ALAGAPPA UNIVERSITY

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and Graded as Category–I University by MHRD-UGC]
(A State University Established by the Government of Tamil Nadu)
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Directorate of Distance Education

B.A. [English]
VI - Semester
112 64

REMEDIAL ENGLISH GRAMMAR

 Reviewer
Dr. D. Baskaran Assistant Professor of English, PCP Co-ordinator
for English Programmes, Directorate of Distance
Education, Alagappa University.

Authors:
Dr Joita Dhar Rakshit, Assistant Professor, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of Delhi
Units (1.0-1.2, 6.2.2, 6.3-6.8, 8.3.3-8.3.5, 9.0-9.2)
Dr Amita, Former Lecturer, IBRI College of Technology, Oman
Units (2.2, 3.3, 5.0-5.2, 10.2.4)
Dr Madhu Rani, Assistant Teacher (English), Government Inter College, Meerut
Units (2.3, 4.3-4.3.3, 14.2.1-14.8)
Deb Dulal Halder, Assistant Professor, Kirori Mal College, University of Delhi
Units (3.0-3.2, 3.4-3.8, 4.2.2, 7.4, 8.2.1, 10.0-10.2.3, 10.4-10.8, 11.3-11.8)
Dr Kamayani Kumar, Assistant Professor, Department of English Aryabhatta College, University of Delhi
Units (6.0-6.1, 6.2, 7.2, 11.0-11.2)
Dr Anjanee Sethi, Assistant Professor, MDI Gurugram
Prof(Dr) Bhavana Adhikari, Deputy Dean Academics, Amity University, Gurugram
Units (7.3, 10.3)
Premidha Bannerjee, Ex-Lecturer, Jesus & Mary College
Units (12.0-12.2, 12.4-12.8)
Vikas Publishing House, Units (1.3-1.9, 2.0-2.1, 2.4-2.9, 4.0-4.2.1, 4.3.4, 4.4-4.8, 5.3, 5.4-5.9, 6.2.1, 6.2.3, 7.0-7.1, 7.5-7.9,
8.0-8.1, 8.2, 8.3-8.3.2, 8.3.6-8.8, 9.3-9.9, 12.3, 13, 14.0-14.2)

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 SYLLABI-BOOK MAPPING TABLE
Remedial English Grammar
Syllabi Mapping in Book

BLOCK I: Basic Grammar Unit-1: Sentences and Nouns

UNIT-I The Sentence- Parts of Speech- Nouns. (Pages 1-23)
UNIT-II Adjectives- Comparison of Adjectives- Articles- Pronouns. Unit-2: Adjectives, Articles,
UNIT-III Verbs- Mood and Tense -Non-finite Verbs - Strong and Weak Verbs. and Pronouns
UNIT-IV Auxiliaries- Anomalous Finites- Adverbs. (Pages 23-38)
UNIT-V Prepositions - Conjunction- Interjections Unit-3: Verbs and Tenses
(Pages 39-78)
Unit-4: Auxiliaries and Adverbs
(Pages 79-92)
Unit-5: Prepositions, Conjunction,
and Interjections
(Pages 93-104)

BLOCK II: Sentence Pattern Unit-6: Types of Sentences

UNIT-VI Simple, Compound, Complex and Compound Complex Sentences - (Pages 105-126)
Analysis of Simple Sentences- Clauses- Analysis of Sentences- Unit-7: Direct/Indirect Speech,
Synthesis of Sentences - Transformation of Sentences. Punctuation, and Capitals
UNIT-VII Direct and Indirect Speech- Punctuation and Capitals (Pages 127-138)

BLOCK III: Enriching Vocabulary Unit-8: Verb Patterns and

UNIT-VIII Verb Patterns - Structures- Word Formation. Word Formation
UNIT-IX The Use of Prefixes, the Use of Suffixes, Compound Words- (Pages 139-168)
Synonyms and Antonyms - Words often Confused - Words with Unit-9: Prefix/Suffix and
Appropriate Prepositions Synonyms/Antonyms
(Pages 169-200)

BLOCK III: Writing Skills

UNIT-X Paragraph Writing - Letter Writing Unit-10: Paragraph and Letter Writing
UNIT-XI Précis Writing - Expansion of Passages (Pages 201-238)
UNIT-XII Essay Writing- Writing Stories from Outlines.
UNIT-XIII Writing Stories from Outlines. Unit-11: Precis Writing and Expansion of
UNIT-XIV Concord, Tag Questions. Passages
(Pages 239-250)

Unit-12: Essay and Story Writing

(Pages 251-260)

Unit-13: Writing Stories

(Pages 261-276)

Unit-14: Concord and Tag Questions

(Pages 277-284)
 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
BLOCK I: BASIC GRAMMAR
UNIT 1 SENTENCES AND NOUNS 1-22
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Sentence
1.2.1 Phrases
1.2.2 Sentence Patterns
1.2.3 Clause Types
1.2.4 Syntax: English transformational grammar
1.3 Parts of Speech
1.4 Nouns
1.4.1 Classification of Nouns
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings

UNIT 2 ADJECTIVES, ARTICLES, AND PRONOUNS 23-38

2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Adjectives
2.2.1 Types of Adjectives
2.2.2 Comparison of Adjectives
2.2.3 Correct use of Adjectives
2.2.4 Adjectives Used as Nouns
2.2.5 Position of Adjectives
2.2.6 Adjective Phrases
2.3 Articles
2.3.1 Definite Article (The)
2.3.2 Indefinite Article (A and An)
2.4 Pronouns
2.4.1 Types of Pronouns
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings
UNIT 3 VERBS AND TENSES 39-78
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Verbs: Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
3.2.1 Types of Verbs: Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
3.2.2 Aspect, Mood and Modality
3.2.3 Strong and Weak Verbs
3.3 Tense
3.3.1 Present Tense
3.3.2 Past Tense
3.3.3 Future Forms
3.3.4 Active and Passive Voice
3.3.5 Reported Speech
3.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.8 Further Readings

UNIT 4 AUXILIARIES AND ADVERBS 79-92

4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Auxiliaries
4.2.1 Primary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs
4.2.2 Anomalous Finites
4.3 Adverbs
4.3.1 Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs
4.3.2 Position of Adverbs
4.3.3 Verbs Compounded with Adverbs: The Position of the Object
4.3.4 Adverb Clause
4.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.8 Further Readings

UNIT 5 PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTION, AND INTERJECTIONS 93-104

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Prepositions
5.2.1 Use of Prepositions at the end of Sentences
5.2.2 Phrase Prepositions
5.2.3 Nouns and Adjectives and their Specific Prepositions
5.3 Conjunction
5.3.1 Types of Conjunctions
5.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions
 5.4 Interjections
5.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
5.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.9 Further Readings
BLOCK II: SENTENCE PATTERN
UNIT 6 TYPES OF SENTENCES 105-126
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences: Clauses
6.2.1 Analysis of Simple Sentences
6.2.2 Compound Complex Sentences and Analysis of Sentences
6.2.3 Synthesis of Sentences
6.3 Transformation of Sentences
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings

UNIT 7 DIRECT/INDIRECT SPEECH, PUNCTUATION, AND CAPITALS 127-138

7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Direct and Indirect Speech
7.2.1 Converting direct speech into indirect speech
7.3 Punctuation
7.4 Capitals
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings

BLOCK III: ENRICHING VOCABULARY

UNIT 8 VERB PATTERNS AND WORD FORMATION 139-168

8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Verb Patterns
8.2.1 Verb Structures
8.3 Word Formation
8.3.1 Compounds
 8.3.2 Clipping
8.3.3 Blending
8.3.4 Acronym
8.3.5 Phrases
8.3.6 Phrasal Verbs
8.3.7 Idioms
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings

UNIT 9 PREFIX/SUFFIX AND SYNONYMS/ANTONYMS 169-200

9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 The Use of Prefixes and Suffixes
9.2.1 Prefixes
9.2.2 Suffixes
9.2.3 Infixes
9.3 Compound Words, Synonyms and Antonyms
9.3.1 Synonyms
9.3.2 Antonyms
9.3.3 Synonyms and Antonyms in Sentences
9.4 Words often Confused
9.4.1 Common English Errors
9.4.2 Words with Appropriate Prepositions
9.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
9.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.9 Further Readings

BLOCK IV: WRITING SKILLS

UNIT 10 PARAGRAPH AND LETTER WRITING 201-238

10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Paragraph Writing
10.2.1 Different Elements of a Paragraph
10.2.2 Paragraph Writing Process
10.2.3 Characteristics of Good Paragraph-writing
10.2.4 Sample Paragraphs
10.3 Letter Writing
10.3.1 Parts of a Business Letter
10.3.2 Layout of a Business Letter
 10.3.3 Types of Business Letters
10.3.4 Essentials of a Good Letter
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings

UNIT 11 PRÉCIS WRITING AND EXPANSION OF PASSAGES 239-250

11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Précis Writing
11.2.1 Some Examples of Précis Writing
11.3 Expansion of Passages
11.3.1 Writing: A Process
11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.8 Further Readings

UNIT 12 ESSAY AND STORY WRITING 251-260

12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Essay Writing
12.2.1 Order and Organization
12.2.2 Types of Essays
12.2.3 Important Aspects of Essay Writing
12.3 Writing Stories from Outlines
12.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.8 Further Readings

UNIT 13 WRITING STORIES 261-276

13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Writing Stories from Outlines
13.2.1 Creative Writing
13.2.2 Types of Creative Writing
13.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.4 Summary
 13.5 Key Words
13.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.7 Further Readings

UNIT 14 CONCORD AND TAG QUESTIONS 277-284

14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Concord
14.2.1 Concord of Nouns, Pronouns, and Possessive Adjectives (Third Person)
14.3 Tag Questions
14.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.8 Further Readings
Introduction

INTRODUCTION
English has undoubtedly achieved the status of a global language. We can go to
NOTES
any corner of the world and still communicate with the natives to a large extent in
English. The Secretary General of the United Nations addresses the entire
congregation of representatives of every country of the world in no other language
than English. The reach that the English language has is truly amazing. It is the
official or semi-official language of about 90 countries. It is the language in which
the maximum number of parents around the globe wish to see their children educated.
Approximately a billion people are currently learning English.
Grammar can be explained as an analysis of the way a language functions.
English grammar provides guidelines for choosing words and arranging words
and punctuation of sentences. In order to develop a sound foundation in the
language, it is essential to get the basics of grammar right. This book deals with the
essentials of English grammar, composition and comprehension in a simple, lucid
style. It provides definitions, detailed explanations and examples for every concept
that it deals with. Though the scope of the English language is vast, this book
makes an attempt to give guidance to students of English in the various grammatical
aspects of the language.
This book, Remedial English Grammar, is divided into fourteen units that
follow the self-instruction mode with each unit beginning with an Introduction to
the unit, followed by an outline of the Objectives. The detailed content is then
presented in a simple but structured manner interspersed with Check Your Progress
Questions to test the student’s understanding of the topic. A Summary along with
a list of Key Words and a set of Self Assessment Questions and Exercises is also
provided at the end of each unit for recapitulation.

