Control Systems Engineering

Exam Reference Manual:

A Practical Study Guide

ISBN: 978-1-5108-2149-1
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 Table of Contents

Cover Control Systems Engineer (CSE) ................................................................................................ i

Notice from the Publisher .................................................................................................................... iii
This Reference Manual Covers All Subject Content for the PE/CSE Examination ............................... iv
Plan Your Study Time ........................................................................................................................... iv

Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................... 1

Introduction to This Study Guide ........................................................................................................ 19

About the Author ................................................................................................................................ 19
People who have contributed to the previous editions of this manual ............................................. 20

Tips on How to Use This Study Guide ................................................................................................ 21

Using Thumbnails to Navigate ............................................................................................................ 22
Using Bookmarks to Navigate ............................................................................................................. 23
Important File Attachments - Open by clicking on the paper clip! ..................................................... 24
How to Print this Manual .................................................................................................................... 24

Welcome to Control Systems Engineering ........................................................................................ 25

Licensing as Professional Engineer / Control Systems Engineer (CSE)................................................ 25
Why Become a Professional Engineer?............................................................................................... 28
This is the third edition of this study manual...................................................................................... 30
The new and expanded sections include: ........................................................................................... 30

Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE ............................................................................... 31

Overview of Recommended Flow Chart of Study for the CSE ............................................................ 32

Examination General Information........................................................................................................ 33

State Licensing Requirements ............................................................................................................. 33
Eligibility .............................................................................................................................................. 33
Exam schedule..................................................................................................................................... 33
Description of Examination ................................................................................................................. 34
Exam content ...................................................................................................................................... 34
I. Measurement ............................................................................................................................ 34
II. Signals, Transmission, and Networking..................................................................................... 35
III. Final Control Elements .............................................................................................................. 35
IV. Control Systems ........................................................................................................................ 36
V. Safety Systems .......................................................................................................................... 37
VI. Codes, Standards, Regulations ................................................................................................. 37
Exam Scoring ....................................................................................................................................... 37

Reference Materials for the Exam ....................................................................................................... 39

Recommended Books and Materials to Take to the Exam ................................................................. 39
Books and Materials for Testing ......................................................................................................... 40
Books for Additional Study ................................................................................................................. 40
Courses for Additional Study .............................................................................................................. 41
ISA Control Systems Engineer (CSE) PE Review .................................................................................. 41
Industrial Network Training ................................................................................................................ 41
Control Systems Engineer (CSE) Supplement Course ......................................................................... 42
Online Process Plant @ Learn Control Systems.com .......................................................................... 42

1
Process Measurement Standards and Terminology ......................................................................... 43
Overview of process measurement, control and calibration ............................................................. 43
Process Signal and Calibration Terminology ....................................................................................... 44
Definition of the Range of an Instrument ........................................................................................... 44
Definition of the Span of an Instrument ............................................................................................. 45
Definition of the use of Zero in Instrumentation ................................................................................ 45
Live-Zero ........................................................................................................................................ 45
Elevated-Zero ................................................................................................................................. 45
Suppressed-Zero ............................................................................................................................ 45
Illustrations of range and span terminology ....................................................................................... 46
Illustrations of measured variable, measured signal, range and span ............................................... 47

Applications of Fluid Mechanics in Process Control ........................................................................ 49

Relationship of pressure and flow ...................................................................................................... 49
Applications of the formulas ............................................................................................................... 52
Summary of fluid mechanics for process control ............................................................................... 56

Temperature Measurement and Calibration ....................................................................................... 57

Temperature measurement devices and calibration.......................................................................... 57
Thermocouple - worked examples (how to read the thermocouple tables) ...................................... 59
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) ............................................................................................ 60
Installing RTDs and Thermocouples into a process stream ................................................................ 63
Typical RTD and thermocouple applications....................................................................................... 64

Pressure Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................. 65

Pressure measurement and head pressure ........................................................................................ 65
Applying pressure measurement and signals - worked examples ...................................................... 66
Differential pressure and meter calibration ....................................................................................... 66
Pressure change in a pipe for a given flow rate .................................................................................. 67
Pressure change across the flow element for a given flow rate ......................................................... 67
Pressure calibration of transmitter ..................................................................................................... 68

Level Measurement and Calibration.................................................................................................... 69

Applying level measurement and calibration - Worked examples ..................................................... 69
Level displacer (Buoyancy) .................................................................................................................. 72
Bubbler level measurement ................................................................................................................ 74
Density measurement ......................................................................................................................... 75
Interface level measurement .............................................................................................................. 76
Radar and Ultrasonic level measurement ........................................................................................... 78
Time of flight technology ............................................................................................................... 78
Ultrasonic level measurement ....................................................................................................... 78
Radar (non-contact) ....................................................................................................................... 78
Guided Wave Radar (GWR)............................................................................................................ 79
Capacitance level measurement ........................................................................................................ 79
Radiometric (gamma) level measurement ......................................................................................... 80
Level gauging system in a tank farm .................................................................................................. 80
Calculating the volume in tanks .......................................................................................................... 81

Flow Measurement and Calibration..................................................................................................... 83

Applying flow measurement devices .................................................................................................. 83
Turndown ratio in a flow meter .......................................................................................................... 83
ISA standard flow meter symbols ....................................................................................................... 83
Flow meter applications chart ............................................................................................................ 84

2
 Pressure tappings (Impulse Line Taps) ................................................................................................ 84
Orifice tap dimensions and impulse line connections ........................................................................ 85
Various Types of Flow Meters ............................................................................................................. 88
Applying the Bernoulli principle for flow control................................................................................ 89
Types of Head Pressure based meters ................................................................................................ 90
Venturi meter................................................................................................................................. 90
ISO 5167 Orifice Plate and Orifice plate ......................................................................................... 90
Dall tube ......................................................................................................................................... 90
Pitot-Static tube ............................................................................................................................. 90
Multi-hole pressure probe ............................................................................................................. 90
Cone meters ................................................................................................................................... 90
Annubar meters (also reference averaging pitot tubes) ............................................................... 91
Differential head meter calculations................................................................................................... 91
Classic fluid mechanics model............................................................................................................. 91
“K” value flow coefficients ............................................................................................................. 92
The beta ratio ...................................................................................................................................... 95
Pipe Size Is Important - Remember! .............................................................................................. 96
Standard Flow Measurement Equations............................................................................................. 97
Spink - Flow Measurement Equation .................................................................................................. 97
The basic Spink equation derived .................................................................................................. 98
The basic Spink equation for liquid ................................................................................................ 99
The basic Spink equation for gas and vapor .................................................................................. 99
The basic Spink equation for steam ............................................................................................... 99
Applications of the Beta and Spink factors ............................................................................... 100
Table 3 – The Spink Factor (S) ........................................................................................................... 101
ISO 5167 - Flow Measurement Equation .......................................................................................... 102
The expansibility factor ................................................................................................................ 102
The discharge coefficient ............................................................................................................. 103
The ISO 5167 equation explained ................................................................................................ 103
Solve for the Reynolds number ‘Re’ ............................................................................................ 104
Solve for the coefficient ‘C’ .......................................................................................................... 104
Solve for mass flow rate: ............................................................................................................. 105
Solve for volumetric flow rate ..................................................................................................... 105
Equation Comparison Summary .................................................................................................. 106
Sizing orifice type devices for flow measurement - worked examples............................................. 106
Mass flow measurement and control ............................................................................................... 109
Applying mass flow measurement with an orifice - worked example .............................................. 112
Turbine meter applications ............................................................................................................... 113
Turbine flow meter - worked example ........................................................................................ 116

