil.

But now the question is: how do we determine the terminal velocity VT
experimentally in order to determine η with the knowledge of other
parameters (factors) such as r, g, ρ and ρ ′ ?

This question will be answered under experimental determination of η

with the falling sphere in section 3.5.1.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Show that Stoke’s law is F = frictional force in a fluid is dimensionally

correct.

It is also important to note that

• The value of V must be small

• The motion must take place in a large expanse of fluid
• There is no slipping between the fluid and the sphere

Now I the sphere is moving along the axis of a vessel of radius R there
is a small correction to Stoke’s law given as

F = 6πηrV (1 + a
r
)
R

Where a is a numerical coefficient (about 2.4) usually determined

experimentally.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

3.5.1 Measuring η by Falling Sphere

This is a good method used to determine the coefficient of viscosity of a

liquid through the determination of terminal velocity.

Fig. 18.8

The liquid is put in the tube which is set vertically (fig. 18.8). We use a
sphere of 2mm in diameter of the tube is 2cm. The error is negligible
even when in theory the diameter of the tube is expected to be large
compared with the diameter of the sphere. Hence the correction factor
may be ignored. The density of the sphere p is determined using
Archimedes’ principle. The density of the liquid ( P ′ ) is also determined
using the specific gravity bottle i.e. using the relationship

ρ ′ = ρ ′ r ρw

Where, ρ ′ is density of the liquid, ρ ′ r is relative density of liquid, and

ρ ′ w is density of water

ρ′
But, = ρ r′
Mass of Liquid
=
ρw Mass of Equal Volume of Water

The terminal velocity VT is determined by noting the times taken by the

sphere to move through AB and BC at t1 and t2 respectively. If AB is
made to be equal to BC, therefore at terminal velocity t1 should be equal
to t2 when observed. If not then the experiment has failed because
terminal velocity has been attained.

If t1 = t2 then terminal velocity has been attained

AB +BC
∴ VT =
t1 + t 2

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The micrometer screw gauge is used to determine the radius of the

sphere. The value η of can then is determined by using the relation.
2r 2 g ( ρ - ρ ′)
η poise
9V

4.0 CONCLUSION

The friction in fluids is called viscosity. The coefficient of viscosity is

the factor that is used in describing the ability of a fluid to flow. The
coefficient of viscosity of a fluid decreases as the temperature increases.

The coefficient of viscosity is defined as the ratio of tangential stress is

velocity gradient
η
Tangential Stress
=
Velocity Gradient
Where tangential stress is the tangential force per unit surface area of the
layer of the moving fluid and the velocity gradient is the rate of change
of the velocities of two surface layers per the distance between them.

Two methods can be used to determine the coefficient of viscosity of a

fluid, the capillary flow method from Poiseuille’s formula and the
falling of sphere method in a fluid which uses the Stoke’s law.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, you have learnt the following:

• the resistance offered by a moving fluid is called viscosity;

• the Newtonian fluids frictional force F is proportional to the
velocity gradient G and the area parallel to the flow of the liquid
i.e. F = ηAG where, η is constant and defined as the coefficient
of a fluid;
• thus η is defined as
F
η= A =
Tangential Stress
G Velocity Gradient
• velocity gradient is defined as the rate of change in velocity of
fluid layers per the distance between the layers of fluid;
• the viscosity of every fluid decreases as the temperature rises;
V π pr 4
• Poiseuille’s formula is given as which describes the
t 8 ηL
relationship between the rate of flow of a fluid with coefficient of
viscosityη, the radius of the pipe (r) through which the fluid and
the pressure gradient P/L of the flowing fluid;

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

• the Stoke’s law related the frictional force, the weight of the
object and the upthrust it experiences as it falls through fluids
when it has attained

F=W–U

A terminally velocity:

• the terminal velocity is the velocity acquired by a falling object

in a fluid when the net force of the frictional force F, its weight
W and upthrust U is zero

W–U–F=0

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Velocity gradient is the rate of change of velocity of the moving layers

of fluid per the change in distance between the moving layers.
For more refer to section 3.2.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

F = ηAG
= 1Ns/m2 x 2 x 10-3m2 x 0.5s-1
= 10-3N

The viscosity of every fluid decreases as the temperature rises, and the
change with temperature is very considerable. In Table 3.1 below,
values of η for various liquids are given:

Table 18.1: Coefficient of Viscosity of Liquids

LIQUID η (POISE) TEMPERATURE

WATER 1.79 x 10-2 0oC
WATER 1.0 x 10-3 10oC
WATER 6.6 x 10-3 40oC
GLYCERINE 46 0oC
GLYCERINE 3.5 30oC
PITCH 5.1 x 1011 0oC
PITCH 1.19 x10-2 100oC
ENGINE OIL 2.0 20oC

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ANSWER TO SELF- ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Dimension for η = ML-1T-1

Dimension for r = L
Dimension for V = LT-1
∴ ηrV = ML-1T-1x Lx LT-1
= MLT2

But the dimensions of force (F) = MLT2

So, Stoke’s law is dimensionally correct.

Note that 6π has no dimensions.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A small oil drop falls in air with a terminal velocity of 2 x 1-2m/s.

