August 2020

Volume 98 | Issue 8

Lean and resilient

design

Speaking stone
Post-tensioned stone
structures

As a new interest emerges in stone as a structural

material, what can we learn from the design of Profile: Mike Cook
Italy’s Padre Pio church some 25 years ago?

Cover_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 1 16/07/2020 11:24

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TSE.Aug20.002.indd 2 15/07/2020 15:19

 Upfront
5 Editorial
6 News
8 President’s mid-year report

Climate

9
emergency
9 Applying circular principles to the
design process
12 Lean design: 10 things to do now
15 Lean yet resilient – designing
gning for
the future
18 Time for a structural change?
ange?

Professional
guidance
20 Business Practice Note No. 34:

15
Business-to-business collaboration:
an introduction to ISO 44001

Technical
22 Stone as a structural material.
aterial. Part 3:
Post-tensioned stone structures
tructures

Project focus
us
43
Volume 98 │ Issue 8 │August 2020

30 Speaking stone – a retrospective

look at the stone arch design for the
Padre Pio church, Italy

Opinion
40 Profile: Mike Cook
43 Book review: Whole life costing for
sustainable building
44 Verulam
MICHEL DENANCÉ

At the back
47 Diary dates

40
22
48 Spotlight on Structures
49 Products & Services
50 Services Directory

3
thestructuralengineer.org | August 2020

Contents_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 3 16/07/2020 08:02

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TSE.Aug20.004.indd 4 15/07/2020 09:01

 Editorial Upfront

PRESIDENT
Don McQuillan
BSc(Eng), CEng, FIStructE, FICE, FIAE, FIEI,
FCIHT, FConsE, MAPM, MAE

CHIEF EXECUTIVE
Martin Powell

EDITORIAL
HEAD OF PUBLISHING
Lee Baldwin

MANAGING EDITOR
Robin Jones Robin Jones Managing Editor
t: +44 (0) 20 7201 9822
e: [email protected]

A lean and
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT
Ian Farmer
t: +44 (0) 20 7201 9121
e: [email protected]

ADVERTISING

resilient future?
DISPLAY SALES
t: +44 (0) 20 7880 7632
e: [email protected]

RECRUITMENT SALES
t: +44 (0) 20 7880 6235
e: [email protected]

DESIGN
SENIOR DESIGNER
THIS ISSUE WENT TO PRESS against an for the Padre Pio church in Foggia, Italy between
Nicholas Daley increasingly gloomy economic outlook, as the UK 1990 and 2004 (page 30). Alistair Lenczner does
PRODUCTION and other countries continue to emerge from their not provide a comprehensive technical account of
PRODUCTION DIRECTOR Covid-19 lockdowns. Following sharp falls in output the structural design, instead focusing on the design
Jane Easterman
in March and April, the Office for National Statistics development of this innovative project – the final
EDITORIAL ADVISORY GROUP reported that the UK economy rebounded more completed collaboration between engineer Peter
Will Arnold MIStructE
Premma Makanji MIStructE
slowly than expected in May, Rice and architect Renzo Piano
Allan Mann FIStructE although the construction sector – and discussing the hurdles
Chris O’Regan FIStructE
Angus Palmer MIStructE fared better than others. All this that arose from working with
Simon Pitchers FIStructE
comes against the background a material outside established
Eleana Savvidi MIStructE
of the gradual unwinding of WE OFFER codes of practice.
Price (2020 subscription)
Institutional: £462.47 (incl. e-archive, p&p) the government’s job retention PRACTICAL Finally, July has been an

GUIDANCE ON
Personal (print only): £130 (incl. p&p)
Personal (online only): £108.33
scheme and the prospect of excellent month for Structures.
Personal (Student Member): £40 (incl. p&p) further job losses – although the The Institution’s research
Single copies: £25 (incl. p&p) government has announced a HOW ENGINEERS journal saw its Impact Factor
Printed by
green investment package for
retrofitting homes and public
CAN ENSURE increase to 1.839 in the recent
release of the 2020 Journal
THEIR DESIGNS
Warners Midlands plc
The Maltings, Manor Lane Bourne,
Lincolnshire PE10 9PH buildings. Citation Reports, marking
United Kingdom But what does this mean ARE LEAN AND another step in establishing
© The Institution of Structural Engineers.
The Structural Engineer (ISSN 1466-5123) is
published by IStructE Ltd, a wholly owned
for the structural engineering
profession in particular? How
RESILIENT itself as an internationally
recognised publication. I’m
subsidiary of The Institution of Structural
Engineers. It is available both in print and online.
do members feel about the also delighted to announce
prospects for the coming that the winners of the annual
Contributions published in The Structural
Engineer are published on the understanding months? Do write in to [email protected] and share Structures prizes have been revealed. See page 48
that the author/s is/are solely responsible for the
statements made, for the opinions expressed
your views on what the post-pandemic future holds. for details of the winning papers – both of which will
and/or for the accuracy of the contents. The climate emergency will remain at the top be free to read for the next free months.
Publication does not imply that any statement or
opinion expressed by the author/s reflects the of the international agenda as the world returns I hope you all find something of interest in this
views of the Institution of Structural Engineers’
Board; Council; committees; members
to ‘normal’, and in our climate section this month issue.
or employees. No liability is accepted by such we offer practical guidance on how engineers can n
persons or by the Institution for any loss or
damage, whether caused through reliance on ensure their designs are lean (page 12), resilient
any statement, opinion or omission (textual
or otherwise) in The Structural Engineer, or
(page 15) and adhere to circular principles
otherwise. (page 9) as we seek to make more sustainable use se
The Institution of Structural Engineers of resources. We also explore whether a micro-
International HQ
47–58 Bastwick Street
modular approach based on a 300mm grid could
London EC1V 3PS produce more sustainable buildings (page 18).
United Kingdom
t: +44 (0)20 7235 4535 Reflecting a growing interest in alternative, moree
e: [email protected]
sustainable materials, this issue also returns to thee
The Institution of Structural Engineers topic of stone. Our Technical series from Webb Yatesates
Incorporated by Royal Charter
Charity Registered in England and Wales number on stone as a structural material continues with
233392 and in Scotland number SC038263
an article discussing the design of post-tensioned
stone structures – primarily staircases (page 22). We
also feature a slightly unusual Project focus article
which looks back at the design of the stone arches es

5
thestructuralengineer.org | August 2020

Editorial_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 5 16/07/2020 08:05

 Upfront News

Institution transfer list: 18 May 2020 MARQUEZ , Albeiro Alfonso RUSEV, Rusi Angelov
At a meeting of the Membership Committee on MCINTOSH, Gavin TIZANI, Walid M.K.
18 May 2020, the following were transferred in MOYO, Nepson
accordance with the Institution’s Regulations: MUELLER, Sabine Graduate to Member (4)
MUNRO, Heather Clark BLOODWORTH, Alan Graham
TRANSFERS MURTHY, Spandan DAHLENBURG, Benjamin John
Associate-Member to Member (2) MUSIC, Rodrigo TURBERVILL, Gervaise
ABOLARIN, Adetokunbo Bamidele NAIR, Shaju Sekharan YUEN, Yu Ping
XUE, Zhiping NOLAN, Daniel
O’HARA, Kieran William Student to Graduate (70)
Graduate to Member (99) PAPADANTONAKIS, Emmanouil Free Students (778)
AHMED, Nadia PATTERSON, Caroline Helena
ATTARI, Nabil Shouki PATTINSON, Timothy Anthony REINSTATEMENTS
BAI, Shiyu PEKARSKAS, Linas Member (13)
BALL, Christopher PERKS, Simon CHOU, Gary Shue Kai
BARKER, Christopher PHAIR, Jonathan David HUANG, Yongqiang
BECKLY, Michael PO, Edoardo JENKINS, Steven Alexander
BELL, Alex QUINN, Cathal KRISHNAGOPALAN, Nadarajah
BENN, Alzbeta READ, Peter Ian LAI, Tsun
BLACK-ROBERTS, Alex ROWLANDS, Ian Perry LUI, Chi Leong
BLOCH, Mateusz SCOTT, Alexander MACMILLAN, Donald
BRUNTON, Jack Laurence SHAM, Alan Pui Wah MICKELBURGH, James Richard
BURELLI, Gabriele SHEK, Po Ki MORRIN, Colm
CARAPELLESE, Riccardo Alberto SHODEKE, David MURRAY, David Thomas
CARRUTHERS, Patrick Stephen SIDE, Elizabeth PATEL, Bhasker
CARVALHO BASTOS, Samuel Henrique SIDHOM, Kerlous SENTHILNATHAN, Mathyalakan
CARVILLE, Niall SIMMONDS, John Andrew TANG, Chun Ming Dominic
CHAN, Man Wing SIN, Chung Ming
CHUDLEIGH, Michael James SLATER, Jonathan Mark Graduate (29)
CONWAY, Josh STAWINSKI, Wojciech AERAN, Ashish
CRAIESCU, Andrei STOFFBERG, William ARANHA, Deep John
CRONIN, Jeremiah STOREY, Jacob BABIC, Eva
CROWE, Cathal TOWERS, Brianna Maree BAGHERI SABBAGH, Alireza
DAVID, Dionis TROTTET, Jocelyn Jaques BOYLAN, Peter
EASTWOOD, Michael Brandon VAHOS CEBALLOS, Javier Andres CLARK, Jossian George Sonny
ELJAJEH, Yasser WASIK, Piotr Jakub CONCHA, Jose Ignacio
EWANG, Pamela Mary WATT, Duncan George Carlyle COSTA SANTOS DIAS PEREIRA, Francisco
FLOREA, Mihai WONG, Ka Fu ELLIS, James William
FORNVALD, Tamas WONG, Chi Sun FADHIL, Rand
GAJJAR, Parisa Asha WONG, Tsz Fung Andrew FERNANDO, Bulathwalage Nadeeka Chamupathi
GARDNER, Luke WU, Hanke FOLAN, Martin
HALLAM, Chris WYCHERLEY, Thomas HEDDON, Martin
HAQUE, Fareed YANG, Yi KAN, Yip Wing Garth
HARRINGTON, Conor Gerald YIU, Koon Lun KESAVAN, Jayakumar
HAWES, Ian KYTE, Alexander Julian
HAWKER, John Henry Gore Institution election/transfer/ MCGINLEY, James
HAWXWELL, Daniel reinstatement list: 25 June 2020 MOHD DALI, Nurul Dalinatul Aini
HOBBS, Samuel William At a meeting of the Membership Committee on 25 PATEL, Kuntal B.
HODGSON, Thomas Criag June 2020, the following were elected/transferred/ PERERA, Kuranage Akila Nadishan
JEYASUTHAN, Yogalingam reinstated in accordance with the Institution’s RAWLINS, Benjamin
KELLY, Eoin Regulations: ROBINSON, Gary Philip
KIM CURRUN, Geetandra Singh ROONEY, James Patrick
KWOK, Tsz Chung ELECTIONS ROTHMAN, Alexander Lewis
LAKE, Nicholas Graduate (187) SCOTT, Benjamin Clive Rudling
LAM, Anna Student Employed (1) SINGLETON, Miranda Elizabeth
LAM, Ka Kin TIMMIS, Laura
LAM, Kam Chak TRANSFERS VAVOULAS, Manos
LAM, Sai Man Member/Associate to Fellow (10) YECHAN GUNJA, Geetha
LAZZARIN, Chiara CROMIE, James Alexander
LEUNG, Yung Tsz DONOHUE, Joseph Student Employed (2)
LI, Chong GILSENAN, Kevin Anthony HANLON, Leathen John
LIN, Hao HOWELL, Huw Wyn ZHOU, Yuyu
LYNCH, Joshua William KULKARNI, Abhijeet
MAKADIA, Kush KWOK, Siu Yin Eric Graduate Free (22)
MAKSIMAVICIUTE, Egle NAIR, Shanker Matathodiyil Narayanan Student Free (46)
MAMANDOOR ASAITHAMBI, Deepak Krishnan NENE, Ashutosh Ratnakar

6
August 2020 | thestructuralengineer.org

News_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 6 16/07/2020 11:24

 News Upfront

NOTICE: RESIGNATIONS GAJERA, Dhaval WAKELY, Michael James

The Membership Committee has accepted, with GALLAGHER, Grace Charlotte WILLIS, Frank
regret, the following resignations: GEORGIOU, Eleftherios
GORDIJENKO, Michael Associate-Member (1)
Fellow (4) GOULD, Edward Richard MORRIS, David Philip
BRACEY, Paul Raymond GREGORY, Michael John
LAMBOT, Andrew Victor Maurice GRILLANDA, Marco Graduate (1)
TAYLOR, Robert Jeffress GUMULIAUSKAS, Valdas LOPES COSTA FERREIRA, Ricardo Miguel
TESTO, Julian Robert GUNNARSSON, Tina Elisabeth Lilly
GUTURI, Bharat
Member (18) HO, Jonathan Hoe Kuen Institution launches Structural
AITKEN, John JAMES, Daniel Plan of Work
ALECK, Stephen Ian JONES, Lee Leonard The Institution has published the IStructE Plan of
BADGE, James Geoffrey KARCH, Krzysztof Karol Work 2020, a new framework that provides clarity
BAKER, Andrew William KILCOYNE, Thomas Joseph over structural engineering roles and deliverables.
BOWDEN, Malcolm Henry Charles KIO, Christina Co-ordinated with the RIBA Plan of Work 2020,
CAIRNS, David Roy LAKE, Alexander Henry the IStructE Plan of Work is intended to improve
CRACKNELL, Peter Andrew LAVELLE, Michael collaboration with other design and construction
CZERTOWICZ, Keith LESGIDIS, Nikolaos disciplines. Adopting a properly managed process
FOSTER, Kenneth Sydney LINNEY, Matthew for developing projects will help to secure
HART, Kenneth John LUSZYNSKA, Anna Maria successful project outcomes.
HOWIE, Alan Andrew MALONEY, Gavin The documentation includes:
KITTLEY, Christopher John MATOS CARDOSO, Joao Ò| the Structural Plan of Work (PDF)
NICHOLAS, Colin John Alexander MAZUREK, Justyna Karolina Ò| guidance on the Structural Plan of Work (PDF),
O’SULLIVAN, John Vincent MUDD, Kiera explaining how it is to be used in detail
PANKHANIA, Mansukhlal OKENYI, Victor Ò| a design responsibility matrix (Excel),
ROSS, Thomas ROWLAND, Hannah Louise providing the industry with a baseline of what
SHAW, Christopher SANDERS, Oliver James responsibilities structural engineers take on
SNOOK, Gordon Irwin Morgan SAYCE, Robert Gareth during a project to facilitate collaboration and
TANASE, Andrei Victor avoid gaps.
Associate (2) UNDRE, Wasim Ahmed
MORRIS, Alan David VAN GRONINGEN JACKSON, Jeannet Lynn Find out more and download the Plan of
ROZYCKI, Christopher Wladyslaw VELLA, Ian Work at www.istructe.org/resources/
WILLIAMS, Philip Andrew guidance/the-structural-plan-of-work/.
Associate-Member (5) WILLIAMS, Peter Gwilym
BOORMAN, Paul Stewart WRIGHT, Robert
DAVIE, Jonathan Hiscott Structures sees Impact Factor
JENNINGS, Paul Anthony DEATHS rise
KENNEDY, Andrew Quintin The deaths of the following are reported with The Institution is delighted to announce that its
POOLE, Anthony regret: research journal, Structures, saw its Journal Impact
Factor increase from 1.646 to 1.839 in the 2020
Technician Member (1) Fellow (11) Journal Citation Reports. The rise lifts Structures
HARRIS, Nathan ALLEN, Howard Godfrey into the top 50% of international civil and structural
FYSON, Oliver Furley engineering journals for the first time.
Graduate (57) GHOSH, Srikumar The Impact Factor is an academic quality
BAKHTIARI, Siavash GIBSON, John Hartt indicator which measures how frequently papers
BARLOW, Marc Anthony GRIFFITHS, Brian John published in Structures are cited by researchers in
BARNIKEL, Mark Gary HANNAFORD, Raymond other papers.
BAYAT, Cameron HILLING, Roy Edwin Richard Structures was launched in 2015 and is
BOUGATSAS, Konstantinos MIDDLETON, Frederick Tabor published in partnership with Elsevier. Fee-paying
BROOKS, Ben SNELL, Richard Owen members of the Institution can read all content free
BROWNE, Aishling WEDDELL, Thomas William of charge.
BUNTING, Joseph WOOD, Jonathan Guy Martin
CHEREJA, Mihaela For further details, visit www.istructe.org/
CLEAVER, Natasha Member (13) about-us/what-we-do/structures-journal/.
CONNEELY, Sinead Aine BARKER, Christopher John
COWAN, Camille Marie BROWN, Anthony John
DEC, Mateusz BUCKLEY, Joseph Deryk
DIBAZAD, Armin CHESTERTON, Charles John
DUMOVA, Mariya DAVID, Evan Savours
FAFARA, Joanna HARDING, Malcolm Edwin
FENCI, Giulia Evelina HILL, Michael John
FINN, Aoife Mary LEWIS-DALE, Michael
FIRTH, Thomas William NG, Chi Chai
FLETT, Mark PORTEOUS, Alexander
FREDDI, Fabio RHIND, James Malcolm

7
thestructuralengineer.org | August
ugust 2020

News_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 7 16/07/2020 08:06

 Upfront President’s mid-year report

President’s mid-year report

DON MCQUILLAN
BSc(Eng), CEng, FIStructE,
FICE, FIAE, FIEI, FCIHT,
FConsE, MAPM, MAE
2020 President of the
Institution of Structural
Engineers

