LECTURE MODULES

in
HEAT TRANSFER

By: Engr. G Sainz Belonio

TERM: PRELIM

Heat transfer is the transfer of heat energy occurring practically in every engineering process.
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred across the boundary as a result of temperature
difference. The fundamental law governing this phenomenon is that heat maybe transferred from
a high-temperature region to one of lower temperature but never be from a lower-temperature
region to one of higher temperature. The greater the temperature difference the more rapidly will
the heat be transferred. Conversely, the lower the temperature difference, the slower will be at
which heat is transferred.

Since the transfer of heat is in reality a transfer of energy, it necessarily follows the law of
conservation of energy that the heat emitted by the high-temperature region must be exactly
equal to the heat absorbed by the low-temperature region. The science of heat transfer concerns
itself primarily with the determination of the quantity of heat transmitted from one region to
another.

APPLICATIONS OF HEAT TRANSFER

The transfer of heat from one region to another occurs in many processes and the principles of
heat transfer are involved in the design of many forms of industrial and commercial equipment.

Below are some common processes wherein heat transfer can be observed in the different
equipment as follows:

(1) In a steam boiler must be transmitted from the fire and hot gases, through tubes and
plates, and into the water for boiling it.
(2) In closed feed-water heaters and in economizers.
 (3) In surface condensers for steam, ammonia, and other refrigerants.
(4) In steam and hot-water systems
(5) Through the walls and roofs of buildings
(6) In evaporators or stills
(7) In the cooling of compressors and engine cylinders
(8) In the lubrication of bearing and other engine parts and many more

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

I. HEAT TRANSFER BY CONDUCTION

Conduction is the transfer of heat from a higher temperature substance to the adjacent lower
temperature body. Conduction takes place in solids and stationary fluids. Conduction depends on
the transfer of energy from one molecule to another within the heat transfer medium and, in this
sense, thermal conduction is analogous to electrical conduction.

This process is not a simple one, and its exact nature, which is dependent on the type of material,
is not completely understood. Generally in solids, the particles of matter (molecules, atoms and
electrons in the high temperature region, being at high energy levels, will transmit some of their
energy to the adjacent lower-temperature regions. In gases, the interchange of kinetic energy by
molecular collisions is probably the mode of transferring heat.

Fourier’s Law of Heat Transfer by Conduction:

(a) Heat is directly proportional to the surface area of the body.
(b) Heat is directly proportional to the temperature difference on the two faces of the
body.
(c) Heat is inversely proportional to the thickness.
(d) Heat is dependent upon the material of the body.

General Equations for Conduction:

−A dt
Q∝
dx
 −kA dt
Q=
dx
where: Q = conduction heat transfer (Watts or BTU/hr)
A = area normal to heat flow (m2 or ft2)

k = coefficient of thermal conductivity of material (BTU-in/hr-ft2-oF, W/m-oC)

dt = temperature difference (oC or oF)
dx = differential of thickness (mm or in)

Note: The negative sign indicates that the temperature decreases in the direction of the
heat flow.

Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity (k):

The thermal conductivity is defined as the measure of the rate of heat transfer across a unit of
thickness of material, for a unit cross-sectional area and for a unit difference in temperature. Its
numerical value is different for different materials and varies somewhat for the same materials at
different temperatures.

Thermal conductivity of common materials (k, W/m-oC):

Metals Building materials Thermal insulations
Aluminum 210 Brick 0.7 asbestos 0.1
Copper 360 Concrete 0.8 foam plastics 0.04
Steel 44 Wood 0.2 glass fibre 0.05

STEADY-STATE EQUATIONS FOR CONDUCTION OF HEAT:

A. CONDUCTION THROUGH PLANE OR FLAT WALLS
When heat flows into one surface of a body and at the same time flows out of another
surface of the body, it encounters three separate resistances. First, there is a resistance to
the inflow of heat at the hot surface (or hot surface fluid film). Then the body itself which
acts as the main conveyor of heat offers a resistance to the flow of heat from the hot
surface to the cold surface. Finally, there is a resistance to the outflow of heat at the cold
surface (or cold surface fluid film).
 If the amount of heat flowing into a body is exactly equal to the heat flowing out, then the
temperature will be different at different points within the body but for any given point
the temperature will remain constant. This condition is called the steady state and refers
only to those cases where the temperature at any given point within a body is independent
of the time.

(1) Conduction Through a Single Plane Wall (Unidirectional Conduction):

Consider a single plane wall, as shown in the figure, with parallel surfaces,
x (m or ft) apart, maintained at constant uniform temperature ta and tb and the area A
which is constant.