Self-Instructional
10 Material
 Sentences and Nouns
BLOCK - I
BASIC GRAMMAR
NOTES
UNIT 1 SENTENCES AND NOUNS
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Sentence
1.2.1 Phrases
1.2.2 Sentence Patterns
1.2.3 Clause Types
1.2.4 Syntax: English transformational grammar
1.3 Parts of Speech
1.4 Nouns
1.4.1 Classification of Nouns
1.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
1.9 Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

A sentence in non-functional linguistics is a textual unit composed of one or more

grammatically related words. Asentence is a unit of written text in functional linguistics
that is delimited by graphological features such as upper case letters and markings
such as periods, question marks and exclamation marks. A noun is a term that
serves as the name of a single entity, such as living beings, locations, acts, attributes,
states of existence, or concepts, or a group of things. The noun, however, is not a
semantic type, so it cannot be described in terms of its meaning. In this unit, we
will discuss the meaning of sentences and nouns, along with parts of speech.

1.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the meaning of sentences
x Discuss the parts of speech
x Describe the meaning and significance of nouns

Self-Instructional
Material 1
Sentences and Nouns
1.2 THE SENTENCE

We use words to speak or write. These words are generally used in groups. For
NOTES example, Jack and Jill went up the hill. Such a group of words which makes
complete sense is called a sentence. It can be of four types:
x Declarative or assertive as in ‘The boy kicked the ball’.
x Interrogative as in ‘Who kicked the ball’?
x Imperative as in ‘Kick the ball’.
x Exclamatory as in ‘Hurrah! He kicked the ball’.
When we make a sentence, we name some person or thing and say
something about that person or thing. For example, Ram kicked the ball. Here,
Ram is the person who is named and kicked the ball is what is said about Ram.
Hence, ‘Ram’ is the subject and what is said about him that is, ‘kicked the ball’, is
the predicate. Every sentence thus, has a subject and a predicate.
1.2.1 Phrases
A phrase is a group of words which makes sense but not complete sense. For
example:
x Jack and Jill went up the hill.
x Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall.
Examples of phrases
There are hundreds of phrases in the English language. Below are some commonly
used phrases:
x Point-blank: To say something directly or rudely, without explaining or
apologizing. Example: The company owner told the workers point-blank
that their demands could not be met.
x So-so: Not very satisfactory. Example: My new job is so-so but I cannot
afford to give it up.
x Chit-chat: Small talk or unimportant conversation. Example: The boss asked
them to stop their chit-chat and get on with their work.
x See-saw: Something that goes up and down. Example: The Indian rupee
has been see-sawing for the last one year.
x Black-and-white: Something which is extremely clear. Example: The
employees have been told in black-and-white that they have to deliver or
quit.
x Dos and don’ts: The rules. Example: A good driver always follows the
dos and don’ts of driving.

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 x Haves and have-nots: Those who are rich and those who are not. Example: Sentences and Nouns

In India, there is a wide gap between the haves and have-nots of the
population.
x Ins and outs: The details. Example: As I don’t know the ins and outs of the
NOTES
situation, I can’t really comment on it.
x Pros and cons: Advantages and disadvantages. Example: One must
consider all the pros and cons before buying a new car.
x Tried and tested: Something which has been well tested. Example: Drinking
green tea is a tried and tested way of improving the digestion.
x Ups and downs: Very good times and very bad times. Example: He has
had a lot of ups and downs in his business.
x Flesh and blood: One’s close family. Example: You must help your brother–
after all, he’s your flesh and blood.
x By and large: Generally. Example: By and large, people prefer quality
products to low prices.
x Dead and buried: Something that is not going to happen again. Example:
Their long dispute is now dead and buried.
x Wine and dine: To entertain someone lavishly. Example: The Chopras are
known for wining and dining their guests.
x Bread and butter: The main source of income, or the most important
issue.
Example: Making shoes was the poor shoemaker’s bread and butter.
x Spick and span: Very clean and tidy. Example: Mrs Khanna’s house is
always spick and span.
x A bit much: Something that is excessive or annoying. Example: All that
violence in today’s movies is a bit much.
x Bad egg: A person who cannot be trusted. Example: Don’t hire that man –
he is a bad egg.
x Behind bars: To be in prison. Example: Corrupt people find themselves
behind bars one day.
Every language has a basic sentence pattern. In the English language, the
basic sentence pattern is Subject – Verb – Object (SVO). For example, in the
sentence, ‘The boy broke the pen’, the ‘boy’ is the subject, ‘broke’ is the verb
and the ‘pen’ is the object.
1.2.2 Sentence Patterns
In English, the Subject-Verb-Object pattern does not change even when we
combine several sentences into a single sentence. For example:

Self-Instructional
Material 3
Sentences and Nouns x The sculptor is skilful.
x The sculptor created the statue.
x The statue is beautiful.
NOTES All the three sentences are based on the subject-verb-object pattern. Let
us combine the three sentences:
The sculptor who is skilful created the statue which is beautiful.
In the above sentence, we have avoided the repetition of the word sculptor
and statue twice. Instead, we have used the words who and which, both of
which are pronouns. When we represent this sentence with the help of a tree
diagram, the complexity of the sentence structure becomes clear though the sentence
structure remains the same, i.e, subject-verb-object. The analysis of the above
sentence shows that no matter how many sentences and in whatever way sentences
are combined into a single sentence in English, the basic sentence structure is on
the pattern of Subject-Verb-Object.
1.2.3 Clause Types
A group of words which forms a part of a sentence and contains a subject and a
predicate is called a clause. For example: I think that the painting is beautiful.
Clauses are classified as:
x Independent clause: An independent clause is one which has a subject
and a predicate without any words or phrases that associate the function
of that clause to another clause. An independent clause includes relatively
simple sentences. For example:
o My mother cooked my favourite dish.
o I bought a red car.
x Dependent clause or subordinate clause: A dependent or subordinate
clause is one which has a subject and a predicate with a word or phrase
that associates the function of that clause to another clause, causing the first
clause to become dependent upon the other clause for its greater meaning.
Here, some words are added or even a phrase that causes the entire clause
to function in a broader sense, such as cause or background. For example:
o Because it was my birthday, my mother cooked my favourite dish.
o Although I like red motorbikes, I bought a red car.
Subordinate clauses can be further classified as:
x Noun clause
x Adjective clause
x Adverb clause
Noun clause

Self-Instructional A noun clause behaves like a noun. Noun clauses can perform different functions
4 Material in a sentence, such as:
 x The subject of a verb Sentences and Nouns

x The object of a verb

x The complement of a verb
x The object of a preposition NOTES
x The apposition to a noun or pronoun
Examples of each type of noun clause are given as follows:
x When a noun clause comes before a verb and answers the question:
What? – then the noun clause is the subject of a verb.
Example: What we eat and drink affects our health.
x When a noun clause comes after a verb and answers the question: What?
then the noun clause is the object of a verb.
Example: She told me she would go to the party.
Example: He has not decided yet which course to study.
x When a noun clause comes directly after a verb and answers the question:
What? – then the noun clause is the complement of a verb.
Example: I don’t believe what he told us.
Example: She could not fully express what she felt.
x When a noun clause comes directly after a preposition and answers the
question: What?–then the noun clause is the object of a preposition.
Example : The doctor told me to exercise daily.
Example: My brother is auditioning for a part in the new play.
x When a noun clause tells us more about a noun or pronoun, then it is
said to be the apposition to a noun or pronoun. Such a noun clause is
generally located in the middle of a sentence.
Example: Mrs Sethi, our class-teacher, is a wonderful lady.
Example: Shahjahan, the Mughal emperor, loved art and beauty.
Adjective clause
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that behaves like an adjective, qualifying
a noun or pronoun in the sentence. Remember that an adjective clause always
begins with who, whom, whose, that, which, when, where, or why. Examples:
x The paintings which are in the museum are under extreme security.
x The girl who won the contest is my best friend.
x The student whom the principal praised is the head boy.
x The mountains that you see in the distance are the Nilgiris.

Self-Instructional
Material 5
Sentences and Nouns Adverb clause
An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that behaves like an adverb, qualifying a
verb in the sentence. Adverb clauses can be of nine types:
NOTES x Adverb clause of time
x Adverb clause of place
x Adverb clause of manner
x Adverb clause of result
x Adverb clause of reason
x Adverb clause of concession
x Adverb clause of purpose
x Adverb clause of condition
x Adverb clause of contrast or comparison
Examples of each type of adverb clause are given as follows:
x Adverb clause of time
Example: Tell me when you will be ready.
x Adverb clause of place
Example: Please put the books back where you found them.
x Adverb clause of manner
Example: He behaves as if he owns the place.
x Adverb clause of result
Example: The scene was so beautiful that we could not take our eyes off it.
x Adverb clause of reason
Example: Since he was already late, he took a taxi.
x Adverb clause of concession
Example: Although she eats well, she is unable to put on weight.
x Adverb clause of purpose
Example: We must work hard so that we may progress fast.
x Adverb clause of condition
Example: If the weather is fine on Saturday, we will go for a picnic.
x Adverb clause of contrast or comparison
Example: While Akram is good at acting, Asif is a great mimic.
Combining messages: Subordination and coordination
Coordination and subordination are the two rules of English through which the
language users use conjunctions to join sentences or independent clauses to make
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6 Material
new compound sentences. In other words, we can say that coordinating and Sentences and Nouns

subordinating principles help us in making a compound sentence. It also avoids

repetition and makes a conversation or writing interesting. Though it is generally
said that one should use simple English, it does not mean that one should always
try to use simple sentences. If one does so, then one’s language becomes very NOTES
repetitive and does not become sonorous to the listener or the reader. Therefore,
it is significant that we merge together or combine the simple sentences wherever
possible into compound sentences so that our language brings out its beauty. The
compounding of sentences is usually done with some conjunctions. Language
scholars have figured out that in English there are two categories of conjunctions
through which we make compound sentences. Depending on the conjunctional
category, the scholars have divided compounding into two major categories:
· Coordination and coordinating conjunctions: Coordinating
conjunctions connect or join independent clauses which are at the same level of
importance in a single sentence. They avoid paragraphs composed of many short,
repetitive simple sentences. Seven different coordinating conjunctions (and, but,
for, nor, or, so, and yet) allow us to create relationships between clauses:

x Subordination or subordinating conjunctions: A subordinate clause

depends upon the independent clause to have its meaning. Therefore, the
subordinate clause is called dependent clause. The subordinate clause can
be identified by the presence of a subordinating conjunction such as after,
although, before, once and whenever.

Self-Instructional
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Sentences and Nouns

NOTES

Condition
even though, These three subordinating Even though I was exhausted, I
though, although conjunctions are used to indicate had to study for my exam.
a contrast. ‘Though’ is the least
formal of the three. ‘Even
though’ means ‘despite that fact
that’ and is stronger than
‘though’ and ‘although’ in
emphasizing a condition for
something.
if, even if ‘Even if’ points to particular Even if you were my best
conditions and means ‘whether friend, I would not go out with
or not.’ you.
provided that, as ‘As long as’ is less formal As long as you pay the rent,
long as version of ‘provided that’, used you can stay.
to indicate a condition for
something happening.
unless ‘Unless’ is used to specify a Unless you give me a reason
negative condition. for your failure, your privileges
remain withdrawn.