Greetings to you all. I do hope you, your Work is also continuing on

families and your friends are keeping well transforming the Institution into a truly
as, in varying degrees, we slowly emerge
from lockdown all around the world.
global entity that is of relevance to all
our members wherever in the world they
PARADOXICALLY,
My Inaugural Address at the beginning practice. Covid-19 has forced a sudden THE VISION OF
of the year concluded by focusing on quantum change in the way we live, A GLOBAL
three principal issues for action by the
Institution:
work, communicate and travel – and
we have proved that there really are no INSTITUTION IS
Ò| competence and how it will be tested international boundaries. Paradoxically, NOW WELL WITHIN
Ò| climate change
Ò| creating a global Institution.
therefore, the vision of a global Institution
is now well within our reach and progress
OUR REACH AND
has been expedited. PROGRESS HAS
The fourth ‘big C’ came, of course,
as a complete surprise. Who could Highlights
BEEN EXPEDITED
ever at that stage have envisaged the I was pleased to have been able to
devastating impact and unprecedented visit some regions in the first quarter of impacted by disasters.
onslaught of Covid-19? As a result, the year before travel restrictions were In the context of structural safety
most, if not all, ‘actual’ events for the imposed: North Thames, Southern, and on a more personal note, the
rest of the year have been cancelled, South Eastern Counties, Republic of Commission of Inquiry into the
including the SEI Structures Congress in Ireland, Northern Ireland, East Midlands construction of the Hung Hom Station
St Louis which was scheduled for early and a four-city visit to India. I was Extension, Hong Kong, for which I
April, the Institution’s Structural Awards overwhelmed by the warm welcome had been working as expert engineer
in early November, and the biennial and by the sense of passion for the and adviser (as noted in my Inaugural
Australasian Structural Engineering Institution. I had the great pleasure of Address), published its report in
Conference (ASEC) scheduled for renewing acquaintance with many whom March. Again, there are significant
Melbourne in mid-November. I had served with at Upper Belgrave lessons to be learned, particularly on
Notwithstanding, and thanks to our Street in earlier years. the project management aspects. I
CEO and his fantastic team, the work More importantly, I was able to fly the would encourage you to download
of the Institution continues seamlessly, ‘structural safety’ flag. I have presented the report (www.gov.hk/en/theme/
perhaps not ‘as normal’ but with the both to members and during university coi-hh/pdf/COI_Final_Report_
same efficiency as staff work from and company visits on related aspects, Eng.pdf) and note the many
home. We all owe them a huge debt of including structural failures and lessons procedural failings identified and
gratitude. Governance of the Institution to be learned from my work in forensic the recommendations made, which
at Board level also continues behind engineering. I was delighted to be invited are currently in the process of being
the scenes and the various committees, by the Yorkshire Regional Group at the implemented.
panels and task groups continue to meet end of May to give a similar presentation
online to conduct their business, with remotely. Some 110 ‘attended’ on the Looking ahead
perhaps greater participation than was night. I am more than happy to engage In conclusion, I have been asked
possible pre-pandemic. in this way and in fact will be delivering to serve as your President again in
an online keynote address at the ASEC 2021. This proposal was initiated
Progress to date ‘virtual’ event in November. by my successors, in particular
The focus of attention is very much A highlight of the first quarter was HAVE Vice-Presidents Jane Entwistle and
on the three ‘big Cs’ listed above. The the Institution being chosen for the first YOUR Matt Byatt. I am overwhelmed by
Climate Emergency Task Group (CETG) time to host the annual RedR reception
SAY this gesture and wish to record my
has, in a short space of time, gained in March. Martin Powell and I were thanks and gratitude to them for such
significant traction and has already privileged to welcome RedR President generosity. I very much look forward
started to publish relevant and much- HRH The Princess Royal, as well as the to being able to engage with you all in
needed guidance for our members. Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London, the ‘new normal’, whatever that may
On the competency front, I am the CEO and Trustees of RedR, and [email protected] entail.
delighted that the Institution is working fellow Patrons to Bastwick Street. Over As I did in my letter to members in
behind the scenes to support industry 80 were present and Her Royal Highness early April, may I again wish you and
preparations for the new UK Building spoke in a passionate and highly yours good health and survival in the
Safety Bill and that I have had an informed manner about humanitarian @IStructE difficult and uncertain stormy days
opportunity to input to those discussions. aid work in different parts of the world #TheStructuralEngineer that yet lie ahead.

8
August 2020 | thestructuralengineer.org

President's Repo_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 8 16/07/2020 08:06

 Opinion Planning application procedures Circular economy Climate emergency

4.Zero waste

Applying circular principles

to the design process
Eva MacNamara explains how structural engineers can incorporate circular economy
thinking at each stage of a building’s design.

Introduction
In June 2020, Practical applications of
circular economy principles1 outlined what
these principles mean in the context of the
building industry, giving examples around
the three main aspects of circular economy
thinking that apply to structural engineers:
Ò| creatively seeking opportunities for reuse
Ò| optimising for whole-life scenarios
Ò| designing for deconstruction.

This article builds on the introductory

blog post (reproduced in Box 1) by
discussing actions that structural engineers
should take at each stage of the design
and construction process to maximise the
circular economy potential of their design.
These actions are partly adapted from
the UK Green Building Council’s Circular
Economy How-To Guide2 (which also
contains actions for the client, contractor,
project manager, etc.), to maximise reuse
and create material inventories for the future
in line with (Figure 1). Although based on
RIBA stages, the principles are universal.

Actions
RIBA Stage 0: Strategic Definition and
Stage 1: Preparation and Briefing
Often, structural engineers are not

UKGBC
appointed until after RIBA Stages 0–1.
However, our knowledge and skills are vital
if circular design principles are to be applied
effectively from the outset. Structural
ìFIGURE 1: Circular
engineers are uniquely placed to assess impacted to allow for circularity (e.g. determine what future flexibility and
economy principles for
whole-life, cost-effective solutions for an surveys, testing, sourcing reuse construction2 adaptability means for the building design
existing development’s likely biggest carbon materials off site, or finding an onward to avoid it becoming a stranded asset, or
asset: the structure and foundations. use for items to be removed from site). resulting in its premature demolition.
Input at this early stage may Review asset inventory data, or seek
fundamentally change the brief and the Engagement at this stage includes further information, and maximise use
outcomes of the project, through decisions showing the client the benefits of not of those assets in line with the overall
such as those shown in Figure 2. Talk limiting the design to a specific usage type, philosophy of optimising for whole life. If
to your clients so they understand this instead highlighting the benefits of loose-fit the data is not available, now is the time to
concept in future. This kind of work could design to accommodate future changes commission it and any further investigations
be in the form of a pre-design tender in use. required. Support the process by advising
agreement, at Stage 0 and 1, covering: what testing is required to allow reuse of
Ò| a pre-refurbishment audit of structural RIBA Stage 2: Concept Design existing assets on the site, or those which
assets to establish early opportunities Conceptually explore opportunities for might be imported.
and constraints reuse and disassembly in the future and Carry out feasibility (including lifecycle
Ò| recommendations on how the work out how that might alter a more carbon) assessments and studies on
programme and logistics may be traditional design approach. For example, preliminary design proposals to identify

9
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 Climate emergency Circular economy

opportunities to incorporate reused or

recycled materials into the structure. Scan
the horizon for emerging technologies. BOX 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CIRCULAR ECONOMY FOR
Where new-build structure is required,
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS
make strategic decisions regarding whole-
life sustainability of that structure. Agree
what approach will be taken to optimise Given that construction is main structure for reuse. For can materials be reused from
the longevity and flexibility of the spaces responsible for well over half example, can it be determined another project? Probably.
designed. Agree the end-of-life strategy for of the extraction of virgin whether components are As the built environment
the structure, and the approach that will resources, and contributes connected to the structure with moves more firmly this way,
need to be taken for deconstruction. to some 60% of total waste reversible mechanical fixings material inventories and
Realistically assess the life expectancy streams, we as engineers have when intrusive surveys are databases will make this easier.
of the design as a whole, but also split into a responsibility to ensure we being carried out? In the UK, WRAP has a helpful
individual materials, components, systems. use materials wisely. By including these sorts guide (https://bit.ly/WRAP-
Ensure these have potential for associated Applying circular economy of investigations, it reduces guide) which includes a
maintenance and replacement strategies to principles to structural design the risk for the client when directory of reclaimed materials
maximise whole life. is one key practical part of the contactor prices for – other countries may have
moving towards net zero; we disassembly. similar resources.
RIBA Stage 3: Spatial Coordination need to maximise the value You’ll probably need to also
Ensure client and design team confidence of material and minimise New-build and whole- devise a contingency plan, in
in the reuse process is maximised, and risk embodied energy to deliver. life thinking case those materials are no
is minimised. Alongside early engagement In engineering, this means: Circular guidance advises us to longer available – perhaps
with approvals bodies, do this through Ò| creatively seeking design buildings for the future sharing knowledge of assets
assessing realistic quantities for reuse opportunities for reuse addressing longevity, flexibility, between firms could be part of
and any specific testing that needs to Ò| optimising for whole-life adaptability and assembly, the solution?
be done relating to their condition for scenarios disassembly and recoverability.
strength, durability and appearance, to Ò| designing for Therefore, for structure and Facilitating reuse and
meet the requirements of the design deconstruction. its life range of, say, 30–300 low carbon
team as a whole. This may also include years, lean design with a long To facilitate reuse for others
fire testing, emission testing and testing These targets become part life and loose fit will be the in the future, ensure that the
for the presence of hazardous materials, of our brief for good design. best contribution to the circular BIM is adequate to record
among other things. Mock-ups or samples With practice, it will become as economy, whole-life carbon this. Ensure the handover
for integration of old and ‘new’ could be natural as historically selecting and likely whole-life cost. information at the end of
worthwhile to the process. A back-up plan the best material for the job. So, how do you do the project always includes
may also be useful. that? And how does it fit a deconstruction and reuse
Early contractor input can potentially Reuse (or partial in with the ‘shorter life’ of methodology, regardless of
help de-risk the tender documentation reuse) other building components what other circular aspects
and mitigate against contractors pricing in First in the hierarchy of the (which are designed in have been incorporated (or not)
perceived risk of a circular approach. circular economy for the the circular world for easy so far.
Incorporate reuse proposals and structural engineer comes maintenance, disassembly and Finally, if some elements
strategies clearly into stage documentation reuse. You’ve probably taken remanufacture)? of the building are truly virgin,
and tender information where relevant. this approach many times Practically, this means they should be lean within the
These should also be clear in planning before, some of this is not new. avoiding the interdependency long-life and loose-fit approach.
documentation, where relevant. Some of it might be. of the structural frame and Ensuring low carbon though
Ensure design for deconstruction For structural engineers, other components (such as the supply chain will necessitate
is covered, typically through reversible on the site of an existing the facade), so that they can modifying specifications to
connections between the structural development, the building be easily separated, and the suit (e.g. specifying electric
elements themselves, and with structure and foundations will shorter-life components can be arc furnace steel over basic
consideration of how non-structural layers be the primary asset. renewed in a straightforward oxygen furnace steel, halving
of the building may be removed easily. Can they be adapted to suit way. the embodied carbon of the
a new scheme? Can a cut-and- We must also consider material).
RIBA Stage 4: Technical Design carve approach unlock new material choices. For example,
Incorporate reuse requirements into stage ways in which the building can in a scenario where a potential Conclusion
documentation, specifications, performance work (and will this actually save lack of maintenance will lead Taking just a few key
specifications and other tender information. the client programme time and to degradation, the upfront approaches can make
Note this is also likely to include structural money)? Can the foundations increases in cost and carbon a big difference. The
elements that are to be disassembled take an increase in load to suit related to stainless steel may circular economy is so
and reused off site. Discuss the proposed additional storeys? be worth the investment if the important because it is really
procurement method with the client and Think of these as a design painted mild steel alternative is fundamentally about whole
what this will mean if there is a change of review of the existing structure likely to need replacing sooner. life, which is at the top of the
plan in the tender documentation, as reuse rather than a set of rules. Of course, a whole-life hierarchy for sustainability,
opportunities can evolve for better or worse Maximising the circular approach requires the industry whichever way you want to
during the construction phase. approach also involves to consider how the value of look at it.
Include in the tender and construction interrogating the existing investment is captured; there
documents: building to advise the must be evidence that a quality NB This box was first published as a
client on how the shorter- building is able to get better blog on the IStructE website1.
Ò| any elements that are to be carefully
disassembled and stored for reuse life components could be rents and higher sales values.
within the development or for onward disassembled from the And for the ‘new’ development,
reuse elsewhere, preferably locally

10
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 Opinion Planning application procedures Circular economy Climate emergency

îFIGURE 2: Choosing
the right circular
strategy3

USEFUL PROJECTS & MAYOR OF LONDON

Ò| any requirements for preparation, of plan, so refer to the back-up plan at During building modifications, advise
processing or testing of recovered or earlier stages. the client on auditing materials and
retained elements to make them ready Record construction alterations and as- components which can be reused
for reuse tested material data (such as concrete cube elsewhere as part of the value chain.
Ò| detail of the proposed element reuse; results) within the BIM/asset databases to As good practice for the circular
note where allowances need to be made facilitate reuse by others in the future. economy is currently developing, a
for size variations in recovered materials workshop on lessons learned may
Ò| information for samples or mock-ups RIBA Stage 6: Handover and capture important experience for future
of reuse elements that are required for Stage 7: Use developments and industry knowledge
client approval prior to construction. Handover documentation should include: sharing, where appropriate.
Ò| a functional adaptability plan so that the
Under the Construction (Design full potential of the building can be easily
and Management) Regulations 2015, understood and utilised in the future to
Eva MacNamara
the principal designer should include prolong its life
MEng, MA(Cantab), CEng, MIStructE
information related to the proposed Ò| an as-built BIM model (or materials
demolition (think about deconstruction) and inventory if BIM is not used), and a Eva MacNamara is an Associate
requirements for reclaiming materials, as deconstruction plan for end-of-life Structural Engineer at Expedition
well as addressing health and safety risks4. disassembly of the structure. Where Engineering. She is one of the UKGBC's
possible, information around material Future Leaders and contributed to its
RIBA Stage 5: Construction and products should be fed into a wider circular economy publications.
Ensure the contractor understands the materials inventory, to facilitate sharing of
circular strategy, key assumptions and assets between projects (Box 2).
REFERENCES
requirements. Challenge the contractor on
how they may contribute to improving the While in use, refurbish, reuse and extend
circularity of the project by, for example, lifecycles using operation and maintenance
avoiding single-use temporary works. documents, and advise the client on 1) MacNamara E. (2020) Practical
Be prepared for further reuse updating the materials inventory and applications of circular economy
opportunities arising during the targeted deconstruction plan. principles [Online] Available at:
www.istructe.org/resources/blog/
reuse of the existing building as the Review extending the life of the
practical-application-circular-economy-
contractor, as is usual, may uncover the building by reusing from elsewhere and
principles/ (Accessed: June 2020)
unexpected. This may also mean a change incorporating emerging technologies.
2) UK Green Building Council (2020)
Circular Economy How-to Guide:
Reusing products and materials
BOX 2. HOW IS LEAN DESIGN COMPATIBLE WITH THE in built assets [Online] Available
CIRCULAR PRINCIPLES OF LONG LIFE AND LOOSE FIT?
at: www.ukgbc.org/wp-content/
Circular principles should result in lean design for a whole-life brief. Single use with uploads/2020/04/how-to-guide-reuse.
HAVE
no future proofing might result in the most materially lean design for one usage pdf (Accessed: June 2020)
YOUR
cycle, but would unlikely be the leanest use of material over a whole-life period. SAY
Taking this into consideration, design for societal changes and loose fit becomes 3) Mayor of London (2019) Design for
part of the brief (change of use, future proofing for changes in service strategy, a circular economy: primer [Online]
fitting renewed skins with a different approach, etc.). Overall, this may result in Available at: www.london.gov.uk/sites/
higher embodied carbon and capital costs, but is likely to be lower when whole default/files/design_for_a_circular_
life is addressed. economy_web.pdf (Accessed: June
So, be clear on the brief (also contribute to it, and challenge it) and then 2020) [email protected]
be as lean as possible in the design to meet it. If circularity is not embedded
throughout the project, then there is a risk that whole-life carbon will be increased 4) The Construction (Design and
by premature redundancy. The key is that the structure is reused in the future, Management) Regulations 2015 (SI
and can be disassembled and reused elsewhere, so all the principles of circularity 2015/51) [Online] Available at: www.
need to be committed to.
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/51/ @IStructE
contents/made (Accessed: June 2020) #TheStructuralEngineer

11
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Circular Economy_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 11 16/07/2020 08:08

 Opinion
Climate emergency
Planning application
Lean design
procedures

3.Lean design

Lean design: 10 things to do now

Natasha Watson explains how structural engineers can produce designs that make efficient use of
material to reduce their environmental impact.

The June issue of The Structural Engineer 3. Maximise utilisation 4. Interrogate serviceability criteria
introduced six themes for climate guidance. One Results from the MEICON 2018 survey5 indicate If the limiting utilisation of a structural member is
of these was ‘Lean design’, calling on structural that ease of construction, a perceived risk of for a serviceability criterion (e.g. a deflection limit),
engineers to strive for designs that minimise the construction errors, and a lack of significant then it is worth pursuing the relaxation of those
demand for new material wherever viable. penalties for overdesign all have an adverse criteria in consultation with the client and wider
This article gives pragmatic advice on reducing impact on the final utilisation ratios of our project team.
the impact of your buildings on the environment structural elements. Moynihan and Allwood6 Ò| Facades – are the facade contractor’s limits
today, in order of magnitude of savings. found average utilisation ratios to be below 50% realistic and based on the actual conditions
for typical steel buildings. or generic and can be challenged? Can you
1. Don’t build! Buro Happold has produced guidance for its perceive a span/360 deflection with the naked
It might seem counterintuitive, but a structural structural engineers that focuses on increasing eye?
engineer’s job is to ensure that the underlying minimum utilisations to acceptable levels, Ò| Internal partitions – can larger deflection
objectives behind creating a space are met, and which change as a project progresses (Figure heads and vertical joints be used as standard?
not necessarily to design and create new structure 2). Working to lower utilisation ratios gives Deflection heads can have detrimental impacts
to achieve that. See Ibell et al1 in the June issue. designers leeway for late design changes and on acoustic performance; can the acoustic
flexibility, and so working to higher minimum criteria be relaxed?
2. Upgrade existing buildings utilisations requires appropriate quality controls, Ò| Long-span beams and slab deflections
wherever viable such as: – can you pre-camber? Can you use a
There are many ways of upgrading existing Ò| contractual obligations for design refinement lower-strength element or material as SLS
buildings, from space planning to significant Ò| colour-coding utilisation ratios within BIM is governing? Can you assume additional
structural interventions. Even if the superstructure models stiffness by assuming that connections are
is demolished, the foundations may be suitable for Ò| recommendations that project managers somewhere between pinned and fixed?
reuse2. allow a certain time/cost in bids or budgets Ò| Dynamic criteria – are the limits set
Using the Brand model3, which considers a for optimisation. appropriate for the intended use; could some
building as a series of layers with varying longevity, localised exceedance be accepted?
these different layers of intervention can be It is important to communicate to the project Ò| Crack width requirements – crack widths
systematically explored (Figure 1)3,4. team the value of the time and fees spent on should only govern if water-tightness is
Alternatively, if it is not viable to reuse an existing design development and refinement, with the necessary.
building, new buildings can be designed with potential material savings leading to cost and
circular principles in mind, such as design for carbon reductions. 5. Refine loading criteria
disassembly or proportionate repair. Conservative loading assumptions can be
appropriate at early design stages where the brief
îFIGURE 1: Building layers3,4 is fluid and there are many unknowns.
For permanent and semi-permanent loads, the
different layers of the building are typically finalised
as the design progresses, and so refinement is
more straightforward. Imposed loads (Figure 3),
though more difficult to refine, can be adapted in
several ways.