(a) Neglecting the fluid film:

a b
A
Q
−kA (t b−t a) kA (t a−t b )
Q=Q ab = =
dx x
x
Figure: Single Plane Wall
where: x = thickness of the wall A = area normal to heat flow
ta = hot surface temperature tb = cold surface temperature

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 1:
A wall is made of firebricks 6 inches thick and has 90oF difference in temperature both sides.
Calculate the heat transferred in W/m2 through the wall if the thermal conductivity of the bricks
is 0.65 BTU/hr-ft-oF. (ans. 369 W/m2)

Approach:
Given: x = 6 in. ta – tb = 90oF k = 0.65 BTU/hr-ft-oF
Required: Heat transferred across the wall per area (Q/A)
Note: since no wall area is given
kA (t a−t b)
Solutions: Q=Q ab =
x

BTU
Q ¿ Qab = (0.65 hr−ft−F ) ( A ) (90 F) = 117 (A) BTU/hr-ft 2

¿¿
in Watts/m2:
Q BTU 1.055 KJ 1 hr (3,28)2 ft 2
A
= 117 hr−ft 2
x 1 BTU
x 3600 sec
x
1 m2
Q
A
= 0.369 KJ/sec-m2 or 0.369 KW/m2
Q 2 1000W
A
= 0.369 KW/m x 1 KW
= 369 W/m2 (answer)

(b) Considering fluid film:

Fluid film hampers the heat transfer rate. Heat transfer in a fluid film is
considered heat transfer by convection and can be represented by the equation,
Q = A h ∆ t. Fluid film
a b
Considering inside and outside films: hi ho Q
Q=Q ab=Qia =Q bo=Qio
X A
A (t i−t o)
Q=
1 x 1 where: Qia = A hi ¿)
+ +
hi k ho
Q bo= A h o (t b−t o)
kA (t a−t b)
Q ab =
x
where: hi = inside film convective heat transfer coefficient
ho = outside film convective heat transfer coefficient
 ti = hot side film temperature to = cold side film temperature

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 2:
One side of a plane wall is maintained at 100 oC, while the other side is exposed to a convection
environment having t = 10oC and h = 10 W/m2-C. The wall has a thermal conductivity k = 1.6
W/m-C and 40 cm thick. Calculate the heat flux through the wall in W/m2.
(ans. 257.16 W/m2)
Approach:
Given: x = 40 cm = 0.4 m ta = 100oC tb = to = 10oC
ho = 10 W/m2-C k = 1.6 W/m-C

Required: Heat transferred across the wall per area (Q/A)

Note: since no wall area is given
A(t a −t o )
Q=
Solutions: x 1
+
k ho
( 100−10 ) C
Q 0.4 m 1
A = W
+
W
1.6 10 2
m−C m −C
Q
A = 257.14 W/m2 (answer)

ASSIGNMENT # 1 – PRELIM:
Instruction: Solve the following problems below. Show pertinent solutions.

(1) Compute the amount of heat transferred in one hour through a solid brick wall 6 m x 2.9
m x 225 mm, when the outer surface is at 5oC and the inner surface is 17oC. The
coefficient of thermal conductivity of the brick is approximately 0.6 W/m-K.
(ans. 2,004.48 KJ)
 (2) How much heat will flow in 24 hours through a plaster wall that is 0.50 inch thick and 8
ft x 14 ft in area if the temperature is 80oF on one side and 40oF on the other?
BTU −¿
Use k = 3.25 . (ans. 6.99 x 105 BTU)
hr−ft 2−F

(3) Find the thermal conductivity of the 0.25 m thick material with an area of 5 m2 and a
temperature difference of 10oC, if the cold side is exposed to convection environment
having h = 10 W/m2-C and the heat transferred during 2 hours test is 2000 KJ.

QUIZ # 1 - PRELIM
Instruction: Solve the following problems below. Show pertinent solutions. Submit answers
via messenger group chat through screenshots.
1. A horizontal plate of steel 2 inches thick is covered by a blanket of insulation of the same
thickness. The temperature of the lower side of the steel is 500oF and of the upper side of
the insulation is 100oF.
k for steel is 29 BTU/hr-ft-oF
k for the insulation is 1 BTU/hr-ft-oF.
Determine the temperature of the upper side of the steel plate.

2. A solid wall is made of face brick 4 inches thick, cement mortar of ½ inch thick, and 1-2-
4 mix stone concrete 8 inches thick. If the temperature of the exposed surface of the
concrete is 70oF and the temperature of the exposed surface of the face brick is 31oF, find:
(a) The heat transferred in BTU/hr-ft2.
(b) The temperature between the mortar and the concrete.