Weight Measurement and Calibration ............................................................................................... 119

Weight measurement devices and calibration ................................................................................. 119
Load cells ........................................................................................................................................... 119
Load cells for (flow, level, force) applications in process ................................................................. 120

Process Analyzers .............................................................................................................................. 121

Electrical conductivity and pH correction ......................................................................................... 121
How are pH and electrical conductivity measured? ......................................................................... 121
Control of pH values in processes ..................................................................................................... 121
Typical pH correction control scheme ......................................................................................... 122
Control of conductivity...................................................................................................................... 123
Instrument specifications and operating parameters ................................................................. 123

3
 Common Plant Analyzers .................................................................................................................. 123
Boiling Point Analyzers................................................................................................................. 123
Vacuum Distillation Analyzer ....................................................................................................... 123
Flash Point Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 124
Cloud Point Analyzer .................................................................................................................... 124
Freeze Point Analyzer .................................................................................................................. 124
Pour Point Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 124
Color Analyzer .............................................................................................................................. 124
Combustion and Analyzers................................................................................................................ 124
Combustion furnace and air-fuel ratio control ............................................................................ 125
Air-Fuel ratio control utilizing CO and O2 concentrations ........................................................... 125
BMS - Burner Management Safety .............................................................................................. 125
OSHA Requirements .................................................................................................................... 12
Carbon dioxide (CO2) reading ...................................................................................................... 126
Examples of Process Analyzers ......................................................................................................... 126
Select the appropriate analyzer and configuration .......................................................................... 127
Typical Analyzer Piping and Control Schematic ................................................................................ 128

Process Control Valves and Actuators ............................................................................................. 129

Process control valves ....................................................................................................................... 129
Considerations when sizing a control valve ...................................................................................... 130
Flow Coefficient Cv ...................................................................................................................... 130
Specific Gravity ............................................................................................................................ 130
Operating Conditions ................................................................................................................... 130
ISA standard valve symbols ............................................................................................................... 131
ISA standard pressure regulating valve symbols............................................................................... 131
Valve actuators.................................................................................................................................. 132
ISA standard actuator symbols .................................................................................................... 132
Limit switches on a valve - ISA standard symbol .............................................................................. 133
Calculating the size of the actuator ............................................................................................. 133
Example actuator sizing ............................................................................................................... 134
Split ranging control valves ............................................................................................................... 135
Valve positioner applications ............................................................................................................ 137
ISA standard valve positioner symbols ........................................................................................ 137
Summary of positioners ............................................................................................................... 138
When should a positioner be used? ............................................................................................ 138
Electrical positioners .................................................................................................................... 138
Control valve application comparison chart ..................................................................................... 139
Understanding flow with valve characteristics ................................................................................. 140
What is the ΔP for valve sizing? ................................................................................................... 140
System piping ΔP pressure drops................................................................................................. 140
Control valve ΔP pressure drop ................................................................................................... 141
Graph of the Inherent valve characteristics (off the shelf).......................................................... 142
Which valve characteristic trim to use?....................................................................................... 142
Characteristic distortion in valves ................................................................................................ 143
Gain and Rangeability (turndown ratio in valves) ....................................................................... 145
Proper control valve sizing ............................................................................................................ 146
Oversized valves present problems ............................................................................................. 147
Experiment and understand Installed valve characteristics ........................................................ 149
Summary of control valve characteristics .................................................................................... 150
Control Valve Sizing ........................................................................................................................... 151
The Valve Sizing Equations .......................................................................................................... 151

4
 The Basic equation for liquid flow ............................................................................................... 151
The basic equation for gas flow ................................................................................................... 151
The basic equation for steam flow .............................................................................................. 151
Sizing valves for liquid - worked example ......................................................................................... 153
Sizing valves for gas - worked example ............................................................................................. 155
Sizing valves for vapor and steam - worked example ....................................................................... 158
Sizing valves for two phase flow - worked example ......................................................................... 161
Two Phase Flow Worked Example ............................................................................................... 163
ΔP Valve Limitations - Very Important!............................................................................................ 165
Flowing Quantity (the turndown ratio of a valve) ....................................................................... 165
Flashing ........................................................................................................................................ 166
Joule-Thomson Effect (J-T) – auto refrigeration in valves ........................................................... 166
Choked Flow................................................................................................................................. 166
Maximum ΔP and Maximum Flow (qmax) in Valves Applications ...................................................... 167
Determining qmax (Maximum Flow Rate) ..................................................................................... 167
Determining ΔPmax (the Allowable Sizing Pressure Drop) ............................................................ 168
Cavitation in valves ...................................................................................................................... 169
Check for cavitation and choked flow in a control valves - worked examples ................................. 170
Fluid Velocities through Control Valves ............................................................................................ 174
Viscosity Correction for Sizing Valves ............................................................................................... 175

Pressure Relief Valves and Rupture Disks ....................................................................................... 177

Pressure Relief Valves (PRV) and Pressure Safety Valves (PSV) ........................................................ 177
Important Note: (Do Not Throttle Pressure Relief Valves) .......................................................... 177
EPA regulations ............................................................................................................................ 178
Regulation details ........................................................................................................................ 178
PRD bypass ................................................................................................................................... 179
Pilot operated safety valve .......................................................................................................... 180
Bellow or balanced bellow and diaphragm ................................................................................. 181
Weight loaded PRV operation ..................................................................................................... 181
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks ................................................................... 183
API Standards for pressure relieving systems ................................................................................... 186
CFR Standards for pressure relief required by federal law ............................................................... 187
API Standard 2000 – Venting atmospheric and low-pressure storage tanks .............................. 187
API Standard 2003 – Protection against ignitions from static, lightning, and stray currents ...... 188
API Standard 2350 – Overfill protection for storage tanks in petroleum facilities...................... 188
API Standard 2510 – Design and construction of LPG installations ............................................. 189
NFPA 30 – Flammable and combustible liquids code .................................................................. 190
Important excerpts from NFPA 30 code: .................................................................................. 190
Chapter 4: Tanks Storage .......................................................................................................... 190
Chapter 5: Piping Systems ......................................................................................................... 191
Chapter 6: Container and Portable Storage Tanks .................................................................... 191
Chapter 7: Operations ............................................................................................................... 192
ASME VIII code for sizing relief valves and rupture disks ............................................................ 193
Introduction to ASME VIII.......................................................................................................... 195
Overview Section VIII - Pressure Vessels................................................................................... 195
ASME VIII – Pressure relief requirements ................................................................................. 195
ASME VIII - Pressure limits in sizing........................................................................................... 196
Table 5 - ASME standard nozzle orifice data ..................................................................................... 196
ISA pressure relief valve and rupture disc symbols .......................................................................... 197
Sizing equations for relief valves and rupture disks ......................................................................... 198
ASME VIII code equations USCS units .......................................................................................... 198