$SSOHWRQ%XLOGLQJ Imposed load reduction

6HUYLFHV² 5HPRYDORIURRISODQW
6NLQ² 1HZIDFDGH According to BS EN 19917, imposed loads can
be reduced if loaded areas are greater than 10m2
(αA) and if the structure is three storeys or greater
/DNHVKRUH3KDVH
6WUXFWXUH² )ORRUSODWHVUHPRYHGWRIRUPDWULXP (αn).
5 A0
A 0 1.0
7 A
with the restriction for categories C and D:
αA ≥ 0.6
BURO HAPPOLD

where:
+HUH(DVW
6NLQ² *OD]HG)DoDGHWROHWLQOLJKW
$QDO\WLFV
6RFLDO 3HRSOHIORZPRGHOOLQJIRULQFUHDVLQJ ψ0 is the factor according to EN 1990, Annex A1
6WUXFWXUH² 0H]]DQLQHIORRUVDGGHG SHUIRUPDQFHRIH[LVWLQJEXLOGLQJ
Table A1.1
&23<5,*+7Œ%852 +$332/'$//5,*+765(6(59('
A0 = 10.0m2

12
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Climate Lean design_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 12 16/07/2020 08:08

 Lean design Climate emergency

íFIGURE 2: Target
utilisation rates for
each design stage

BURO HAPPOLD
A is the loaded area. 7. Concentrate on reducing grids
and floor slabs
2 ( n 2)
n
0 Various studies indicate that floors typically
account for 40–50% of the embodied carbon of a
WE SHOULD NOT
n building. Structural sensitivity studies9 show that BE DESIGNING
where:
n is the number of storeys (>2) above the loaded
an infallible way of reducing the material required
for floors is to reduce the size of the structural grid
BUILDINGS
structural elements from the same category (Figure 5)10. WITH INITIAL
ψ0 is in accordance with EN 1990, Annex A1 If time and/or the fee is tight on a project, REDUNDANCIES
Table A1.1. concentrating your efforts on refining the floor
slabs of the structures can make significant
WHICH MAY
Minimum appropriate imposed loading embodied carbon savings. NEVER BE NEEDED
BS EN 1991 gives loading categories to cover
most building uses, and the minimum appropriate 8. Don’t forget substructure movements.
value should be used (e.g. refining a plant room Substructure typically forms 20% of the total Ò| If designing driven steel piles, use
loading of 7.5kN/m2 for the weight of actual embodied carbon that a structural engineer reclaimed steel tubing from the oil and gas
plant proposed for the space). Furthermore, the has direct control over (Fig. 5). Below are a few industry where possible.
appropriate partial factors should be applied substructure-specific considerations: Ò| Specify a low-cement-content concrete
when more than one load value is present. Ò| Avoid basements and suspended floor with the lowest strength appropriate, especially
slabs where possible. if a GEO load case is limiting.
Clear brief Ò| Use the superstructure and the site Ò| Design for 56-day strength. Typically,
When preparing options at concept stage, create to minimise foundations. To minimise foundations will not be subject to their full
an option with the minimum appropriate loading foundation sizes, the proposed superstructure design load until later in the construction
available, and the subsequent cost and carbon must work with the ground that it sits on. programme.
savings. These should be discussed with the If the ground is poor, the superstructure Ò| Refine settlement criteria. Settlement
client so that they understand the importance of should be light or designed to accept greater criteria for foundations are often chosen as a
clarifying the uses of the spaces.

6. Design for use now, and

strengthen if use changes
The urgency of climate breakdown means that we
must prioritise today’s emissions8. We should not
be designing buildings with initial redundancies
which may never be needed, but instead
designing for the current use of a building, with
a strategy for how strengthening of the building
MICHAL DREWNIOK / MEICON

could be achieved in the future.

Buro Happold conducted a study on a simple
concrete frame with initial redundancy versus
a design without redundancy in the floor slabs
only. The latter had 12% less material compared
with the design with initial redundancy, and
strengthening only added 3% of this back in
(Figure 4).
ìFIGURE 3: Various load scenarios

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 Opinion
Climate emergency
Planning application
Lean design
procedures

REFERENCES
íFIGURE 4: Comparison
of material use in two
alternative designs 1) Ibell T., Norman J. and Broadbent O.
(2020) ‘Nothing is better than something’,
The Structural Engineer, 98 (6), p. 12
BURO HAPPOLD

2) Chapman T., Anderson S. and Windle J.

(2007) C653: Reuse of foundations, London:
CIRIA

USEFUL RESOURCES 3) Brand S. (1995) How buildings learn:

What happens after they’re built, s.l.:
LETI Penguin
www.leti.london/ 4) Adaptable Futures (s.d.) Toolkit [Online]
‘typical’ differential settlement and maximum A number of useful guides on low-carbon design. Available at: http://adaptablefutures.com/
settlement value, rather than as a value that is
our-work/toolkit/ (Accessed: June 2020)
appropriate to the individual structure. This ‘one- RICS BUILDING CARBON DATABASE
size-fits-all’ approach can lead to an increased https://wlcarbon.rics.org/Default.aspx 5) Orr J., Copping A., Drewniok M., Emmitt
quantity of foundations and substructure. The recommended place to share embodied carbon S. and Ibell T. (2018) Minimising Energy
calculations in the UK. in Construction: Survey of Structural
Ò| Ensure a timely and appropriately detailed
Engineering Practice – Report [Online]
investigation. Appropriate ground and site ISTRUCTE CLIMATE Available at: https://doi.org/10.17863/
investigations can increase confidence in the EMERGENCY HUB CAM.35178 (Accessed: June 2020)
soil assumptions used for substructure design, www.istructe.org/climate-emergency
6) Moynihan M.C. and Allwood JM. (2014)
minimising the chance of having a conservative Resources to help structural engineers respond to the
climate emergency. ‘Utilization of structural steel in buildings’,
design born from uncertainty.
Proc. R. Soc. A., 470, 20140170

9. Avoid CEM 1 designations 7) British Standards Institution (2002–06)

The embodied carbon of concrete is dominated BS EN 1991 Eurocode 1: Actions on
structures, London: BSI
by the production of Portland cement, and the Acknowledgements
designation of CEM 1 mixes should therefore be Thanks go to Matthew Jackson-Jones, Rachel 8) Carbon Leadership Forum (2017) The
avoided wherever possible. As a minimum, use Monteith, Jonathan Roynon and Maria Smith for Time Value of Carbon [Online] Available at:
20% cement replacement within the superstructure, helping with the writing of this article. Thanks also http://carbonleadershipforum.org/projects/
the-time-value-of-carbon/ (Accessed: June
substructure and blinding. go to Will Arnold, Robin Jones and the IStructE for
2020)
During the construction of a project, running this series of articles and guidance to tackle
subcontractors may request a change of mix to the #ClimateEmergency. 9) Roynon J. (2020) Embodied carbon:
CEM 1 in order to have higher early-day strengths structural sensitivity study [Online] Available
at: www.istructe.org/resources/case-study/
to make up for lost programme. However, by
embodied-carbon-structural-sensitivity-
working with the subcontractor, you can determine Natasha Watson study/ (Accessed: June 2020)
the required strengths at the required times and EngD, CEng, MICE
compare these against the typical strength gain 10) Thornton Thomasetti (2019) Thornton
Natasha Watson is a Senior Structural Engineer at Tomasetti shares results of comprehensive
curves for your initial design mix; mitigating the need
embodied carbon measurement
for a CEM 1 mix. Buro Happold. She completed her EngD with the
study [Online] Available at: www.
University of Bristol, University of Bath and Buro
thorntontomasetti.com/news/embodied-
10. Keep learning, talking and sharing Happold on improving the environmental assessment carbon-measurement-study (Accessed:
We need to work together and share our knowledge of structural options at scheme and concept stage. June 2020)
so that we can learn from our mistakes and Alongside design, she consults on embodied carbon
progress faster to mitigate climate change and lead and other embodied impacts of building materials
ourselves into a more sustainable future. and structural designs. FURTHER READING

íFIGURE 5: Distribution of embodied carbon within structure10

Adams K.A. and Hobbs G. (2017) Material
resource efficiency in construction:
Supporting a circular economy, Watford;
BRE Press

MPA The Concrete Centre (2018) Material

efficiency [Online] Available at: www.
concretecentre.com/Publications-Software/
Publications/Material-Efficiency.aspx
ADAPTED FROM THORNTON THOMASETTI

(Accessed: June 2020)

MPA The Concrete Centre (2020)

Specifying sustainable concrete [Online]
Available at: www.concretecentre.com/
Publications-Software/Publications/
Specifying-Sustainable-Concrete.aspx
(Accessed: June 2020)

SCI (2019) Structural steel reuse:

assessment, testing and design principles
[Online] Available at: https://steel-sci.com/
assets/downloads/steel-reuse-event-8th-
october-2019/SCI_P427.pdf (Accessed:
June 2020)

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 Opinion Planning application procedures Lean yet resilient Climate emergency

3.Lean design

Lean yet resilient –

designing for the future
Caroline Field explores the relationship between ‘lean’ and ‘resilient’ design, and discusses how
future designs should evaluate risks and incorporate strategies to mitigate and adapt to these.

Introduction collaborative working, rather than just by taking resilience and this doesn’t necessarily need to
In the future, structural design will face spare capacity out of the structure. For example, result in increased cost or physical strengthening.
increasingly uncertain loads (we have seen one- working in a more integrated manner to come up It will depend on the risk of the event, the
in-100-year floods occurring every six or seven with a design that realises multiple benefits. performance requirements of the building and the
years), combined with reliance on engineers and importance of the building function.
designers to accurately define the parameters What is resilient design? Resilience strategies typically fall into two
that design algorithms will use. At the same The ISO definition for resilience is: ‘The capacity categories: measures that mitigate risks, and
time, we are being encouraged to use fewer to absorb and adapt in a changing environment’2. measures that allow adaption to deal with future
materials (for a sustainable future) and to adopt In the context of building engineering, this change and uncertainties3 (Figure 1).
lean processes. How do we reconcile these describes the capacity of buildings to withstand The risk due to the various hazards (shocks
demands? What does the future hold and how short-term hazards (referred to as ‘shocks’) and and stresses) can be considered the ‘resilience
do we design for these seemingly competing be adaptable to longer-term changes (referred to demand’ on the system, and the combination
commitments? as ‘stresses’) such as those related to change in of adaptive capacity and mitigation measures
use, change in technologies, climate change and can be considered the ‘resilience capacity’. The
What is lean design? changes due to material degradation and lack of difference in the two provides the performance
Lean is the practice of creating more value maintenance. More resilient buildings are better outcome (Figure 2).
with fewer resources. The idea of utilising lean able to retain their business function through
principles on a project has gained popularity over protecting their critical resources. How do we currently include resilience in our
the years. The purpose of lean techniques is to The level of resilience required depends on the designs?
make the project more efficient and maximise business or community function that the building All engineers currently deal with risk and
value. serves and the tolerable impact that a loss in uncertainty in their work, although they may not
This issue of The Structural Engineer deals function would cause. This can be considered as recognise it. Some examples of everyday risks
elsewhere with the question of what ‘lean design’ a ‘return to service’ or ‘recovery time objective’ and uncertainties include material properties,
looks like1, but structural approaches typically and should be agreed with the client. loads, and analytical modelling uncertainties.
come down to delivering ‘more for less’ to the Most modern codes are based on a semi-
client. However, given lean is creating value, Design strategies for resilience
this can be achieved through better and more There are a number of strategies for building íFIGURE 1: Mitigation and adaptive capacity measures

RESILIENCE CAPACITY
MITIGATION ADAPTIVE CAPACITY
Prevent Legislation or broader intervention that removes or reduces the Provide monitoring systems to identify changes in system Awareness
hazard/risk, e.g. land use planning to avoid building in flood-prone demand or capacity.
areas or to permit construction only of resilient buildings. Conduct trend analysis and scenario planning, e.g. monitoring
and predicting effects of change.
Prepare Development of resilience strategies and plans, including Build ability to easily upgrade or change systems. Adaptability
performance requirements for assets. Provide flexibility in design to repurpose usage and layout.
Robust Build a system’s ability to resist an impact without changing its Understand how the building will need to respond/function Response
initial stable form, such as a structure that has been enhanced for different scenarios. Will it need to be evacuated? Provide
to withstand specific extreme shock factors, e.g. wind, flooding, operational personnel information to inform their response and
blast, heat or dust, where a threat has been identified. recovery plans to help reduce the impact of the event and to
prevent cascading events.
Redundant Add components which are not necessary to functioning in case Design allowing for appropriate return to service time. This should Recover
of failure in other components, such as utilities in loops, so that be discussed with the client and will depend on the building
supplies can be re-routed to ensure continuity if there is a break purpose and performance requirements. Use local materials to
or interruption at any point. This could also be alternate load speed recovery (and reduce carbon).
paths in structures.
Failsafe Implement measures to ensure that any failure is proportionate Develop methods to capture evidence, learning and innovation. Learn &
and does not propagate within the system or instigate improve
other undesirable events, e.g. identifying the failure modes
of a structure and making sure that loss of one member,
or exceedance of design assumptions, does not cause
disproportionate or progressive collapse.

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 Climate emergency Lean yet resilient

probabilistic format (reliability method that

employs only one ‘characteristic’ value of each PERFORMANCE
uncertain parameter) – limit state design – which
is simpler to codify than higher-order methods
and can be easily applied by design engineers.
Partial factors keep the probability of failure/
exceedance of a structure low, and account for
RESILIENCE DEMAND RESILIENCE CAPACITY
deviations in material and geometry or second-
order effects.
By meeting the requirements of a code, a
structure is considered to have an acceptably
low probability of failure. However, the basis
PROBABILITY IMPACT
of the entire design is the structural engineer’s
assumption of the actions/loads the building
will be subjected to during its lifespan. Over the ADAPTIVE
course of a structure’s life, due to various factors MITIGATION
EXPOSURE CAPACITY
(e.g. climate change) the loads may change in MEASURES
MEASURES
scale or type and new actions may arise.
To bridge the uncertainty ‘gap’ between
expected and unexpected actions, current
codes have adopted provisions to help engineers HAZARDS
produce more robust and resilient designs4, to
introduce redundancy and robustness into the
design, and to establish rules to prevent or restrict ìFIGURE 2: Relationship between resilience demand, resilience capacity and performance
structural failures.
Common approaches to this include tie-force, Likewise, the building occupier is responsible of the same theme); challenging and provide
alternative load path and key element methods5. for ensuring that their actions improve (or at thoughtful process/insight; variable (show change
Risk-based methods and performance-based least do not degrade) the ability of the building over time); and relevant. This can inform the risk
design are also gaining traction (as established in to respond to identified risks – and this should assessment and design parameters.
seismic design standards) and are also proposed be communicated to our clients throughout the
for exceptional circumstances, e.g. Class 3 design process. Risk assessment
structures. A key role of engineers and architects is This risk assessment should not simply comprise
therefore to advise the building owner of the risk, the actions that the designer expects the
How can structural engineers costs and benefits of their decisions. structure to be subjected to during its lifespan.
influence lean and resilient design The following steps are suggested to improve As important are the actions that the designer
of buildings? resilience while still allowing for efficient design has not anticipated, the ‘unknown unknowns’.
The concern of many engineers is that by methods to be followed. Factors that may affect this list include:
delivering more optimal or lean structures, existing experience in the type of structure, experience
unconsidered margins of safety (e.g. excess Performance requirements working in the geographic location, clarity of the
material capacity or neglected geometric effects) Determine what level of resilience needs to client brief, and expected quality of construction.
may be ‘optimised away’. be designed into the building. This will require Additionally, structural design codes typically
Good design that is both lean and resilient understanding the client’s objectives and focus on short-term hazards (‘shocks’), such as
(and therefore sustainable) must balance this – business. What value does this structure impact, fire, floods or explosions. Longer-term
agreeing a level of resilience and then designing provide the client and the community? Those hazards (‘stresses’), such as climate change,
precise, optimal structures that meet (but do not buildings that are critical to the community or poor maintenance or usage beyond design life,
exceed) this level. In design utilisation terms, this the client’s business function should be more are often neglected.
difference may manifest itself as shown in resilient to minimise disruption. This will require However, these factors change the basis upon
Figure 3. an understanding of non-structural, as well as which the design of the building is founded,
Currently, our role in resilience tends to be structural, building performance. potentially increasing the impact of other risks
through identifying likely loading scenarios and when they occur. For example, climate change
designing in robustness. To maximise resilience Scenario analysis may cause changes in groundwater levels or
means to extend this to consider future risks to This considers potential future scenarios that may drying of soils. These changes in geotechnical
our built environment and the consequences of arise and how to respond. The scenarios should conditions could modify the structural seismic
our design assumptions being exceeded. Once provide insights that are: not otherwise easily loading profile.
risks are understood, we can design in mitigation attained; plausible; distinct (not just permutations It is recognised that engineers cannot think
measures to reduce them and contingencies to of every hazard that their structure is subjected
any residual risk. to. Instead, we advocate that uncertainty is
acknowledged and communicated in an effective
Suggested design approach manner – designers should not be afraid to state
In a truly resilient building, these risks (and THE LEVEL OF what they don’t know.
mitigation and adaption strategies to deal with RESILIENCE
them) are considered throughout the lifecycle of
the building, from conception up until demolition.
REQUIRED DEPENDS Stress testing
It is proposed that building-specific ‘stress test’
Design measures will ideally both reduce the ON THE BUSINESS scenarios are developed to test the assumptions
impact of future risks, but also improve the
building’s adaptive capacity and, if necessary,
OR COMMUNITY used in the design of the structure and evaluate
whether the degradation in performance is
facilitate the provision of future mitigation FUNCTION THAT THE proportionate and tolerable (failsafe).
measures. BUILDING SERVES It is envisaged that these stress tests will have

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Climate Lean resilliant_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 16 16/07/2020 08:10

