Applications of Thermodynamics

to Flow Processes
.

Introduction

Principles: “Fluid mechanics” and “Thermodynamics”

Contrast
Flow process inevitably result from pressure gradients within the
fluid. Moreover, temperature, velocity, and even concentration
gradients may exist within the flowing fluid.
Uniform conditions that prevail at equilibrium in closed system.
Local state
An equation of state applied locally and instantaneously at any
point in a fluid system, and that one may invoke a concept of
local state, independent of the concept of equilibrium.

CHE C311
.

Duct flow of compressible fluids

Equations interrelate the changes occurring in

pressure, velocity, cross-sectional area, enthalpy,
entropy, and specific volume of the flowing system.
Consider an adiabatic, steady-state, one
dimensional flow of a compressible fluid:
u 2 dH  udu
H  0
2

The continuity equation:

dV du dA
d (uA / V )  0   0
V u A

CHE C311
 .

Duct flow of compressible fluids

dV du dA
Adiabatic Steady state flow   0
V u A
dV T V dH  udu
 dS  2 dP
dV du dA V CP c dH  TdS  VdP
  0
V u A   u 2    u 2
 u 2
1    VdP  1 
 c   C TdS  A dA  0
 V   V     P 
dV    dS    dP
 S  P  P  S u
M    The Mach number
 V   V   T  c
      dV T V
 S  P  T  P  S  P    u 2 
V
dS
CP 2
dP
c 1  M VdP  1  C TdS  A dA  0
2 u2
dH  TdS  VdP  P 

1  V   S  C  udu  TdS  VdP

      P
V  T  P T  P T  u 2 
  M2 
 V  VT  CP   1 u
2
   udu   TdS   dA  0
2 
 S  P CP 1 M2   1  M  A
 
 V  V2  
   2
 P  S c
CHE C311
.

Pipe flow
Pipe flow

 u 2   u 2 
  M2  1  M VdP  1  C
2
TdS 
u2
dA  0
TdS   1  u dA  0
2
udu   P  
C A
  2 
P
1 M2 1 M  A
 
 

 u 2   u 2 
  M2  1 
T  dS
 T  P  dS
du C dP CP
u    dx
dx 1 M2  dx dx V 1 M2
   
   

du dP
0 0
For subsonic flow, M2 < 1, dx dx , the pressure decreases
and the velocity increases in the direction of flow. For subsonic flow,
the maximum fluid velocity obtained in a pipe of constant cross
section is the speed of sound, and this value is reached at the exit of
the pipe.
CHE C311
.

Pipe flow
Nozzles

 u 2 
 u 2

 CP

 M2 
  1 u
2 1  M VdP  1  C TdS  A dA  0
2 u2
udu   TdS   2 
dA  0  P 
1 M2   1  M  A
 
  Reversible flow
Reversible flow
 1 M V2

dP u 2 dA
0
du  1  u 2 dA dx A dx
u   0
dx  1  M 2  A dx

Subsonic: M <1 Supersonic: M >1

Converging Diverging Converging Diverging
dA
- + - +
dx
dP
- + + -
dx
du
+ - - +
dx
For subsonic flow in a converging nozzle, the velocity increases as the cross-sectional area
diminishes. The maximum value is the speed of sound, reached at the throat.
CHE C311
.

Pipe flow
Nozzles

du  1  u 2 dA
u   0
dx  1  M 2  A dx isentropic
udu  VdP
1  M V dP
2
u dA
2
 0
dx A dx P2
u22  u12  2 VdP
P1

PV   const.
 1
 
2P1V1   P2   
u2  u1 
2 2
1  
  1   P1  
 
 P 
u2  c c  V  
2 2

 V  S
u1  0 PV   const.
 P  P
  
 V  S V
 1
P2  2  
  
P1    1 

CHE C311
.

Throttling ProcessPipe flow

When a fluid flows through a restriction, such as an orifice, a partly

closed valve, or a porous plug, without any appreciable change in
kinetic or potential energy, the primary result of the process is a
pressure drop in the fluid.

d (mU ) cv  1 2   Q  0
   H  u  zg m   Q  W H  0
dt  2   fs W  0
Constant enthalpy

For ideal gas: H  0 H 2  H1 T2  T1

For most real gas at moderate conditions of temperature and pressure, a reduction in
pressure at constant enthalpy results in a decrease in temperature.

If a saturated liquid is throttled to a lower pressure, some of the liquid vaporizes or

flashes, producing a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at the lower pressure.
The large temperature drop results from evaporation of liquid. Throttling processes find
frequent application in refrigeration.

CHE C311
 Turbine (Expanders)
• A turbine (or expander):
– Consists of alternate sets of nozzles and rotating
blades
– Vapor or gas flows in a steady-state expansion
process and overall effect is the efficient
conversion of the internal energy of a high-
pressure stream into shaft work.

Turbine W S
d (mU ) cv  1  
   H  u 2  zg m   Q  W S WS  m
 H  m
 ( H 2  H1 )
dt  2   fs

WS  H  H 2  H1

The maximum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)

WS (isentropic)  (H ) S
The turbine efficiency
WS H
 
WS (isentropic) (H ) S Values for properly designed turbines: 0.7~ 0.8
 Compression process compressor W S

• Pressure increases: compressors, pumps, fans,

blowers, and vacuum pumps.
• Interested in the energy requirement

d (mU ) cv  1  
   H  u 2  zg m   Q  W S WS  m
 H  m
 ( H 2  H1 )
dt  2   fs

WS  H  H 2  H1
The minimum shaft work: a reversible process (i.e., isentropic, S1 = S2)
WS (isentropic)  (H ) S
WS (isentropic) (H ) S
The compressor efficiency   
WS H
Values for properly designed compressors: 0.7~ 0.8
 Pumps
• Liquids are usually moved by pumps. The same
equations apply to adiabatic pumps as to adiabatic
compressors.
• For an isentropic process:
Ws (isentropic)  H S   VdP
P 2

P 1

• With dT
dH  CP dT  V (1  T )dP dS  C P   VdP
• For liquid, T
–
– Ws (isentropic)  H S  V ( P2  P1 )
– H  CP T  V (1  T )P
T2
S  CP ln  VP
T1
.

Ejectors

• Ejectors remove gases or vapors from an evacuated space and compress them for
discharge at a higher pressure.

• Where the mixing of the gases or vapors with the driving fluid is allowable, ejectors are
usually lower in first cost and maintenance costs than other types of vacuumpumps.

CHE C311