5
 A Note about sonic or choked flow ............................................................................................. 199
Variables for PRV and PSV sizing equations................................................................................. 199
Sizing rupture disks - worked examples ............................................................................................ 201
Sizing pressure relief valves - worked examples ............................................................................... 203

Review of Feedback Control Fundamentals .................................................................................... 209

Compare Open Loop Control to Closed Loop Control ...................................................................... 209
Open Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis ............................................................................... 209
Closed Loop Example – A Mathematical Analysis ............................................................................. 211
The Transfer Function for the Automobile ....................................................................................... 213

Review of Frequency Response Fundamentals .............................................................................. 215

Electrical Application – A First Order System .................................................................................... 215
Bode Plot of First Order System ........................................................................................................ 216
Calculate the data for the Bode Plot ................................................................................................. 217
Creating a Bode Plot – First Order System using Frequency ............................................................ 220
Hydraulic Application – A First Order System ................................................................................... 221

Process Control Theory and Controller Tuning ............................................................................... 223

Degrees of Freedom in Process Control Systems ............................................................................. 223
Controllers and control strategies (models-modes) ......................................................................... 225
Process Loop Gain (Gp) ..................................................................................................................... 227
Process Signal Linearization .............................................................................................................. 228
Signal Filtering in Process Control ..................................................................................................... 230
Appling Signal Filters .................................................................................................................... 230
Filter Time Constant and Sample Time ........................................................................................ 231
Example of Filter Time Selection ................................................................................................. 232
DCS/PLC Sample and Scan Time Consideration ................................................................................ 233
Sampling time .............................................................................................................................. 233
Time per scan cycle ...................................................................................................................... 233
Tuning of Process Controllers ........................................................................................................... 234
Closed Loop Tuning of the Controller .......................................................................................... 234
Example: Tune Using Ultimate Gain (continuous cycling) ........................................................ 235
Open Loop Tuning of the Controller ............................................................................................ 236
Example: Tuning using Process Reaction Curve (Step Response) ............................................. 238
Advanced Tuning Methods for Controllers ....................................................................................... 239
The Integral Criteria Method ....................................................................................................... 239
Lambda Tuning Concepts ............................................................................................................. 239
Example Reactor Ratio Timing ..................................................................................................... 242
IMC Tuning Method ..................................................................................................................... 243
PID Controller Models.................................................................................................................. 244
Trial and Error Tuning Method .................................................................................................... 244
Dead Time and PID Control.......................................................................................................... 244
PID Tuning Video - Parameters in Action .......................................................................................... 244
Process Characteristics from the transfer function .......................................................................... 245
Poles, Zeros, and Dampening from the Transfer Function ............................................................... 245
Find the Poles from the Function ................................................................................................ 246
Find the Damping from the Function........................................................................................... 246
Find the Time Constant ................................................................................................................ 247
Find the Period ............................................................................................................................. 247
Find the Time Constant from the Period ..................................................................................... 247
Find Overshoot and Peak Value ................................................................................................... 247
Block Diagram Algebra ...................................................................................................................... 248

6
 Example of Block Diagram Algebra Reduction .................................................................................. 249
Nyquist Stability Criterion ................................................................................................................. 250
Routh Stability Criterion .................................................................................................................... 251
Check for Stability using Routh (Example) ........................................................................................ 254

Communications and Industrial Control Networks ......................................................................... 257

Overview of Corporate and Plant Networks ..................................................................................... 257
Open System Interconnect (OSI) and TCP/IP network layer model.................................................. 259
7 Layers of networking in the OSI model ..................................................................................... 259
Physical (Layer 1) ....................................................................................................................... 259
Data Link (Layer 2) ..................................................................................................................... 259
Network (Layer 3) ...................................................................................................................... 259
Transport (Layer 4) .................................................................................................................... 259
Session (Layer 5) ........................................................................................................................ 260
Presentation (Layer 6) ............................................................................................................... 260
Application (Layer 7) ................................................................................................................. 260
Cisco Network Certification – IIOT (Industrial Internet of Things) for IT and OT ..............................260
The typical network model .......................................................................................................... 261
The Network Essentials ................................................................................................................ 263
Overview of Industrial Networks ...................................................................................................... 264
The most popular industrial networks and their applications are below.................................... 264
HART Networks ............................................................................................................................ 265
Traditional HART Network......................................................................................................... 265
A Wired HART Network ............................................................................................................. 266
A Wireless HART Network ......................................................................................................... 266
PROFIBUS and AS-i Networks ...................................................................................................... 267
Reasons for choosing PROFIBUS ............................................................................................... 267
PROFIBUS DP ............................................................................................................................. 267
PROFIBUS PA ............................................................................................................................. 268
PROFINET................................................................................................................................... 268
AS-i ............................................................................................................................................ 268
PROFIBUS Fieldbus Message Specification (FMS) ..................................................................... 269
PROFIBUS................................................................................................................................... 269
PROFIsafe .................................................................................................................................. 269
PROFIdrive................................................................................................................................. 269
Use of the OSI Networking Layers ............................................................................................. 269
PROFIBUS/AS-i/PROFINET Certifications: ................................................................................. 269
FOUNDATION Fieldbus . ...................................................................................................................... 270
Reasons for choosing FOUNDATION Fieldbus . ................................................................................ 270
H2 or HSE (High Speed Ethernet) .............................................................................................. 270
FOUNDATION H1 ......................................................................................................................... 270
Typical FOUNDATION Segments ................................................................................................. 271
Use of the OSI Networking Layers ............................................................................................. 271
Rockwell and ODVA (CIP) Networks ............................................................................................ 272
ControlNet ............................................................................................................................. 272
DeviceNet .............................................................................................................................. 273
EtherNet/IP............................................................................................................................ 274
CompoNet ............................................................................................................................. 274
DH485, DH+, RIO ................................................................................................................... 274
Modbus Networks........................................................................................................................ 275
Traditional Modbus Networks................................................................................................... 275
Communication and Devices ..................................................................................................... 275