The density of the oil is 900kg/m3, the coefficient of viscosity of
air is 2 x 10-5Nsm-2 and g = 10m/s. Determine the radius of the
drop. (Neglect the upthrust in air)

2. A small sphere of radius 2.0mm and density 8.0 x 103kg/m3 is

released from rest at the surface of a along column of a viscous
liquid of density 1.3 x103kgm-3. The viscous force F opposing
the motion is proportional to the velocity V in m/s of the sphere
and is given by the formula F = 0.057V. Calculate the terminal
velocity of the sphere?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics Addison – London: Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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UNIT 4 SURFACE TENSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Surface Tension
3.1.1 Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension
3.2 Coefficient of Surface Tension
3.3 Force of Cohesion and Force of Adhesion
3.3.1 Angle of Contact
3.4 Excess Pressure in Bubbles and Curved Liquid Surfaces
3.4.1 Excess Pressure on curved Liquid Surfaces
3.4.2 Excess Pressure in Soap Bubbles
3.5 Capillarity: The Rise and Fall of Liquids in Capillary
Tubes
3.6 Measuring Surface Tension
3.6.1 Capillary Rise Method
3.7 Variation of Surface Tension with Temperature
3.8 Surface Tension and Surface Energy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Surface tension is another property of fluids that we have to examine in

this unit after the treatment of viscosity.

You would have observed that when water is dripping very slowly from
a partially closed tap, the water comes out in form of spherical drops and
not as a continuous stream but as a succession of drops. Why do they do
so?

It has also been observed that a clean needle if placed carefully on a

water surface makes a small depression on the surface and stays at rest
there without sinking, despite the fact that its density than that of water.
When a capillary tube is dipped in water, it has also been observed that
the water level in the tube rises whereas when a similar tube is dipped in
mercury, the mercury level is depressed. Some water insects have also
been observed to be able to walk, as it were, on the surface of water. All
these observations and common phenomena are regarded as a
consequences surface tension.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

The formation of soap bubbles could also be explained through the

existence of surface tension. Furthermore, most plants draw their water
from the soil by capillary rise of water through the hair like secondary
roots.

The study of surface tension is very important as it cuts across the

various fields in science. In this unit, we shall study the concepts of
surface tension. You will also studied the applications of surface
tension. The phenomenon of capillary is also discussed in details here.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• identify situations where the concept of surface tension in fluids

is illustrated
• explain the concept of surface tension using molecular ideas
• define the coefficient of surface tension
• distinguished between adhesive and cohesive forces
• explain the meaning of angle of contact
• state the excess pressure in bubbles and curved liquid surfaces in
relation to the surface tension and radius of the bubble or the
meniscus
• state the relationship between

- The height to which a liquid rises in a capillary tube and surface

tension.
- The depth to which a liquid falls in a capillary tube and surface
tension.

• determine the surface tension of a liquid by capillary rise or any

other method
• use Jaeger’s method to show variation of surface tension with
temperature
• define surface tension in terms of surface energy
• solve problems on the surface tension phenomenon.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Concept of Surface Tension

Molecules at the surface of water and other liquids have more energy
than those in the bulk volume of the liquid. This observation is what
makes the surface acts like a film or skin covering the liquid. Fro
example, a light insect called the water boatman can move across water

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without falling through. Mosquito larva can cling to understand of the

surface of water in a swamp. Alight steel needle also can be floated on
the surface of water. All the above observations are due to the surface
tension of water.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

What is surface tension? Give some examples of where surface tension

could be identified.

3.1.1 Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

In this section we shall explain how the molecules in a liquid surface

have more energy than those inside the liquid.

Fig. 19.1: Surface Tension

Consider three molecules A, B and C such that molecules B and C are at

the same surface of the liquid while molecule A is below the surface
liquid. It will be observed that molecule A will be attracted equally
round by neighbouring molecules inside the sphere of molecular
attraction as shown in (fig. 19.1). Now look at the two other molecules
B and C on the surface of the liquid. These molecules on the surface of
a liquid however are attracted by its neighbouring molecules to the sides
and downwards but not upward. The resultant of such molecular
attractions thus tends to pull the surface molecules into liquid. It is this
tendency to pull the surface molecules into the liquid that causes the

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

surface to become as small as possible. The surface behaves, as if it

were, tightened into an elastic film.

A molecule, which reaches the surface of the liquid, does work in

overcoming this force of attraction so it has a greater energy than those
molecules in the bulk of the liquid. Consequently, the surface has
energy. At equilibrium, the surface will have a minimum energy. This
means that the number of molecules in the surface is a minimum. So
the area of the surface of a given volume of liquid is a minimum.

A sphere is the volume of a liquid whose surface area is minimum. This

is why raindrops are spherical.

Small mercury drops on glass form small spheres but large drops are
flattened on the top owing to gravitational force, which lowered the
centre of gravity as much as possible. (See fig. 19.2).

Fig. 19.2: Drops of Mercury

Leads shots are manufactured by spraying molten lead from the top of a
tower. The liquid forms spheres as they fall due to surface tension.

3.2 Coefficient of Surface Tension

Surface tension is a property of a liquid. The magnitude of asurface

tension across/perpendicular to a unit length is known as the coefficient
of surface tension. Surface tension varies with purity of the liquid and
temperature. The coefficient of surface tension γ is defined as the force
per unit length in the surface acting perpendicular to one side of a line in
the surface.

 Force 
γ=  
 Lenght 

Surface tension is independent of the surface area. The unit of γ is Nm-

1
. The dimension of surface tension is MT-2.
Γ varies with the temperature of the liquid. At 20oC, γ is the value of
7.2 x 10-2Nm-1 for water, whereas at the same temperature, its value is
4.5 x 10-1Nm-1 for mercury.