(2) Conduction Through Composite Plane Walls (Unidirectional Conduction):

Figure below shows sections of two types of composite walls. A wall made up of slabs in
series is shown in the figure.
k1 k2
(a) Neglecting fluid film:
 A
Q=Q ab=Q bc

Q
A(t a −t c )
Q=
x1 x2
+
k1 k2
x1 x2
a b c
Notations: ta tb tc
A = area normal to heat flow tb = interface temperature between two layers
ta = hot surface temperature tc = cold surface temperature
x 1=thickness of first wal x 2=thickness of second wall
k1 = thermal conductivity of first wall k2 = thermal conductivity of the second wall

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 3:
A vertical furnace wall is made up of an inner wall of firebrick 20 cm thick followed by
insulating brick 15 cm thick and then an outer wall of 1 cm thick. The surface temperature of the
wall adjacent to the combustion chamber is 1200oC while that of the outer surface of steel is
50oC. The thermal conductivities of the wall material in W/m-C are: firebrick, 10; insulating
brick, 0.26; and steel, 45. Neglecting the film resistances and contact resistances of joints,
determine the heat loss per square meter of wall area.
a b c d
hot side cold side
Approach:
Given: 3 – adjacent walls (firebrick, insulating brick, steel)

1 2 3
Firebrick: x1 = 20 cm k1 = 10 W/m-oC
Insulating brick: x2 = 15 cm k2 = 0.26 W/m-oC
Steel: x3 = 1 cm k3 = 45 W/m-oC
ta = 1200oC td = 50oC
Required: Heat transferred per area (Q/A)

Solutions: for 3 adjacent walls,

A (t a−t d )
Q=Q ad =
x1 x2 x3
+ +
k1 k 2 k3
( 1200−50 ) C
Q 0.20 m 0.15 m 0.01
A = W
+
W
+
W
= 1.93 W/m2
10 0.26 45
m−C m−C m−C
(answer)

(b) Considering fluid film considered ( hot side and cold side films)
Q=Q ab=Q bc =Q ia=Q bo=Q io A
A(t i−t o )
Q=
1 x1 x2 1 h1 ho fluid film
+ + +
hi k 1 k 2 ho
Qia = A hi ¿)

Qbo= A h o (t b−t o) Q
x1 x2
a b c

Notations:
hi = inside film convective heat transfer coefficient
ho = outside film convective heat transfer coefficient
ti = inside film temperature
to = outside film temperature

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM 4:
Heat is conducted through a 5 m2 compound wall composed of parallel layers of two different
conductivities 0.32 and 0.14 Watt per m – oK and of thickness of 3.6 and 4.8 cm respectively.
The temperature of the outer surfaces of the wall are 96oC and 8oC. If the convective heat
transfer coefficient on the hot side is 200 W/m2-oC, determine the temperature of the interface
temperature between the two walls.

Approach:

Given: Two parallel walls with hot surface fluid film considered
A
ist wall: k1 = 0.32 W/m-K
x1 = 3.6 cm h1 = 200 W/m2-C

2nd wall: k2 = 0.14 hot side film

x2 = 4.8 cm Q
x1 x2
ti = 96oC tb = ? tc = 8oC i a b c
Required: interface temperature between the two walls

Solutions: Considering fluid film on the hot side

Q=Qic A
A (t i −t c )
Q=
1 x1 x2 h1 ho fluid film
+ +
hi k 1 k 2
ti

Q
x1 x2
i a b c

A (t i −t c ) ( 5 m2 ) ( 96−8 ) C
Q= 1 0.036 m 0.048 m
1 x1 x2
+ +
= W
+
W
+
W
hi k 1 k 2 200 2
0.32 0.14
m −C m−C m−C
 Q= 955.78 W (watts) (answer)

ASSIGNMENT # 2 – PRELIM:
1. Two walls of cold storage plant are composed of an insulating material (k = 0.25 KJ/hr-
m-oC), 100 mm thick at the outer layer and a material (k = 3.5 KJ/hr-m-oC), 15 cm thick
at inner layer. If the surface temperature at the cold side is 30oC and hot side is 250oC,
determine the heat transmitted per square meter. (ans. 0.138 KW/m2 )

2. A 2 square meter steel plate 10 mm thick (k = 45 W/m-K) is covered with a 6.4 mm layer
of asbestos insulation (k = 0.1660992 W/m-K), followed by a 2.5 cm layer of fiberglass
insulation (k = 0.0482 W/m-K). The inside wall temperature is 315oC and the outside
temperature is 38oC. Determine the heat transferred flux through the walls.

QUIZ 2 - PRELIM
1. A solid wall is 20 cm thick having a surface area of 3 m x 4 m and heat transferred on the
wall during 2 - hours test is found to be 5000 KJ. The gas on the hot side is at 300oC and
on the cold side is exposed to the environment having 20oC temperature. The convection
heat transfer coefficient on hot and cold sides of the wall are 200 W/m2-C and 10 W/m2-
C, respectively. Determine the thermal conductivity of the wall material.

2. An insulated wall of a heat exchanger is to be designed for the following specifications:

Hot gas temperature, 1145oC
Cold gas temperature, 45oC
Unit surface conductance on the hot side, 230 W/m2-K
Unit surface conductance on the cold side, 290 W/m2-K
Thermal conductivity of the metal wall, 115 W/m-K
Thermal conductivity of the insulation, 0.25 W/m-K
Thickness of the insulation, 2 cm
Find the maximum thickness of metal wall between the hot gas and the cold gas, so that
the maximum temperature of the wall does not exceed 545oC.