Self-Instructional
8 Material
 Sentences and Nouns

NOTES

1.2.4 Syntax: English transformational grammar

Syntax can simply be defined linguistically as the study of sentences and their
structures. In the early 1950s, Zelling Harris, a linguist, put forward systematic
and non-mechanical study of language from the point of view of sentence which
was taken up by Noam Chomsky, his student. Chomsky came up with a new
approach called the generativist view of language or generative grammar. Chomsky
argued that a theory of language must have linguistic explanation as one of its
primary goals. It must be related to properties of the human mind, as only human
beings are capable of using language in a creative and purposeful manner. Syntax
occupied a central positive in the study of generative grammar. It is an abstract
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Sentences and Nouns body of rules and principles that tells us how the words, phrases and sentences of
a language are constructed.
A generative grammar of a language consists of the following components:
NOTES x A lexicon, a set of rules or a rule schema, to represent phrase structure
x A number of modular sub-theories that contain principles obeyed by
expressions in the language
x Transformational rules
x A logical form for each expression
Phrase structure
The syntactic structure of a sentence can be represented as an inverted tree diagram.
Its head is sentence (S), which then branches into its immediate NP (Noun Phrase)
and VP (Verb Phrase). Each of the constituents of NP and VP then can branch
into its syntactic constituents. Let us take the example of the sentence, ‘The boy
kicked the ball.’ The phrase structure of this sentence can be represented as a
diagram in the following manner:

Phrase structure rules in transformational grammar

In Chomsky’s transformational (generative) grammar, two basic types of syntactic
rules are proposed:
x Phrase structure rules
x Transformational rules
The phrase structure tree of the sentence, ‘The boy kicked the ball’ will be
as follows:
(a) S – NP + VP (Sentence – Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase)
(b) NP – Art + N (Noun Phrase – Article + Noun)
(c) VP – V + NP (Verb Phrase – Verb + Noun Phrase)
(d) NP – Art + N (Noun Phrase – Article + Noun)
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A selection of PS rules of English Sentences and Nouns

PS rules describe how syntactic categories/phrases combine to form larger

constituents in a given language.
Sentence/clause-level PS rules (English has quite a fixed clause-level PS rule) NOTES
x S NP VP (a sentence is obligatorily comprised of a NP and a VP)
[NP The students] [VP attended their lectures].
But some sentences also contain an auxiliary:
x S NP Aux VP
The students will take exams.
The auxiliary is optional; we can indicate this with (...).
x S NP (Aux) VP
where ( ) indicates an optional constituent
VP-related PS-rules (more variation here)
x VP V
talked
x VP V Adv
talked loudly
x VP V NP
ate their desserts
x VP V NP PP (Adv)
put the book on the table (wearily)
x VP V (S)
know (the students attended their lectures)
So, a VP must contain a verb, but can also contain a lot of other phrases
(...):
x VP ! V (NP) (PP)(Adv) (S)
NP-related PS-rules (lots of options)
x NP N
books
x NP ! Adj N
unopened books
x NP ! Det Adj N
the unopened books

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Sentences and Nouns x NP ! Det Adj N PP
the unopened books on the table
So NP must contain N but can also contain a lot of other phrases
NOTES x NP ! (Det) (Adj) N (PP)
Deep and surface structures
Often, sentences are ambiguous as we are not able to figure out what they mean.
For example, in the sentence, ‘Old man and woman are going’, we are not sure
whether old is an adjective only for man or also for the woman. Therefore, it is
usually said that any grammatical analysis is divided into two parts. One part talks
about the superficial or apparent structure of sentences, and the other about the
sentences’ underlying structure. The deep structure is abstract and allows the native
speaker of a language to understand the sentence. It may then be said that the
deep structure expresses the semantic contents of a sentence, whereas the surface
structure of a sentence determines its phonetic form. Transformation functions as
a link between the deep structure of sentences and their surface structures. For
example, in the sentence, ‘Visiting doctors can be a nuisance’, the surface structure
does not make the meaning clear. If we go to the deep structure of the sentence it
may either mean—(i) We visit doctors and can be a nuisance. Or, it may mean (ii)
Doctors visit us and they can be a nuisance.
The meaning of the sentence only becomes clear when we do an immediate
constituent analysis of the sentence. In this example, it is unclear as to whether the
word ‘nuisance’ is intended for the visit or for doctors. Similarly, in the sentence,
‘old man and woman are going’, we are not sure as to whether in the adjectival
phrase, ‘old man and woman’, old stands for man and woman. Let us do an
immediate constituent analysis of the phrase ‘old man and woman’, and figure out
the meaning. In the first case we can say that:
S – AP + V (Old man and woman + are going)
AP – Aj + NP (old + man and woman)
In the second case:
S – AP + V (Old man and woman + are going)
AP – AP + N (old man + woman)
When we do immediate constituent analysis like this through phrase structure,
there is no ambiguity in the sentence. In the first case, the adjective ‘old’ is both for
man and woman, and in the second case, the man is old but the woman is not.
Thus, the surface structure of a sentence may have its ambiguity but when we go
to the deep structure of a sentence the ambiguity vanishes and it helps us in
understanding the signification of the sentence.
Basic transformation
In this section, we will discuss the basic transformation.
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Interrogative Sentences and Nouns

Questions form a basic type of sentence in any language. The difference in word
order in questions has to be captured by a very different kind of rule from a phrase
structure rule. The transformational rule called the question word movement rule NOTES
or Wh–movement rule operates on a deeper representation to move the question
word to the front of the sentence. The name Wh–movement comes from generative
grammar, where a wh–word begins at some other place in a sentence and moves
to the front. But along with it there are also a number of other elements in a sentence
that show the special word order found in questions. Let us try to discuss Wh–
movement through an example. The interrogative sentence is ‘What do you stitch
shirts with?’
Most interrogative sentences operate on a hidden or ‘deeper’ representation
to move the question word ‘what’ to the front of the sentence:

__________ You Present + stitch shirts with what

What you Present +Stitch shirts with

In the next step there is a subject–auxiliary inversion:

What do+Present you stitch shorts with
This is the S-structure representation. From here, we come to the interrogative
sentence-‘What do you stitch shorts with?’
Passive
Passive transformation is derived from the deep structure of the active sentence
(which is sometimes thought to be a sub-type of the transformation of NP
movement). Let us illustrate passivization through an example. In the following
example, the passive sentence B, is derived from the deep structure representation
(sentence A.I) of the active sentence A.

Negative
Negation is an important area of study of syntax as it affects not only the structure
of the sentence but also the meaning. In English, there are two kinds of negation:
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Sentences and Nouns x The morphological prefixes such as un-, in-, im-, and dis- are used to
express the opposites of the meaning of certain individual words. In these
cases, the sentential meaning is not negated but the meaning of the individual
word is negated.
NOTES
x In the other case, known as syntactic negation, the effect is the change of
meaning of the affirmative sentence. For example:
Affirmative sentence: I am very happy with you
Negative sentences: A: Ram is very unhappy with you.
B: Ram is not very happy with you.
In the first case, it is clear that Ram is unhappy, whereas in the second
sentence, it may be that Ram is either unhappy or not as happy as he should be.
Contraction
‘Contraction’ is the term used to describe the phenomena where one word is
reduced and apparently affixed to another. For example, when have not is realized
as haven’t, or we have as we’ve or when want to is realized as wanna. There
are different kinds of contraction in English. One of the most common among
them is the ‘finite auxiliary contraction’. In this case, finite auxiliaries (have, be,
and modals will and would) appear to contract with elements to their left, as in:
x We’ve eaten the mango.
x We’re eating the mango.
x We’ll eat the mango.
x We’d eat the mango.
It involves the apparent contraction of the auxiliaries with something to its
left. The finite auxiliary contracts with whatever is to its left. The other well-
known contraction is that of ‘want to’ as ‘wanna’. For example,
x Who do you wanna dance with?
x Who do you wanna dance?
There are some analyses that claim that wanna is only possible when ‘want’
and ‘to’ are adjacent. There are other analyses in which the scholars feel that it is
no contraction at all, at least not in the phonological or syntactic sense. ‘Wanna’
under this analysis is formed in the lexicon, and it is inserted in the syntax just like
an ordinary verb.

Check Your Progress

1. Define a sentence.
2. What is the basic sentence pattern in the English language?
3. What are the two parts of a grammatical analysis?
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 4. How can the subordinate clause be identified? Sentences and Nouns

5. What do you mean by clause?

1.3 PARTS OF SPEECH NOTES

Parts of speech refers to the categorization of words according to the function

they play in the formation of a sentence. There are nine parts of speech: noun,
pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, interjection, conjunction, determiner and
preposition. In the English language, the words can be distinguished from each
other for their functionality as a part of speech on the basis of prefixes and suffixes.
These when added to the beginning or the end of a word makes it a either a noun,
a verb, an adjective or an adverb.

Some important words can be changed into all the four forms. e.g.
Verb Noun Adjective Adverb
devote devotee, devotion devoted, devotional d evo te d ly,
devotionally
contruct construction constructive constructively
harmonised harmony harmonious harmoniously
sensed sense sensitive, sensible s e n s i t i v e l y,
sensibly
possess possessions possessive possessively
reflect reflection, reflectiveness reflective reflectively
astonished astonishment astonishing astonishingly
integrate integration integral integrally
fancied fancy fanciful fancifully
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impose imposition imposing imposingly
Material 15
Sentences and Nouns bonded bond bonded, bonding bonding
stylized style stylish stylishly
expertise expertness, expert expert expertly
symbolise symbol symbolic, symbolical symbolically
NOTES
proportioned proportion proportionate proportionately
marvelled marvel marvellous marvellously
architectured architecture architectural architecturally
manage management manageable manageably
restrict restriction restrictive, restricted restrictively
directed direction direct directly
excite excitement excited excitedly
form formation formative formatively
speeded, sped speed speedy speedily
exceed excess excessive excessively
confuse confusion confusing confusingly
attract attraction attractive attractively
endanger danger dangerous dangerously
notice notice noticeable noticeably
vary variation, variety various variedly
stressed stress stressful stressfully
economies economy economic, economical economically
relate relation, relativity relative relatively
systematize system systematic, systemic systematically
initiate initiation initiative initiatively
presist presistence presistent presistently
brutalise brutality brutal brutally
include inclusion inclusive inclusively
dirtied dirt dirty dirtily
trimphed triumph triumphant triumphantly
reduce reduction reducible, reductive red uc ib ly,
reductively
diminish diminution diminishable diminutively
faced face facial facially
functioned function, functioning functioning functionally
tensed tension tensed tensely
unsustained unsustainance unsustainable unsustainably
tasted taste, tastefulness tasty, tasteful tastefully
remedied remedy remedial remedially
acquiesce acquiescence acquiescent acquiescently
sophisticate sophistication sophisticate sophistically
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revere reverence reverential reverentially Sentences and Nouns

obey obedience obedient obediently

regarded regard regardful regardfully
forced force forcible forcibly
NOTES
depend dependence dependent dependently
secure security secured securely
devote devotion devotional devotionally
suffice sufficience sufficient sufficiently
authorise authority authoritative authoritatively
define definition definite definitely
compare comparison comparative comparatively
enrich riches rich, richer richly
inform information infromative informatively
amazed amazement amazing amazingly
pitied pity piteous piteously
delighted delight delightful delightfully
popularize popularity popular popularly
wondered wonder wonderful worderfully
expect expectation expectant expectantly
needed need, needy needful needfully
amuse amusement amusing amusingly
lavished lavishness lavish lavishly
believe belief, believer believable believably
particularize particular, particularity particular particularly
sensed sense sensible sensibly
respond response responsive responsively
commune community communal communally
act action, act active actively
brief brevity brief briefly
relate relevance relevant relavantly
completed completion complete completely
practise practice practical practically
mean meaning meaningful meaningfully
express expression expressive expressively
commercialize commerce commercial commercially
conclude conclusion conclusive conclusively
necessitate necessity necessary necessarily
spirited spirit spiritual spiritually
focused focus focal focally
create creation, creator creative creatively Self-Instructional
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Sentences and Nouns visualise vision, visionary visual visually
tortured torture torturous torturously
warmed warmth warm warmly
energies energy energetic energetically
NOTES
famed fame famous famously
specify specification specific, specifiable specifically
sympathise sympathy sympathetic sympathetically
compose composer composed composedly
figured figure figurative figuratively
observe observance observable observably
relate relationship relative relatively
fascinate fascination fascinating fascinatingly
engage angagement engaging engagingly
entertain entertainment entertaining entertainingly
clear clarity clear clearly
loved love lovable lovingly
think thought thoughtful thoughtfully
decide decision decisive decisively
appreciate appreciation appreciative appreciatively
feared fear fearful fearfully