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The surface tension γ, of liquid decrease with temperatures, molecules

have higher kinetic energy. They are thus, relatively further apart from
neighouring molecules. This therefore reduces the inward force hence
the work done against force is less. Molecules in the surface now have
less energy that at lower temperatures. That is, the surface tension is
less at high temperatures than at lower temperature.
γ=
T
If
l
∴ T = γ l ………………………………………………….…. (19.1)

For a rectangular slide with edge touching water surface as shown in fig.
19.3:

T = γ (2a + 2b) …………………………..……...……….……….. (19.2)

Fig. 19.3

3.3 Force of Cohesion and Force of Adhesion

Molecular forces between like molecules are called forces of cohesion.

For example two water molecules have cohesion forces between them.
The molecular forces between unlike molecules are called forces of
adhesion. For example, the force between molecules of water and those
of the glass vessel will constitutes adhesive forces.

Water wets are clings to clean glass because the adhesive forces between
glass and water molecules are greater than the cohesive forces of water.
Conversely, mercury does not wet clean glass but shrinks away from it
because the adhesive forces between mercury and glass molecules a re
less than the cohesive forces of mercury.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

How can you explain the situations where by the meniscus of water in a
glass and the meniscus of mercury in the same glass as shown in fig.
19.4 (i) & (ii)?

(i) (ii)
Fig. 19.4

Fig. 19.4 (i) shows water in a glass tube which produces a meniscus
(concave meniscus). It curves upwards. Whereas, fig. 19.4 (ii) shows
mercury in glass which produces a meniscus (convex meniscus) that
curves downwards. These two types of surfaces can be explained
through the concepts of adhesive and cohesive forces between the
molecules of the liquid and the container.

In fig. 19.4 (i) the adhesive forces between the water molecules and the
glass molecules are greater than the cohesive force between the water
molecules. On contrary, in fig. 19.4(ii), the adhesive forces between the
mercury molecules and the glass molecules are less than the cohesive
forces between the mercury molecules.

3.3.1 Angle of Contact

The angle of contact is another property used to show the different kinds
of meniscus (concave and convex) we obtain when a liquid is contained
in a tube. Angle of contact (θ) between a liquid and a solid is defined as
the angle measured through the liquid between the tangent to the liquid
surface where it touches the solid surface and the solid surface itself.

For example the angle of contact for pure water in contact with clean
glass taken as is zero θ = 0 (See fig. 19.5)

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 19.5

The angle of contact for olive oil is 15o (fig. 19.5 (ii), and the angle of
contact for mercury is 150o. It is to be noted that liquids that make
obtuse angles (θ>90o) of contact with glass or any other solid surface do
not wet the surfaces (i.e. mercury and glass. However, liquids with
acute angles (θ<90o) of contact wet the surface (i.e. water and glass).

In manufacture of raincoats, garment fibers are treated chemically so

that the acute angle made by water with the fiber is changed to an obtuse
angle, thus the water then forms drops, which can be shaken off from the
raincoat.

3.4 Excess Pressure in Bubbles and Curved Liquid Surfaces

The curvature of a liquid or a bubble formed in a liquid is related to the

surface tension of the liquid. In this section, we would relate surface
tension with the excess pressure that exists in the formation of bubbles
in liquids or in air and curved liquid surfaces.

Fig. 19.6: Excess Pressure in a Bubble

Consider a bubble formed inside a liquid as shown in fig. 19.6.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

We shall consider the equilibrium of one half of B of the bubble.

The total force due to the surface tension = 2πrγ where 2πr is the
circumference around which γ the surface tension acts.

The force due to the Pressure P1 is given byP1πr2.

The total force from left to right = γ2πr + P1πr2…………..…… (19.2)
The force from right to left = P2πr2 …………………..… (19.3)
Since the bubble is at equilibrium

∴ P2πr2 = γ2πr + P1πr2 ……….……………………… (19.4)

On rearranging the terms,

(P2 – P1) πr2 = 2πrγ

2πrγ
∴ (P2 – P1) =
πr 2
We get
2γ
(P2 – P1) =
r2
2γ
∴ Excess Pressure P = (P2 – P1) = = …………… (19.5)
r

3.4.1 Excess Pressure on Curved Liquid Surfaces

When capillary tubes are dipped in liquids, we have curved surfaces

otherwise known as meniscus as shown in (fig. 19.7).

For a curved surface or meniscus where r is the radius of curvature and γ

is the surface tension.

(i) (ii)

Fig. 19.7: Excess Pressure in Liquids in Capillary Tube

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2γ
The excess pressure is also expressed as P = ……….…….…. (19.6)
r
If the angle of contact is θ then the excess pressure is given as

2γ cos θ
P= ……………….…….………………………………. (19.7)
r

3.4.2 Excess Pressure in Soap Bubbles

A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in contact with air. One is inside
the bubble while the other is outside the bubble. The force of one half B
of the bubble due to the surface tension is thus:

γ x 2πr x 2 = 4πrγ

Fig. 19.8: Excess Pressure in a Soap Bubble

Force due to Pressure P1 = P1πr2

Force due to surface tension = 4πrγ
∴ Total force from left to right = P1πr2 + 4πrγ ...…. (19.8)
Total force due to Pressure P2 = P2πr2 ……...….. (19.9)

At equilibrium, therefore, we can write

P2πr2 = 4πrγ + P1πr2 ………………………...…… (19.10)

∴ P2πr2 - P1πr2 = 4πrγ
∴ (P2 – P1)πr2 = 4πrγ

On rearranging, we obtain the expression for excess pressure as

4πrγ
∴ (P2 – P1) =
πr 2
4γ
∴ Excess Pressure P = (P2 – P1) = = …………… (19.11)
r

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

From the above expressions on excess pressure, it will be observed that

the excess pressure (P) is inversely proportional to the radius of the
bubble or the curved surface. A smaller soap bubble has a greater
pressure inside it than a larger bubble. This is demonstrated when such
bubbles are formed on the ends of a tube. The smaller decreases in size
while the larger grows slightly due to airflow (Fig. 19.9).