7
 Protocols.................................................................................................................................... 275
EtherCAT ...................................................................................................................................... 276
SERCOS ......................................................................................................................................... 276
Summary - Automation and Process Control Networks ............................................................. 277
Plant Facility Monitoring and Control System (FMCS) ................................................................ 277
BACnet ......................................................................................................................................... 278
LonWorks ..................................................................................................................................... 278
Typical Building Automation Network ......................................................................................... 278
Networked intelligent and smart devices .................................................................................... 279
PID control in intelligent networked devices ............................................................................... 279
PROFIBUS Control Blocks ............................................................................................................. 280
The Rosemount 333 Tri-Loop to split multiple variable signals................................................... 280

The Application of Digital Logic in Control Systems ...................................................................... 281

Overview of Digital Logic................................................................................................................... 281
Digital Logic Gate Symbols ................................................................................................................ 281
Digital Logic Gate Truth Tables ......................................................................................................... 282
ISA Binary Logic ................................................................................................................................. 283
Relay Ladder Logic............................................................................................................................. 284
Standard RLL Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 285
Sealing Circuits .................................................................................................................................. 285
Control System Architectures ........................................................................................................... 286
DCS Plant Wide Control System Architecture - Networked......................................................... 286
PLC Control System Architecture ................................................................................................. 288
PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) vs PAC (Process Automation Controller) ......................... 288
Controller Application Function Comparison Chart..................................................................... 289
SCADA Control System Architecture ............................................................................................ 289
PLC Programming Languages ....................................................................................................... 290
PLC Programming (LD) ladder diagram or (RLL) relay ladder logic ........................................... 291
PLC Programming (ST) structured text ...................................................................................... 291
PLC Programming (FBD) functional block diagram ................................................................... 292
PLC Programming (SFC) sequential function chart ................................................................... 292
Writing a Program and Developing a HMI for a Small Systems ................................................... 293
RSLogix 5000, ControlLogix PIDE (PID Enhanced) Function Block Diagram ................................. 294

Motor Control and Logic Functions .................................................................................................. 297

Plant Electrical System ...................................................................................................................... 297
Motor Control Center (MCC)............................................................................................................. 297
Typical MCC Design ........................................................................................................................... 298
Typical Motor Controller.............................................................................................................. 298
How to Control a Motor .................................................................................................................... 299
Starter Auxiliary Contacts ............................................................................................................ 299
Overload and Fault....................................................................................................................... 299
The basic NEMA stop-start station ................................................................................................... 300
Typical Motor Control Schematic ................................................................................................ 300
NEMA and IEC Terminal Designations .............................................................................................. 301
NEMA Standards Publication ICS 19-2002 (R2007) ................................................................... 301
Relays and Contacts .................................................................................................................. 301
Coil Lettering and Relay Socket Numbers (NEMA and IEC Numbers) ......................................... 301
Standard Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 303
Standard Symbols (Continued) .................................................................................................... 304
NEMA and IEC Comparisons ........................................................................................................ 305

8
 Stop-Start Station Control Circuit Schematic ............................................................................... 306
Starter Control Circuit Schematic ................................................................................................ 306
Relay Ladder Logic (RLL) and Function Blocks................................................................................... 307
RLL and Their Boolean Functions ................................................................................................. 307
Putting Ladder Logic into the PLC ................................................................................................ 308
Example of a Safety System in a PLC............................................................................................ 309
Safety Logic in the PLC ................................................................................................................. 310
Alarming on Sensor Input Failure .............................................................................................. 310
The PLC Logic for Valve and Alarm Monitoring ........................................................................... 311
Schematic to Programming Languages ..................................................................................... 311

The Application of Analog Circuits in Control Systems ................................................................. 313

Overview of Analog Signals ............................................................................................................... 313
Typical Analog Loop Wiring Diagram ........................................................................................... 313
Simplified signal transmitters that maintain constant flow rate for measurement variable ...... 314
Constant Current Loops and Ohm’s Law ..................................................................................... 315
Current Loop Fundamentals ........................................................................................................ 315
The 4-20 mA Current Loop........................................................................................................... 315
Using Current to Transmit Transducer Data ................................................................................ 316
Current Loop Components ........................................................................................................ 316
Current Loop System ................................................................................................................. 316
Designing a Current Loop System ................................................................................................ 317
Choosing a Power Supply .......................................................................................................... 317
Adding More Transducers and Instruments ................................................................................ 318
Devices in Series ........................................................................................................................ 319
A typical Current Loop Repeater.................................................................................................. 320
Active and Passive Current Loops ................................................................................................ 321
Sinking and Sourcing Devices ....................................................................................................... 322
What is the difference between PNP and NPN? ....................................................................... 322
PNP Sensor verses NPN Sensor ................................................................................................. 323

Overview of Motion Controller Applications .................................................................................... 325

Motion Control Systems.................................................................................................................... 325
The basic architecture of a motion control system contains: ..................................................... 325
Stepper Motor ............................................................................................................................. 325
Closed-Loop Stepper Motor ...................................................................................................... 325
Stepper motor advantages .......................................................................................................... 326
Linear motion control................................................................................................................ 326
Series vs. parallel connection .................................................................................................... 326
Servo motor systems ................................................................................................................... 327
Advanced motion controls ........................................................................................................ 327
Position plus velocity system .................................................................................................... 327
Electro-hydraulic Servo System ................................................................................................... 328
Position and pressure/force control ......................................................................................... 328
Position transducers .................................................................................................................. 328
Fieldbus interfaces .................................................................................................................... 329
Applications of servo systems...................................................................................................... 329
Soft Starter Applications ................................................................................................................... 329
How does a soft starter work? ..................................................................................................... 329
Benefits of choosing a soft starter ............................................................................................... 330
Variable Frequency Drive .................................................................................................................. 330
How does a variable frequency drive work? ............................................................................... 330

9
 Conversion from AC to DC to AC PWM ........................................................................................ 331
Volts to Hertz Relationship .......................................................................................................... 334
Important Note about Low Frequency in VFDs ........................................................................... 335
VFDs put Noise into the Electrical System ................................................................................... 335
PID Control with VFD or DC Drive ................................................................................................ 336
Closed loop control with drive electronics................................................................................ 336
Block diagram of PID control with feedback operation available on some VFDs ..................... 336
Drive with built-in PID tension control of web or winding reel operation................................ 336

Electrical Systems and Power Quality .............................................................................................. 337

Filtering Power and Harmonics ......................................................................................................... 337
Harmonic Neutralizing Transformers........................................................................................... 337
Filtering of a Harmonics in Power Systems.................................................................................. 338
Passive Filter ................................................................................................................................ 338
Active Filter .................................................................................................................................. 339
Proper Grounding Procedures .......................................................................................................... 341