B. CONDUCTION THROUGH THICK-WALLED CYLINDRICAL WALLS

(Two Dimensional or Radial Conduction)

(1) Bare Pipe (without insulation)

 (t a−t b )
Q=Q ab =
D
(a) Fluid film neglected: ln ( o )
di
2πkL
D o =outside diameter of pipe di = inside diameter of pipe
(b) Fluid film considered (Considering inside and outside films)
Q=Q ab=Qia =Q bo=Qio
(t i−t o )
Q=
D
ln( o )
1 di 1
+ +
A i hi 2 π k L A o ho
Ai=inside surface areaof pipe=π d i L
Ao =outside surface area of pipe=π D o L
(2) Insulated Pipe (with insulation)
(a) Fluid film neglected: Q=Q ab=Qbc
(t a−t c )
Q=
D D
ln( o ) ln( c )
di Do
+
2 π k1 L 2 π k2 L
Do =outside diameter of pipe = inside diameter of insulation
d i=inside diameter of pipe D c =outside diameter of insulation

(b) Fluid film considered (Considering inside and outside films for the formula):
Q=Q ab=Q ia =Q bo=Q io
(t i−t o )
Q=
D D
ln( o ) ln( c )
1 di Do 1
+ + +
A i hi 2 π k 1 L 2 π k 2 L A o h o
Ai=inside surface areaof pipe=π d i L ¿ A o=outside surface area of pipe=π D o L
ASSIGNMENT # 3 - PRELIM
1. The temperature of the outside surface of an 8 in. double extra-strong bare steel pipe
(I.D. = 6 in.) is 595oF, and the temperature of the inside surface is 600oF. The thermal
conductivity k for steel pipe to be 3.5 BTU/hr-ft-oF.
 (a) What is the heat loss per foot of length?
(b) What will be the saving in heat if the pipe is insulated with 2 inches of 85% magnesia
(k = 0.041) and the temperature of the outer surface of the insulation is reduced to 200oF?

2. A 2-meter steel pipe with 5-cm outside diameter is covered with a 6.4 mm layer of asbestos
insulation (k = 0.1660992 W/m-K), followed by a 2.5 cm layer of fiberglass insulation (k =
0.0482 W/m-K). The pipe wall temperature is 315oC and the outside temperature is 38oC.
Determine the heat transfer. (answer: 259 Watts)

QUIZ 3 - PRELIM
A hollow cylinder of 2 m length has inner and outer radius of 60 mm and 110 mm respectively. The inner
surface and outer surface temperatures of the cylinder are 270 oC and 175oC respectively. Determine the
heat transferred by conduction considering the thermal conductivity of 57 W/m- oC.

END OF PRELIM

MIDTERMS

LESSON 4: COMBINED PROPERTIES OF HEAT TRANSFER

(1) Over-all Coefficient of Heat Transfer (U)

In actual practice, the heat from a hot body is transferred to the cold body
by the combined effect of conduction and convection.
Over-All Heat Transfer Coefficient, U:
1
U=
1 x1 x2 1 (without air space between walls)
+ + +
hi k 1 k 2 ho
1
U=
1 x1 1 x2 1 (with air space between walls)
+ + +
hi k 1 C k 2 h o
 where: C = conductance of the air space
(2) Over-all Heat Transfer Resistance (R)
This is considered as the sum of all the heat transfer resistances found
during the combined heat transfer by conduction and convection. It is the
reciprocal value of the over-all heat transfer coefficient.
Over-All Unit Resistance, R:
1 1 x1 x2 1
R= = + + +
U hi k 1 k 2 ho

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Determine the over-all heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger with water and air operating
on either side of a brass pipe 2 mm thick. Assume convective heat transfer coefficients of 2000
and 50 W/m2-K for the water and air sides respectively. The thermal conductivity for the brass
can be taken as 100 W /m-K. Assume the thickness of the pipe to be small compared with the
diameter. ANS. 49 W/m2 – K

Given: brass pipe, k = 100 W/m-K

Inside section with water: hi = 2000 W/m2 – K

Outside section with air: ho = 50 W/m2 – K
Pipe thickness, t = 2 mm

Solution: Solving for the over-all heat transfer coefficient, U

For three conducting surfaces:
1 1
U=
1 x 1 = 1 0.002 1
+ + + +
hi k h o 2000 100 50
 U = 49 W/m2-K (answer)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Determine the over-all coefficient of transmission for a wall of 12-in. brick, covered on the
inside with ¾ in. of plaster. Assume an outdoor wind velocity of 15 mph.
k for plaster = 0.27 BTU/hr-ft-oF;
k for 8-in. common brick = 0.40
k for 4-in. face brick = 0.76;
h (hot side) = 1.7; h (cold side) = 7.2. ANS. 0.326 BTU/hr-ft-oF

Given: outside film - face brick - common brick - plaster - inside film

For bricks:
face brick, x = 4 in. k = 0.76;
common brick, x = 8 in. k = 0.40

For plaster:
x = ¾ in. k = 0.27 BTU/hr-ft-oF;

For fluid films:

h (hot side) = 1.7 h (cold side) = 7.2.