Fig. 19.9

When the air flow ceases, the air pressure inside has equalized. Thus the
radius of the film to which the small bubble collapse is equal to the
radius of large bubble on the other side. Fig. 19.10 shows two soap
bubbles of unequal size blown on the ends of a tube. Communication
between them is being prevented by a closed tap in the middle. If the
tap is opened, the smaller bubble is observed to collapse gradually and
the size of the larger bubble increases.

The explanation for this observation is that the pressure P1 in the smaller
bubble is greater than P2, the pressure in the large bubble.
Consequently, air flows from P1 toP2.

Fig. 19.10

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

Given that the coefficient of surface tension γ for soap bubble is 25 x 10-
3
Nm-1, if its radius is 0.5cm. Calculate the excess pressure in a soap
bubble.

3.5 Capillarity: The Rise and Fall of Liquids in Capillary

Tubes

You would have observed that when different types of tubes (of varying
diameter) are dipped in water, the water rises differently in such tubes.
The height is greatest with tubes with smallest diameter. Such tubes are
called capillary tubes. In other words, a tube with a fine and uniform
bore throughout its length is called a capillary tube as shown in fig.
19.11.

Fig. 19.11: Capillary Rise in Tubes

The behaviour of liquids in capillary tubes can be associated with

surface tension of liquids. For example, water rises in capillary tubes.
In case of mercury, the level of the liquid falls (fig. 19.12) as will be
discussed later in this section.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Fig. 19.12 Mercury in Capillary Tube

With our previous knowledge of angle of contactθ, and excess pressure

on one side of a curved liquid surface, we can deduce that some liquids
will rise in a capillary tube whereas some will be depressed, that is, will
fall.

The excess pressure formula

2γ
P2 – P1 =
r
For a bubble in water also applies to the excess pressure across and
curved liquid surface of radius r which is spherical in shape. We shall
therefore apply the relationship to the meniscus of water in a clean glass
capillary tube when the angle of contact is zero.

(ii)
(i) (ii)
Fig. 19.13: Capillary Rise of Liquid

Fig. 19.3 (i) shows the meniscus when the capillary tube is first placed
inside water with zero angle of contact. The meniscus curves upwards
with radius r equal to that of the capillary tube. The pressure P2 above

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

2γ
the meniscus is greater than the pressure P1 just below by. But P2 =
r
H, where H is the atmospheric pressure and P1 = H, since the level of
water is the same inside and outside the tube.

This, obviously, is impossible thus the meniscus in fig. 19.13 is

2γ
therefore unstable. Inorder to P2 make greater than P1 by , the water
r
will rise to a height h, above the outside as shown in fig. 19.13 (ii).

Here the pressure above the meniscus is still H but the pressure is now
H-hpg from the hydrostatic pressure where p is the density of the liquid.

2γ
Hence, P2 – P1 = H – (H – hpg) =
r
2γ
∴ P2 – P1 = hpg =
r
2γ
∴ hpg = ………………………..……………………… (19.12)
r

Suppose the liquid has angle of contact θ the liquid then rises to a height
h given by
2γ
hpg = cos θ ……………..………….………………… (19.13)
r
This is obtained from the fact that the vertical component of γ is γcosθ

(i) (ii)

Fig. 19.14: Rise of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

Fig. 19.14 (ii) shows what happens when the capillary tube in fig. 19.14

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(i) is pushed down into water so that the height h1 of the tube above the
water outside is less than h. Note that the liquid does not overflow. The
meniscus at the top of the tube now forms a surface of radius R bigger
than r of the capillary tube and makes an acute angle of contact θ with
the glass.
2γ
Excess pressure = h1pg =
R
2γ
From fig. 19.14 (i) Excess pressure = hpg =
r
2γ
∴ 1= = cos θ …………………..……………………...….. (19.14)
h
h r

From geometrical point of view, it can be shown that

cos θ=
r
R
Thus, the angle of contact can be determined.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

Given that h1 = 4cm and h = 8cm. Determine the angle of contact of the
liquid (as shown in fig. 19.14)?

Fig. 19.15: Fall of Liquid in a Capillary Tube

Fig. 19.15 shows what happens when a glass tube is dipped into mercury
which has an obtuse angle of contact 150o with the glass. In this case
the equilibrium is obtained when the mercury falls to a depth of h below
the outside level. Pressure P3 below the curve is greater than P4 or H,
the atmospheric pressure above.

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2γ cos 30
P3 – P4 = Excess Pressure =
r
Since cos(180o - 150o ) = cos(30o )

If P3 = H + hpg
and P3 = H
2γ cos 30
∴ P3 – P4 = (H + hpg) – H =
r
2γ cos 30
∴ P3 – P4 = hpg =
r
2γ cos 30
∴ hpg =
r

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

A vertical glass capillary tube of radius 2 x 10-4m is placed inside clean

water in a beaker

(a) Calculate the height that the water will rise. The tube is now
pushed down until its top is 4cm above the water level outside.

(b) Describe what happens to the water inside the tube (surface
tension of water = 7.2 x 10-2Nm-1 assume g = 10ms-2).

3.6 Measuring Surface Tension

So far you have learnt about surface tension and the capillary tubes. In
the next section, you will learn about measuring of surface tension.

From what we have discussed so far on surface tension, is it possible to

measure the surface tension of water experimentally?