Emergency Standby Systems ............................................................................................................ 343

Article 700 – Emergency Systems ..................................................................................................... 343
Article 701 – Legally Required Standby Systems .............................................................................. 343
Article 702 – Optional Standby Systems ........................................................................................... 343
UPS (uninterruptible power supply) ............................................................................................ 343
UPS and Battery Bank Sizing ........................................................................................................ 344
Load Profile Calculation............................................................................................................. 347
Battery Sizing Calculation .......................................................................................................... 348
Worked Example – Sizing the Battery Bank .............................................................................. 349
Backup Generator ........................................................................................................................ 351
BMCS Implementation (Building Monitoring and Controls System) ................................................ 352

Hydraulics and Pneumatics ............................................................................................................... 353

Fluid Power Systems ......................................................................................................................... 353
Hydraulic Systems ........................................................................................................................ 353
Pneumatic Systems ...................................................................................................................... 355
Typical Pneumatic System (this type may be found in a manufacturing or chemical plant) ...... 355
Mechanical Flow Diagram of a Large Compressor .................................................................... 355
Instrumentation Air Header (Fluid Distribution Header or Manifold) ...................................... 355
Pneumatic Schematic of Valve Controller ................................................................................. 356
I/P Current to Pneumatic Positioner ......................................................................................... 356
Instrument Air Cost - Engineering Economics ............................................................................. 357
Assumption .................................................................................................................................. 357
Peak air demand .......................................................................................................................... 357
Vendor data ................................................................................................................................. 357
Include Total Demand .................................................................................................................. 358
Instrument Air Piping and Cost .................................................................................................... 358
Pipe sizing is just like sizing electrical lines ....................................................................................... 359
Caution Using Charts and Graphs ................................................................................................ 359
Interconnects and headers .......................................................................................................... 359
The Target Objectives .................................................................................................................. 359
Eliminate the pressure drop ........................................................................................................ 360
Air Velocity ................................................................................................................................... 360
Crunching the Numbers ............................................................................................................... 361
Recover Wasted Heat to Save Money ......................................................................................... 362

10
Fluid Power Schematic Symbols ....................................................................................................... 363

Overview of Conveying Technologies .............................................................................................. 371

Some common types of conveying systems are as follows: ............................................................. 371
Heavy Duty Roller Conveyors....................................................................................................... 371
Flexible Conveyors ....................................................................................................................... 371
Vertical Conveyors and Spiral Conveyors .................................................................................... 372
Spiral Conveyors .......................................................................................................................... 372
Vertical conveyor with forks ........................................................................................................ 372
Vibrating Conveyors ..................................................................................................................... 372
Pneumatic and Vacuum Conveyors .................................................................................................. 373
Pneumatic Tube Conveyor Systems............................................................................................. 373
Large Complex Pneumatic Conveying Systems............................................................................ 374
Typical Plant Pneumatic Conveying System .............................................................................. 374
HMI for Pneumatic Conveying System ...................................................................................... 374
Dilute Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 375
Dense Phase Systems ................................................................................................................ 375
Conveying Phase Diagram ......................................................................................................... 376
Pressure Distance Relationships ............................................................................................... 377
Vacuum Conveying ...................................................................................................................... 377
A typical vacuum product transportation system ..................................................................... 378
Vacuum conveying systems and HMI display ........................................................................... 378
Vacuum conveying system HMI display .................................................................................... 378
Blower operating cost of pneumatic systems.............................................................................. 379
Screw conveying systems............................................................................................................. 379
Screw conveyor instruments ..................................................................................................... 380
Mass or bulk flow measurement ................................................................................................. 380
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 380
Load cell measurement for mass flow rate ............................................................................... 380
Mass flow control of conveying system ....................................................................................... 381
Radiometric measurement for mass flow rate ......................................................................... 381
Load Cell (Strain Gauge) measurement for mass flow rate ...................................................... 381
Typical scale systems used on manufacturing lines and in plants ............................................ 382

Chemical Process Technology and Equipment ............................................................................... 383

Process Technologies ........................................................................................................................ 383
Separation Processes ........................................................................................................................ 384
A Typical Horizontal 3-Phase Separator....................................................................................... 384
Industrial Distillation ......................................................................................................................... 384
A Typical Industrial Distillation Process ....................................................................................... 385
A Typical Distillation Unit ............................................................................................................. 385
Industrial Furnaces (Fired Heaters) ................................................................................................... 386
Industrial Furnaces....................................................................................................................... 386
Fired Heater Control Scheme....................................................................................................... 387
Expansion Tanks and Heat Transfer Fluid ......................................................................................... 387
Vapor Pressure, Boiling and Cavitation in Equipment ...................................................................... 389
Vaporization in Equipment .......................................................................................................... 389
Control Valve Applications ........................................................................................................... 389
Pumping Applications .................................................................................................................. 389
Video of Vaporization and Cavitation Phenomenon ................................................................... 390
Heat Exchangers ................................................................................................................................ 391
Flow Arrangement ....................................................................................................................... 391
Shell and Tube Heat exchanger ................................................................................................... 392
11
 Dynamic scraped surface heat exchanger................................................................................. 392
Phase-change heat exchangers ................................................................................................. 392
Reboiler as seen on a distillation column.................................................................................. 392
Heat Exchanger BTU Calculation and Control.............................................................................. 393
Example of how to control the heat exchanger: ......................................................................... 393
Condenser (heat transfer) ................................................................................................................. 394
Evaporation Processes ...................................................................................................................... 395
What is evaporation? ................................................................................................................... 395
What is latent heat?..................................................................................................................... 395
What is the boiling point? ............................................................................................................ 395
Various Types of Evaporators and Their Working Principles............................................................ 395
Vertical Falling Film Evaporator ................................................................................................... 395
Horizontal Film Evaporator.......................................................................................................... 396
Low Temperature Vacuum Evaporator........................................................................................ 397
Using the Psychrometric Chart ......................................................................................................... 399
Cooling Towers .................................................................................................................................. 401
Cooling Tower Calculations .......................................................................................................... 401
Cooling tower water loss and make-up ....................................................................................... 402
Cooling tower control scheme and operating cost .......................................................................... 404
Typical pH correction system ....................................................................................................... 405
Chemical Reactors and Control ......................................................................................................... 406
What is a Reactor? .................................................................................................................... 406
Types of Reactors ...................................................................................................................... 406
Basic Control Scheme for a Reactor ............................................................................................ 407
CSTR (Constant Stirred Tank Reactor) ....................................................................................... 407
Hydrocracking Reactor Controls .................................................................................................. 407
Chemical Scrubbers ........................................................................................................................... 408
Wet exhaust gas cleaning ............................................................................................................ 408
Wet gas scrubber ......................................................................................................................... 409
Dry scrubbing ............................................................................................................................... 410
Scrubber waste products ............................................................................................................. 410
Bacteria spread ............................................................................................................................ 410
Dehydration Processes...................................................................................................................... 411
Absorption ................................................................................................................................... 411
Joule-Thompson effect...................................................................................................................... 413
Crystallization Technology ................................................................................................................ 414
Static Crystallization ..................................................................................................................... 414
Falling Film Crystallization ........................................................................................................... 416
Suspension Crystallization ........................................................................................................... 416
Process flow diagram suspension crystallization ......................................................................... 417
Freeze Concentration................................................................................................................... 417
Overview of a small crystallization plant to control .................................................................... 418
Flare and Vent Disposal Systems ...................................................................................................... 418
Types of flares .............................................................................................................................. 418
Flare Control Systems .................................................................................................................. 419
Quality Control Standards for Production of Products ..................................................................... 419