Solutions: Solving for the over-all heat transfer coefficient, U

Considering fluid film on hot side and cold side:

 1 1
U= ¿
1 x1 x2 1 1 4 8 0.75 1
+ + + + + + +
hi k 1 k 2 ho 7.2 0.76 0.40 0.27 1.7

U = 0.326 BTU/hr-ft-oF (answer)

ASSIGNMENT # - MIDTERM
A wall of 20-in. brick (8-in. plain brick and 12-in. plain brick), covered on the inside with a
plaster. The following properties may apply: k for plaster = 0.27 BTU/hr-ft-oF; k for 8-in.
plain brick = 0.50; k for 12-in. plain brick = 0.36; hi = 1.4; ho = 6.2. If the over-all coefficient of
transmission 0.525 BTU/hr-ft-oF, determine the thickness of the plaster.

QUIZ 1 – MIDTERM:
A wall of 12-in. brick (8-in. plain brick and 4-in. plain brick) is covered on the inside with a ¾
in-thick plaster. The following properties may apply: k for plaster = 0.27 BTU/hr-ft-oF; k for 8-
in. plain brick = 0.40; k for 4-in. plain brick = 0.56; hi = 1.6; ho = 7.2. There is an air space of 1.5
in. between the brick and the plaster with C = 1.1.. Determine the over-all coefficient of heat
transmission.

CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

Convection - is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas
which is in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The
faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat transfer happened.

Two Modes of Convection:

(a) Free convection – the density that occurs changes in the bulk of fluid motion and
transfers heat naturally.
(b) Forced convection – fans or pumps provide the motive force for fluid motion to
transfer heat.

Fundamental Principle (Newton’s Law of Cooling):

” The heat transfer from a hot body to a cold body is directly proportional to the surface area and
difference of temperatures between the two bodies.”

Applicable Equations:
(1) Q= A h(t s−t f ) where: h = convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-oC
A = heat transfer surface area, m2
ts = surface temperature tf = average fluid temperature

(2) Q=mC (Δt ) where: Δt = temperature difference of fluid

m = mass (or mass flow rate) of fluid
C = specific heat constant of fluid
Note:
(a) Convective heat transfer coefficient of common fluids h, (W/m2-oC):
Water: 500 to 10,000 Air: 5 to 1000

(b) Convective heat transfer coefficient of air applicable to plates and cylinders:
For vertical plate over 1foot high:
h = 0.27 (Δt) 0.25 BTU/ft2 – hr - oF
where: Δt = tplate – tair

For vertical and horizontal pipes over 1foot length:

h = 0.27 (Δt/Do) 0.25 BTU/ft2 – hr - oF
where: Δt = tcylinder surface – tair Do = outside diameter of the cylinder

Dimensionless Numbers Applicable to Convection Heat Transfer:

ρv D
(a) Reynolds Number: Re =
μ
where: ρ=mass density of fluid
v = velocity of flow
D = inside diameter of pipe (if circular section)
μ=viscosity of fluid
 2wh
D = wetted perimeter (if rectangular section) =
w+ h

hD
(b) Nusselt Number: N u=
k

where: h = convective heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-C, BTU/hr-ft2-F

Cp = specific heat at constant pressure

μCp
(c) Prandlt Number: Pr =
k

Nu
(d) Stanton Number (Heat Transfer Modulus): St =
R e Pr

Relationship of Dimensionless Numbers Applied to Fluid Flow:

(1) For turbulent flow inside the pipe:
For fluid being heated or cooled during turbulent flow inside around pipe:
Nu = 0.023 (Re0.8) (Pr)n where: n = 0.4 (for heating) n = 0.3 (for cooling)
(2) For laminar flow inside the pipe:
For fluid being heated:
hi D
Nu = where: hi = inside pipe convective heat transfer coefficient
Kb
D = inside pipe diameter
Kb = thermal conductivity of fluid inside the pipe

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
The furnace heats up air from 60oF to 160oF. In air heating system, the air is then circulated at the
rate of 330 ft3/min by the blower. The specific heat of air is 0.25 BTU/lb- oF and the density is
0.0806 lb/ft3 at atmospheric pressure.
(a) How much thermal energy is transferred per hour?
 (b) What is the surface area of the furnace if convective heat transfer coefficient h = 3.56
BTU/hr-ft2-oF and temperature of 500oF?

Given: air, t1 = 60oF t2 = 160oF

Ṽ = 330 ft3/min Cp = 0.25 BTU/lb-oF ρ = 0.0806 lb/ft3

Solution:
(a) Solving for thermal energy that is transferred per hour, Q:
Q = ṁ Cp (t2 – t1) where: ṁ = ρ Ṽ = (0.0806 lb/ft3) (330 ft3/min)
= 26.60 lb/min
then, Q = (26.60 lb/min) (0.25 BTU/lb-oF) (160 – 60) oF = 665 BTU/min
Q = 39,900 BTU/hr (answer)

(a) Solving for the surface area of the furnace, A:

Given: h = 3.56 BTU/hr-ft2-oF , ts = 500 oF
60+160
Q= A h(t s−t f ) where: tf = 2
= 110oF
Q
A = h(t −t ) = 39,900¿BTU
¿
/hr
= 28.74 ft2 (answer)
s f

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
The hot gas temperature in a certain heat exchanger is 350oC and its coefficient of heat transfer is
220 W/m2-oC. What is the surface temperature of the heat exchanger wall if the heat transferred
is 1500 W/m2?