Surface tension of water may be determined by two methods:

• By capillary rise
• By microscopic slide

But here, we will discuss only about the capillary rise method.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

3.6.1 Capillary Rise Method

Theoretical Background

Fig. 19.16
Fig. 19.16

Let γ be the surface tension of the liquid and it is defined as force per
unit length. Thus the total upward force in the capillary tube due to the
surface tension is given as 2πrγ. This force is balanced by the weight of
the liquid of the column h above the outside level of the liquid.
The volume of the liquid = πr2h
The mass of the liquid = volume x density = πr2h x p

∴ The weight of the liquid = πr2hpg = mg

Since the upward force balanced the weight, the downward force

∴ 2πrγ = πr2hpg
πr 2 hρg
∴ γ=
2πr
πr 2 hρg
γ = ………………………………………….. (19.15)
2πr

thus if r, h, p and g are known γ can be determined.

Thus in the use of capillary rise of water in measuring surface tension,

the following assumptions are made:

• The angle of contact are made.

• The small amount of liquid above the bottom of the meniscus is
negligible as shown in fig. 19.17

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Fig. 19.17

Precautions

• A clean glass capillary tube is used such that the angle of contact
is zero.
• Pure water or clean water free of impurities is used.

Required

• Clean water
• Clean capillary tube.
• A traveling microscope with a vernier scale to measure h. Where
h is the top of the meniscus level of water in the beaker.

A pin P is made to touch the surface of the water (fig. 19.18).

Fig. 19.18

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

• the radius r of the tube is measured by cutting the tube and using
the traveling microscope to measure the diameter.

Where r = D/2

Having determined r, h and using the values of p (density of liquid) and

g (acceleration due to gravity), then the surface tension γ can be
obtained.

3.7 Variation of Surface Tension with Temperature

Jaeger’s Method

The rise in a capillary tube is not suitable for measuring the variation of
surface tension of water with temperature. This is because the water in
the beaker can be varied in temperature but the water in the capillary
tube will not be at the same temperature.

Thus, Jaeger used excess pressure in a bubble formed inside water to

measure how the surface tension γ for water varies with temperature.

Fig. 19.19: Jaeger’s Apparatus

From fig. 19.19 a bubble is formed slowly at the end of the tube A
dipped into a beaker of water B by air from a vessel W. an oil
manometer M is used to measure the pressure inside the bubble as it
grows, by forming a bubble inside a liquid, and measuring the excess
pressure, Jaeger found how the surface tension of a liquid varied with
temperature.

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2γ
Excess pressure = hρg – h1ρ1g =
r
∴γ= (hρ – h1ρ1)
rg
2

Thus γ can be determined from the values of r, g, h, h1, ρ and ρ1

From fig. 19.19 (i), a capillary tube A is connected to a vessel W

containing a funnel C, so that air is driven slowly through A when water
enters W through C. Capillary tube A is placed inside a beaker
containing liquid L. When air is passed through it at a slow rate, a
bubble forms a slowly at the end of A.

Fig. 19.19 (ii) shows the bubble at three possible stages of growth. The
radius grows from a to b. The pressure is larger at a since the radius is
smaller when it grows to c, the radius of c is greater than b. Hence it
cannot contain the increasing pressure.

The downward force of the bubble due to the pressure, in fact, would be
greater than the upward force due to the surface tension. Hence the
bubble becomes unstable and breaks away from A when it radius is the
same as A.

Thus as the bubble grows, the pressure in it grows to maximum and then
breaks away. This maximum pressure is observed from a manometer <
M containing a light oil of density ρ. A series of observations are taken
as several bubbles grow.

Maximum pressure inside bubble = H + hρg

Where, h = maximum difference in levels in manometer M

H = atmospheric pressure
Pressure outside the bubble = H + h1ρ1g

Where, h1 = depth of orifice of A below the level of liquid L

ρ1 = density of liquid L

2γ
Excess pressure = (H + hρg) – (H + h1ρ1g) = hρg – h1ρ1g =
r
2γ
∴ = g(hρ + h1ρ1g)
r
∴ = (hρ - h1ρ1g) ………………………………. (19.16)
rg
=
2

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

By adding warm liquid to the vessel containing L. the variation of the

surface tension with temperature can be determined.

In conclusion, it can be established that the surface tension of the liquid

decreases as the temperature increases. There has been no satisfactory
formula to relate surface tension wit temperature. On explanation about
this observation is that the decrease in surface tension with temperature
may be attributed to greater separation of molecules at higher
temperatures. Force of attraction is thus reduced; hence, the surface
tension is reduced.

3.8 Surface Tension and Surface Energy

So far we have defined surface tension of a liquid as a force per unit

length where force are present in a system, there may also be energy.

For example, energy exists in gravitational fields. The problem we wish

to look into in this section is to see if we can define surface tension in
terms of surface energy. We shall now consider the surface energy of a
liquid and its relationship to its surface tension γ.

Fig. 19.20: Surface Tension & Surface Energy

Consider a film liquid stretched across a horizontal frame ABCD (fig.

19.20). Since γ is the force per unit length the force on the rod BC of
length l = γ x 2 l .

The length is 2 l because there are two soap film surfaces in contact
with air. Suppose the rod is now moved through a distance b from BC
to B ′C ′ against the surface tension forces, so that the surface area of the
film increases. The temperature of the film then usually decreases in
which case the surface tension alters. If the surface area increases under
isothermal condition (isothermal means constant temperature) however,
the surface tension is constant we can then say that if γ is the surface
tension at that temperature:

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Work done in enlarging the surface area (W) = force x distance

= 2 γl x b
= γ x 2lb

But 2 l b is the total increase in the surface area.