ISA Standards for Documentation..................................................................................................... 421

ISA Instrument or Function Symbol .................................................................................................. 421
ISA Line Type Symbols ....................................................................................................................... 422
Standard Line Types .......................................................................................................................... 422
ISA Identification Letters ................................................................................................................... 423

12
 ISA P&ID Identification (Controllers and Readouts) .......................................................................... 424
ISA P&ID Identification (Transmitters, Switches and Alarms) .......................................................... 425
ISA P&ID Identification (Compute, Relay and Elements) ................................................................. 426
Piping and Equipment Symbols......................................................................................................... 427
Standard P&ID (Piping and Instrumentation Diagram) ..................................................................... 428
P&ID Sample 1 (Functions) .......................................................................................................... 428
P&ID Sample 2 (Alarms) ............................................................................................................... 429
P&ID Sample 3 (Separator) .......................................................................................................... 429
EM (Equipment Modules) as in the ISA-88 Standard ................................................................... 430
Cross Limiting Control of Furnace ................................................................................................ 430
Simplified P&ID Sample 1 ............................................................................................................ 431
Simplified P&ID Sample 2 ............................................................................................................ 431
ISA Standard PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) or MFD (Mechanical Flow Diagram) ................................ 432
PFD (Piping Flow Diagram) Sample 1 ........................................................................................... 432
BFD (Block Flow Diagram) ................................................................................................................. 434
BFD Sample 1 ............................................................................................................................... 434
BFD Sample 2 ............................................................................................................................... 434
ISA Standard Loop Diagram .............................................................................................................. 435
Instrument Location and Elevation Plan Drawing ............................................................................ 437
Instrument Index Sheet..................................................................................................................... 438
DCS or PLC I/O List (A List of Inputs and Outputs with Tags and Calibration Data) .......................... 439
ISA Standard (HMI) Graphical Display Symbols and Designations ................................................... 440
HMI Sample 1 ............................................................................................................................... 440
HMI Sample 2 ............................................................................................................................... 441
NFPA 79 Colors for Graphical Displays (Industrial Machinery) ......................................................... 441
Battery Limits of the Plant ................................................................................................................ 442

Overview of Safety Instrumented Systems ...................................................................................... 443

Overview of process safety and shutdown ....................................................................................... 443
SIS (Safety Instrumented Systems) .............................................................................................. 443
Complying with IEC 61511 / ISA-84 .............................................................................................. 443
Other codes related to SIS systems ............................................................................................. 444
ISA and OSHA letter defining the requirements of the implementation of SIS systems .................. 444
Initiating Events of Safety Instrumented Systems ....................................................................... 445
Initiating Event ............................................................................................................................. 445
Examples ...................................................................................................................................... 445
External Events ............................................................................................................................ 445
Equipment Failures ...................................................................................................................... 445
Human Failures ............................................................................................................................ 445
The difference between BPCS and SIS systems ................................................................................ 446
IEC 61508 mandatory and guidelines .......................................................................................... 447
SIF and SIL.......................................................................................................................................... 448
Risk analysis and protection layers .............................................................................................. 448
Designing a SIS System ...................................................................................................................... 449
SIL (Safety Integrity Level) – Unit for Functional Safety .............................................................. 449
SFF – Safe Failure Fraction ........................................................................................................... 450
Probability of Failures on Demand (PFD) ..................................................................................... 451
Probability of Failures per Hour (PFH) ......................................................................................... 451
SIL Capability and Safety System ................................................................................................. 452
SIF (Safety Instrumented Function) ............................................................................................. 453
A typical P&ID of the (SIF) Instrumentation................................................................................. 453
Voting or (Polling of the System) ................................................................................................. 454

13
 A typical voting system and its instrumentation for the above P&ID ....................................... 454
Types of Voting (X out of X) ....................................................................................................... 454
Voting Probabilities ...................................................................................................................... 455
The SIS calculations ........................................................................................................................... 455
Quantification of Reliability in almost absolute terms ................................................................ 455
Failure Models – The Bathtub Curve ........................................................................................... 456
Reliability Laws............................................................................................................................. 457
Improving the reliability of a measurement system ................................................................. 457
Safety Integrity Level (SIL) and Availability .................................................................................. 458
Sample of SIL Evaluation ........................................................................................................... 458
Acronyms................................................................................................................................... 458
Metrics used in the reliability engineering field involving SIS .......................................................... 459
2. MTTR = Mean Time to Repair ............................................................................................ 459
3. MTBF – Mean Time Between Failures ............................................................................... 459
4. Availability A(t) and Unavailability U(t) ............................................................................. 460
5. Probability of Failure on Demand (PFDavg) and Periodic Test and Inspection ................. 460
SIS Calculations - worked example .............................................................................................. 462
Calculating PFD (Probability of Failure on Demand) ............................................................. 463
Calculating MTTF (Mean Time to Failure) Based on Failure Rates…......................................463
Calculating MTBF based on failures ...................................................................................... 463
SIS and SIL – worked examples .......................................................................................................... 464
Example 1: Pump Failure Rate (FR) ....................................................................................... 464
Example 2: MTBF over 10 years ............................................................................................ 464
Example 3: PFD and Test Interval .......................................................................................... 465
Recommended SIS Study Material .................................................................................................... 466
Excerpts from Process Safebook 1 – Rockwell Automation ............................................................. 466

Overview of NEC / NFPA and Other Codes ...................................................................................... 469