Given: Hot gas, tf = 350oC h = 220 W/m2-oC

Q
= 1500 W/m2
A

Solution: solving for the wall surface temperature, ts

Q= A h(t s−t f )
 1500W /m2
Q/ A
ts = h + tf = 220 W + 350oC = 356.82oF (answer)
m2−C

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:
Determine the surface coefficient due to convection, in BTU/(hr)(ft2 of inside tube surface)(oF of
temperature difference), when 15,000 lb of water at an average stream temperature of 100oF is
being heated per hour in a clean smooth horizontal tube of 2-in diameter. Assume the difference
between stream and film temperatures to be small. For water at 100oF (from table), k = 0.364
BTU-ft/hr-ft2-oF, ρ = 61.99 lbm/ft3, μ = 1.65 lbm/ft-hr, Cp= 0.997 BTU/lb-oF.
(ans. h = 686.5 BTU/hr-ft2-oF)

Given: fluid (water), ṁ = 15,000 lb/hr t = 100oF

For water at 100oF (from table): k = 0.364 BTU-ft/hr-ft2-oF, ρ = 61.99 lbm/ft3

μ = 1.65 lbm/ft-hr, Cp= 0.997 BTU/lb-oF
D = 2 in.

Solution: Solving for the convection heat transfer coefficient, h

hD k Nu
from, N u= , h¿ D
k

where: solving for Nu

Nu = 0.023 (Re0.8) (Pr) n where: n = 0.4 (consider heating)

ρv D
For Re: Re =
μ
2 2
π D2 π ( ) 2
where: ṁ=ρAv ,A= = 12 ft = 0.0218 ft2
4
4
15,000 lb/hr = (61.99 lb/ft3) (0.0218 ft2) (v)
 v = 11,099.75 ft/hr
lb ft 2
then,
R=
( 61.99
ft 3 )(
11,099.75 )( ) ft
hr 12 = 69,502.36
e
1.65 lb/ft−hr

lb BTU
μ C p (1.65 )(0.997 )
For Pr: Pr = = ft −hr lb−F = 4.52
k
0.364 BTU −ft /hr −ft 2−F

then, Nu = 0.023 (69,502.36 )0.8 (4.52) 0.4 = 314.33

k Nu
finally, h¿ D = ¿ ¿ = 686.50 BTU/hr-ft2-oF

(answer)

ASSIGNMENT # 2 - MIDTERMS
(1) Water at an average temperature of 150oF is flowing inside a horizontal pipe (ID = 1.049
in.) at 8 fps and the following data were obtained : density = 61.2 lb/ft3, thermal
conductivity = 0.381 BTU-ft/hr-ft2-F, viscosity = 1.041 lbm/ft-hr. Calculate the average
unit convective heat transfer coefficient.

(2) A heat exchanger has a hot gas temperature of 300oC and convective heat transfer
coefficient on the hot side of 200 W/m2-oC. If heat transmitted is 1000 W/m2, what is the
surface temperature on the wall at hot side?
(3) Consider a person standing in a room at 20oC. Determine the total heat from this person if
the exposed surface area and the skin temperature of a person are 1.6 m2 and 34oC,
respectively, and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2-OC.

QUIZ # 2 - MIDTERMS
Instruction: Solve the following problems below. Show pertinent solutions. Submit answers
via Google Classroom.
 1. The over-all heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger with water and air operating on
either side of a brass pipe is 50 W/m2-oK. Assume convective heat transfer coefficients of
2200 and 48 W/m2-K for the water and air sides respectively. The thermal conductivity
for the brass can be taken as 115 W /m-K. Determine the thickness of the pipe in
millimeters.

2. Determine the over-all resistance of transmission for a wall of 12-in. brick, covered on
the inside with ¾ in. of plaster. k for plaster = 0.27 BTU/hr-ft-oF; k for 8-in. common
brick, 0.40; k for 4-in. face brick, 0.76; h (hot side), 1.65; h (cold side), 6.8. Assume an
outdoor wind velocity of 22 ft/sec.

END OF MIDTERMS

FINALS

HEAT TRANSFER BY RADIATION

Radiation is a form of electromagnetic energy transmission and takes place between all matters
providing that it is at a temperature above absolute zero. Radiation is energy emitted by the
electrons vibrating in the molecules at the surface of a body. The amount of energy that can be
transferred depends on the absolute temperature of the body and the radiant properties of the
surface. Radiation does not depend on any medium for its transmission.