∴ =γ
Work done in enlarging the area
a
=γ
W
2 lb

= γ ……………………………..……………………. (19.17)
W
A

Thus γ is defined as the work done in increasing the surface area by unit
amount provided there is no temperature change of the surface as the
change is made. That is the change is isothermal.

This is also called the free surface energy because the mechanical work
done can be released when the surface contracts. Thus “γ can be
defined as the work done per unit area in increasing the surface area
of a liquid under isothermal conditions”.

If the film temperature fell while the area was increased heat would flow
into the film. The increase in total energy of the area would then be
greater than γ.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

A soap bubble of radius 3cm is blown under isothermal conditions from

(a) A soap film of very small area and

(b) A bubble of radius 2cm. Determine the work in each case

(surface tension of a soap solution = 3.0 x 10-2Nm-1).

4.0 CONCLUSION

The surface tension is a property of a liquid. It is a surface phenomenon

of liquids, which explain why their surfaces act as skin, a boundary
made up of surface molecules having a resultant force towards the bulk
of the liquid. The surface tension explains then formation and shapes of
the meniscus of a liquid inside a tube. It has been used to explain why
some liquids wet and do not wet glass through the concepts of adhesive
and cohesive forces of liquids and that of the glass in which the liquids

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are placed. Furthermore, surface tension explains the rise and fall of
liquids in capillary tubes and the formation of bubbles in liquids and in
air. The coefficient of surface tension is defined as the force per unit
length. The surface tension of a liquid decreases with temperature. The
surface tension of a of a liquid is also defined in terms of the work done
in extending the surface area a liquid.

Finally, a method to determine the γ of a liquid has been described.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt the following:

• Surface tension is a surface phenomenon in liquids;

• The coefficient of surface tension γ is defined as the force per
unit length acting normally on one side of a line on the surface;
• The angle of contact for clean water and clean glass is zero;
• Adhesive force between glass and water molecules is greater than
the cohesive force between water molecules;
• The angle of contact is obtuse for mercury and glass;
• The excess pressure ρ for curved liquid surface
2γ cos θ
ρ=
r
• The excess pressure for bubble in water ρ =
2γ
r
• With connected soap bubbles air passes from the small radius as
the large bubble;
• When water rises to the top of a short capillary tube it does not
overflow but forms a m a meniscus at the top which has an acute
angles of contact;
• Surface energy is defined in terms of the coefficient of surface
tension γ;
• Surface energy is the work done in increasing the surface area by
unit amount under constant temperature (isothermal) condition.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

Refer to Text.

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ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

4γ
Excess pressure P =
r
4 x 25 x 10 -3 Nm -1
P= -2
= 20Nm-2
0.5 x 10 m
The excess Pressure = 20Nm-2

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

cos θ =
r h1
=
R h
∴ cos θ =
4
8
= 0.5
∴ -1
cos 0.5
= 60o

The angle of contact of liquid is 60o.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4

(a)
(a)

Fig. 19.21

2γ
As you know = hpg
rρg

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Now substituting the values, we get

N
= 2 x 7.2 x 10-2
m
kg m
2 x 10-4m x 1000 3
x 10 2
m s
2 x 7.2 x 10 -2
= m
2x10 −4 x 1000 x10

= 7.2 x 10-2m
h = 7.2cm

(b) When the tube is pushed down so that its top is 4cm above the
water level outside the water does not overflow. It remains at the
top with an acute angle of contact θ and a new radius of curvature
R.

Fig. 19.22

In this case, the excess pressure above the curved liquid is

2γ
= H – (H – h1pg)
R
2γ
∴ = h1pg
R
2γ
But, = hpg
r
Where, r = 2 x 10-4m h = 7.2cm

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∴ = cosθ
r h 4
= 1 =
R h 7.2
∴ cosθ =
4
= 0.5556
7.2
∴ θ = cos-10.5556
∴ θ = 56o

2 x 10 -4 4
=
R 7.2
7.2 x 10 -4 x 2
∴ R= = 3.6 x 10-4m
4

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5

The gain in surface tension = The gain in surface tension = γ x increase

in surface area

(a) The area of a sphere = 4πr2

Since the soap bubble has two surfaces with air

Increase in surface energy = γ x 4πr2 x 2
= 3 x 10-2N/m x 8π x 9 x 10-6J
= 3 x 8π x 9 x 10-6J
= 68.58 x 10-6J
= 6.79 x 10-4J

Work done = 6.79 x 10-4J

(b) In this case energy increase = γ x 8π(r12 – r22)

8π(r32 – r22) x 10-4m2
4
= 3 x 10-2
7.2
= 10-4J
= Work Done

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1.
r2 = 4cm r1 = 5cm

P2 P2 P1 P1
H H

Fig. 19.1
In fig. 1.1 above are two connected soap bubbles of radii 4cm and
5cm respectively, which have a soap film of radius r between
them. Calculate the radius of r.

2. In the experiment to determine the coefficient of surface tension γ

for water, using the capillary rise of water, the following values
were obtained:
r = 0.2mm, h = 6.6cm, g = 9.8m/s2, ρ = 1000kg/m3
Calculate the coefficient of surface tension.

3. In the experiment of determining the coefficient of surface

tension using the microscope slide method, mass of slide was
found to be 0.88g, a = 6.0cm, b = 0.2cm, g = 9.8m/s2. what value
of γ do these data give?