 Opinion Planning application procedures Lean yet resilient Climate emergency

ìFIGURE 3: ULS utilisations showing difference between inefficient design and resilient lean design

a number of key characteristics. They should be Ò| understanding the carbon that goes into This article outlines some of the key aspects that
informed by future scenarios and ask ‘What if?’ our designs and seeking to minimise it while should be included in updated design guidance
questions, e.g. what if key design assumptions achieving other objectives documents to ensure that this opportunity is used
such as load intensity and direction, material Ò| considering climate change adaptation – to design a built environment that is truly resilient.
characteristics and building lifespan are adversely designing for a changing planet, increased
modified? temperatures, droughts, floods, etc.
The impact of these modifications on the
Caroline Field
structure should be evaluated. The degradation Collaboration
BEng, MSc, CEng, MICE, PE, Principal RSES
of the structure should also be evaluated, and Structural engineers should work with not only the
its proportionality assessed. Good designs will design team, but building owner and operators – Caroline Field is an Associate Director at Arup
be ones in which critical elements are stronger particularly those in charge of business continuity and Visiting Professor at Loughborough University
(such as foundations in seismic zones) and where and resilience – so that they understand what the who focuses on resilience advisory – for
ductile structural responses are encouraged. building is being designed for and how that may organisations, projects and cities. She has built
Where there is greater uncertainty in the affect their planning and response. her resilience capability on the back of over 25
demands on a structure, or more complex load years of professional experience, including 13
paths within the structure, it is sensible to make Repair and maintenance years in counter terrorism, blast mitigation and
sure that the stress tests are more onerous. We should make it easy to repair and maintain physical security, and seven years in earthquake
Similarly, if the building has a level of importance the building by selecting local, abundant materials engineering and dynamics.
that would mean that failure would lead to that do not require specialist tradespeople.
extraordinary consequences (e.g. a nuclear
power station) then it makes sense to ‘beef up’ Real-time monitoring HAVE
the testing scenarios (e.g. longer return periods Situational awareness is a key part of resilience. YOUR
for extreme events: one-in-500-year flood versus Gathering the right information to facilitate SAY
one-in-50-year flood). understanding and appropriate mitigation or
Financial and other non-structural implications adaptive action. Utilising sensors to monitor
should be considered. For example, while it might structures and feed back to computational
be structurally acceptable to close a degraded models will gain increasing prominence and
bridge for repair work (collapse has been should be included. @IStructE
[email protected] #TheStructuralEngineer
avoided), the economic and social implications
would be significant if the bridge is heavily used Conclusions
by commuters. The design process is always one of compromise REFERENCES
Non-linear finite-element techniques should between competing requirements which need to
be utilised to understand the performance and be prioritised through discussion with the client.
potential failure of our designs (as commonly It is the engineer’s responsibility to balance these 1) Watson N. (2020) ‘Lean design: 10 things to do now’,
used in seismic and blast engineering). This and present clear risk–cost–benefit options to the The Structural Engineer, 98 (8), pp. 12–14
would identify the potential consequences of client that consider whole-life costing. 2) International Organization for Standardization (2017)
exceeding design assumptions (failsafe) and allow Lean design focuses on maximising value; ISO 22316:2017 Security and resilience. Organizational
resilience. Principles and attributes, Geneva; ISO
us to understand how close to failure a structure resilience focuses on protecting and enhancing
is. Non-structural performance should also be value. There is a synergy here if the design is 3) Field C., Pascoe L. and Kotrotsou E. (2017) ‘Structural
engineering for the future’, Proc. AEI Conference 2017:
evaluated. focused on delivering value to the client. This Resilience of the integrated building, Oklahoma City,
requires acknowledging and quantifying how this Oklahoma, 11–13 April,
pp. 684–697
Design for adaptability value could be disrupted or improved where there
4) Institution of Structural Engineers (2013) Risk in
A resilient building is adaptable to future change. are uncertainties in the assumptions, and through structural engineering, London: IStructE Ltd
The asset therefore will retain its value for the considering future risks, change factors and
5) Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure
owner. This can be achieved by: opportunities. (2011) Review of international research on structural
Ò| making it easy to upgrade systems when new Engineers should embrace this opportunity to robustness and disproportionate collapse [Online]
Available at: www.gov.uk/government/publications/
technologies emerge design structures that are more efficient, robust structural-robustness-and-disproportionate-collapse-of-
Ò| designing in flexibility of use and resilient in the face of a changing planet. buildings-international-research (Accessed: June 2020)

17
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Climate Lean resilliant_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 17 16/07/2020 08:10

 Opinion
Climate emergency
Planning application
Return toprocedures
a 300mm grid

5. Influence the brief

Time for a structural change?

To design more sustainable buildings, big decisions need to be made early in the design
process. Could laying out the structure to a 300mm planning grid reduce embodied carbon,
enable the circular economy and still retain the uniqueness of design, asks David Treacy.

Every building is different, with different locations, îFIGURE 1: Whole-

different uses and different layouts. Since the building modular systems
allow easy selection
introduction of computer-aided design, we have of structure and other
been able to offer ever more bespoke solutions. elements on consistent grid
Advances in off-site construction techniques are
allowing us to mimic this project specificness in
factory-built solutions. But how is this sustainable,
when it requires us to have to choose which areas
of design to focus our limited design time and
budget on, resulting in inefficient overdesigns?
In the recent past, architects would plan the
outline of a building to the nearest 300mm (which
allowed for a brick facade). What would happen if
we returned to this grid and laid out the structural
grid to the same increments?
Could we still achieve the same brief within the
site constraints? If the average person is 300mm
deep, couldn’t we still design great spaces for
people with the structure set out to 300mm
increments? We work on projects that are typically
at least 100 times as large as this increment, so
it seems obvious that we can still design unique,

KATERRA
beautiful buildings that are based on a 300mm
grid. Perhaps this might even enable more flexibility
in design by enabling a standardised approach to
fit-out and finishes?
By collaborating early with the client, architect 200kg/m2 reduction in embodied carbon Conclusions
and, ideally, contractor, we would have more compared with a concrete-framed building2. Perhaps the time is right to reconsider how we
chance to lay out the structure rationally. Repeating Similarly, the approach Bryden Wood has design buildings? Which is preferable: designing
grids would lead to higher utilisations and more pioneered with Office 1.0 reduces embodied bespoke solutions every time, or trying to
sustainable designs which could be reused on carbon (20%), cost and time on site3. standardise our approach? Which one will allow
other projects. It would allow for a greater choice A more regular and orthogonal geometry widespread adoption of off-site methods? Which
of structural systems, including off-site techniques. would allow a framework for other parts of the one will reduce embodied carbon most, and
A recent McKinsey report1 highlights the fact that industry to innovate too. Modular M&E systems, which will encourage innovation and the circular
sustainability is not the only challenge facing the prefabricated facades, or internal partitions or economy?
industry. Skills shortages, productivity targets, and bathrooms would have greater clarity of what is I believe that we can still build beautiful buildings
cost increases are all expected to drive the adoption required, allowing a focus on reducing embodied that meet the client’s ambitions while advocating for
of off-site techniques, which would alleviate these carbon and materials while still achieving the a more uniform approach (Figure 2). A consistent
problems. technical requirements. grid across projects gives advantages for both lean
By advocating a 300mm planning grid, we Katerra4 has successfully led this whole- design and future reuse – saving carbon now and
would also drive off-site manufacture towards more building modular approach in the USA, providing in the future.
material-efficient solutions. If the methodology structure, services and finishes on a consistent This is a climate emergency, and with only 10
was adopted widely, a natural trend would occur geometry within its system (Figure 1). years to halve emissions globally5, we need to make
towards a small number of span combinations And what of the circular economy? With radical changes. Perhaps the first and simplest
covering perhaps 95% of a building’s space standardised loadings and geometry, we would step is to stop trying to do things differently every
(we could even advocate using specific span ultimately have more flexible buildings – less time and start working within the same geometric
arrangements that we know work well). bespoke solutions are easier to adapt to future parameters.
This would allow a shift in focus from designs changes of use. It would also enable reuse of old
that have to cover all load combinations, to designs components in the future, with the knowledge of
that cover just a few. It would also allow much common spans reducing the risk of storing old David Treacy
higher utilisation, and eventually reduce the material sections. Standardised heights allow for easier BEng (Hons), CEng, MIEI
quantity with more efficient structural systems (think replacement of facade and fit-out components
David Treacy is a principal structural engineer at
fabric formwork, trusses instead of beams, etc.). All (even using refurbished items), and this off-site
K-Lab Projektering AB in Sweden with a specialism
of which would reduce embodied carbon. modular construction would of course integrate
in sustainable structural design.
Skanska’s BoKlok system boasts a easy methods of dismantling buildings.

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 Return to a 300mm grid Climate emergency

REFERENCES

1) McKinsey and Company (2020) The

next normal in construction [Online]
Available at: www.mckinsey.com/~/
media/McKinsey/Industries/Capital%20
Projects%20and%20Infrastructure/
Our%20Insights/The%20next%20
normal%20in%20construction/mck_
the-next-normal-in-construction.ashx
(Accessed: June 2020)

2) Skanska and Ikea (2017) BoKlok

(Swedish) [Online] Available at: www.
energybuilding.se/wp-content/
uploads/2017/10/Solh%C3%B6jden-
PB-Fx_140814.pdf (Accessed: June
2020)

3) Mann W. (2020) Office 1.0:

HAVE Landsec’s new vision for construction
YOUR [Online] Available at: www.
SAY constructionmanagermagazine.
com/office-10-landsecs-new-vision-
construction/ (Accessed: June 2020)

4) Katerra website (2020) [Online]

Available at: www.katerra.com
ìFIGURE 2: Award- [email protected] (Accessed: June 2020)
winning Macallan 5) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Distillery: proof that
uniform grid can go
Change (2018) Special report: Global
hand in hand with warming of 1.5°c [Online] Available at:
beautiful architecture www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ (Accessed: June
@IStructE
#TheStructuralEngineer 2020)

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 Professional guidance Business Practice Note | No. 34

BUSINESS
PRACTICE NOTES
No. 34
have been developed by

Business-to-business
the Institution’s Business
Practice and Regulatory
Control Committee to
provide guidance on aspects
of running a practice and
project management.
collaboration: an
introduction to ISO 44001
www.istructe.org/bpns

Neil Wakeman gives an overview of the development of

collaborative business relationships in accordance with
internationally recognised standards.

Introduction in the business’s culture and competence important issues such as knowledge sharing
People collaborate whenever they work for collaborative working (e.g. where a shift and security of information, combined
together towards common objectives. In away from self-protectionism is required) procurement, business continuity and exit
low-risk circumstances, the relationship is Ò| include market analysis to understand the strategy. A risk register is created to assign
usually informal; but in high-risk commercial value of collaborative working to customers significant risks and opportunities (e.g.
environments (e.g. engagement of specialist Ò| assess the initial risks of collaboration changes to supply chain, reputational risk,
consultant by large consultant, or joint venture (e.g. impact on the market) and prioritise impact on other relationships, efficiency of
between consultant and contractor), it is opportunities where they exist supply) to key personnel for early resolution,
essential to confirm the agreement in writing. Ò| provide clear mandates for key personnel mitigation or development.
BS ISO 44001:20171 provides an to develop prospective CBRs An internal CBR team leader is nominated
accredited means for businesses to do this by Ò| provide a foundation for development for each collaborative opportunity and
adapting their internal governance procedures of joint RMPs with future partners (see the internal RMP is updated with targeted
to include management of a collaborative Stage 5) outcomes and estimated timeframes.
business relationship (CBR) (Table 1). Ò| define the initial basis upon which exit
This Business Practice Note outlines strategies can be developed with future Stage 3: Internal assessment
the activities involved in each of the eight partners This is a more detailed inward-looking
stages used by BS ISO 44001 to break Ò| be effectively communicated so that assessment of your business’s own
down the lifecycle of a CBR. Its purpose is to everyone understands the new business strengths and weaknesses with regards
introduce the reader to the requirements of ethos for collaborative working. to its preparedness for collaboration. It
the standard and to help them plan for future involves reviews of your leadership and
collaborations. Stage 2: Knowledge organisational structure, the behavioural and
This stage starts by gathering all available cultural competencies of your key personnel,
Stage 1: Operational awareness information about a specific collaborative any lessons learned from your previous
This initial stage involves a high-level opportunity and then uses this to decide collaborative experiences, and a re-evaluation
evaluation of the risks and potential benefits of whether it is worth progressing. It considers of your internal processes. You should
collaboration to help decide whether it would the internal investment in resources that consider whether your organisation has the
be right for an individual business to pursue. If would be necessary, including training of principal characteristics for an effective CBR.
it is right, then a senior executive responsible key personnel, and makes a preliminary Detailed criteria for selecting a suitable
(SER) should be appointed to develop an assessment of potential partner organisations collaborative partner are also set at this stage.
internal relationship management plan (RMP) for their cultural and strategic fit. Example criteria include: the operational
for the business. This RMP needs to: Initial processes are developed to manage and cultural compatibility of the prospective
Ò| be consistent with the values of the
business, and compatible with other
management and operational procedures TABLE 1: Key acronyms used in BS ISO 44001
(e.g. quality management systems,
information security) Acronym Definition Explanation
Ò| identify the main objectives, drivers and
CBR Collaborative business relationship
benefits of collaboration
Ò| provide effective governance with
sufficient agility to enable value from any JMT Joint management team
collaborative opportunities to be realised
Ò| define attitudes and behaviours for sharing RMP Relationship management plan An overview of governance processes that
responsibilities, fostering fairness, and defines how a particular relationship is
promoting transparency, trust and a culture managed and controlled
of mutual respect in relationships SER Senior executive responsible A senior executive with overall responsibility
Ò| identify the training and mentoring that will for developing capabilities and supporting
be necessary to make good any shortfalls collaborative programmes

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 Business Practice Note | No. 34 Professional guidance

partner; their approach to relationship further enhance the CBR (e.g. review Ò| respective responsibilities have been
management; their collaborative capability information exchange systems) satisfied
and experience; their approach to risk Ò| measurement of delivery and Ò| the scope of the collaboration has been
management; and other relevant issues performance – procedures and plans delivered
such as their alignment with the collaborative to monitor, measure and enhance the Ò| all resource and people issues are properly
objectives, requirements and expectations effectiveness of the CBR against agreed resolved
that have been identified. In short, this is about delivery and performance targets Ò| finance and other commercial implications
identifying the kind of organisation with which Ò| a joint issue resolution process – to are closed out
your business can work effectively. identify, prioritise, investigate, monitor and Ò| assets and intellectual property are
The internal RMP should again be reviewed assign responsibilities to resolve issues correctly allocated
and updated with specific responsibilities at the earliest practicable opportunity. It Ò| business continuity considerations
assigned to key personnel. should include methods for escalation (e.g. impact on customers and other
and have a predefined decision-making stakeholders) are fairly settled
Stage 4: Partner selection hierarchy Ò| reputations are maintained
The predetermined selection criteria from Ò| a joint exit strategy – consistent with Ò| the relationship is internally and jointly
Stage 3 should be used to negotiate a value- Stage 8 requirements evaluated.
creating CBR. The negotiation strategy should Ò| a joint RMP – reference should be
be mindful of mutual benefits and the longer- made to the joint objectives, the core Lessons learned from the experience
term stability of the relationship, rather than values and principles, the operational and should be used to update respective internal
short-term opportunism. governance structures, the key roles and RMPs and influence opportunities for future
An assessment of collaborative objectives, responsibilities, the formal contractual collaboration.
opportunities and risks should be carried arrangements, all of the above processes,
out jointly. Key performance indicators, and any other related agreements Further guidance
methods of measurement, known areas for Ò| agreements or contracting Further guidance is available in the appendices
improvements, and an initial exit strategy arrangements – compatible with the of BS ISO 44001, including a useful checklist
should all be confirmed. Core principles for the proposed methods of collaborative to assist with implementing the standard.
joint RMP (see Stage 5) and the development working. The joint RMP can be annexed to
of other formal arrangements (e.g. contract) contracts to formalise the management of
should also be agreed. the CBR and invoke the desired principles This note has been prepared by Neil
of collaborative behaviour. Wakeman BSc, CEng, MIStructE on behalf
Stage 5: Working together of the Institution of Structural Engineers’
Respective SERs should work together to Stage 6: Value creation Business Practice and Regulatory Control
agree a formal governance structure to jointly Value creation is really an ongoing activity Committee.
steer the management and implementation of rather than a stand-alone stage. It should Members are reminded that they
the CBR. This should include the appointment be used by the JMT to evaluate all the latest should always comply with the legislation
of a joint management team (JMT) with research, innovative ideas and lessons learned of the region in which they are working
competent senior operational leaders (SORs). so that improvements can be made whenever and members should be aware of any
The SORs should have clear responsibilities reasonably practicable. jurisdictions specific to the region in which
and lines of authority to deliver the desired they are working.
outcomes of the collaboration in accordance Stage 7: Staying together Business Practice Notes are provided
with the established objectives, ethics and Measure predetermined behaviour and trust as guidance to members, but do not form
core principles of the CBR. indicators at regular intervals to check the part of the Regulations and/or Laws of the
The JMT should establish, manage and overall integrity of the collaboration is being Institution. All members are obliged to abide
maintain: maintained, to bring focus to the performance by the Code of Conduct.
Ò| a joint communications strategy – an of the relationship, and to identify any
effective communication process for key corrective actions that are necessary.
stakeholders This should formally demonstrate that HAVE
Ò| a joint knowledge management delivery systems are working, outputs YOUR
process – to identify the information and are being achieved, internal barriers and SAY
interdependencies required to meet the challenges are being successfully managed,
objectives, and to confirm the information the joint risk profile is being controlled,
that may not be shared internally and objectives continue to be aligned, trust is
externally without executive approval (e.g. maintained, collaborative behaviours and skills
intellectual property rights, proprietary data) are enhanced, and value is added.
Ò| a joint risk management process – a Periodically review the joint RMP and joint @IStructE
[email protected] #TheStructuralEngineer
joint risk register should be established and exit strategy to check they remain relevant
reviewed at predetermined intervals by a to emergent circumstances, and modify the
competent risk manager collaborative relationship to suit. REFERENCE
Ò| a review of operational processes and
systems – joint reviews of business and Stage 8: Exit strategy activation
quality processes should be periodically The joint exit strategy should identify potential
1) British Standards Institution (2017)
undertaken by the JMT to ensure the exit triggers, including mid-term conflict, and BS ISO 44001:2017 Collaborative business
collaboration continues to be compatible provide a controlled disengagement process relationship management systems.
with their other operations, and to identify with agreed transitional arrangements. These Requirements and framework,
any improvements that can be made to arrangements should ensure that: London: BSI

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 Technical Stone as a structural material

Stone as a structural
material. Part 3: Post-
tensioned stone structures
SCOTT BOOTE SYNOPSIS
BEng (Hons), CEng, MIStructE, To utilise stone’s high ratio of compressive to tensile strength to maximum effect,
AMICE
stone structures can be compressed using tensioned cables or bars. Post-tensioned
Associate, Webb Yates Engineers,
stone increases the failure load of stone in bending, but also the stiffness of a
London, UK
structure by reducing joint cracking.
ALEX LYNES
This method of construction is widely used for concrete structures, but the
MA, MEng (Hons) (Cantab), CEng, advantages of using similar techniques with stone are only just being realised. This
MIStructE article covers the reasons for post-tensioning stone, the advantages of doing so,
Associate, Webb Yates Engineers, and presents a series of projects that demonstrate the evolution and development of
London, UK our expertise and understanding at Webb Yates.