NATURE OF RADIATION:
When the radiations are falling on a body, three things happen – part of the radiations are
absorbed by the body, a part of the radiations are reflected and the remaining radiations are
transmitted through the body.
(a) Absorptivity (ε) – is the ratio of the incident radiation absorbed to the total incident
radiations.
 (b) Reflectivity (ρ) – is the ratio of the incident radiation reflected to the total incident
radiations.
(c) Transmissivity (Ϯ) – is the ratio of the incident radiation transmitted to the total incident
radiations.
Q = Qa + Qr + Qt
where: Q = total incident radiations
Qa = incident radiations absorbed
Qr = incident radiations reflected
Qt = incident radiations transmitted

Qa Qr Qt
1= + + =ε+ρ+Ϯ
Q Q Q
RADIATING BODIES
(1) Black body is an idealized body that has a surface that will absorb all the radiant energy
it receives. Such body will not only absorb radiation at a maximum level but will also
emit radiations at a maximum level. For the case of black body, emissivity is unity (ε = 1)
(2) Gray body is a real body that has a surface whose radiation emitted is less than the
radiation emitted by the blackbody at the same temperature, emissivity is less than
unity (ε < 1).
Emissivity (ε) – is defined as the ratio of total emissive power of a body to the total
emissive power of a black body.
(3) White body is one which reflects all the incident radiations, (ρ = 1, ε = 0, Ϯ = 0).
(4) Transparent body is one which transmits all the incident radiations, (ρ = 0, ε = 0, Ϯ = 1).
(5) Opaque body is one which does not transmit the incident radiation, (ρ + ε = 1, Ϯ = 0).

STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW:
The emissive power of a black body (the total radiation emitted by a black body) per unit
area (A) and time is directly proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature
(T). Q∞ AT4
SINGLE – BODY RADIATION:
(1) Black Body Radiation: Q=α A T 4

(2) Gray Body Radiation: Q=α ε A T 4

TWO – BODY RADIATION (NET RADIATED HEAT (NET RADIATION)

In a special case of a relatively small surface of emissivity (ϵ) and surface area (A) at absolute
temperature (T1) which is completely enclosed by a much larger surface at absolute
temperature (T2) separated by a gas, the net rate of heat transfer between the surfaces is
determined from:
Qnet =Q2−Q 1=α ϵ A ( T 42−T 41 )

where: α =Stefan−Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10 – 8 W/m2-K4

= 0.1713 x 10 – 8 BTU/hr – ft2 – R4
ϵ = emissivity or emittance factor of the surface
A = area of heat flow
T2 = hot body temperature
T1 = cold body temperature

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Using Stefan’s Law, calculate the total power radiated per square meter by a filament at 1827 oC
having an absorption factor of 0.54.

Given: T = 1827 + 273 = 2100 K

ϵ = 0.54
Required: Heat radiated per square meter (Q/A)

Solution: using Stefan Boltzmann’s Equation for Grey Body,

Q=α ε A T 4
 Q
= (5.67 x 10 – 8 W/m2-K4 ) (0.54) (2100)4 K4
A

Q
= 595.46 W/m2 (answer)
A

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
An uninsulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air and walls are at 25 oC. The
outside diameter of the pipe is 70 mm, and its surface temperature and emissivity are 200 oC
and 0.80, respectively. If the coefficient associated with free convection heat transfer from the
surface to the air is 15 W/m2-K, what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of
pipe?
(ans. 997.8 W/m)
Given: air
Pipe wall
L ts = 200oC tair = twall = 25oC, Ta = Tw = 25 + 273 = 298 K

Do = 70 mm
Ts = 200 + 273 = 473 K
ϵ = 0.80
h = 15 W/m2-K
Required: Heat loss per unit length of pipe (Q/L)
Solution: Q = QC + QR
where: QC = A h (Ts – Tair) = π Do L h (Ts – Tair)
QC/L = π Do h (Ts – Tair) = π (0.07 m)( 15 W/m2-K) (473 – 298) K
= 577.27 W/m
Q R=α ϵ A ( T 42−T 41 ) = α ϵ (π Do L) (Ts4 – Tw4)
 QR
=α ϵ (π Do) (Ts4 – Tw4)
L
= (5.67 x 10 – 8 W/m2-K4 ) (0.80)π (0.07 m) [(473)4 - (298)4 ] K4
= 420.64 W/m
Finally, Q = QC + QR = 577.27 + 420.64
Q = 997.91 W/m (answer)

ASSIGNMENT 1 – FINALS:
A steam pipe having a surface temperature of 210oC passes through a room where the
temperature is 27oC. The outside diameter of the pipe is 80 mm and the emissivity is 80%. The
length of the pipe is 3 meters. Calculate the radiated heat loss for this pipe.

QUIZ 1 - FINALS

In an engine radiator, the surface of the core has an area of 0.6 m2 and a temperature of 220oC.
If the outer cover has the same surface area and a temperature of 65 oC, calculate the rate of
heat transfer taking place. Assume the surfaces to act as black bodies and the convective heat
transfer coefficient between the surface of the core and the air to be 10 W/m 2-K. Take the
ambient air to be 20oC.