1.4 NOUNS

A noun is the name of a person, place, animal, thing, idea, feeling or quality. Nouns
make up two thirds of our vocabulary. Some examples of nouns are as follows:
Name of a person:
Meera is a nice girl.
My teacher’s name is Mrs Shastry.
They call the puppy Patch.
Rohit is interested in music.
Name of a place:
Paris is a city of glamour.
I always wanted to settle down in Dalhousie.
Kerala is so green.
Name of an animal:
Every dog has his day.
The tigress taught her cubs to hunt.
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Their pet cat, Ginger, is quite plump.
18 Material
Name of a thing:
 She kept the book on the table. Sentences and Nouns

They rang the bell.

They painted the door white.
Here are some more examples: NOTES
x Late last month our cousins bought a boat.
x Don Bradman was a cricketing legend.
x The security check personnel checked all the passengers’ boarding
passes.
x According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48
BC
x Empty words are of little comfort to the grieving.
1.4.1 Classification of Nouns
There are five kinds of nouns:
x A common noun is the name common to or belonging to every person,
place, animal, thing, feeling or quality of the same class or group. Examples:
o Person (boy)
o Place (town)
o Animal (cat)
o Thing (ball)
o Feeling (joy)
o Quality (generosity)
x A proper noun is the name of a particular person (Komal Gupta) or place
(Agra). Proper nouns always start with a capital letter. This means that
animals, things, qualities and feelings are always common nouns. Times or
dates may also be referred to as proper nouns at times. Examples:
o July
o August
o Friday
o Saturday
o Christmas
o Holi
x A material noun is the name of anything from which something else can be
made. It is a substance or material that is considered a single collection.
Examples:
o Silver
o Wood Self-Instructional
o Mist Material 19
Sentences and Nouns o Water
o Rice
x A collective noun is the name given to a collection or number of persons or
NOTES things of the same kind, such as for persons (crowd), animals (a herd of
cattle), or things (cutlery). Collective nouns are treated as a single unit and
the verb used with them is usually singular. Examples:
o The cutlery was placed on the table.
o The data is ready for analysis.
o The team of chefs has arrived.
o The jury is in a dilemma.
o The committee usually arrives late.
x An abstract noun is the name given to a quality, state or action. Examples:
o Happiness
o Hatred
o Love
o Murder
o Wisdom
o Honesty
o Softness
Number: Singular and plural noun
Nouns are also classified on the basis of number. When a noun denotes one
person or thing, it is called a singular noun, for example, picture, desk, car, truck,
chair, etc. When a noun denotes more than one person or thing, it is called a plural
noun, for example, pictures, desks, cars, trucks, chairs. However, some plural
nouns are spelt differently from their singular counterparts. There are some nouns
that do not change, that is, their singular and plural forms are the same. Examples:
x Sheep
x Deer
x Fish (sometimes also written as ‘fishes’)
x Offspring

Check Your Progress

6. Name all the parts of speech.
7. Tick the right answer: Maya is a pretty girl. (Common/Proper noun)

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 Sentences and Nouns
1.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. We use words to speak or write. These words are generally used in groups. NOTES
For example, Jack and Jill went up the hill. Such a group of words which
makes complete sense is called a sentence.
2. In the English language, the basic sentence pattern is Subject – Verb –
Object (SVO).
3. It is usually said that any grammatical analysis is divided into two parts. One
part talks about the superficial or apparent structure of sentences, and the
other about the sentences’ underlying or deep structure.
4. The subordinate clause be identified by the presence of a subordinating
conjunction such as after, although, before, once and whenever.
5. A group of words which forms a part of a sentence and contains a subject
and a predicate is called a Clause
6. There are nine parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,
interjection, conjunction, determiner and preposition.
7. Proper noun

1.6 SUMMARY

x When we make a sentence, we name some person or thing and say

something about that person or thing.
x A phrase is a group of words which makes sense but not complete sense.
x In English, the Subject-Verb-Object pattern does not change even when
we combine several sentences into a single sentence.
x A group of words which forms a part of a sentence and contains a subject
and a predicate is called a clause.
x A subordinate clause depends upon the independent clause to have its
meaning. Therefore, the subordinate clause is called dependent clause.
x The syntactic structure of a sentence can be represented as an inverted tree
diagram. Its head is sentence (S), which then branches into its immediate
NP (Noun Phrase) and VP (Verb Phrase).
x Questions form a basic type of sentence in any language. The difference in
word order in questions has to be captured by a very different kind of rule
from a phrase structure rule.
x ‘Contraction’ is the term used to describe the phenomena where one word
is reduced and apparently affixed to another.
x Parts of speech refers to the categorization of words according to the function Self-Instructional
they play in the formation of a sentence. Material 21
Sentences and Nouns x A noun is the name of a person, place, animal, thing, idea, feeling or quality.
Nouns make up two thirds of our vocabulary.

NOTES
1.7 KEY WORDS

x Graphology: It is the analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns

of handwriting with attempt to identify the writer, indicate the psychological
state at the time of writing, or evaluate personality characteristics.
x Syntactic Structure: It is the study of the rules whereby words or other
elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.

1.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on the deep and surface structure of a sentence.
2. Distinguish between interrogative and negative sentences.
3. How do synonyms change with the change in the parts of speech?
Long Answer Questions
1. What do you understand by a basic sentence structure? What are its
constituents? Explain with examples.
2. Discuss clauses and its types in detail.
3. Describe the different types of nouns.

1.9 FURTHER READINGS

Gimson, A. C. 1962. Introduction to English Pronunciation. London: ELBS.

Hockett, C. F. 1960. A Course in Modern Linguistics. California: MacMillan
Books,.
Lyons, John. 1981. Language and Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Rajimwale, Sharad. 1997. Introduction to English Phonetics, Phonology and
Morphology. Jaipur: Rawal Publication.
Websites
http://www.ling.cam.ac.uk

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 Adjectives, Articles,

UNIT 2 ADJECTIVES, ARTICLES, and Pronouns

AND PRONOUNS
NOTES
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Adjectives
2.2.1 Types of Adjectives
2.2.2 Comparison of Adjectives
2.2.3 Correct use of Adjectives
2.2.4 Adjectives Used as Nouns
2.2.5 Position of Adjectives
2.2.6 Adjective Phrases
2.3 Articles
2.3.1 Definite Article (The)
2.3.2 Indefinite Article (A and An)
2.4 Pronouns
2.4.1 Types of Pronouns
2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
2.9 Further Readings

2.0 INTRODUCTION

An adjective is defined as a word whose key syntactic role is to transform a

pronoun or noun, thereby providing more information about the definition of the
pronoun or noun. The adjective is one of the eight parts of speech. An article is
any member of a class of dedicated words that are used with noun phrases to
mark the identifiability of the referents of the noun phrases. The category of articles
constitutes a part of speech. In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (abbreviated
pro) is a word that substitutes for a noun or noun phrase. It is a particular case of
a pro-form. Pronouns have traditionally been regarded as one of the parts of
speech, but some modern theorists would not consider them to form a single
class, in view of the variety of functions they perform cross-linguistically. We will
discuss adjectives, articles and pronouns in detail in this unit.

2.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the concept of adjectives
x Discuss the meaning of articles Self-Instructional
Material 23
x Describe the significance of pronouns
Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns 2.2 ADJECTIVES