CFR (Federal Government) Public Safety Standards of the United States........................................ 469
List of NFPA codes (be familiar with these codes) ............................................................................ 472
NFPA 70 – NEC (National Electrical Code)......................................................................................... 472
Voltage Drop Calculations............................................................................................................ 473
Substitute specific resistance (k) for resistance (R) of wire ...................................................... 473
Wire and cable sizing formulas for voltage drop ...................................................................... 473
Voltage drop calculations – worked examples ............................................................................ 474
NEC Article 500 Explosion Proof Installations .............................................................................. 476
Class I Hazardous Location NEC Article 501 ................................................................................. 476
Class I Location Definition ..................................................................................................... 476
Class I Division Definitions ..................................................................................................... 477
Class I Group Definitions ....................................................................................................... 477
Class I Temperature Definition .............................................................................................. 478
Class II Hazardous Location NEC Article 502 ................................................................................ 478
Class II Location Definition .................................................................................................... 478
Class II Division Definitions .................................................................................................... 478
Class II Group Definitions ...................................................................................................... 479
Class II Temperature Class ..................................................................................................... 479
Class III Hazardous Location NEC Article 503 ............................................................................... 479
Class III Location Definition ................................................................................................... 479
Class III Division Definitions ................................................................................................... 479
Class III Group Definitions ..................................................................................................... 480
Use of Zone Classifications........................................................................................................... 480
Classification Comparison (Zone/Division) for a Class I Location.............................................. 480

14
 Group Comparison (Zone/ Division) for a Class I Location ........................................................ 481
Protection Methods Comparison Class ..................................................................................... 481
Designation of NEC/CEC Classification......................................................................................... 482
Hazardous Location Classification ............................................................................................. 482
Summary the various hazardous (classified) locations. ............................................................... 483
Hazardous Location Wiring Methods .......................................................................................... 484
Purged and pressurized systems ................................................................................................. 485
Intrinsically safe systems ............................................................................................................. 485
Zener diode barrier (configurations) ......................................................................................... 485
Conventional passive IS Zener barriers ................................................................................. 485
Active (powered) IS isolation barriers ................................................................................... 485
NEC Article 409 and UL 508A ............................................................................................................ 486
What is NEC 409 and UL 508A? ................................................................................................... 486
SCCR (Short-circuit current rating) of industrial control panels .................................................. 486
Components in the power circuit ................................................................................................ 486
SCCR calculations – worked examples ......................................................................................... 487
NEC Articles for Remote Control and Signaling ................................................................................ 488
Article Categories ......................................................................................................................... 488
Cabling Installations and Applications (Types and Ratings) ......................................................... 489
Cables Selection for Installation per NEC Code ........................................................................... 489
Article 725 - Class 1, Class 2, Class 3, Remote-control Circuits .................................................... 491
Power sources .............................................................................................................................. 492
Class 1 methods and materials .................................................................................................... 492
Class 2 and Class 3 methods and materials ................................................................................. 492
Article 800 - Communications Circuits......................................................................................... 493
Examples of Article 725, 727 and 800 in instrumentation and controls ..................................... 494
NEMA Electrical Enclosures Types and Uses ..................................................................................... 496
Non-hazardous location NEMA enclosure types ......................................................................... 496
Table 10 – Indoor Nonhazardous Locations ................................................................................ 497
Table 11 - Outdoor Nonhazardous Locations .............................................................................. 498
Table 12 - Hazardous Locations ................................................................................................... 499
Temperature Rise Calculation ................................................................................................... 499
NFPA 70E Standard for Electrical Safety ........................................................................................... 500
What is NFPA 70E? ....................................................................................................................... 500
What is Arc Flash.......................................................................................................................... 500
Approach / Protection Boundaries .............................................................................................. 501
Arc Flash Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 501
Required Arc Flash Warning Label ............................................................................................... 501
NFPA 77 Static Electricity .................................................................................................................. 502
1.2 Purpose .................................................................................................................................. 502
8.1 General overview ................................................................................................................... 502
8.3.1 Charge generation .............................................................................................................. 503
G.1 Grounding diagrams .............................................................................................................. 504
NFPA 780 Lightning Protection (formerly NFPA 78) ......................................................................... 505
NFPA 780 and NFPA 70 (NEC) ...................................................................................................... 505
Strike-termination devices ........................................................................................................ 505
Connecting conductors to electrodes ....................................................................................... 505
Routing down conductors ......................................................................................................... 506
Conductor and electrode connection ....................................................................................... 506
Earth-grounding electrodes ...................................................................................................... 506
Summary of lightning protection components ............................................................................ 506
Air terminal height .................................................................................................................... 506

15
 Conductor bends ....................................................................................................................... 506
Conductor size and material ........................................................................................................ 507
Transient Protection from Lightning Strikes ................................................................................ 507
NFPA 79 Industrial Machinery........................................................................................................... 509
Conductor sizing........................................................................................................................... 509
Conductor colors .......................................................................................................................... 509
Pushbutton functions for color .................................................................................................... 509
Colors for Machine Indicator Lights and Icons Table 10.3.2 ........................................................ 509
NFPA 496 Purged and Pressurized Systems ...................................................................................... 510
Overview of the NFPA 496 articles .............................................................................................. 510
Factors to consider (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-3) ..................................................................................... 510
Location of the control room (NFPA 496, Secs. 5-3.1(c) and 5-3.2) ............................................ 510
Positive pressure air systems (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.1) .................................................................. 511
Type X equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.4) ................................................................................... 511
Type Y equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5) ................................................................................... 511
Type Z equipment (NFPA 496, Sec. 5-4.5) ................................................................................... 511
Examples of Purged and Pressurized Systems ............................................................................. 512
Basic design of purged enclosures ............................................................................................... 512
Basic design of purged buildings .................................................................................................. 513
40 CFR and EPA - LDAR ...................................................................................................................... 514
The Clean Air Act (CAA)................................................................................................................ 514
What the Law Requires ................................................................................................................ 514

Putting It All Together ......................................................................................................................... 515

Define the Scope of the Plant ........................................................................................................... 515
Define the Control Systems Architecture ......................................................................................... 516
Some Typical Large DCS Architectures .............................................................................................. 517
More on DCS Cabinets and I/O Distribution ..................................................................................... 518
Distributing the Power and Control .................................................................................................. 519
Routing the Cable Trays .................................................................................................................... 520
Choose the Wiring Method ............................................................................................................... 521
Field Distribution Systems................................................................................................................. 522
Class I, Division 2 Installations ..................................................................................................... 523
Class I, Division 1 Installations ..................................................................................................... 523
Modular Wiring Distribution Systems.......................................................................................... 524
Instrument Air Supply and Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................. 525
Instrument Air Consumption ....................................................................................................... 525
Compressor Types........................................................................................................................ 526
Piping System and Manifold ........................................................................................................ 526
Air Pipe Header ......................................................................................................................... 526
Pneumatic Tubing...................................................................................................................... 526
Air Distribution Manifold (Header) ........................................................................................... 527
Routing of Pneumatic Tubing .................................................................................................... 527
Heat Tracing Systems ........................................................................................................................ 528
Electric Heat Tracing .................................................................................................................... 528
Steam Heat Tracing ...................................................................................................................... 529
Free Heat Tracing Software ......................................................................................................... 530
Determine Scope of Design ............................................................................................................... 530
Electrical Scope ............................................................................................................................ 531
Instrumentation and Mechanical Scope ...................................................................................... 531
Design of Electrical Plans ............................................................................................................. 532
Sample of a possible design for the control network and communications in plant .................. 533