Introduction
To create increasingly dramatic stone
staircases, architects and stonemasons
often look to achieve longer spans,
thinner sections and ‘unsupported’
landings. For these situations, it is
necessary to push stone to its limit and
take advantage of its full compressive
strength, which is rarely utilised in
traditional or reinforced stone stairs.
Post-tensioned stone increases the
failure load of stone in bending, but also
the stiffness of a structure by reducing
joint cracking, therefore allowing more
extreme forms to be realised.
The principal of post-tensioning is to demonstration projects is a 50mm thick ëFIGURE 1: Straight post-tensioned
reduce or eliminate the bending tensile bench spanning 3.2m, which features Principle of stairs
post-tensioning
stresses in the stone, by adding a two external steel cables located in a structures
Figure 4 shows an early post-tensioned
compressive force; superimposing the notch in the soffit of the stone (Figures to reduce or stair flight, Hilltop. This project uses four
stresses from each action decreases 2 and 3). In addition to this design acting eliminate tension continuous, high-strength steel bars to
(tension shown
the net tensile stresses in the material1 as a conventional post-tensioned beam, +ve)
provide pre-compression to the stone.
(Figure 1). The most common way of the cables are routed along a catenary to These have the advantage of higher
inducing this additional compression give additional support to the stone. stiffness and are easier to tension and
into the stone is to run cables through By positioning the cables below the lock off than cables. By providing four
the centre of the section, which are then neutral axis, a trapezoidal compressive bars spread evenly across the width of
tensioned by jacking and secured at stress is induced, allowing for a the flight, the tension could be closely
either end using thrust plate connectors. more balanced net stress plot. This controlled and evenly distributed in the
At Webb Yates, we have been combination serves to eliminate cracking flight, allowing a very thin cross-section
developing this idea on increasingly between the stone slabs and allows a îFIGURE 2: to be achieved.
Post-tensioning
complicated projects over a number span-to-depth ratio of over 60. It works principles of The tension in the bars was specified
of years. At each stage, we have well and is still used as a demonstration stone bench to eliminate any tension in the stone
pushed our understanding further and piece as the cables, and therefore the
verified our analysis by testing, both structural mechanism, can be clearly
of new concepts/arrangements prior seen and understood.
to construction, and of completed Understanding and balancing the
structures in situ. This article discusses locked-in stresses, from both the pre-
some of the technical challenges of compression and the eccentricity of the
these projects. cables, enables a designer to utilise the
full capacity of the stone and dramatically
Simple structures reduce structural depth and weight.
One of our earliest and simplest

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 Stone asCracking
a structural
of concrete
material Technical

and avoid cracking entirely. As above, throughout its lifetime. The resolution
the post-tensioning force required is of these initial forces, and the stresses
simply the force needed to achieve a they induce at the thrust plates, is a
compressive stress equal to the bending critical consideration in the design, and
tensile stress. An approximate value can is described later in this article. The
be calculated by F = M/z × A (assuming cables are jacked incrementally and
post-tensioned tendon is at mid-depth). simultaneously while the whole stair is
The dynamic behaviour of straight monitored, ensuring the process is safe
post-tensioned stairs often requires and predictable.
higher tensile forces and increased waist
depth, to increase mass and stiffness, as Curved post-tensioned stairs
the torsional and lateral stiffness of the up to 180°
stair cannot be mobilised in the same The complexity of the design of post-
way as that of a curved stair. tensioned curved stairs increases
significantly for greater curvatures. For
Curved post-tensioned stairs all curved post-tensioned structures,
up to 90° three-dimensional (3D) finite-element
For curved flights (Figure 5), cables ìFIGURE 3: The third can be more difficult to (FE) modelling is carried out, with
rather than bars can be specified; for Stonemasons define or control and depends on the each individual stone block modelled
‘load-testing’
low angles of plan curvature, these bench distance the wedges are pulled into the to interact with its neighbour (Figure
stairs act in much the same way as a locking barrel to grip the cable when 7). The mortar joints are modelled to
straight flight. A complexity caused by released by the jack. The level of draw- transmit compression only (zero tension)
this curve is the torsional shear stresses in is often defined by the manufacturer, to conservatively model the joints
in the joints between treads. For uniform but is typically 3–6mm3. between the treads. The cables are also
large-radius helical curves of less than Unlike concrete, stone does not modelled to apply the post-tensioning
90°, these are usually not critical and creep to anything like the same degree force as it varies along their length.
are easily resisted by friction generated and therefore the additional losses from
from the compression in the mortar, in a this phenomenon can often be ignored.
similar way to shear forces in traditional This must be assessed on a project-
masonry2. by-project basis and must consider the
scale of the project, and the selected THE COMPLEXITY
f vk f vko 0.4 d
stone type.
OF THE DESIGN
The tension losses necessitate
but not greater than 0.065fb or fvlt that the cables be jacked to forces INCREASES
higher than are required in the final SIGNIFICANTLY
where:
fvko is the characteristic initial shear
design (Figure 6). Often, the initial
jacking force will induce the highest FOR GREATER
strength, under zero compressive stress stresses experienced by a structure CURVATURES
fvlt is a limit to the value of fvk.

As with a concrete post-tensioned

structure, tension losses must be
calculated and considered in the design.
Three mechanisms predominately
cause these losses:
Ò| relaxation losses as the individual
cable wires lock together and
compact slightly, an inherent
disadvantage of using cables in place
of solid bars
Ò| friction between the cable and the
hole it runs through when tensioning
Ò| draw-in of the locking wedges3.

The first is relatively minor, typically

1–2% of the force in the cable if pre-
stretched post-tensioning wires are
specified4.
The second depends both on the
length of the cable and the change
in angle along its length. For straight
flights, these are extremely low and are
not significant in uniform large-radius
helical curvatures up to 90°3. For greater
curvatures and larger stairs, they can be
critical. ìFIGURE 4:
Straight post-
tensioned stair
Px P0 e- ( x)
before balustrade
installation

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 Technical Stone as a structural material

These 3D models allow crack widths,

deflections, joint shear forces and internal
stone stresses to be assessed. The
level of post-tensioning force can then WHERE THE
be ‘tuned’ to ensure the structure does
not crack or deflect excessively while
BEHAVIOUR IS
ensuring bursting stresses in the stone NOT ENTIRELY
close to the thrust plates are below PREDICTABLE,
acceptable levels. The crack width is
limited to 0.3mm at serviceability, as
REAL-WORLD
with concrete, which is only visible under TESTING IS
close inspection.
Shear and compression strength
NECESSARY
checks of the mortar joints (in both their
cracked and uncracked state) are then tread inwards. This was not a failure
carried out to ensure the necessary mechanism that had appeared to be
transfer of forces between treads can be potentially critical through FE modelling.
achieved in the real world, allowing the Such unexpected results have helped to
global stair behaviour to be as predicted provide a deeper understanding of the
by the model. behaviour of these structures.
Separately and in more detail, we Detailed deflection measurements of
analyse the top and bottom connection load tests under varying loads are taken
by modelling the first few treads. The and these results are compared to the
thrust plates and bearing interface analysis models to ensure the stairs
layers are included to examine the are accurately represented. Material
induced bursting stresses more closely ìFIGURE 5: properties, member releases and other
Post-tensioned
(Figure 8). This model is used to test stair with 80° parameters within the FE models are
and specify a suitable steel thrust plate swept path then refined to better simulate the real
detail, and models a series of bearing behaviour of the stone, the mortar, the
interface layers placed between this and cable and the cable grout.
the stone. The make-up of these layers However, a model can only go so far
has been, and continues to be, refined in predicting performance, given that Curved post-tensioned stairs
through our research and development certain assumptions about structural greater than 180°
(R&D) process. behaviour must be made in the initial When flights of stairs go beyond 180°,
construction of the model. Where the additional checks are required to ensure
Research and development behaviour is not entirely predictable, that the stone is not overstressed at any
Extensive testing has been carried out to real-world testing is necessary to avoid point and, more importantly, that there
validate our calculations and to ensure ‘confirmation bias’ in the theoretical are no stress concentrations that will
there is correlation with the performance models. propagate a crack.
and behaviour of real structures (Figures Over multiple tests, we investigated The relationship between torsional,
9–11). One of the key objectives of the the possible failure mechanisms primary and secondary bending stiffness
testing was to overload the stairs to that could cause damage to, or can have a profound effect on the overall
determine likely failure mechanisms and catastrophic failure of, the stair. One behavioural response of the structure.
cross-check against theoretical models. of the unexpected results came when Typically, a stair will have a series of
In general practice, an experienced adjusting the tensions in two cables êFIGURE 6: support points at the top and bottom.
designer will often only check the following a load test. A failure occurred Cable force This will create a torsional restraint to the
versus distance
critical elements of a structure to satisfy due to the force of the cable pulling along stone stair
structure as the two or more support
themselves that the design works and is straight, pushing the inner part of the points act in tandem to create a ‘push–
safe, e.g. only the critical span maximum
bending moment and deflection may
be checked in a typical steel beam
calculation.
However, for a structure such as a
helical post-tensioned stone staircase,
where a relatively untested technique
is paired with a fairly extreme form, it is
necessary to understand, as thoroughly
as possible, the global behaviour and
potential failure mechanisms.
It is very difficult to predict which
element will be critical and needs to be
checked due to the complexity of axial
forces, horizontal and vertical shears,
bending moments in both directions
and torsions, all acting simultaneously
in every tread. FE modelling makes it
possible to check deflected shapes,
vibration modes and principal stresses
throughout every part of the structure.

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 Stone as a structural material Technical

pull’ of reaction forces. This

torsional restraint will act to
create a similar effect to a fixed
îFIGURE E 7:
3D FE modelodel end bending moment.
of full stair
air However, this behaviour will
change for different curvatures,
perhaps counterintuitively; a
stair with a curvature between
270° and 360° may experience
its maximum deflections at one-
îFIGURE 10:
Load testing quarter span points rather than
180°, 70% at mid-span.
scale model An example of such a stair is
to attempted
destruction presented in the Case study.

íFIGURE 8: Local
3D FE model
checking bursting
stresses in stone

îFIGURE 9: Test
failure due to
incorrect jacking

b) Strap detail

ìFIGURE 11: Live monitoring

of test stair behaviour

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 Technical Cracking
Stone as aofstructural
concrete material
AGNESE SANVITO

ìFIGURE 12: Top view of Formby Stair

AGNESE SANVITO
ìFIGURE 14:
Formby Stair before
handrail installation
Case study: Formby Stair
With the 320° rotation of the helical
stair at Formby (Figure 12), we had the
opportunity to push our understanding
to new limits. The original brief from
the architect was for a much deeper
stone-clad concrete stair, but we
agreed with The Stonemasonry
Company that we could use the post-
tensioning technique to achieve a
much more refined structure in solid
stone. This stair was the culmination of
our research and experience to date.
We proposed to locate the cables
near the centre of the treads to allow
the edges of the flight to be tapered
and make the stair appear even more
slender (Figure 13).
The project consists of two identical
flights supported only from the top and
bottom by the concrete floor structures
(Figure 14). The two cables running up
the centre of the flight were tensioned
to 140kN each, before being locked off
and grouted in place.
We worked closely with the
stonemasons and the main building
engineer to develop and agree the top
and bottom connections to ensure a
unified appearance (Figures 15 and
16). The supports had to be strong and
stiff enough to support the stair and
transfer the cable force into the stone,
as well as easy to position, fix in place
and allow access to the cables to
tension them.
The primary stair support brackets
were cast into the concrete landings
to resist the high vertical and lateral
forces required to support the stair.
This project won the Structural
Award for Small Projects in 2016.
ìFIGURE 13: Schematic sketches of Formby Stair

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 Stone as a structural material Technical

íFIGURE 17:
Typical stair
connection details

AGNESE SANVITO
ìFIGURE 18: Open-tread post-tensioned stair

íFIGURE 16:
Stone blank
during shaping

ìFIGURE 15: Sketch

details of Formby
Stair construction

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 Technical Stone as a structural material

the stresses in the stone while ensuring

the global stiffness and dynamic
behaviour of the structure are not
adversely affected.

Further developments
Since the completion of the Formby
Stair project, we have gone on to
design post-tensioned stone stairs with
integrated half-landings. The landings
are formed from a fully welded steel
frame or monocoque and clad in stone,
with the individual flights (above and
below landing level) being tensioned
independently. Our recent experience
also includes an open-tread post-
tensioned stair (Figure 18) and a large
310° post-tensioned stone stair for
Foster and Partners in a highly seismic
region in Turkey (Figure 19).
Additionally, we have recently
developed a design for an approx. 24m
clear-span pedestrian/cycle footbridge
ëFIGURE 19:
Seismic-resistant for Worcester College, University of
helical stair Oxford (Figure 20). Our proposal is to
use a combined reinforced and post-
tensioned structure where the integral
stone parapets act in combination as
beams and arches. This project poses
significant challenges, but we are excited
to see how we can push the techniques
we have developed to new limits.
Our R&D continues, and we are
currently investigating prefabricated post-
tensioned beams, slabs and stairs where
the thrust plates are removed following
the grouting of the cables or bars. This
relies on full composite action between
the steel and stone elements. These
products could be used as alternatives
to precast concrete elements, but with
significant reductions to embodied
carbon and energy.
ìFIGURE 20:
Proposed bridge
for University of
Oxford

REFERENCES
Detailing post-tensioned filled the cable hole and vented any
structures remaining air. The viscosity and mix of
There are many aspects of post- the grout are important to ensure that
1) British Standards Institution
tensioning that are important, but the two it does not set during pumping, but (2004) BS EN 1992-1-
areas where our R&D has been focused can still cure correctly. 1:2004+A1:2014 Eurocode 2:
are the grouting of the cables and the The thrust plates at the top and Design of concrete structures.
design of the thrust plates. Working with bottom are an integral part of the HAVE General rules and rules for
The Stonemasonry Company, these structural system, transferring the YOUR buildings, London: BSI
details have been refined through various tension from the cable into the stone SAY
2) British Standards Institution
tests and real-world projects, as they as compression (Figure 17). They (2005) BS EN 1996-1-
are crucial to ensuring the stone is not are also the point at which the stone 1:2005+A1:2012 Eurocode 6.
subject to high local stresses, which can is most highly stressed. To ensure the Design of masonry structures.
cause a propagating failure. high force does not cause cracking, General rules for reinforced and
Grouting the cables by pumping liquid the bearing plates must be large and unreinforced masonry structures,
grout ensures the cables are in constant stiff enough to distribute the load. London: BSI
[email protected]
contact with the stone, distributes any A series of bearing interface 3) Concrete Society (2005) TR 43:
point loads and ensures the cables act layers are used between the plate Post-tensioned concrete floors
compositely with the stone. The grout and the stone to avoid any small – Design handbook (2nd ed.),
must be pumped under pressure from imperfections causing stress Camberley: Concrete Society
the bottom of the flight until it emerges concentrations. The specification of @IStructE 4) Bridon Construction Products
at the top to guarantee it has entirely these layers is critical to controlling #TheStructuralEngineer technical data

28
August 2020 | thestructuralengineer.org

Stone part 3_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 28 16/07/2020 08:16

 Expand your design horizons with
Computational engineering

Peter Debney takes the reader on a

practical, theoretical, and philosophical
journey through computational engineering
with a fresh, engaging, and often
humorous style.

Forewords from Chris Wise, Tristram

Carfrae, and John Leech.

Pre-order for August delivery:

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TSE.Aug20.029.indd 29 15/07/2020 09:03

 Project focus Padre Pio church, Italy

Speaking stone – a
retrospective look at
the stone arch design
for the Padre Pio
church, Italy

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 Padre Pio church, Italy Project focus

íFIGURE 1: ALISTAIR LENCZNER

View of Padre Pio church
arches and external piazza
CEng, FIStructE, FICE, FRSA
Director, Expedition Engineering, London, UK

Project credits
Client Provincia di Foggia dei Frati Minori Cappuccini
(Capuchin Friars of Foggia Province), Italy

Architect Renzo Piano Building Workshop (RPBW)

Engineering roof Ove Arup & Partners (Arup)
structure - concept
and tender design
Engineering Favero & Milan
roof structure –
construction
Structural CO.RE. Ingegneria
engineering,
substructure and
crypt structure

SYNOPSIS

This article presents a retrospective, personal

account of the design of the stone arches for
the Padre Pio church in Italy between 1990 and
2004. Inspired by a resurgence in interest in
stone as a structural material, it seeks to relate
the design development of this innovative
project and discuss some of the hurdles that
had to be overcome when working outside
codes of practice. It is hoped that projects
such as this – alongside more recent examples
– will help to re-establish structural stone as a
viable option for building projects. The author
was a key member of the design team when
previously employed by Arup.