An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun or adds an attribute to it, for example,
NOTES red rose, sweet tooth, bad temper.
2.2.1 Types of Adjectives
x Descriptive adjectives answer the question: What kind of? Examples:
o This is useful information and will help us greatly.
o Meena’s attractive hairdo became the rage of the season.
x Demonstrative adjectives point out to the noun they are referring to: This
house, that train, remaining people. Examples:
o This house is bigger than mine.
o That train is the one going to Kanpur.
o The remaining people in the room will have to come back tomorrow.
x Interrogative adjectives, as the name suggests, ask questions such as what,
which, whose. Examples:
o What name is he generally known by?
o Which pullover is yours, the white or the black one?
o Whose fault is it?
x Possessive adjectives indicate ownership, for example, my, your, their,
our, his, her, their, its. Examples:
o My hair is long and thick.
o Your attitude to your work needs to improve.
o Their incomes are the cause of envy in the office.
o The tree outside is very old; its leaves are broad and thick.
x Emphasizing adjectives, such as own and very, lay stress on the nouns
following them. Examples:
o It is my own decision not to get married to him.
o The very sight of him casts a shadow of fear over the child.
x Distributive adjectives are those that refer to persons or things spoken of
individually; for example, each, every, either, neither, etc. Examples:
o Each day promises a new tomorrow.
o Every child has a unique personality of his own.
o Either man is good enough for the job.
o Neither woman is beautiful enough for the role.
x Quantitative adjectives refer to an amount and answer the question: How
Self-Instructional much? for example, some, much, enough, etc. Examples:
24 Material
 o Could you kindly lend me some coffee? Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
o It is not good to eat much sugar.
o Do you have enough money for the month?
o All the children were dressed in white. NOTES
o Some children were talking.
o She did not eat any snacks.
o There were no glasses left in the cupboard.
x Numeral adjectives indicate a number and answer the question: How many?
Examples:
o Cardinals such as one, two, five, ten.
– The two cars standing here belong to him.
– Those two houses beyond the park were bought by him.
– Four boys got together and helped the lady gather her things.
o Ordinals such as first, second, fifth, tenth.
– The fifth student has won the lucky prize.
– The first house in that row is mine.
– February is the second month of the year.
o Multiplicative such as single, double, triple, tenfold.
– By adding the fertilizer, the farmer will have a tenfold yield.
– In that shop, you may pay double price for the same product.
– So much can be gained from a single act of goodwill.
o Indefinite such as many, some, none, several.
– Some men look more handsome with a beard.
– Several women came to her rescue.
– Many tablets were placed on the tray.
{ Relative adjectives are used with nouns to introduce a subordinate clause,
for example, which and what. Example:
Select which dress you like.
In the above example, ‘(you) select’ is the main clause; which stands for
‘that dress you like’.
2.2.2 Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives have three degrees of comparison—positive, comparative, superlative.
{ Positive: This is the simple form without any degree of comparison—
attractive, joyous, black, good, etc. Examples:
o Rohit is a good boy.
o Rita is an attractive girl. Self-Instructional
Material 25
Adjectives, Articles, o Black dresses make me look slim.
and Pronouns
o He is in a joyous mood.
{ Comparative: This is used to make a comparison between two persons
NOTES or things: more attractive, more joyous, blacker, better, etc. Examples:
o Rohit is a better student.
o The sight of her parents made Rita more joyous.
o Rita is more attractive.
o She chose the darker colour.
{ Superlative: This is used when more than two people or things are being
compared, and the maximum degree of the quality is attributed to one—
most attractive, most joyous, blackest, best, etc. Examples:
o She was declared the best student in her class.
o She is the most attractive teacher in school.
o He is the best baker in town.
o Children’s Day is the most joyous day.
2.2.3 Correct use of Adjectives
Adjectives are used in two ways:
{ As an attribute before a noun. Examples:
o The judge always gave fair judgements.
o He is the tallest man in the room.
o She picked the prettiest dress in the shop.
o Her mother makes tasty cookies.
o She wore a silver pendant.
o She asked for the coolest drink available.
{ As part of the predicate of a sentence, when it comes after a verb. Examples:
o The story is uninteresting.
o The Secret Service agent is remarkable.
o Her dress is black.
o The teacher is strict.
o The book is engrossing.
2.2.4 Adjectives Used as Nouns
It is not difficult to make nouns of adjectives in English. Example:
{ Unwell persons become the unwell.
{ Homeless villagers become the homeless.
Self-Instructional { The good (not goods) are always with us.
26 Material
 A noun can be used to describe another noun, in cases where there are no Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
comparative or superlative forms such as ‘prettier’ or ‘prettiest.’ Some nouns can
be made into adjectives by adding an ending such as -ish, -like, -ly, -y, -en, -al, -
ar, -ory, etc. Examples:
NOTES
{ Ravi speaks in a childish manner.
{ Shelley has a womanly figure.
{ Rohit’s teeth were becoming yellowish in colour.
{ The students were sitting on a wooden desk.
{ He works at the Parliament.
{ What a wonderful performance?
There are times when the endings -en and -al are dropped, and the noun
form is used by itself, as in oak table, wool shirt, and coast line.
2.2.5 Position of Adjectives
The position of an adjective can be either before a noun or after a verb, such as
be, become, seem, stay, etc. Adjectives are also placed with some verbs after the
object. Examples:
{ He is a young man.
{ Ravi’s ideas seem interesting.
{ Electrical products are becoming expensive.
{ She looks happy.
{ The weather wills stay dry.
{ My brother keeps his closet tidy.
2.2.6 Adjective Phrases
Sometimes, instead of just a single word, a group of words serves the purpose of
an adjective. Therefore, this group of words describing a noun is called an adjective
phrase. Examples:
{ My aunt wears a diamond necklace. (adj.)
My aunt wears a necklace made of diamonds. (adjective phrase)
{ He stared at the light-eyed girl. (adj.)
He stared at the girl with light eyes. (adjective phrase)
{ They hoisted the Indian flag. (adj.)
They hoisted the flag of India. (adjective phrase)
{ He wants a fair bride. (adj.)
He wants a bride with white skin. (adjective phrase)
{ He is a promising young man. (adj.)
He is a young man of great promise. (adjective phrase) Self-Instructional
Material 27
Adjectives, Articles, { She wore a satin dress. (adj.)
and Pronouns
She wore a dress made of satin. (adjective phrase)
{ This is a useless book. (adj.)
NOTES This book is of no use. (adjective phrase)
{ Her governess is a sensible woman. (adj.)
Her governess is a woman of sense. (adjective phrase)
{ He is a very famous singer.
He is a singer of great fame.
{ He gave her a very valuable book.
He gave her a book of great value.

Check Your Progress

1. What is an adjective?
2. Name two types of adjectives.
3. What are possessive adjectives?
4. List the three degrees of comparison.
5. Where are adjectives placed in a sentence?

2.3 ARTICLES

An article is a member of a group of words called determiners, which cannot be

used alone, but is always joined to another word to denote a specific thing, or a
group or class of things, or any individual of a group or class.
2.3.1 Definite Article (The)
A definite article is used before a singular or plural noun which is used to refer to
a specific member of a group. A definite article refers to a thing or a person already
introduced in the past. An article cannot be used before the name of a substance
when used in the general sense.
x Chocolates are bad for teeth. (not the chocolates)
x Cupboards are made from wood. (not the wood)
x Diamonds are very expensive. (not the diamonds)
However, if a specific kind of substance is being referred to, an article must
be used.
x Could you please bring me the chocolates from the fridge?
x The cupboard on the left is more expensive as it is made from better
quality wood.
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28 Material
 x The diamond ring you are wearing is very pretty. Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
The specific nature of a substance need not be explained as it can be a
reference to a previous situation or conversation.
x We need to go to the shop to get the cloth, (i.e. we need to go to the NOTES
shop we have discussed earlier to buy the cloth for the purpose we had
spoken about).
Articles are not used before the names of meals, especially if they are a part
of everyday routine.
x I did not eat dinner today. (not the dinner)
x Lunch is going to be late today as the food is not yet ready. (not the
lunch)
x We dress formally for dinner at our house. (not the dinner)
However, in the case where the meal is the focus of attention and/or a
special occasion, an article must be used.
x The dinner is being hosted in honour of the Board of Directors.
x The lunch got burnt as I was talking on the phone for very long.
x The lunch you cooked the other day was a tremendous effort on your
part.
Note: A possessive adjective may precede the name of the meal to give it a
personalized application.
x I share my lunch with my school friends.
x The dog was howling as it hadn’t been given its dinner.
x It would be a big luxury to eat my breakfast in bed.
An article is omitted before a plural noun, when it is used in a general sense.
x Children like apples. (not the children)
x Cats do not like water. (not the cats)
x Dogs are scared of loud noises. (not the dogs)
If the reference is to a specific noun, then an article must be used.
x The children need to be changed and bathed before bed.
x The cats are drinking their milk.
x The dogs are not allowed to sleep on the bed.
An article is also used when referring to all things pertaining to a particular
country or area where the country or area is not mentioned but understood in
context.
x The recent heavy monsoons have destroyed all the crops.
x The pollution has led to an increase in allergies among children.
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Adjectives, Articles, No articles are used before naming games.
and Pronouns
x Poker is becoming very popular in Delhi this Diwali. (not the poker)
x It is very important for children to start learning tennis at an early age.
NOTES (not the tennis)
· Cycling is not a popular sport in India. (not the cycling)
An article should not be used before the name of a country unless the
country comprises of a number of smaller units.
x France, Italy and Germany are all part of the European Community.
(not the France, the Italy, the Germany)
x The USA is the largest economy in the world.
Articles should not be used before languages but when naming inhabitants
of a country.
x She learnt Spanish in school. (not the Spanish)
x I would love to learn to speak in French. (not the French)
x The Italians love the opera.
x The Scots are known to be miserly.
Note:
(1) However, when the inhabitants of a country are referred to in plural form
but are thought of as one, then an article is not required.
Italians love football.
Africans have very curly hair.
(2) An article is used for the collective sense but not the individual sense of a
noun.
the Chinese, but Chinamen, the Scottish, but Scotsmen, the French,
but Frenchmen
An article should precede the names of mountain ranges but not the names
of a single mountain or hill.
The Rocky Mountains, The Hindu Kush range, The Alps
But: Palni Hill, Nandi Hill, Mount Everest
An article should precede the names of rivers, oceans, valleys, deserts and
forests.
x Egypt is situated on the banks of the Nile. (not on Nile)
x The Suez Canal is no longer used by commercial ships. (not Suez Canal)
Even though names of large department stores are not preceded by an
article, their departments are.
x The toys department at Vishal Megamart.
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 x The food court at Reddy’s Supermarket. Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
x The finance department of PriceWaterhouse Coopers.
A definite article precedes the names of ships and trains even though the
article does not appear before the name of a specific mode of travel. NOTES
x The Palace on Wheels is the most luxurious way to travel by train.
x The Airforce One is only used by the President of the United States of
America.
x It will be faster if we travel to Chandigarh by train rather than by car.
(not the car)
x Children love to go to school by bus. (not the bus)
The definite article is used for all adverbial expressions which demarcate
time, with the exception of all day and all night.
x I worked all night to get this document ready by the deadline. (not all
the night)
x It has been a long day today. (not the day)
x It snowed all through the night.
x It is going to rain in the evening.
‘The’ precedes ‘the generic singular’, i.e., when a singular noun represents
the entire category.
x The tigers are an endangered species.
x The press can be very intrusive.
An exception to this rule is the noun ‘man’ when used to represent the entire
human race.
x Man is a social animal.
x Every man for himself.
In expressions such as go home or go to office, the use of the definite
article is omitted. This is not the case when reference is being made to a specific
purpose for which the structure exists.
x Children should go home straight from school.
x I will be late if I don’t go to office immediately.
But:
x The man went to the boy’s home to complain about him.
x The ticketing office is located on Bhagwandas road.
2.3.2 Indefinite Article (A and An)
An indefinite article is placed before a singular noun which is used to refer to any
member of a group. Article ‘a’ is used with nouns with a consonant and ‘an’ is
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Adjectives, Articles, used with nouns starting with vowels and vowel sounds.
and Pronouns
x Words such as heir, hourglass, honourable which start with a silent ‘h’ have
an before them, but words such as hill and herb have ‘a’ before them.
NOTES x Words which begin with a vowel but emit the ‘y’ sound are preceded by a
and not an.
Examples of such words are eucalyptus, eulogy, euphemism, euthanasia,
united, unicorn, uterus, uranium.
o A unicorn is a mythological creature. (not an unicorn)
o A eucalyptus tree growing in our garden is very fragrant. (not an
eucalyptus)
x An article must be used before a singular countable noun.
o She is teaching in a university. (not teaching in university).
o An apple a day keeps the doctor away. (not keeps doctor away)
x An article is also necessary when an adjective precedes a noun, with the
article being placed before the adjective.
o The truck turned left onto a busy highway. (not ...onto busy highway)
o The cow is a useful animal. (not cow is useful animal)
x Rewards, punishments, penalties are also countable and must be preceded
by an article when being referred to in the singular.
o He was given a reward when he returned the money to his boss.
o There is a heavy fine imposed for those who do not wear a helmet to
ride a scooter.
x A is not used when the noun cannot be counted unless the reference is to:
o A specific thing – I like to have a coffee after my dinner.
o A specific quantity – I want to go to the restaurant to eat a pepperoni
pizza.
x An article must be used when referring to specific titles.
o Mrs Pratibha Patil is the President of India.
o Mr Gupta is the chairman of our organization.
This rule also applies when describing a person’s qualities using nouns.
o He is a painter par excellence.
o She is a genius, she tops her class every year.
x When the noun is countable, the indefinite article follows the word which is
applied to such noun.
o I cannot remember last when we had such a long cold winter. (not a
such long cold winter)
Self-Instructional o She has been chosen to lead the debates team as she is such an excellent
32 Material speaker. (not an such excellent speaker)
 In case there is a so before an adjective, then a or an must be placed in Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
between the adjective and noun.
o I have never known so cold a winter. (not a so cold winter)
o She is so excellent a speaker that she has been chosen to lead the debates NOTES
team. (not a so excellent speaker)
x When a is placed before a word, it can often change the meaning of the
sentence.
o Few children came to the playground today as it was supposed to rain.
(i.e., there could have been more children)
o A few children were seen at the playground even though it was supposed
to rain. (i.e., there were more children than expected)
Note: Adverbs such as only and just can be used before a few and a little but
not before few and little.