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics Addison – London: Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

UNIT 5 OTHER PROPERTIES OF GASES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
3.1.1 Definition of Dalton’s Law
3.1.2 Proof of Dalton’s Law
3.2 Graham’s Law of Diffusion of Gases
3.2.1 Graham’s Law
3.3 Avogadro’s Law
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

We have discussed so far Boyle’s law, Charles’s Law and the pressure
law in understanding the behaviour of gases. There are other laws that
also describe the behaviour of gases. These are the Dalton’s law of
partial pressure, Graham’s law of diffusion of gases and Avogadro’s
law. These laws are equally important in the study of both physics and
chemistry. This unit has therefore been focused to discuss these other
laws that show the characteristics behaviour of gases.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• state Dalton’s law of partial pressure

• state Graham’s law of diffusion of gases
• state Avogadro’s laws
• solve problems based on these laws.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

A closed vessel may contain a mixture of gases. For example when a

gas is being prepared and collected over water, as shown in fig. 20.1, the
space in the gas jar will contain not only the gas being collected but also
some water vapour.

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

- - - - - -- -
- - - - -- --
------------
------------
------------
------------
------------
- - - - - -- -
- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -
- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -
- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -
- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - - - -- -- - - -
- - - - - -- - - - - ------ - - - - -- -

Fig: 20.1

A closed vessel with some water inside it may also contain a mixture of
air and saturated water vapour. That is, there is an equilibrium between
the vapour phase and the liquid phase.

Dalton’s law of partial pressure describes the pressures of the two gases
in a container.

Thus, in the study of chemistry, when a gas is being prepared and

collected over water, there is a situation whereby the gas exerts its own
pressure while the saturated water vapour pressure also plays a part.

3.1.1 Definition of Dalton’s Law

Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that;

“In a mixture of gases, the total pressure is the sum of the pressures of
the parts or individual gases each gas occupying the volume of the
mixture e provided the gases do not reach chemically with one another”.

When we have a mixture of air and water vapour, we usually apply the
gas laws to the air. We do not apply the laws to water vapour. This is
because the mass of water vapour may alter through the condensation as
it occurs when the temperature falls. We therefore cannot apply the gas
were there are changes in pressure and temperature.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

3.1.2 Proof of Dalton’s Law

Consider a volume V containing

• n1 molecules of gas each of mass m1, mean square velocity c12 ,

and exerting a pressure of P1.
• n2 molecules of another gas each of mass m2, mean square
velocity of c 22 and exerting a pressure P2.
• n3 molecules of yet another gas of mass m3, with a mean square
velocity c 32 exerting a pressure of P3.

Let the whole mass be at the same temperature. Each gas will expand
and fill up the whole volume of the container. Each gas will therefore
occupy a volume V and will exert its own pressure.

From Kinetic theory of gases, we then obtain the following expressions

for the gases:

2 1 2
• n1m1 c12 = n1  m1 c1  …………………...…..... (20.1)
1
3 2 
P1V =
3
2 1 2
• P2V = n2m2 c 22 = n2  m 2 c 2  ...………………...….... (20.2)
1
3 3 2 
2 1 2
• P3V = n3m3 c 32 = n3  m 3 c 3  …………………...….... (20.3)
1
3 3 2 

Since the gases are at the same temperature, the average kinetic energy
of the molecules of each kind of gas will therefore be the same.

That is,

1 2 1 2 1 2 2
m1 c1 = m2 c2 = m3 c3 = KE = m c ………..……. (20.4)
2 2 2

the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules. Adding the equations
(20.1), (20.2), and (20.3) we then obtain
∴
1 1 2
(P1 + P2 +P3)V = (n1 + n2 + n3) m c .......................… (20.5)
2 2

But n1 + n2 + n3 is the total number of molecules n, and the total

pressure PT can be expressed as,
3 1 2 1 2
PTV = n m c = nm c ………………….……..……. (20.6)
2 2 3

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∴(P1 + P2 +P3)V =
1 2 1 2
(n1+n2+n3)m c = PTV = nm c ..............… (20.7)
3 3

∴ PT = P1 + P2 + P3 ………………….………….……………. (20.8)

Thus the total pressure due to a mixture of gases or vapours, which do

not interact in any way, is equal to the sum of their partial pressure.
This is the Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

3.2 Graham’s Law of Diffusion of Gases

We have observed that gases are always in random motion. They move
from region of high concentration to region of low concentration until a
state of equilibrium is reached.

Gases also been observed to move or pass through porous membranes or

pots. The movement from region of higher concentration to low region
of concentration is what is described as diffusion.

Graham established the law that governs the diffusion of gases as they
pass through porous membranes or porous pots.

3.2.1 Graham’s Law

Graham’s law of diffusion of gases states that “the rates of diffusion of

gases through a porous membrane or pot under given conditions are
inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities”.

From Kinetic theory of gases, we know that

1 2
PV = nm c ……………………………………………… (20.9)
3
On rearranging this expression, we get

∴ c2 = 3PV ……………………………………….……… (20.10)

nm
2
Where, c = mean square velocity of gas
P = pressure of the gas
V = volume of the gas
n = number of molecules
m = mass of each molecule
∴ nm = M = total mass of gas

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Or in another form, it can be written as

∴ c2 = 3P x V = 3P x V ………………………………. (20.11)
nm M

But we know that

mass
= density of gas
volume
∴
M
=ρ
V
Therefore,
∴
M 1
= …………………………………………………. (20.12)
V ρ

Substituting Eq. (20.12) in the Eq. (20.11), we get

2 3P
Hence, c =
ρ

∴
3P
c = the average velocity of gas = …………………. (20.13)
ρ

∴
1
c ∝
ρ
1
c ∝ ………..……………………………………… (20.14)
ρ

Thus if we have two gases at the same pressure P, and their densities (P1
2
and P2 and average mean square velocities c12 and c2 respectively, then

2 3P
c1 = and
ρ1

3P 2
c2 =
ρ2
On dividing these Eqs. We obtain

∴ ÷
2 3P 3P
c1 =
ρ1 ρ2
2
c2

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PHY 101 ELEMENTARY MECHANICS, HEAT AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

3P ρ2
= x
ρ1 3P
c1 ρ2
∴ = ………………………………………… (20.15)
c2 ρ1

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

100cm3 of a gas A diffuses in 12 seconds and 100cm3 of a gas B

diffused in 40 seconds. Calculate the rates of diffusion of two gases.