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 Project focus Padre Pio church, Italy

Introduction
The technical achievements of some building
projects can best be appreciated with the benefit
of hindsight. The roof structure of the Padre Pio
church (Figure 1) is, I believe, an example of such
a project.
Opened in 2004 and located in the hills of the
Gargano peninsula in southern Italy, the Padre
Pio church in San Giovanni Rotondo is not widely
known. However, for devout Catholics within Italy,
the church has become one of the of the most
popular pilgrimage sites outside Rome.
Despite having an innovative structural
design likely to be of interest to other engineers,
an account of the conception and design
development of the Padre Pio roof structure has
not previously been published in The Structural
Engineer. As one of the engineers responsible for
the structural design of the church roof from its
earliest stages, I offer a personal retrospective of
the project’s design development, albeit some 30
years after design work on the church began.
This article does not attempt to be a
comprehensive technical account of all aspects
of the structural design. Instead, it focuses on the
design of the church’s stone arches supporting
the roof (Figure 2) and attempts to explain the
way the design evolved. It also highlights some of
the hurdles the project’s design had to overcome
before it could be built.
The importance of the use of stone in the Padre
Pio church project is illustrated by Giovanni Leone
in his introduction to the book, La Chiesa di Padre
Pio a San Giovanni Rotondo1:
‘It seems as though everything, because of
how it is expressed in this new church and how it
came to be expressed that way, shows how those

MICHEL DENANCÉ
stones speak, and that those stones can speak,
ask, awe, exalt, make an impression, attract,
fascinate in the religious, artistic-architectural,
human sense. They can basically generate a ìFIGURE 2: Stone arches
human relation.’ facing church piazza

Background
The Padre Pio church roof is the result of a new church building to accommodate the tens of
collaboration between Irish engineer Peter Rice thousands of pilgrims. The friars turned to Renzo
and Italian architect Renzo Piano. Rice had first Piano Building Workshop (RPBW) for the design
met Piano when Arup (then known as Ove Arup
and Partners) worked with the competition-
PIANO AND RICE of the new church. Piano soon contacted Rice to
ask him to collaborate (Figure 3).
winning Piano–Rogers architect team for the AGREED THAT THE
Centre Pompidou museum in Paris. By the time NEW CHURCH Concept and scheme designs for
roof (1990–94)
the Pompidou project was completed, Rice and
Piano had become firm friends and went on to SHOULD MAKE USE Late in 1990, I travelled with Rice to visit Piano
collaborate on many other significant projects. OF LARGE-SPAN at the RPBW studio in Genoa to start discussing
Although it was not known at the time of its
design, the Padre Pio church was to be the last
NATURAL STONE design ideas for the new church and, in particular,
its roof structure.
completed project on which Rice and Piano ARCHES At the time we started work on the Padre Pio
collaborated. project, Rice and I were involved in another project
My own association with Rice started when for Expo ‘92 in Seville, Spain. The Pavilion of the
I joined his design group at Arup in 1985 as a adopted for the design of the stone arches for the Future building (designed with Spanish architects
structural engineer. Rice was always keen to Padre Pio church. MBM) featured an innovative facade structure that
explore innovative structural systems and develop The church was built in commemoration of used assemblies of unreinforced granite blocks
new ways of using materials. Working with him on Padre Pio, a Capuchin monk at the monastery of to form a ‘filigree’ arcade supporting the pavilion
a number of innovative building projects, I gained San Giovanni Rotondo who came to prominence roof2 (Figure 4).
the confidence to propose and develop structural for exhibiting stigmata. After his death in 1968, the The design of the Seville structure had involved
design solutions whose design justification number of Catholic pilgrims visiting the monastery a first-principles approach and made use of new
would rely on a first-principles approach rather to venerate Padre Pio increased year by year. analytical tools based on the ‘dynamic relaxation’
than always having to follow codified design Eventually, in 1990, the Capuchin Friars of the method pioneered by Alistair Day at Arup3. It
methodologies. The first-principles approach was Province of Foggia commissioned the design of a exploited precision stonecutting technology and

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 Padre Pio church, Italy Project focus

other modern construction techniques to create

its novel form.
Buoyed by the good progress on the Pavilion
of the Future project, we felt that the Padre Pio
church would be an opportunity to further develop
design ideas for using stone as a structural
material.
Having visited the site of the proposed church,
Piano had already reflected on how stone might
form a significant part of the new building. The
expressed use of stone would help integrate the
new building into its setting next to the rocky hills
of the Gargano peninsula. Piano and Rice quickly
agreed that the new church should make use of
large-span natural stone arches to form its roof
structure.
However, the arches would be quite different
in nature to those typically found in churches in
the past. For the Padre Pio church, the architect
RPBW

wanted the structural stone arches to be visibly

expressed as soaring across the church’s volume
below roof level. Moreover, instead of being ìFIGURE 3:
supported from vertical column structure, the Early design team meeting at RPBW studio in 1991 (left to right: Kenneth Fraser, Renzo Piano, Peter Rice, Alistair Lenczner)
arches would spring from ground level at an angle
(Figure 5).
Initial sketch designs for the roof were based
on a brief requirement that the church should
accommodate congregations of up to 25 000.
Piano proposed a building with a radial plan, with
the congregation facing towards a central altar at
the focal point (Figure 6). The large dome-form
structure would then have radial stone arches
rising to a central ring above the altar. The scale
of the building already suggested that the stone
arches forming the roof structure would likely be
record-breaking in terms of their clear spans.
As the roof design evolved, Piano became
concerned that the church’s internal volume would
be similar in scale to some modern sports arenas.

BEN JOHNSON / ARUP

He felt that the building should be more intimate in
scale. Moving away from the idea of a radial-plan
dome, Piano proposed that the building should
have a grid plan based on a spiral that opened out
into an external piazza as a geometric extension
of the building itself (Figures 7 and 8). While the
building enclosure would cover some 8000 people
éFIGURE 4:
Pavilion of the Future, Seville
îFIGURE 5:
Interior view of
completed church
roof structure with within the inner part of the spiral plan, a further
stone arches
20 000 could be accommodated on the external
piazza.
The use of stone arches to support the roof
was retained as an essential part of the structure
that sat on the church’s spiral plan. This was
accomplished by positioning stone arches with
progressively increasing spans on successive
radial grids of the spiral. To create a more intimate
space within the church, the radial distance
from the central altar to the outer edge of the
GIANNI BERENGO GARDIN

spiral enclosure was subdivided between two

overlapping arch spans with large inner and
smaller outer stone arches placed on alternate
radial grids.
The largest of the radial stone arches placed
on the growing spiral would face onto the external
piazza and become the primary architectural
expression of the church’s elevation (Figure 9).

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 Project focus Padre Pio church, Italy

îFIGURE 6:
Architect’s early
dome concept
design for Padre
Pio church
RPBW

With a span of approx. 50m, the largest arch Detailed design development
would exceed the diameter of the dome of St (1994–97)
Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican City. At the start of the Padre Pio project, it was
The elevational profiles of the arches were anticipated that an Italian engineering consultant
designed so that they would be self-stable in their would take over responsibility for Arup’s roof
own plane to resist both gravity and imposed scheme design and develop it through to tender
seismic loads. The geometry of the arch profile stage. However, after discussions with several
was form-found to respond to the self-weight of Italian engineers, it became clear that the absence
the arch and roof structure, and the arch depth of an Italian code covering the structural use of
ìFIGURE 7:
varied so that it could resist all imposed load stone would make adoption of the proposed

RPBW
Architect’s spiral roof
conditions efficiently. concept for church stone arch design problematic. Some engineers
To achieve the visual effect of independent suggested that it might be prudent to use
soaring arches within the internal space of the concrete or steel for the arches to allow a more
church, the roof enclosure itself was supported that major structures could successfully be built straightforward approval process. If the innovative
above the arches by a radial grid of timber beams from stone. stone arch design was to be taken forward
that followed a shallow curved form. While the However, it soon become apparent that successfully, it would need to be carefully piloted.
stone arches were structurally self-stable in acceptance of the use of structural stone arches Keen to retain the structural stone for
their own planes, their out-of-plane stability was without reference to an established code of the arches, RPBW asked Arup to assume
provided for by the timber roof grillage above, practice would not be straightforward. The fact responsibility for the design development through
which was designed to act as a diaphragm that the design was quite innovative in the way it to tender stage. It was felt that Arup’s previous
to transmit lateral loads down to ground level used stone further complicated matters. experience on the Pavilion of the Future would
at the perimeter of roof. The timber roof was With the regional building authority unwilling to put it in good stead to take the Padre Pio
supported off the arches by sets of steel V-props give approval to the use of structural stone, the project forward. At a personal level, I welcomed
that connected the arches at their primary joints design of the project was ultimately referred up to the opportunity to continue designing the roof
between the ‘maxi-conchi’ (maxi-voussoirs) Italy’s national building authority in Rome. After a structure, as I felt that this would help ensure that
forming the arches (Figure 10). meeting with the authority where the arch design the structural design philosophy behind the stone
Overall, the radial stone arches and the timber methodology was explained in some detail,
roof diaphragm work as mutually supporting approval in principle was finally obtained. êFIGURE 8: Plan of church as built
structural systems to provide gravity and lateral
support to the church roof.
Once the basic plan of the church and the
geometric form of the arches and roof structure
had been settled, work began on analysing the
flow of forces through the 3D spatial roof structure
and to determine the dimensions of the stone arch
voussoirs and timber roof elements.

Overcoming absence of codes of

practice
As the structural design of the roof progressed, it
became clear that there was no code of practice
in Italy that covered the use of natural stone
for new building structures. Notwithstanding,
the design team felt confident that it should be
possible to gain approval for the proposed use of
stone by the relevant authorities by using a first-
principles approach. It was further hoped that the
RPBW

many stone building structures built in Italy since

Roman times could be cited as evidence to show

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 Padre Pio church, Italy Project focus

arches would be retained through to construction.

Arup mobilised a structural design team to
continue design development of the roof. To
take the project forward, I was now joined by
several highly capable engineers. We would,
however, have to progress the roof design without
îFIGURE 9:
Peter Rice, who tragically died in late 1992.
Elevation of stone
arches supporting Notwithstanding, there was a determination on
church roof the part of the team to develop the project in the
manner that he would have wanted.
A new member of the project design team was
Gabriele del Mese, an experienced Italian engineer
whose knowledge of the Italian construction
industry would be important to the project as it
moved forward. Two other significant additions
were younger structural engineers, Patrick
RPBW

McCafferty and Toby Savage, who were to be

involved in the geometric definition of the stone
arches profiles and the roof structure’s overall
analysis.

A suitable stone for the arches

îFIGURE10:
Sketch design for structural
An important part of the design specification was
connectivity between timber sourcing a suitable stone for the arches. The stone
roof structure and base of had to be sufficiently strong and largely free of
supporting stone arches
imperfections so that it could be used to make the
individual voussoir blocks, or ‘mini-conchi’.
Both the client and architect team were hopeful
that stone from a quarry local to the church site
could be used. A visit was made in late 1994 to
an Apricena limestone quarry, some 30km west
of San Giovanni Rotondo. The stone from the
quarry looked mostly free from imperfections
and therefore appeared potentially suitable for
the project if it could demonstrate adequate
mechanical properties.
Arup’s stone specialist, John Redding, arranged
for a series of specialist laboratory tests to be
carried out on samples of the limestone. A set
of technical criteria established by the American
ARUP

Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) was

adopted as the testing basis. Load tests on
samples were conducted dry to ASTM C170-904.
êFIGURE 11: Sketches of stone voussoir processing
ARUP

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 Project focus Padre Pio church, Italy

generally uniform compression under non-seismic

conditions. The centreline profiles were found
following an iterative form-finding process that
made use of dynamic relaxation software.
Once the arch centreline geometry had
been established, the profiles of the extrados
and intrados were defined according to depth
functions which described how the depth of
the arch (between extrados and intrados) varied
along its length. A parametric tool was created to
generate alternative sets of extrados and intrados
geometries that could be tested to see how well
arches with each geometry set worked to resist a
suite of imposed load conditions (Figure 12).
ARUP

Assessment of arch stability

under load
The analytical methodology used to assess the
ìFIGURE 12: stability of the Padre Pio arches was based on
Final definition of arch extrados and intrados profiles, geometry set ‘19aa’ that previously used to analyse the arches of the
Pavilion of the Future. This computational method
The mechanical tests confirmed that the Ultimately, the design team looked again at the was, in turn, based on the principles of arch
Apricena stone had suitable compressive strength option of making the stone arches structurally stability outlined by Jacques Heyman5.
for use within the arches. In advising on the stable by substantially increasing the depth of As with most stone arch structures,
suitability of the stone, it was recommended to: the arches close to their bases. This made them compressive stresses within the individual stone
Ò| orientate individual stones so that that bedding inherently more resistant to the horizontal seismic voussoirs were not the governing structural design
and stylolitic suture were perpendicular to the design load, avoiding the need for any additional criterion. Essentially, the structural integrity of the
major axis of the arch reinforcement or isolation protection. This flared- arch was governed by its mechanical stability
Ò| exclude stones with any uncemented joints, base arch solution was agreed with RPBW and under all load conditions.
and restrict the number and length of any adopted as the preferred design solution. Arch stability requires the compressive
cemented joints thrust lines of each applied load combination
Ò| select all stones from the same bed, so that Definition of arch geometry to be contained within the depth of the arch.
they had common physical characteristics. A special methodology was used to determine The arch geometries therefore needed to be
the optimal geometries of the arch centreline and designed so that their variable depth would
Combined with a set of achievable cutting the respective extrados (outer) and intrados (inner) contain the envelope of the thrust lines of all load
tolerances that had been obtained from a profiles either side of this. The definition of the combinations exerted upon the arch.
specialist Italian stone-processing factory, the arch centreline geometry was to follow a basic Where the thrust line approached either the
data obtained on the local limestone were used to principle described by Robert Hooke in 1675: ‘As extrados or extrados of the arch under a given
compile a detailed technical specification for the hangs the flexible line, so but inverted will stand load condition, there would be a tendency for a
stone to be used for the project (Figure 11). the rigid arch.’ hinge to form within the arch. The test of structural
The centreline profiles of the inner and outer stability was that the arch avoided becoming a
Designing arches to resist seismic arches were designed to be funicular under their mechanism through the simultaneous formation of
actions own self-weight and the supported deadload
With the building site located on the Gargano from corresponding parts of the roof above. êFIGURE 13:
peninsula, the design team was aware that the Arches with these centreline profiles would rest in Sketch design for arch ‘maxi-conch’ with joint
roof structure would need to resist significant
seismic activity associated with the area. However,
the magnitude of the horizontal seismic loads that
the arches would ultimately have to be designed
to resist was substantially greater than had
originally been foreseen.
Given the special nature of the proposed roof
structure, it was decided that a specific seismic
hazard assessment study should be performed to
determine the appropriate seismic design loads.
The study was carried out in mid-1995 by Arup’s
seismic engineering group, led by Edmund Booth.
It concluded that the stone arches should be
designed to resist an equivalent horizontal static
load of 0.25g, corresponding to a seismic event
with a 500-year return period.
This significant magnitude led the design team
to consider several alternative options that would
allow the proposed natural stone to be retained
for the arches. Options considered included the
addition of external reinforcing cables around the
outside of the stone arch section, or the use of
ARUP

seismic isolators under the bases of the arches.

Neither option found favour with the architect.

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 Padre Pio church, Italy Project focus

ëFIGURE 14:
View of analytical 3D

ARUP
model of roof structure

more than three ‘hinges’ along its length. base that could be inclined to represent a
To assess stability, each arch geometry being horizontal seismic load. It showed that the arch
considered was subjected to non-linear dynamic remained stable up to an angle beyond that which
relaxation analyses over a full suite of imposed FOR ADDITIONAL represented a horizontal seismic load of 0.25g
vertical and lateral load-cases to assess whether VALIDATION OF THE in the plane of the arch. This validation provided
no more than three hinges would be formed under
all loads. If more than three hinges were formed,
PREFERRED ARCH the design team with further assurance that the
established design geometry for the arches was
the system would become unstable and the non- GEOMETRY DERIVED suitable for the final construction.
linear analysis would not converge.
Given the very high seismicity of the site, the
FROM THE Once all stability and stress checks of each
individual arch had been completed, a full 3D
governing load-cases in the design of the arches COMPUTER structural analysis of the entire roof structure
were inevitably those that combined reduced MODELLING, IT WAS was carried out (Figure 14), incorporating the
deadload with an equivalent static horizontal
seismic load of 0.25g.
TESTED BY A preferred in-plane 2D profiles for the respective
arches.
The preferred geometry of the extrados and PHYSICAL MODEL
intrados profiles was established through an Tender design information
iterative process whereby the extrados and the arches between their restraint points by the For the tender package, the design team prepared
intrados geometries were adjusted until a stable V-props. The portions of stone arch between a detailed set of drawings that described the roof
geometry was found. the internal arch bases and lowest joints that are design, including the stone arches and spatial
connected to the roof by V-props are the longest timber roof above. This included a booklet of
Non-linear modelling of arches unrestrained lengths. The non-linear analysis drawings showing the clear design intent for the
The arches were analysed using non-linear showed that the compression in the arch due arch voussoirs and various connection details.
dynamic relaxation software. A particular feature to gravity was sufficient to prevent any loss of These details were based on the stone arch being
of the analysis model was the way the joints compression across joints under imposed lateral composed of ‘maxi-conchi’ subsections which
between stone maxi-voussoirs (or ‘maxi-conchi’) seismic actions. were each composed of individual ‘mini-conchi’
were modelled to reflect the mechanical behaviour The curvature of the arch means that the voussoirs (Figure 15).
of stone joints if they tended to hinge open under centre of gravity of the length of arch between its As well as the drawings and detail sketches,
certain load conditions (Figure 13). base and the lowest V-prop restraint point on the the tender package included a detailed technical
The modelled joints incorporated a set of extrados was close to the straight line between the report covering the engineering design of the
linkage elements that allowed the transmission V-prop restraint and the centre of the arch at its arches and roof, along with the stone specification
of compression and shear forces but not tensile base. This means that the torsional actions caused report.
forces. These joints were termed ‘flip-flap’ joints by lateral seismic actions on the arch do not cause
because of way they could hinge at their intrados a significant increase in stone stresses in that part Construction execution design
or extrados. The flip-flap joints included in the of the arch. (1997–2004)
arch analysis were modelled in 3D to consider the A final stress check on the stone voussoirs As the church reached the construction stage,
possibility of both in-plane and out-of-plane arch and joints was carried out to ensure that all stone the appointed contractor expressed reservations
instability. strength requirements were satisfied. about taking responsibility for building the arches
For the Padre Pio arch joints, the depth of the in unreinforced natural stone, as specified in the
flip-flap joints was modelled to be 90% of the Physical model to check stability tender drawings.
actual design depth and width of the physical For additional validation of the preferred arch To avoid unwanted delays to the start of the
stone voussoirs either side of the joint. This geometry derived from the computer modelling, it construction, a design solution was found that
reduced depth and width of the modelled joint was tested by a physical model. A timber model gave the contractor comfort while respecting
was effectively a geometric factor of safety on the was made with the precise geometry of the the essential design intent of using natural
arch’s design dimensions. extrados and intrados and with joints that allowed stone arches. The agreed solution involved the
The flip-flap joints in the arch modelling were the characteristic flip-flap hinge action. introduction of steel cables within the stone arch
also used to assess the out-of-plane stability of The physical model was placed on a tilting voussoirs to provide an extra level of protection to

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 Project focus Padre Pio church, Italy

The Padre Pio church opened with a dedication

ceremony on 1 July 2004. By that time, Padre
Pio had been canonised to become Saint Pio of
Pietrelcina. Today, the stone arches of the church
have become a recognisable symbol for Catholic
pilgrims visiting San Giovanni Rotondo.