Check Your Progress

6. What is an article?
7. Define a definite article.

2.4 PRONOUNS

A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun. In some cases, the noun may
have already been used in the sentence earlier. Examples:
Madhavi entered the room; she was carrying a bouquet of flowers.
In the above example, Madhavi is the noun; she is the word that is used in
place of Madhavi and is, therefore, the pronoun.
Komal’s writing is not easy to understand; she uses a lot of loops and
flourishes.
In the above example, Komal is the noun, and she is the pronoun.
2.4.1 Types of Pronouns
There are eight kinds of pronouns:
x Personal pronouns
x Possessive pronouns
x Emphasizing pronouns
x Demonstrative pronouns
x Interrogative pronouns
x Reflexive pronouns
x Relative pronouns Self-Instructional
Material 33
Adjectives, Articles, x Pronouns of Number
and Pronouns
x Personal pronouns: It refers to the three kinds of persons speaking—
those speaking, those spoken to, and those spoken of.
NOTES o First person: I, me, we, us. Examples:
I am sure that Kiran is wrong.
Make sure that you return the pen to me.
We must hurry in order to reach there on time.
Studying hard will bring us the fruit of our labour.
o Second person: You (singular and plural), thou (singular and plural).
Note: ‘Thou’ is, however, hardly in use anymore.
Examples:
You should obey the rules and stand in a queue.
Thou should know better than to argue with your teacher.
o Third person: She, her, he, him, they, them, it. Examples:
She is particular about washing her hands before meals.
If the country votes for her, it will get a sound leader.
He should not meddle in others’ affairs.
There is no better student than him in the class.
They will be late if they do not hurry up.
Being underage, the right to vote cannot be given to them.
It is cold enough to wear a sweater.
x Possessive pronouns: It refers to the owner or possessor.
o First person: Mine, ours. Examples:
The car parked there is mine.
The cars parked there are ours.
o Second person: Yours. Examples:
Is the car parked there yours?
Where is yours?
o Third person: His, hers, theirs, its. Examples:
His hair is turning greyer by the day.
Hers is not the only posture that needs improving.
The houses in this entire row are theirs.
The age of the book can be determined by its worn-out condition.
x Emphatic pronouns: It lays emphasis on the personal pronouns by adding
‘self’ or ‘selves’ to another word. Examples:
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34 Material
 Kamini herself was not feeling well. Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
They themselves decided to carry the trunk over to the other side.
He cooked the food himself.
We bought the house ourselves. NOTES
x Demonstrative pronouns: It indicates or point out the person or thing to
which they refer. Some demonstrative pronouns are: this, these, that, those.
Examples:
This is my chair; that is Tara’s.
These are my drawings; those are yours.
x Interrogative pronouns: These are those pronouns that come at the
beginning of a question. Some examples are: who, what, where, how.
Examples:
Who is that man staring at me?
What are you holding in your hand?
Where is Krishan’s house located?
How do you always remain so slim?
x Reflexive pronouns: These pronouns are also formed by adding the words
self or selves to personal pronouns. However, their purpose is different.
They answer the question who or what after the verb, and, therefore, act as
the objects.
Examples: Dad hurt himself.
The reflexive pronoun himself answers the question who after the verb.
x Relative pronouns: These pronouns usually refer to the nouns or pronouns
which come before them. They also fulfil the function of connecting two
clauses. Some examples of relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, that,
which. Examples:
Nikhil found the boy who ate the cream.
The nurse attended to the patient whose blood pressure was falling.
In the first example, who represents boy. It also joins two clauses, namely,
‘Nikhil found the boy’; ‘(he) ate the cream’. In the second example, whose
represents the ‘patient’. It also joins two clauses, namely, ‘The nurse attended
to the patient’; (his/her) blood pressure was falling.
x Pronouns of number or amount: These pronouns refer to:
o Numbers, such as one, two, three.
o Amounts, such as any, some, none, many, all, each, either, neither,
anybody, etc. Examples:

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Material 35
Adjectives, Articles, In a civilized society, one cannot do whatever one likes.
and Pronouns
Many talk big but few actually do.
x Indefinite pronouns: These refer to pronouns which refer to persons or
NOTES objects in a general way and don’t refer to any person or object in particular.
Examples:
Many of them were Hindus.
Somebody gifted me this beautiful watch.
None of his movies are well known.

Check Your Progress

8. Define a pronoun.
9. Name all eight kinds of pronouns.

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun or adds an attribute to it, for

example, red rose, sweet tooth, bad temper.
2. Two types of adjectives are:
a. Descriptive Adjective
b. Demonstrative Adjective
3. Possessive adjectives indicate ownership, for example, my, your, their,
our, his, her, their, its.
4. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison—positive, comparative,
superlative.
5. The position of an adjective can be either before a noun or after a verb,
such as be, become, seem, stay, etc. Adjectives are also placed with some
verbs after the object.
6. An article is a member of a group of words called determiners, which cannot
be used alone, but is always joined to another word to denote a specific
thing, or a group or class of things, or any individual of a group or class.
7. A definite article is used before a singular or plural noun which is used to
refer to a specific member of a group. A definite article refers to a thing or
a person already introduced in the past.
8. A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun.
9. The eight kinds of pronouns are:
a. Personal pronouns
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b. Possessive pronouns
36 Material
 c. Emphasizing pronouns Adjectives, Articles,
and Pronouns
d. Demonstrative pronouns
e. Interrogative pronouns
f. Reflexive pronouns NOTES
g. Relative pronouns
h. Pronouns of Number

2.6 SUMMARY

x An adjective is a word that qualifies a noun or adds an attribute to it, for

example, red rose, sweet tooth, bad temper.
x Descriptive adjectives answer the question: What kind of?, while
demonstrative adjectives point out to the noun they are referring to: This
house, that train, remaining people.
x Interrogative adjectives, as the name suggests, ask questions such as what,
which, whose.
x Possessive adjectives indicate ownership, for example, my, your, their,
our, his, her, their, its.
x Emphasizing adjectives, such as own and very, lay stress on the nouns
following them.
x Adjectives have three degrees of comparison—positive, comparative,
superlative.
x It is not difficult to make nouns of adjectives in English. A noun can be used
to describe another noun, in cases where there are no comparative or
superlative forms such as ‘prettier’ or ‘prettiest.’
x The position of an adjective can be either before a noun or after a verb,
such as be, become, seem, stay, etc. Adjectives are also placed with some
verbs after the object.
x Sometimes, instead of just a single word, a group of words serves the purpose
of an adjective. Therefore, this group of words describing a noun is called
an adjective phrase.
x A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun, e.g., he, she, they, it. There
are eight kinds of pronouns.

2.7 KEY WORDS

x Distributive Adjectives: These adjectives are those that refer to persons

or things spoken of individually; for example, each, every, either, neither,
etc.
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Material 37
Adjectives, Articles, x Relative Adjectives: These are used with nouns to introduce a subordinate
and Pronouns
clause, for example, which and what.

NOTES
2.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on the position of adjectives.
2. What are the different rules of using an indefinite article?
3. Briefly explain the demonstrative, interrogative, and reflexive pronouns.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the different types of adjectives.
2. Discuss the different rules of using the definite article with examples.
3. Explain the difference between personal and possessive pronouns.

2.9 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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38 Material
 Verbs and Tenses

UNIT 3 VERBS AND TENSES

Structure NOTES
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Verbs: Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
3.2.1 Types of Verbs: Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
3.2.2 Aspect, Mood and Modality
3.2.3 Strong and Weak Verbs
3.3 Tense
3.3.1 Present Tense
3.3.2 Past Tense
3.3.3 Future Forms
3.3.4 Active and Passive Voice
3.3.5 Reported Speech
3.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
3.5 Summary
3.6 Key Words
3.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
3.8 Further Readings

3.0 INTRODUCTION

A verb may be classified as the most significant part of a sentence. A verb emphasizes
something about the subject of a sentence and the state of being, expressing actions
and events. The verb or compound verb is a vital element of the predicate of a
sentence. The verb is a phrase or word that indicates what is becoming of something
or somebody, what somebody or something does, what state somebody or
something is in. Verbs in English mainly have two tenses, that is, present and past
tense which has been explained in this unit.There is no one form for the future
tense because unlike the aforementioned tenses, this tense does not have a unique
market. It can be expressed through a number of forms such as simple present,
present progressive, and modal auxiliaries. In this unit, we will discuss the verbs
and its different types. We will also focus on tenses and its types.

3.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the concept of verbs
x Discuss the different types of verbs
x Describe the meaning and usage of tenses.

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Verbs and Tenses
3.2 VERBS: FINITE AND NON-FINITE VERBS

A part of speech where an existence, action, or occurrence is expressed is called

NOTES a verb, for example, create, run, walk and exist. A verb is an essential part of the
predicate of a sentence. Any word which characterizes an action or state of being
is a verb. Therefore, the verb is the most important part of a sentence because a
sentence cannot be formed without it. Verbs can denote the following things:
x What a person does, did or will do. Examples:
The children play all day.
Ravi played tennis yesterday.
Kripawill play in the evening as usual.
x What a person, place or thing is, was or will be. Examples:
I am tired.
The milk was hot.
The shop will be closed tomorrow.
x What is, was or will be done to a person, place or thing. Examples:
The doll is broken.
Kartikwas hit by the ball on his head.
The house will be sold by next month.
Here, are some more examples of verbs,
x My first employer was Mr Munjal, however, I remember the training
manager, Mr Gautam Saigal more vividly.
x In early February, my mother will plant roses.
x Tigers bite their victims on the neck.
x The Taj Mahal hotel in Mumbai was destroyed in the terror attack.
x My baby cries all day.
x My mother cooks dinner for us.
x The maid buys vegetables on her way to work.
x My baby cried all day.
x My mother cooked dinner for us yesterday.
x The maid bought vegetables on her way to work.
x My baby will cry all day if I am not around.
x My mother will cook dinner for us tomorrow.
x The maid will buy vegetables on her way to work.
x The child is crying.
Self-Instructional x The coffee is hot.
40 Material
 x The table is dirty. Verbs and Tenses

x The child was crying.