16
 Sample of a possible plan for routing of cable tray and conduit in plant .................................... 534
Sample of a possible layout for a MCC building with medium voltage switchgear installed ...... 535
Sample of a possible oneͲline electrical diagram for the low voltage in the MCC building ....... 536
Sample of a possible ladder diagram for the control of an Allen Bradley frequency drive ......... 537
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram for the frequency drive ............................. 538
Sample of a possible electrical field wiring diagram routing the analog instruments to DCS ..... 539
Locations of Instruments and Piping Design ..................................................................................... 541
Finding the location of an instrument in a plant ......................................................................... 547

Useful Equations for Pumping, Piping and Sizing Valves .............................................................. 549
Find pipe diameter with velocity of flow known .............................................................................. 549
Find flow velocity with pipe diameter known................................................................................... 549
Find pipe diameter with temperature and pressure correction ....................................................... 549
Find flow velocity with temperature and pressure correction ......................................................... 549
Find the Reynolds Number for the flow............................................................................................ 549
Calculate the Piping Head Losses to Size a Control Valve ................................................................. 550
Find the pump motor size (break horsepower) ................................................................................ 551
Calculating the Hydraulic Horsepower of pumps ........................................................................ 551
Calculating the Brake Horsepower of pumps .............................................................................. 552
Correct Pump Head and Flow Rate for Fluid Viscosity ................................................................ 553
Piping Absolute Roughness Values ................................................................................................... 556

Applications of Pumping Systems .................................................................................................... 557

Pump Basics ...................................................................................................................................... 557
Static Head ........................................................................................................................................ 557
Applying sariable &requency rives to Wumps to Zealize ^avings ................................................... 558
Pumps with sariable &requency riveƐ (VFD).................................................................................. 558
When an zou ^ave with a VFD? ...................................................................................................... 559
Sizing ĂWump ,ead with ^pecific 'ravity of the Wumped &luid ....................................................... 560
How a Piping System Works.............................................................................................................. 561

Calculating Volume in Tanks ............................................................................................................. 565

Cylindrical Tanks Upright .................................................................................................................. 565
Cylindrical Tanks on Side ................................................................................................................... 565
Spherical Tanks.................................................................................................................................. 566
Bullet Tanks ....................................................................................................................................... 566

Examination Sample Questions ........................................................................................................ 567

Sample Questions ............................................................................................................................. 567
Answers to Examination Sample Questions ..................................................................................... 574
Explanations and Proofs of Examination Sample Questions ............................................................ 575

Preparing this Guide for the Exam .................................................................................................... 587

An Avery tab template is included with this guide ........................................................................... 587
Suggested tabbing the guide............................................................................................................. 587

Guide to Using the Fisher Control Valve Handbook ....................................................................... 589

Important Sections to Review ........................................................................................................... 589
Important Pages to Tab ..................................................................................................................... 589
Valve and materials Selection ...................................................................................................... 589
Actuator Sizing Methods.............................................................................................................. 590
Valve Sizing Methods ................................................................................................................... 590
Electrical Apparatus ..................................................................................................................... 590

17
 Engineering Data .......................................................................................................................... 590
Piping System Applications .......................................................................................................... 590
Conversions and Equivalents ....................................................................................................... 591

Appendix and Data Tables ................................................................................................................. 593

Table A1 - Thermocouple Table (Type J) ........................................................................................... 594
Table A2 - Thermocouple Table (Type K) .......................................................................................... 596
Table A3 - Thermocouple Table (Type E) .......................................................................................... 599
Table A4 - Thermocouple Table (Type T) .......................................................................................... 601
Table A5 - Platinum 100 Ohm RTD Table in ohms ............................................................................. 602
Table A6 - Properties of Water Specific Gravity and LBs/HR to GPM ............................................... 603
Table A7 - Properties of Water Specific Volume and Density ........................................................... 604
Table A8 - Properties of Water Kinematic Viscosity centistokes ...................................................... 605
Table A9 - Properties of Saturated Steam......................................................................................... 606
Table A10 - Valve Selection – Materials and Applications ................................................................ 611
Valve Terms.................................................................................................................................. 611
Selecting your Valve ..................................................................................................................... 611
Valve Types and Descriptions ...................................................................................................... 612
Valve Selection Overview - Service Application Chart ................................................................. 614
Valve Selection Detailed - Service Application Chart................................................................... 615
Valve Types - Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................................. 616
Standard Control Valve Body Materials ....................................................................................... 617
Valve Seat Leakage Bubbles per Minute...................................................................................... 619
Valve Trim Material Temperature Limits...................................................................................... 620
Valve Service Temperature Limits for Non-Metallic Materials.................................................... 621
Valve Stem Packing Friction Values (Typical)............................................................................... 622
Valve Stem Packing Temperature – Pressure .............................................................................. 622
Valve Seating Shutoff Pressure .................................................................................................... 623
Abbreviations and Terminology.................................................................................................... 624
Table A11 - Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher ED Globe Valves ................................. 625
Table A12 - Properties and Sizing Cv Coefficients for Fisher Rotary Valves...................................... 628
Table A13 - Numerical Constants for Control Valve Sizing Formulas ............................................... 629
Table A14 - Critical Pressure and Temperature of Elements ............................................................ 630
Table A15 - Pipe Standard Dimensions and Data.............................................................................. 631
Table A16 - NEC Wire Ampacity Table 310.16 .................................................................................. 633
Table A17 - NEC Conductor Properties and Impedance ................................................................... 634
Table A18 - NEC Full Load Motor Currents ....................................................................................... 637
Table A19 - NEC Grounding and Bonding Conductors ...................................................................... 638
Table A20 - Specific Gravity and Gas Constants for Some Common Gases ...................................... 639
Table A21 - Specific Gravity Common Fluids..................................................................................... 641
Table A22 - The kinematic viscosity common fluids ......................................................................... 644
Table A23 - The absolute viscosity common liquids ......................................................................... 651
Table A24 - The absolute viscosity common gases ........................................................................... 653
Table A25 - Density of Elements in English and Metric Units ........................................................... 654
Table A26 - Metric Conversion Tables .............................................................................................. 655
Table A27 - Standard Conditions and Gas Laws ................................................................................ 657
Table A28 - Head Loss in Piping Systems .......................................................................................... 658
Table A29 - Maximal flow velocity in pipes ....................................................................................... 659
Table A30 - Pressure Vapor Chart of Common Liquids ..................................................................... 660

References ........................................................................................................................................... 661

18