Beyond Padre Pio: structural stone

in the modern age
When I wrote an article on the design of the
Pavilion of the Future2 in 1994, I anticipated how
the use of natural stone on that project might
herald the re-emergence of stone as a structural
material on other projects. The conclusion stated:
‘The possibility of adopting some of the
GIANNI BERENGO GARDIN

techniques explored in the pavilion’s stonework

design may, it is hoped, provide an impetus
to further the use of stone as a rediscovered
structural material.’
Since the completion of the Padre Pio church,
several new building projects have successfully
used stone as a structural material at different
scales. The Sagrada Família cathedral project in
ëFIGURE 15: Assembled stone ‘maxi-conchi’ Barcelona is one of the more notable.
the arches under seismic load. on church construction site Over the past decade, several emerging
Italian consulting engineers Favero & structural engineering consultants have taken a
Milan were appointed by the contractor to prestressing cables, their as-built external specific interest in stone as a structural material
carry out the further design necessary, with geometric profiles were exactly as defined by and have shown how it can be used in innovative
the addition of prestressing cables placed the Arup design team. Therefore, while the ways in new projects. Structural stone has been
at each corner of the arch cross-section. internal cables provided the additional degree of used from spiral staircases to primary structural
The addition of the internal cables meant assurance to satisfy all parties, the arches could frames in multistorey buildings. Such designers
that the arches could be justified using a still essentially work as originally intended. continue to champion its use of stone.
manner similar to that used for segmental The cables are entirely invisible within the In recent years, climate change due to carbon
precast concrete bridges and for which finished architecture of the church. They are emissions has become an important issue
there were well established design codes anchored within concrete bases positioned below for designers of new building developments.
(Figures 16 and 17). the last stone block of each arch. The resulting Proponents of structural stone have pointed out
as-built construction maintained the intended that using natural stone for a building structure
Completed arch structures structural integrity and visual aesthetic of the means that the embodied carbon can be
Although the stone arches were finally structural stone arches spanning through the substantially less than in buildings with either steel
constructed with the added internal interior roof. or concrete structural frames.

ìFIGURE 16:
Construction detail of steel
V-props connecting joint
between ‘maxi-conchi’
and timber roof. Section
shows positions of cables
RPBW

introduced into arch

section for construction

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 Padre Pio church, Italy Project focus

Architects and engineers alike are becoming

îFIGURE 17:
Outer stone arches
increasingly aware of the potential that stone offers
under construction as a low-carbon structural material. There is now
at church site a real possibility that structural stone will enjoy a
renaissance and will not be considered solely as a
material for cladding or aesthetic finishes.
For stone be firmly re-established as a bona
fide structural material for future building projects,
essential rules and guidance will need to be set out
in new design codes. The structural use of stone
should also be included as an essential part of
syllabuses for structural engineering courses.
As more and more examples of new stone
structures are built, designers and clients alike will
gain confidence that natural stone is a technically
viable option for future building projects. Given its
GIANNI BERENGO GARDIN

credentials as a low-carbon option for building

frames, there should be every reason to expect
stone to become a commonplace structural option
for building designs in years to come.
Looking back on the Padre Pio church project
almost 30 years after I first became involved in its
design, I consider the construction of its long-span
stone arches to be a remarkable achievement.
Notwithstanding the various hurdles the project
had to overcome during its sometimes uncertain
progress, the ambition and tenacity of the combined
project team meant that the stone arches of the
original design vision eventually came to fruition.
Today, visitors to the church can see for
themselves the dramatic impact of the church’s
‘speaking stone’ arches (Figure 18).

Acknowledgements
With thanks to RPBW and Arup for allowing access
to the Padre Pio church project archives.

REFERENCES

1) Oddo M. & RPBW (2005) La Chiesa di

Padre Pio a San Giovanni Rotondo, s.l:
Federico Motta
2) Lenczner E.A.R. (1994) ‘The design of the
stone facade to the Pavilion of the Future,
Expo ‘92, Seville’, The Structural Engineer, 72
(11), pp. 171–177
3) Carfrae T. and Michael D. (2019) ‘Alistair
Day and the origins of dynamic relaxation’,
The Structural Engineer, 97 (6), pp. 20–26; 97
(7), pp. 12–18
4) ASTM (1993) C170-90: Standard test
method for compressive strength of
dimension stone, West Conshohocken, PA:
ASTM International
5) Heyman J. (1982) The Masonry Arch, s.l.:
Ellis Horwood

HAVE
YOUR
SAY
MICHEL DENANCÉ

ìFIGURE 18: Completed church from piazza

@IStructE
[email protected] #TheStructuralEngineer

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 Opinion Profile

Mike Cook
circle we usually work in. We have to
Engineers must resist pressure to build take ourselves outside that comfort
environmentally unsustainable schemes if we want zone and start to question why we need
to be judged well by future generations, says 2020 a building, why it is that big, why it is
where it is and whether it is creating
Gold Medal winner and former Institution Vice- huge transport issues or damaging the
President, Mike Cook. Report by Jackie Whitelaw. ecological balance. And, of course, ask
what we can do to make it of greater
social value.
‘We have to imagine future
THIS YEAR’S INSTITUTION GOLD cogniscent of the bigger issues – not generations looking back and holding
MEDALLIST, Mike Cook, is considering just carbon reduction, but ecological us to account not just for the little
the address that he will give on and social impact. We have to have a structural parts but for the whole thing,
receiving the accolade. And what conscience and question whether the and being prepared to answer the
a time to be doing it, as the climate socially beneficial effect of a project is questions: “Could you have stopped
emergency, Covid-19 and movements sufficient to outweigh any damage it will this? Did you try?’’’
to address past injustices collide. cause to the environment, nature and People, professions and whole
Cook has been given the award to our climate. nations turned a blind eye to issues 20
celebrate a career that has included ‘Structural engineers,’ he says, ‘have years ago, 200 years ago, but are now
a seven-year spell as senior partner been trained to put a circle around their being called to account – statues are
of Buro Happold, the design of role on a scheme, to see it as “putting falling, reputations are being destroyed.
standout projects such as the Queen some structure in”, integrating it nicely It will be no different for engineers in
Elizabeth II Great Court at the British with the architecture and building the future if environmentally damaging
Museum (Figure 1), and being the services, making it all affordable and schemes are built for short-term
driving force behind the launch of the safe, and “that will do”. Except perhaps gain, Cook argues. ‘We must resist
Structural Engineers Declare Climate now we might also make sure there the pressure to build the wrong
& Biodiversity Emergency campaign is a little less embodied carbon in the things. It is up to us to embed climate
(www.structuralengineersdeclare.com; structure. accountability into our work.
see the June issue of The Structural ‘But actually, this isn’t enough. We êFIGURE 1: ‘If Covid-19 lets the government off
Queen Elizabeth
Engineer). have to deliver massively less carbon Great Court at British the hook and it is allowed to ignore
But he is now acutely aware that and can’t do that within the ring-fenced Museum, London, 2000 the massive climate emergency that is
if there were challenges dealing with
climate change before the Covid-19
pandemic, the tangle of issues
and opportunities ahead, as the
world adapts to the post-pandemic
environment, is altogether more
daunting and exciting for engineers.

Fundamental rethink
The UK government wants to ‘build,
build, build’ its way out of economic
collapse following the devastation
caused by coronavirus, as will individual
firms, but how is it possible to make
that happen without being tempted or
pressured to ignore the zero-carbon
targets that must be achieved to ensure
the planet remains habitable for our
children and grandchildren?
‘Over the last weeks, it has grown
BURO HAPPOLD

in my mind that our professional

and personal responsibility to future
generations is perhaps the biggest
clarion call for us to do better,’ he says.
‘Engineers have to be fully

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Profile Mike Coo_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 40 16/07/2020 09:28

 Profile Opinion

a UK Green Building Council seminar

îFIGURE 2 :
Challenge to on climate risk where he detected a
rapid change in the attitude of lenders
British Genius
tent, Battersea, and investors, who want to be able to TED HAPPOLD AND
London, 1976
account for that risk and quantify it in FREI OTTO OPENED MY
the medium to long term.
‘If investors are taking climate risk
EYES TO A BETTER,
seriously, they will not be investing in LIGHTER, MORE NATURAL
unsustainable schemes. Investors carry
the risk, and they can’t chance their
WAY OF DOING THINGS
assets being unvalued and useless in
the future.’ Tension structures and shells have
For firms like Buro Happold, he says, been the theme of Cook’s engineering
this means being as awake as possible for the past 40 years: modelling the
to the rapidly changing context that Challenge to British Genius tent
engineers practise within. ‘My job is in Battersea in 1976 (Figure 2),
BURO HAPPOLD

to make sure that the firm is listening, supervising the Hong Kong Cultural
sensing future trends and responding Centre cable and concrete roof in 1986
to them, but most importantly, advising (Figure 3) and designing the Khan
our clients how to build in resilience Shatyr conical cable-net roof in Astana,
and avoid developing assets that will Kazakhstan in 2010 (Figure 4), as well
become undesirable and even stranded as the shell structures of the British
threatening our survival, it will be held in the future.’ Museum courtyard roof in 2000, Sage
to account by future generations for Gateshead Music Centre in 2004 and
having failed us. But we can’t ignore our Guiding principles Smithsonian Museum, Washington in
own role in that either. We can’t ignore Cook, 65, has been at Buro Happold 2007 (Figure 5).
our own complicity in the “big-elephant- almost his entire career, apart from ‘Back in the 1970s, Ted Happold
in-the-room” problem, while dealing a brief spell at Arup at 18 before he and Frei Otto opened my eyes to a
with immediate Covid challenges at the went to Cambridge University to study better, lighter, more natural way of
same time.’ engineering. He was assigned to work doing things. I bought into that idea,
Cook worries that plans to address during that year with Ted Happold, who especially when I realised that tension
climate change are already unravelling. at the time was at Arup before leaving and compression structures mean the
‘There seems to be an instinct to think to found the Buro Happold practice. engineering is also the architecture,
that we can go back to the bad old ‘Ted was collaborating with Frei so that puts you in the front seat of the
ways of pumping money in almost Otto on a timber lattice structure with project able to influence design from the
without thought as to the long-term unbelievably complex sinuous curving start,’ he says
consequences,’ he says. surfaces. I was predicting whether the ‘It was Ted Happold’s resounding
‘But we have to hold the line, argue building would buckle by hanging nails principle that we should “touch the
that that work can still be created while on a model – that moment connected earth lightly” in all we do as engineers.
the rebuilding investment is put in the me with Ted and the practice for all When structural design is informed
right places and used in the right way. time. I was hooked on the idea that by respect for nature, we are guided
‘Let’s boost the green economy, not buildings don’t all have to be the same êFIGURE 3: towards efficient use of materials and
Cable and concrete
build tunnels and roads that are likely to and was able to apply that rule in my roof for Hong Kong can create an element of delight that is
be unnecessary and are certainly going own work wherever I could.’ Cultural Centre, 1986 essential to human experience.’
to add to our carbon footprint. We’ll still
need infrastructure but the big projects
on the books were imagined as much
as 20 years ago, and designed two or
even 10 years ago for a very different
world.
‘We need to reappraise projects
that come to us historically formed,
especially if the criteria we used to
define them hasn’t caught up with the
recognition of the climate emergency
declared by government and industry.
We have to satisfy ourselves they are
right for the issues facing us now. It is
our responsibility to future generations
to ask the question, Why build?, and
whether these schemes have been
considered for their full effect on future
generations, including climate impact
and natural harm.’
Cook has hope that the damage
that could be caused by dusting off
schemes without reappraisal could be
limited by pressure from funders.
He recently joined, online obviously,

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 Opinion Profile

îFIGURE 4:
Khan Shatyr infrastructure and make so they want to talk to you at an earlier
Entertainment Centre, it work twice as hard stage.’
Astana, Kazakhstan, 2010
for us. We need to help Although Cook is working hard to get
clients work out what they industry lined up behind the principles
actually need and help of Engineers Declare and to make it
them find it.’ understand the urgency of dramatic
For decades engineers transformation needed to meet the
have wanted to be treated target of zero carbon by 2050, he
as ‘front-end’ consultants admits he is worried that, even so, it
and taken seriously. This might be too late to avert the worst.
is the opportunity, Cook ‘We may have gone past the point
believes. of no return. The incessant rise in
‘Business practice humanity, the insane consumption
has underplayed the levels and nature’s response with
“consultancy” element climate degradation, melting ice caps
and overemphasised the and failing crops all put us on a one-
“doing”, so to a harsh critic way road. But we have to try, don’t
the profession appears to we? And by trying we have a chance of
deliver what anyone asks bringing some benefit even if we are just
NIGEL YOUNG / FOSTER AND PARTNERS

for and will bring a profit. buying some time.

So long as our business ‘The big question for our profession
models say we have to is – are we doing enough? Or should we
turn every opportunity into be speaking in a single, louder voice,
bricks and mortar, we are saying things people don’t want to hear
not going to achieve prime but need to know? This is certainly a
consultancy status or time for us to be working together more
achieve the targets of the closely than ever.’
Engineers’ Declaration.
‘We have to shift
people into a fresh way
of thinking, train them HAVE
to operate at stage zero YOUR
and talk to the client in SAY
Speaking up order to uncover the problem so as to
Cook sees the climate agenda as a discover the solution. And that solution
chance to reset engineering and the role may very well not be a building at all.
of the engineer. ‘People have asked me For structural engineers, this means
îFIGURE 4:
why I always end up with the really good Smithsonian Museum, developing really good relationships
@IStructE
jobs. My reply is that they don’t always Washington, 2007 with their clients and with architects, [email protected] #TheStructuralEngineer
start good, but you have a chance to
make them better. Have an agenda,
know what you want it to become and
work hard to get it there. Your own
agenda can help shape the outcomes.
‘I always say “sit forward” at the
meetings. Don’t sit back and wait to be
asked. You have an equal voice around
the table. Use it.’
Cook’s view is that engineering
businesses need to be helped to realise
how they can transform economically
and stay relevant, when doing what is
best for the climate becomes the main
driver of infrastructure investment.
‘Client demand will shift, so work
will shift and a lot of the brainpower of
engineers will be used not necessarily to
build shiny new buildings and bridges,
but to make better use of what we have
already got, to remodel it, and to act
in an advisory capacity to help clients
rethink what they need buildings for.
‘We can do better than just making
BURO HAPPOLD

things people think they want. We

can help clients and their businesses
navigate through some of the
challenges coming up with advice
on how to decarbonise buildings and

42
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 Book review Opinion

Review
This book provides a high-level introduction to whole-life costs in building design, explains
Paul Astle, and will be of most use to students or junior engineers seeking to broaden their
understanding of other disciplines and influences.

Whole life THIS BOOK AIMS TO TACKLE A COMPLICATED

TOPIC: how to bring together the multitude of
costing for often competing design factors to make informed
decisions. It seeks to advocate an approach which TRUSSON DISCUSSES
sustainable places emphasis on whole-life value benefits and
savings, which may be otherwise unnoticed when
HOW TO ANALYSE THE
building making decisions on whole-life cost alone. DESIGN VARIABLES
Author: Mariana Trusson
In order to provide context, Trusson initially sets
out background information on the standard whole-
WHICH ARE IMPORTANT
Publisher: Routledge life costing process. This results in a series of very TO A CLIENT USING
Price: £27.99 (paperback/e-book)
ISBN: 978-1-138-77555-8
brief summaries into almost every aspect of building
design and what influences it. The book covers DECISION HIERARCHIES
topics from the calculation of net present value to the AND MULTI-CRITERIA
calculation of insulation U-values, and many things
in between. It is disappointing, however, that the DECISION MAKING
building structure was under-represented in this part
of the book. This is surprising given how significant study which sets out how this different approach
the opportunity for sustainability gains is, by providing was adopted, or perhaps could have been adopted,
a sensible and efficient structure. and what the benefits were or could have been. In
The subsequent section provides an overview of the absence of this, it is difficult to understand the
some often-overlooked savings and costs in building subtleties of this different approach and the potential
design. These relate to user well-being and comfort, benefits to a client.
and building resilience. Some figures are provided There are, unfortunately, some disappointing
which set out the potential importance of these aspects of this book. There are many images and
items and, conversely, the cost of not addressing diagrams with no titles or citation. Where there
them. Ensuring that our buildings are desirable and are citations in the text, they are confusing and
comfortable is a prescient argument, as we seek to inconsistent. The layout of the text, headings and
extend their life and avoid the waste of unwanted subheadings is poor, such that it is sometimes difficult
structures. to discern if you are reading a subclause or have
The result of having decided to provide so much moved on to another topic. Finally, there is a plethora
high-level infor
information is that the majority of the 139 of bullet-pointed lists, often appended with, ‘this list is
pages are mad made up of it, and there are few pages not exhaustive’, an assertation I would challenge.
left to present tthe principle idea which is being The book, in general, seems rather rushed and I
promoted. Inde Indeed, readers who already have a good fear this detracts from some of the sensible ideas and
knowledge of tthe broader influences to a design may useful information within it. It may be a beneficial text
wish to skip to the last 10 pages of the book, which for students or junior engineers seeking to broaden
outline and adv advocate ‘the incorporated approach’. their understanding of other disciplines and influences
The incorpo
incorporated approach seeks to assist in building design. For more experienced engineers
clients in makin
making the most appropriate decisions in seeking deeper guidance in this field, this book may
building design
design. Trusson discusses how to analyse provide an introduction into the topic.
the design varivariables which are important to a client
using decision hierarchies and multi-criteria decision
making. There is a brief reference to some of the
software packa
packages that can be used to assist in
making these c complex decisions. However, in
the agage of para
parametric analysis and optimisation Paul Astle
al
alg orith
thms, a g
algorithms, greater discussion on how this field Paul Astle is a chartered structural engineer with
m
migight develop would have been helpful.
might more than 10 years’ experience in the UK and
T here is a si
There simple example and some sample abroad. Paul leads the structures sustainability
hierarchies for design choices in the last chapter, but network for Ramboll UK and is a passionate
what this book really needs is a more detailed case advocate for sustainability in building structures.