x The coffee was hot.
x The table was cleaned. NOTES
x The child will be going to school.
x The coffee in the flask will be hot.
x The table will be cleaned tomorrow.
3.2.1 Types of Verbs: Finite and Non-Finite Verbs
We will now discuss the types of verbs.
Transitive verb
A transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning. If we say, ‘Sapna
broke’, it does not make sense. An object has to be added after the verb to
complete the sense, for example, ‘Sapna broke the plate’. In a transitive verb, the
action passes from the subject to the object. For instance, Rudra drank the milk.
(Rudrais the subject; drank is the verb; and the action passes to the milk.)A
transitive verb consist of two objects, namely a direct object and an indirect object.
For example, Meena gave Lila a book.
In this example, book is the direct object; Lila is the indirect object.
Examples:
x Mary sees Lily. (‘Lily’ is the direct object of ‘sees’)
x Raja lifted the suitcase. (‘Suitcase’ is the direct object of ‘lifted’)
x The teacher punished you. (‘you’ is the direct object of ‘punished’)
x I give you all my love. (‘love’ is the direct object of ‘give’ and ‘you’ is
the non-prepositional indirect object of ‘give’)
x Rohit traded Maria a pie for a chocolate. (‘Maria’, ‘pie’, and ‘chocolate’
are all objects of ‘traded’)
x The audience attentively watched the latest movie of Harry Potter.
A transitive verb is incomplete without a direct object. For instance, one
should observe the following sentences,
Incomplete:
The cabinet holds.
Complete:
The cabinet holds four music CDs and two books.
Incomplete:
The company named.
Complete:
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The company named a new chief executive officer. Material 41
Verbs and Tenses Incomplete:
The man stole.
Complete:
NOTES The man stole the suitcase.
Intransitive verb
An intransitive verb does not require the action to pass to any object. For example,
the baby cries (action).It also denotes a state of being, for example, He is intelligent
(being).An intransitive verb often takes an object whose meaning is closely
connected to its own. The following are the examples of such type of sentences:
x Grandfather laughed a hearty laugh.
x The beggar died a sad death.
x Elizabeth will not wake until sunrise. (wake has no object)
x Lizzy complains too much. (complain has no object)
x Mary’s grandmother died on Sunday. (die has no object)
x She would like to sleep longer, but she must leave.
x The housekeeper watched while the new maid picked up the pieces of the
broken glass.
x The crowd ran across the stadium in an attempt to see the movie star get
into his car.
Auxiliary verb
An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone. It helps a main verb. For example,
Manoj has finished his dinner. In this example, finished is the main verb; has is
the auxiliary verb. The following are the examples of auxiliary or helping verbs:
x Be (is, am, are, was, were)
x Have (has, had)
x Do (does, did)
x May (might)
x Can (could)
x Shall (should)
x Will (would)
x Must; let.
Examples:
x Ravi is the chief manager.
x The coffee mugs are in the cabinet.
x Ruby does this kind of thing very often.
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42 Material
x My husband and I do the cleaning every week.
 x I won’t be able to complete my work because Suzy still has my laptop. Verbs and Tenses

x We have many types of food in the fridge.

Finite and Non-finite Verbs
NOTES
A finite verb changes with the subject. In this case, the subject is the person,
object, place or animal we are referring to in the sentence. The verb does not
change when the subject is in first or second person or is plural. When the subject
is in the third person or is singular, the verb changes from, say, ‘run’ to ‘runs’. The
verb ‘run’ is a finite verb. It is necessary that each sentence should consist of a
finite verb.
Subject Singular Subject Plural Subject
First Person I run We run
Second Person You run You run
Third Person He runs They run
Third Person She runs They run
Third Person It runs They run
The crayon/s The crayon is The crayons are
The frogs/s The frog does The frogs do
The bird/s The bird has The birds have
A non-finite or infinite verb is a verb that is not finite. Non-finite verbs cannot
perform action as the root of an independent clause. Most non-finite verbs found
in English are infinitives, participles and gerunds. The infinitive verb is always
followed by ‘to’ and the meaning doesn’t change with the subject like in the case
of the finite verb:
Subject Singular Subject Plural Subject
First Person I want to read. We want to read.
Second Person You want to read. You want to read.
Third Person He wants to read. They want to read.
She wants to read. They want to read.
It wants to read. They want to read.
3.2.2 Aspect, Mood and Modality
Aspect is defined as a temporal structure of an event rather than a temporal structure
between two or more events. The aspects are of two types which are discussed
as follows:
x Inherent aspect: It is inherent to the verb or to the combination of the
verb and some other parts of the sentence.
x Grammatical aspect: It is encoded in the morphology of the verb. A
particular verb can have more than one possible inherent aspect. The Self-Instructional
Material 43
following are the examples:
Verbs and Tenses John ran. (Activity)
John ran to the station. (Accomplishment)
Mohan amuses her. (State)
NOTES Mohan amused the guests when Mary cooked dinner. (Activity)

Inherent Aspect

Activity
Achievement

state

Accomplishment

Consistent with questions

Like at what time/
are predicated with single
moment
Activity verbs
Consist of successive phases,
Questions like how long/
Talking about time when
Periods are not definite/
Often volitional but not always Normally does
Not occur in
Continuous grammatical
Aspect

Consistent with questions like

‘How long did it take? / at any
Time during the hour

Activity verbs consist of successive phases, questions like how long, talking
about time when, periods are not definite, and often volitional but not always.
Grammatical Aspect

Progressive perfect

Action is in progress within

a particular time frame
Time frame of action takes
sometime of past and
present/ the action may have
completed in the past which began
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44 Material present
Mood and modality Verbs and Tenses

Mood refers to grammatical manifestations of the way the speaker views the reality
of the sentence. It may be an expression of fact, desire or doubt. Mood is a
grammatical category which should not be confused with the semantic category of NOTES
modality. Modality is expressed by auxiliary verbs which are also called modals.
English language has two moods: indicative and imperative which are used by all
speakers. There is also one more category of mood-subjunctive which is rather
marginal mood used by some speakers. Present subjunctive may be distinguished
from a past subjunctive on the basis of its form. The following are the examples of
all the three variants of mood:
x He was there on time. (Indicative mood)
x Be there on time! (Imperative mood)
x We insist that he be there on time. (Present subjunctive mood)
But if we say,
x He must be there on time. (A modal is used here instead of mood)
We should remember that mood refers to form not meaning. The past
subjunctive is identical with past indicative in English with all verbs except ‘be’.
The differences are mentioned as follows:
x I had a million dollars. (Indicative)
x If I had a million dollars (Subjunctive) with I was a rich woman (Indicative)
x If I were a rich woman (Subjunctive)
If you say, If I was a rich woman’, you have no distinction between the past
indicative and past subjunctive in grammar, hence the past subjunctive is not a
grammatical category.We should also note that similarly, present subjunctive also
seems to be identical to the base form of bare infinitive of the verb. Thus, only the
third person singular form of ordinary verbs distinguishes the present subjunctive
from the present indicative. Thus, the forms like ‘had you eaten that…can be
treated as past subjunctive as it has unambiguous element in modality.
There are ten modal verbs in English which are will, would, shall, should,
must, may, might, ought to, can, could. These are complex auxiliary forms which
depict the modality.
Types of modality
x Epistemic modals:These modals are used to indicate the possibility or
necessity of some piece of knowledge. For example,
It might rain tomorrow.
He may miss the train today.
He must have missed the train.
x Non-epistemic modals: These modals are also known as Deontic modals.
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Such modals are indicative of how the world ought to be according to Material 45
Verbs and Tenses certain norms, expectations, speaker’s desire, etc. Deontic modals generally
indicate some action that would change the world. For example,
You should read this book.
NOTES The college shall remain closed on 30th October on account of Diwali.
You must go now.
Modality in statements
The meaning of modals changes as it depends on whether the speaker is giving a
statement or requesting for something or giving permission. The following are the
types of modality in statements:
x Giving information/Epistemic
o Probability of events:When the speaker comments on the likelihood
of an event actually occurring.
– Talking about future events-simple modal is used.
– Talking about ongoing events is used in collaboration with continuous
form.
– Talking about past events with perfect aspect.
The following are the examples,
He must play. (Strong certainty)
He may play. (Less possibility)
He should play. (Weak certainty)
He will play. (Near certainty)
He might play. (Less possibility and past)
o Probability of states:Where the speaker is talking about a state rather
than an event.
Ask John, he might know the answer,
Ask him tomorrow, he might know then.
He will be there. (Strong state)
He must be there. (Medium probability)
He may be there. (Probability)
He might have been sick (Not sure)
o Complex auxiliaries: Which also expresses probability.
He has to play. (Must)
He ought to be playing. (Now)
He ought to play. (Should)
o Ability: Modals which express ability.
You can play tomorrow. (Permission)
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 I can swim. (Ability) Verbs and Tenses

Can you come tomorrow? (Requesting)

In those days, I could lift even heavy luggage. (Past ability)
o Conditional Action: When action is dependent on some condition, NOTES
‘would’ modal is used.
My sister would like to meet Mr Amitabh Bachhan, I would rather
meet Mr Rajni Kant.
He would play cricket if his father allowed him.
He would have played cricket, if his father had allowed him.
o Habitual and recurrent action:When the reported action is something
the speaker is habitual of.
Gandhiji would spin charkha.
o Giving information / Deontic
It also involves giving information but rather than commenting on
probability or possibility, they are concerned with the social
appropriateness of the event or state.
o Obligation:Social or personal obligation.
You have to go. (Present)
You will have to go. (Future)
You ought to go. (Weak present)
You will need to go. (Future)
You need to go. (Present)
You had to go. (Past)
3.2.3 Strong and Weak Verbs
In this section, we will be talking about weak and strong verbs though the epithet,
weak and strong, has nothing to do with the strength of the verbs. Weak also here
does not have a negative connotation. The weak verbs are simply verbs whose
past tense is formed by adding -ed or -t to the end. For example:
x Walk becomes walked
x Leap becomes leapt
x Rank becomes ranked
The weak verbs are also referred to as regular verbs. In case of weak
verbs, the stem vowel remains the same and the ending takes on a -ed or -t. More
examples:
x add-added
x admire-admired
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Verbs and Tenses x call-called
x dream-dreamt
x earn-earned
NOTES x enjoy-enjoyed
x fade-faded
x leap-leapt
x measure-measured
x observe-observed
x radiate-radiated
x sleep-slept
x taste-tasted
x yell-yelled
Strong verbs, on the other hand, do experience a change in their stem vowel.
For example:
x Sing becomes sang
x Teach becomes taught
x Come becomes came
Some more examples:
x bear-bore
x blow-blew
x catch-caught
x bring-brought
x choose-chose
x drive-drove
x give-gave
x grow-grew
x ring-rang
x shake-shook
x sit-sat
x stick-stuck
x string-strung
x swing-swung
x wear-wore

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48 Material
 Verbs and Tenses

Check Your Progress

1. Why is the verb considered as an essential part of a sentence?
2. What is an auxiliary verb? NOTES
3. What are the three variants of the moods?
4. How can you say that the meaning of modals changes?
5. Give any five examples of weak verb.