HEAT EXCHANGERS
Heat exchanger – is a device wherein the transfer of heat between the surfaces takes place.

Characteristics of flow of common heat exchangers:

(1) Steam boiler: Flue gas temperature decreases while steam temperature constant at
saturation.
(2) Steam condenser: Cooling water temperature increases while steam temperature
constant at saturation.
(3) Economizer: Feedwater temperature increases while flue gas temperature decreases.
(4) Superheater: Steam temperature increases while flue gas temperature decreases.
(5) Air- Preheater: Air temperature increases while flue gas temperature decreases.
(6) Oil heater: Oil temperature increases while hot gas temperature decreases.
Classifications of heat exchangers according to flow direction of fluid:
3

1 2

4
(1) Parallel flow heat exchanger – the fluids flow in the same direction.
temp. 3 hot fluid

4
∆ tMAX = t3 – t1 ∆ tMIN = t4 – t2
1 2
cold fluid
flow

(2) Counter-parallel flow heat exchanger – the fluids flow in the directions opposite to one
another.

temp. 3 hot fluid

4
∆ t = t3 – t2 2 ∆ t = t4 – t1
1
cold fluid
flow

Mean Temperature Difference, θm:

(1) Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference (AMTD)
 To be used if the maximum change of temperature is equal to the minimum
change of temperature during the flow.
 ∆ t max +∆ t min
AMTD=θm =
2

(2) Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

 To be used if the maximum change of temperature is not equal to the minimum
change of temperature during the flow.
∆ t max −∆ t min
LMTD=θ m=
∆t
ln ( max )
∆ t min

Heat Transferred Across Heat Exchangers, Q:

Q=U A θ m
where: U = over-all heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 – C, Btu/hr-ft2 – F
A = heating surface area of heat exchanger
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
Hot water enters a counter-flow heat exchanger at 99oC. It is used to heat a cold stream of
water from 4oC to 32oC. The flow rate of the cold stream is 1.3 kg/sec and the flow rate of the
hot stream is 2.6 kg/sec. The over-all heat transfer coefficient is 830 W/m 2-C. Compute for the
heat transfer area in m2.
(ans. 2.5 m2)
Given: 3 t3 = 99oC m3 = 2.6 kg/s (hot water)

ti = 4oC t2 = 32oC

m1 = 1.3 kg/s 1 2
(cold water)

4 U = 830 W/m2-C
t4 =
TEMPERATURE – FLOW DIAGRAM:
temp.
99oC 3 hot fluid
4
 ∆ tMIN = t3 – t2 2 ∆ tMAX = t4 – t1
32oC 1 4oC
cold fluid

flow

Required: Heat transfer area, A

Solution: Solving for A
Q
Q=U A θ m , A=
U θm
where:
For Q (heat transferred):
Q = QH (hot stream) = QC (cold stream)
Q = m1 CP (t2 – t1) = (1.3 kg/s) (4.187 KJ/kg-oC) (32 – 4) oC
Q = 152.41 KJ/s or KW = 152,406.8 W
For θm :
Consider counter-parallel flow, use LMTD:
∆ t max −∆ t min
LMTD=θ m=
∆t
ln ( max )
∆ t min
where: ∆t = t3 – t2 = 99 – 32 = 67oC (∆tMIN)
∆t = t4 – t1 = ?
Finding for t4:
Q = QH (hot stream) = m3 CP (t3 – t4)
152.41 KJ/s = (2.6 kg/s) (4.187 KJ/kg-oC) (99 – t4) oC
t4 = 85oC
then, ∆t = (85 – 4) oC = 81oC (∆tMAX)
( 81−67 ) C
LMTD=θ m=
81 = 73.780C
ln ( )
67
Finally,
 142406.8 W
Q
A = U θ = (830 W = 2.33 m2 (answer)
m
)(73.78C )
m2−C

ASSIGNMENT 2 - FINALS
1. A counter-flow heat exchanger is designed to heat fuel oil from 28 oC to 90oC. The
heating fluid enters at 138oC and leaves at 105oC. The fuel oil has a specific gravity of
21oAPI, specific heat of 0.5 kcal/kg-C and enters the heat exchanger at the rate of 3,000
liters per minute. Determine the required heating surface area in m 2 if the over-all heat
transfer coefficient is 400 Kcal/hr-m2-K.

2. A counter-flow heat exchanger is designed to heat fuel oil from 30 oC to 90oC while the
heating fluid enters at 140oC and leaves at 105oC. Determine the mean temperature
difference.

QUIZ 2 - FINALS
Sea water for cooling enters a condenser at 27oC and leaves at 37oC. The condenser
temperature is 45oC. What is the logarithmic mean temperature difference. If the heat
transferred across the condenser is 10 KW, find the over-all heat transfer coefficient
considering that the surface area of condenser is 12 m2 .