3.3 Avogadro’s Law

Avogadro’s law has been very useful in chemistry. For example, it

enables chemists to deduce the fact that some gases such as oxygen,
hydrogen and chlorine are diatomic. Chemists were able to use the
volumes of reacting gases to deduce the number of molecules involved
in the chemical reaction.

For example experiments have shown that one volume of hydrogen will
react with one volume of chlorine to produce two volumes of hydrogen
chloride.
H + Cl ⇒ HCl
1vol 1vol 2vols

With Avogadro’s law we can say that,

1 molecule of Hydrogen will react with 1 molecule of Chlorine to

produces 2 molecules of Hydrogen Chloride. To produce 2 molecules
of HCl implies that 1 molecule of Hydrogen will be H2 while one
molecule of Chlorine will be Cl2. That is, both Hydrogen and Chlorine
are diatomic.

Avogadro’s law states that,

“Equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions such as

temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules”

Let us consider two equal volumes V of two gases at the same pressure
1
and same temperature. Same temperature means that m c 2 , the
2
average molecular kinetic energy is the same in both cases.

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

Suppose there are n1 molecules of mass m1of one gas and n2 molecules
of mass m2 in the other. Let their mean square velocities be c12 and c 22
From kinetic theory of gases, we can write

1
PV = n1m1 c12 for the first gas ……………………………….... (20.16)
3
1 2
and n2m2 c2 for the second gas ……………………………….. (20.17)
3
Since P and V are the same for both gases then
1 1 2
n1m1 c12 = n2m2 c2 ………………..………………….. (20.18)
3 3

Multiply and divide both sides of the Eq. (20.18), by 2 then we will
obtain
2 1 2 2 1 2
n1m1 c1 = n2m2 c2
3 2 3 2
∴
1 2 1 2
n1m1 c1 = n2m2 c2
2 2
∴
1 2 1 2
n1 x 1m1 c1 = n2 x m2 c2 .…………………………. (20.19)
2 2

1 2 1 2
But 1m1 c1 = m2 c2 energy of the molecules since the temperature of
2 2
the gases is the same.

∴ n1 = n2 ……………………………………………. (20.20)

Here, the two gases contain the same number of molecules.

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit we have learnt Dalton’s law partial pressure of two or more
gases, Graham’s law of diffusion of gases through porous membranes or
pots and Avogadro’s law of combining volumes of gases, as they affect
the behaviour of gases. We have also been able to validate or prove
these laws by suing the molecular kinetic theory of gases.

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5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit you have learnt

• The Dalton’s law of partial pressure which enables us to

determine the pressure of gases contained in a given volume.
• For Dalton’s law
PTOTAL = P1 + P2 + P3 + ………..
• The Graham’s law of diffusion of gases states that the rate of
diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the relative density
of the gas or its relative molecular mass.
• Avogadro’s law of combining gases, which states that equal
volume of gases under the same conditions such as pressure and
temperature, contain equal numbers of molecules.

ANSWER TO SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

V
Rate of diffusion of A =
t
100cm 3
=
12s
cm 3
= 8.3
s
V
Rate of diffusion of B =
t
100cm 3
=
40s
cm 3
= 2.5
s

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. A closed vessel contains a mixture of air and water vapour at

27oC and the total pressure is 1.06 x 105Pa.
At this temperature the water is just saturated. If the temperature
is raised to 87oC calculate the air pressure and the water vapour
pressure.

(S.V.P. of water at 27oC = 0.04 x 105Pa, S.V.P. of water at 17oC

= 0.02 x 105Pa).

2. As in question 1, if the temperature is now lowered to 17oC.

What is now the total pressure of the systems?

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PHY 101 MODULE 4

(S.V.P. of water at 27oC = 0.04 x 105Pa, S.V.P. of water at 17oC

= 0.02 x 105Pa).

3. Oxygen diffused at the rate of 4cm3s-1. Calculate the rate of

diffusion of methane under the same condition.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Awe, O. and Okunola, O. O. (1986). Comprehensive Certificate Physics,

Ibadan: University Press.

Ference, M. (Jnr.), Lemon, H.B. and Stephenson, R. J. (1970).

Analytical Experimental Physics, Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.

Feyman, R. P., Leighton, R. B. and Sands, M. (1971). The Feyman

Lectures on Physics, California: Addison – Wesley Publishing
Company Limited.

Flowers, B. H. and Mendoza, E. (1970). Properties of Matter, London:

John Wiley and Sons Limited.

Noaks, M. A. (1963). New Intermediate Physics, Canada: Macmillan

and company Limited.

Soars, F. W., Zemansky, M.W. and Young, H. D. (1980). College

Physics Addison – London: Wesley Publishing Company.

Tyler, F. (1966). Heat and Thermodynamics. London: Edwards Arnold

Publisher Limited.

Wilkinson, J. (1983). Essentials of Physics, Australia: Macmillan

Education Publishers.

Zemansky, M.W. (1968). Heat and Thermodynamics. New York:

McGraw-Hill Book Company.

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