43
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 Opinion Letters

Verulam
Send letters to…
HAVE All contributions to Verulam should be
YOUR submitted via email to: [email protected]

SAY Contributions may be edited on the grounds

of style and/or length by the Institution's
Readers’ letters, comments and queries publishing department.

Making manufacture and ignores end-of-life

potential and circular economy principles.
I welcome the challenge that we have as
structural engineers to tackle the climate
informed climate As such, it is not a long-term solution
to the climate emergency. In addition, it is
emergency, but let’s do it with long-term
solutions, informed decision-making, and
decisions not a like-for-like comparison on structural
depth. If the client can accept changing a
not lose sight of our wider economic and
social responsibilities that together make a
DAVID MOORE UC 152 × 44 for a 300mm deep glulam truly sustainable way forward.
I read with interest the recent article about beam, then why isn’t a similar depth
‘The structural engineer’s responsibility in but much lighter UB 302 × 102 × 25 David makes sound points. This
this climate emergency’ (June 2020) and considered, which would be cheaper as is an immensely complicated and
wholeheartedly agree with the underlying well? interactive problem and we need
sentiment put forward by Will Arnold. Turning to Example 4, specifying a to continue searching for the best
As structural engineers, we do have higher recycled content for the steel will not all-round solutions. No doubt other
an important role to play in tackling the increase recycling rates, or reduce global readers will have their own views, so
emergency, both by making informed carbon emissions, but it may adversely take up the challenge!
design decisions and by influencing other impact the UK economy and the social
members of the project team. However, wellbeing of some UK communities.
we must also be mindful of the impact
of our decisions on the UK economy as
To appreciate why requires a basic
understanding of the steel supply chain. Broadening our
a whole and the social wellbeing of the
communities within which we live and
Steel can be manufactured in an
electric arc furnace (EAF) using up to
outlook
work. 100% recycled scrap, or in a basic oxygen JOE KINDREGAN
For me, the key phrase is ‘informed furnace (BOF) using up to 20% recycled As with Bob De’ath’s opinion in Verulam,
decisions’, i.e. using the correct data with scrap. Currently, 30% of worldwide June 2020, many of us would agree with
an understanding of material supply chains demand for steel is met by EAF and 70% Allan Mann’s earlier comments in March
and an appreciation of both the long-term by BOF. While it would be advantageous to 2020, but we, as professional engineers,
and short-term implications. When it manufacture all steel via the EAF process must also take some of the responsibility
comes to carbon, steel is a unique material route, using I00% recycled material, there in being slow to take a strong lead in our
as it is manufactured using two markedly simply is not enough scrap steel available design opinions.
different process routes, is a globally traded in the world to meet demand, even with In my Presidential Address in January
commodity, and can be recycled over the remarkably high recycling rates that 2019, I offered two quotes:
and over again with no loss of properties. already exist. For example, in the UK 99% ‘Traditionally the engineering sector is
Understanding these characteristics is of structural steel is already captured and not as active as other professions in driving
key to making informed decisions when either recycled or reused, i.e. it cannot get public debate, engineers are traditionally
comparing steel with other materials. higher in practice. seen as problem solvers not opportunity
In my view, such decisions should be Specifying a higher recycled content finders,’ Jo da Silva (Gold Medal Address,
made on a ‘whole-life carbon’ basis with for this project will force the steelwork 2017).
due consideration for circular economy contractor to procure the steel from an ‘Engineers are the single most
principles. Failing to do this, by simply EAF manufacturer, as BOF steel will not indispensable group for developing and
considering initial carbon in product meet the specification. In theory, they maintaining any country’s infrastructure
manufacture and ignoring the end-of-life could purchase a mix of BOF and EAF and standard of living. But they are rarely
potential for recycling and reuse, effectively steel from different manufacturers, and thought of as leaders of society – the
equates landfill to 100% recycling. This still meet the specification on average, movers and shakers around us. Instead of
cannot be a sensible way forward, as it but that introduces unwelcome logistical being perceived as those who run things,
is not solving the climate emergency, it is complexities and increased transport they are seen as those who make things
merely deferring it for the next generation emissions. As the number of potential steel run,’ Richard Weingardt (Engineering,
to deal with. suppliers for the project is now limited, history and civilization, 2014).
I appreciate that Will had to be simplistic costs will increase, and this may have an Our education system often contributes
in his examples to convey the general adverse effect on the UK economy as the to this narrow technical focus where we
message within the required word count. steel is more likely to be imported, which place a huge emphasis on identifying
Unfortunately, such brevity in two of the potentially jeopardises jobs in the steel and solving technical problems. Potential
examples actually illustrates a lack of industry and their communities. students coming in to engineering
informed decision-making, and potentially Lastly, as there is insufficient EAF to programmes should have as broad a range
risks misleading structural engineers who meet global steel demand, the EAF steel of interests and abilities as possible, not
read this article. diverted to this project will merely displace just mathematical, scientific and analytical
Looking at the figures in Example 1, BOF steel to other projects, i.e., globally, skills. We should have more students with
I can only surmise that the comparison not a single gram of carbon will have been interests in humanities, arts, economics
is based on initial carbon in product saved. etc. Most of our opinion-makers seem

44
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 Letters Opinion

to develop and originate from the

latter cohort. Students with broader
To complement this, a ‘guidance
document’ needs to be issued, Sustainable
interests and given the right engineering
programme environment would certainly
covering the scope of any change
with live loads used, etc. All this would
foundation
bring a broader perspective to how we
look at many of the problems we face as a
strengthen the structural engineer’s
position in this matter with their client.
design
global society. JONATHAN PREW
All structural designs should For the future of our planet, I believe we
The UK government and all major include a basis of design, all have a duty to act in a sustainable
parties seem to agree that much describing the principle structural way. According to a report by the UN,
needs to be done to bring the features such as the load-carrying buildings and construction account
country’s national infrastructure system, stability, codes and for about 40% of energy-related CO2
up to scratch. There is much talk loading that have been allowed for, emissions1, and Chatham House
of a forthcoming high demand for etc. This basis of design should estimates that the chemical and thermal
construction, and maybe the Covid-19 be included in legacy handover combustion processes involved in
crisis will create a large shift in the documentation. Such information the production of cement account for
way we work and hence influence is invaluable when modifying around 8% of global CO2 emissions2.
the type of infrastructure we need. structures for change of use. With concrete being the principal
Perhaps now is the time to stand up material used in foundations, there
and promote our views about what is seems to be scant advice on making
sensible. That should include advice
about an ongoing workload that cuts Experienced or foundations more sustainable, and
this is particularly so when considering
out boom and bust and offers hope of
maintaining a sustainable skill base.
chartered? foundations on shrinkable soils near
trees.
STEVE LIESKE Brian Clancy sets out in his letter to
Chris Vaughan’s letter in the July issue Verulam in October 2018 the excellent

Anticipating caught my eye. Basically, I was in

agreement with Chris’ thoughts until
work done to produce the Institution’s
guide, Subsidence of low-rise buildings.
future use he suggested ‘a requirement that only
allows chartered structural engineers to
However, the only current specific
design guidance available seems to be
ROBERT WODEHOUSE submit designs’. NHBC Chapter 4.2 Building near trees3.
I read with interest James Norman’s In my experience there are many Consequently, it is not that uncommon
excellent article, ‘How can we create chartered structural engineers who that I come across designs with very
an engineering industry while building don’t, or no longer, ‘do design work’ – deep foundations no matter what
nothing?’ (July 2020). they run the consultancy and deal with the form of construction. And yet, for
Buildings are designed to a standard, the larger clients, etc. instance, the CLASP (Consortium of
what they are not designed for directly The real requirement, in my view, is Local Authorities School Programme)
is future reuse. This a combination of design experience (I building construction typically had
is a difficult area, as am not chartered but have run a one- shallow foundations but was designed to
anticipating reuse man consultancy for almost 30 years) cope with extensive ground movements
(or change in use) and the checking of designs prior to associated with collapsing mine
will quite often ANTICIPATING issue/implementation if prepared by workings. So, if we can design buildings
result in extra cost,
which is not easy for
REUSE (OR someone with little experience.
For larger projects, of course, the
to be flexible, why the blanket application
of NHBC Ch. 4.2?
designers to justify CHANGE IN USE) internal checking regime is a must! To me a balanced-risk approach to
to their clients at the WILL QUITE Chris’ contribution referred back to foundation design on shrinkable soils
first-use design stage,
although it would
OFTEN RESULT IN the June issue, and there I spotted the
name Bob De’Ath – I feel sure that I
should be taken. The advice should take
into account, among other things, the
enhance resale value. EXTRA COST used to work with him many years ago. form of construction, the condition of
Regarding timber Bob’s letter refers to the Millennium the ground at the time of construction,
frame and masonry Footbridge, a project that shows how the risk of ground conditions changing
construction, there easy it is for designs to go awry and significantly during the building’s design
are tried-and-tested methods of restoring need expensive remedial work. life, and possibly the owner’s and
structures which are covered by specialist maintainer’s acceptance/tolerance of
contractors and consultants, thereby This debate has raged for years. risk.
enabling a later change of use. In many ways, it’s now a false As a major producer of carbon,
Generally, where large beams’ capacity debate as the working environment our industry needs to do more to help
has to be justified, design loadings and/ that fostered the skills in design combat the climate emergency and our
or factors of safety need to be considered, that Steve has acquired is long profession needs to do its bit, but I am
so that interim conditions, where supports gone. Beyond that, it’s a question currently not encouraged. According to
are temporarily ineffective, can allow of risk. There are many problems MEICON’s recent survey of the structural
changes or reinstatement to be carried out in all structures large and small, engineering profession, ‘embodied
without adversely affecting the structure’s and it behoves us all to recognise energy is not yet a high priority in design,
resultant service life or existing finishes. that least risk goes with staff who resulting in buildings that consume more
There is a need within the calculations have been properly taught and of our material resource than may be
to include a statement covering limitations trained. But we are all fallible and necessary4. Our industry needs to pull
on future use. Such a statement would Steve’s endorsement of checking together and further research is needed
make the risks clear to the current building is prudent. to develop authoritative sustainable
owner as well as to any future owner. approaches to design.

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 Opinion Letters

the inspection of properties

The Covid-19 crisis has naturally (Verulam, June 2020). Nearly
dominated recent headlines, maskinging 50 years ago, I visited a
the fact that the climate emergencyy site to view refurbishment
has not gone away. Hence, collectiveve progress of a 400-year-
views on what could be best practice
ice old building. I noticed that
(say, with simple shallow foundations)
ons) the contractor had been
will be welcome. removing floorboards from
the first floor, where the
REFERENCES joists ran parallel to a wall
fronting onto a road which
had no pavement.
1) UN Environment and International nal Without the floorboards in
Energy Agency (2017) Global Status us position, there was a definite
Report 2017: Towards a zero-emission,sion, lack of restraint such that the
d
efficient and resilient buildings and front wall could fall into the
ble
construction sector [Online] Available
road, so I had to instruct the
at: www.worldgbc.org/sites/default/ t/
flooring removal to stop. The
files/UNEP%20188_GABC_en%20
%28web%29.pdf (Accessed: July building control officer had
2020) Perhaps it represents a stage when left the site just before my arrival and the
the structural engineer’s model had been contractor acknowledged that the officer
2) Lehne J. and Preston F. (2018)
superseded. Is this representative of the had issued the same ‘stop’ instruction.
Making concrete change: Innovation
in low-carbon cement and concrete
majority of projects utilising a federated Subsequently, towards the end of the
[Online] Available at: www. model? I would have thought not. job, I called in again to view progress. The
chathamhouse.org/publication/ I understand that this is an article client also stopped by and we chatted. He
making-concrete-change-innovation- focusing on structural engineering, but in was not too pleased about instructions to
low-carbon-cement-and-concrete# addition to my point above, where’s the cease certain activities, as he had been
(Accessed: July 2020) M&E model? hoping that the building would collapse!
3) NHBC (2020) NHBC Standards 2020, The building was also haunted, which
Ch. 4.2: Building near trees [Online] The models shown in Figure 2 appear led to some confusion about resident
Available at: https://nhbc-standards. to be largely geometrical ones. occupants!
co.uk/4-foundations/4-2-building-near- Perhaps it would have been wiser to I am sure other members have had a
trees/ (Accessed: July 2020) have included a view of a structural similar experience.
4) Orr J., Drewniok M. and Ibell T. engineer’s mathematical model as
(2018) MEICON: Minimising Energy well? What we all need to recognise is It’s amazing what you find when
in Construction Survey of Structural that the way we work has drastically refurbishing old buildings! The lesson
Engineering Practice Report [Online] changed over the past decades. is caution.
Available at: www.repository.cam. Most major projects now build up
ac.uk/handle/1810/287863 (Accessed:
a mathematical model to start with.
July 2020)
This contains all the core structural
information for analysis and so on and

Structural is used as a basis for other models

engineer’s model
depicted in Figure 2.
Correction
DAVID WILSON Spectre of In the July issue, David Brett’s
letter, ‘Learning to sell ourselves’,
I read Ted McKenna’s paper in the July
issue (‘Curriculum evolution’) and was
collapse was mistakenly left unattributed.
We apologise to David for the
rather dismayed with Figure 2. Where was ROBERT WODEHOUSE omission.
the structural engineer’s model? I read Chris Shaw’s recent letter regarding

Enter a sketch in the next competition – deadline 30 September 2020

The Drawing Board Sketches must be: To take part, submit your
is The Structural • hand drawn (no CAD, except for ‘guided freehand’) entries to: [email protected]
Engineer’s quarterly • from a real project or assignment
Each published entry will receive
sketching competition, • at a suitable scale for publication (i.e. not too
a free single e-book from the
judged by Ron Slade intricate/detailed).
Institution’s current list of titles.
FIStructE of WSP. Please also submit a short description (150 words) to put
the sketch into context. Background sketch by Kevin Lyons (Lyons O’Neill)

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 Sub
Diary dates Main
section At the
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back

Unless otherwise stated,

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Registration: www.istructe.org/events available: Registration: Temporarily closed. Re-opens
Contact: [email protected] Ò| Fiberglass rebar: a proven and on 1 January 2021. Delegates who have
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 At the back Spotlight on Structures

Access to Structures
is free to paying-grade
Institution members as
one of their membership
benefits, via the ‘My
account’ section of the
Institution website.
The journal is available
online at: www.
structuresjournal.org
2020 prizes announced
We are delighted to announce the winners of this The Best Research into Practice Paper
year’s Structures prizes – for papers published in Prize is awarded to Leroy Gardner, Andreas
the journal during 2019. Fieber and Lorenzo Macorini for their paper,
The Best Research Paper Prize is awarded ‘Formulae for calculating elastic local buckling
to Islam Mantawy, Travis Thonstad, David stresses of full structural cross-sections’,
Sanders, John Stanton and Marc Eberhard published in February 2019.
for their paper, ‘Reinforcing steel fracture The prizes are sponsored by Elsevier and each
identification for a high-performance bridge carry an award of £500. Both winning papers will
system’, published in June 2019. free to access for three months.

Best Research Paper describes an investigation of reinforcing bar the number of bars that fractured in later tests.
fractures that occurred during shaking table A low-cycle fatigue criterion, which reflected
Reinforcing steel fracture identification for a tests of a two-span bridge with armored rocking the full strain histories for the longitudinal bars,
high-performance bridge system columns. During the test, it was difficult to identify correlated much better with bar fractures
Islam M. Mantawya, Travis Thonstadb, David the timing and location of bar fractures, because identified from the audio recordings and visual
H. Sandersc, John F. Stantonb and Marc O. the lack of spalling made visual inspection observations. The proposed methods, using
Eberhardb impossible and gauges monitoring strains in the existing models for low-cycle fatigue, can be
a
Louis Berger, Santa Fe, NM, USA reinforcement reached their deformation capacity used to evaluate and improve the performance
b
University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA long before the bars fractured. The number and of similar systems for which axial fatigue fracture
c
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA timing of bar fractures were estimated: (1) by is a concern during large earthquake motions.
the visual identification of fractures during the
In high-performance bridge systems that inhibit demolition of the specimen; (2) from the audible Ò| Read the full paper at https://doi.
concrete spalling in the columns, bar buckling fractures that were recorded by video cameras org/10.1016/j.istruc.2018.11.017
is suppressed, and bar fracture is delayed. during each test; and (3) using estimates of the
However, bar fracture can still occur due to strain histories of the bars, computed from rigid-
low-cycle, axial fatigue. If bar fractures cannot body mechanics of the columns. Two types of
be identified visually, a method is needed to fracture strain criteria were considered to identify
identify these fractures indirectly to ensure that bar fractures from the estimated strain data. A
the bridge can remain in service. This paper strain threshold criterion tended to underestimate

Best Research into Practice derived numerically using the finite strip method.
For the range of analysed sections, the elastic
Paper local buckling stress is typically predicted to
Formulae for Calculating Elastic Local within 5% of the numerical value, whereas when
Buckling Stresses of Full Structural Cross- element interaction is ignored and the plates are
sections considered in isolation with simply-supported
Leroy Gardner, Andreas Fieber and Lorenzo boundary conditions along the adjoined edges,
Macorini as is customary in current structural design
Imperial College London, UK different local buckling half-wavelengths. The specifications, the local buckling stress of
developed expressions account for element common structural profiles may be under-
Formulae for determining the full cross-section interaction through an interaction coefficient ζ estimated by as much as 50%. The derived
elastic local buckling stress of structural steel that ranges between 0 and 1 and are bound formulae may be adopted as a convenient
profiles under a comprehensive range of loading by the theoretical limits of the local buckling alternative to numerical methods in advanced
conditions, accounting for the interaction stress of the isolated critical plates with simply- structural design calculations (e.g. using the
between the individual plate elements, are supported and fixed boundary conditions direct strength method or continuous strength
presented. Element interaction, characterised by along the adjoined edges. A range of standard method) and although the focus of the study is
the development of rotational restraint along the European and American hot-rolled structural on structural steel sections, the functions are also
longitudinal edges of adjoined plates, is shown steel profiles, including I-sections, square and applicable to cross-sections of other isotropic
to occur in cross-sections comprising individual rectangular hollow sections, channel sections, materials.
plates with different local buckling stresses, tee sections and angle sections, as well as
but also in cross-sections where the isolated additional welded profiles, are considered. The Ò| Read the full paper at https://doi.
plates have the same local buckling stress but analytical formulae are calibrated against results org/10.1016/j.istruc.2019.01.012

48
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Spotlight on Str_TSE August 2020_The Structural Engineer 48 16/07/2020 08:23

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