3.3 TENSE

Tenses in grammar are the various forms that indicate primarily different relationships
of events in time. In order to understand the difference between different sentences,
consider the following three sentences:
She did her homework yesterday.
She does her homework.
She will do her homework.
These three sentences try to describe the act of doing homework, but at
different instants or phases of time. The first sentence defines an event that took
place in the past. The second sentence describes an event that takes place but
whether it has been completed or not is not evident from this sentence. The third
sentence defines an event that has not yet occurred but will occur in the near
future. Thus, we find that the tense of a sentence normally indicates the time of
occurrence of an event. Tenses can be broadly classified into two forms, which
are:
x Present tense
x Past tense
3.3.1 Present Tense
Present tense is often used to express:
x Action at the present time
x A state of being
x A habitual action
x An occurrence in the near future
x An action that occurred in the past and continues till present
It is not sufficient to know the time of occurrence of an event only, it is
equally important to know the progress of the action mentioned. Thus, present
tense is further classified into subparts that explain the progress of the event
mentioned. Present tense is divided into four subparts or has four aspects which
are: Self-Instructional
Material 49
Verbs and Tenses x Simple present tense
x Present continuous tense
x Present perfect tense
NOTES x Present perfect continuous tense
Simple present tense
Simple present tense refers to the normal or general events that occur on a daily
basis. The general format for a statement in the simple present tense is:
Subject + The first form of the verb +….
When the subject is third person singular, ‘s’ or ‘es’ is added with the first
form of the verb. Table 3.1 shows different statements in the simple present tense.
Table 3.1 Statements in Simple Present Tense

The general format for interrogative sentences in the simple present tense is:
Do/Does + Subject + The first form of the Verb + …?
Table 3.2 shows interrogative sentences in the simple present tense.
Table 3.2 Interrogative Sentences in Simple Present Tense

The general format for the negative sentences in the simple present tense is:
Subject + do not/does not + the first form of Verb + …
Table 3.3 shows the negative sentences in the simple present tense.

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 Table 3.3 Negative Sentences in Simple Present Tense Verbs and Tenses

NOTES

The format for both interrogative and negative sentences is:

Do/Does + Subject + not + the first form of the Verb + …?
Table 3.4 shows the interrogative, negative sentences in the simple present
tense.
Table 3.4 Interrogative + Negative Sentences in Simple Present Tense

The simple present tense is used in the following cases:

x This tense is used for expressing the facts that are universally true. Some
examples of this type are mentioned below:
Honesty is the best policy.
The moon revolves round the earth.
The earth rotates on its own axis.
The Mount Everest is the world’s highest peak.
x This tense is used for describing repeated events and habits. These
sentences are used to describe usual information but do not provide any
information on whether the event is taking place at the time of speaking.
Some examples of this form are mentioned below:
Delhi always has hot summers.
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I write in my diary every day. Material 51
Verbs and Tenses My office begins at 9 am.
I watch movies on every weekend
Note:Adverbs of frequency are normally used in such sentences; for
NOTES example, always, often, never, seldom, sometimes, usually, generally,
once a day, etc. This tense is used for describing any event planned in
the future. Thus, we see that present tense can be used for referring to
future time but given the fact that it should be a definite plan/programme.
For example, the General Manager (GM) arrives at Mumbai on
Wednesday and presides over the meeting.
x This tense is also used to make general statements. Some examples of
this type of statement are mentioned below:
He is a good singer.
English is one of the popular languages in the world.
Listening is more important than speaking.
My friend lives in Delhi.
x This tense is used to give a running commentary of actions as they actually
occur. For example, the bowler runs up to the wicket and bowls. The
batsman moves to the back foot and steers the ball down the third man
for a single.
x This tense is used to conclude any past occurrence in a dramatic and
distinct manner. For example, when the film begins, Mr Justin is having
coffee. The doorbell rings and Mr Justin opens the door.
x This tense is also used in exclamatory sentences beginning with ‘here’
and ‘there’ to express what is actually taking place in the present. For
example, ‘Here goes the ball.’
x Simple present tense is used in the clauses after conjunctions of time or
condition when the main clause is in the future. For example:
I shall not help him unless he asks for it.
He will come if you invite him.
x It is also used to introduce quotations. For example, Shakespeare said:
‘All that glitters is not gold’.
Present continuous tense
Present continuous tense is used to explain the events that are in process. The
general format for the statements in present continuous tense is:
Subject + is/are/am + Verb (— ing form) + …
Table 3.5 shows the statements in the present continuous tense.

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 Table 3.5 Sentences in Present Continuous Tense Verbs and Tenses

S. No. Subject Is/are/am Verb (ing The

form) remaining
part of the
sentence
NOTES
1 We are waiting for the bus.
2 I am reading a book.
3 She is singing a song.
4 She is wearing a red saree.

The format for interrogative sentences in the present continuous tense is:
Is/are/am + Subject + Verb (ing form) + …?
Table 3.6 shows the interrogative sentences in the present continuous tense.

Table 3.6 Interrogative Sentences in Present Continuous Tense

The format for negative sentences in the present continuous tense is:
Subject + is/am/are + not + verb (ing) + …
Table 3.7 shows the negative sentences in the present continuous tense.
Table 3.7 Negative Sentences in Present Continuous Tense

The format for both an interrogative and negative sentence in the present
continuous tense is:
Is/are/am + Subject + not + verb (ing) + …?
Table 3.8 shows the interrogative and negative sentences in the present
continuous tense. Self-Instructional
Material 53
Verbs and Tenses Table 3.8 Interrogative and Negative Sentences in Present Continuous Tense

NOTES

The present continuous tense is used in the following cases:

x This tense is used to describe an event that is occurring now at the time
of speaking. Some of the examples of this type of sentences are:
He is doing his homework.
She is singing a song.
He is running.
We are watching a soccer match.
x This tense is used to describe an event that is going on for quite some
time including the present, but may or may not be occurring at the time
of speaking. Some examples of this form of sentence are:
He is doing a software-testing course these days.
We are working on a software project nowadays.
He is attending dance classes.
I am writing a book on industrial engineering.
x This tense is used to describe an event whose occurrence in the near
future is a certainty. Some examples of this form of sentence are:
The Prime Minister is arriving on Tuesday.
We are going to Delhi tomorrow.
I am leaving this place tomorrow.
x This tense is also used when the speaker wants to disapprove an event
that occurs quite frequently. Some of the examples of this type of sentence
are:
He is always complaining about something.
You are becoming lazy day by day.
There are some verbs which cannot be normally used in the continuous
tense on account of their meaning such as:
x Verbs of perception, e.g., see, hear, smell etc.
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x Verbs of thinking, e.g., think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, etc.
54 Material
 x Verbs of appearing, e.g., appear, look, seem Verbs and Tenses

x Verbs of emotion, e.g., want, wish, desire feel, love, hate, hope
Present perfect tense
NOTES
Present perfect tense refers to those events that have been completed recently.
The format for present perfect tense statement is given as:
Subject + has/have + the past participle+ …
Table 3.9 shows some of the statements in present perfect tense.
Table 3.9 Statements in Present Perfect Tense

S. No. Subject Has/have Past The

Participle remaining
part of the
sentence

1 I have bought a new

computer.
2 We have finished our work.

3 He has received his

commission.
4 She has relocated to a new place.

The format for interrogative sentences in the present perfect tense is:
Has/have + Subject + the past participle…?
Table 3.10 shows some of the interrogative sentences in the present perfect
tense.
Table 3.10 Interrogative Sentences in Present Perfect Tense

The format for a negative sentence in the present perfect tense is:
Subject + has/have + not + the past participle+ …
Table 3.11 shows some of the negative sentences in the present perfect
tense.

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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.11 Negative Sentences in Present Perfect Tense

NOTES

The format for the interrogative-negative sentences in the present perfect

tense is:
Has/have + Subject + not + the past participle+ …
Table 3.12 shows some negative sentences in the present perfect tense.
Table 3.12 Negative Sentences in Present Perfect Tense

The present perfect tense is used in the following cases:

x The present perfect tense is used to refer to a past event that acts as an
experience. Some examples of this type of sentence are:
I have succeeded in my first attempt.
He has faced a lot of hardships.
x This tense is used to explain an event that occurred in the past and is
taken as a reference to express its importance at the time of speaking.
Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
I have relocated to a new place.
He has parked the car in the garage.

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 x This tense is used to explain an event that began in the past and is still in Verbs and Tenses

continuation. Some examples of this type of sentence are:

He has known her for five years.
They have lived in the US for several years. NOTES
x This tense is also used to explain an action that is not finished yet. Some
examples of this type of sentence are:
The train has not arrived yet.
The match has not started so far.
x This tense also describes a past event whose time of occurrence is not
mentioned. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
I have received a phone call from my friend.
They have done a terrific job.
Present perfect continuous tense
Present perfect continuous tense is used to describe an event that has been occurring
for some time and is still in continuation. The format for statements in the present
continuous tense is:
Subject + has been/have been + the present participle + …
Table 3.13 shows some of the statements in the present perfect continuous
tense.
Table 3.13 Statements in Present Perfect Continuous

The format for the interrogative sentences in present perfect continuous

tense is:
Has/have + subject + been + the present participle + …
Table 3.14 shows interrogative sentences in the present perfect continuous
tense.

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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.14 Interrogative Sentences in Present Perfect Continuous Tense

NOTES

The format for the negative sentences in the present perfect continuous is:
Subject + has /have not been + the present participle + …
Table 3.15 shows the negative sentences in the present perfect continuous
tense.
Table 3.15 Negative Sentences in Present Perfect Continuous Tense

The format for the interrogative, negative sentences in the present perfect
continuous tense is:
Has/have + subject + not + been + the present participle + …
Table 3.16 shows some interrogative-negative sentences in the present
perfect continuous tense.
Table 3.16 Interrogative-Negative Sentences in Present Perfect Continuous

S. No. Has/have Subject Not Been Present The

Participle remaining
part of
the
sentence
1 Have I not been working since
morning?
2 Has he not been sleeping since 10
pm?
3 Has the child not been crying for an
hour?

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58 Material afternoon?
 The present perfect tense is used in the following cases: Verbs and Tenses

x This tense is used to describe an event that started sometime in the past,
is still going on and is in continuation at the time of speaking. Some of
the examples of this type of sentence are:
NOTES
We have been working together since two years.
You have been studying since morning.
It has been raining since last night.
x This tense is also used to describe the continuous and undisturbed nature
of an event, though the event may not be occurring at the time of speaking.
Some of the examples of this type of sentence are mentioned:
The children have been playing all morning.
I have been working all the time.
Note:‘Since’ and ‘for’ are often used with perfect continuous tense. Since is used
with a point of time at which an action started (The action continues till the present
moment). For example,’ I have been reading a novel since last Sunday.’ For is
used to suggest a period of time for which an action has been going on. For
example,’ I have been typing for almost a year.’
3.3.2 Past Tense
In order to know the approximate time of occurrence of an event, the past tense is
also divided into subtypes that are:
x Simple past tense
x Past continuous tense
x Past perfect tense
x Past perfect continuous tense
Simple past tense
Simple past tense is used to indicate an action completed in the past.The format
for a statement in the simple past tense is:
Subject + verb (past form) + …
Table 3.17 shows some statements in the simple past tense.
Table 3.17 Statements in Simple Past Tense

S. No. Subject Verb The remaining

part of sentence

1 He met his teacher the day

before yesterday.
2 I rang him in the
morning.
3 You did the work
yesterday.
4 We came here last Friday. Self-Instructional
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Verbs and Tenses The format for the interrogative sentences in simple past tense is:
Did + subject + verb (present form) + …
Table 3.18 shows some interrogative sentences in the simple past tense.
NOTES Table 3.18 Interrogative Sentences in Simple Past Tense

The format for the negative sentences in the simple past tense is:
Subject + did not + verb (present form) + …
Table 3.19 shows some negative sentences in the simple past tense.
Table 3.19 Negative Sentences in Simple Past Tense

The format for interrogative-negative sentence in the simple past tense is:
Did + subject + not + verb (present form) + …?
Table 3.20 shows some interrogative-negative sentences in the simple past
tense.

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 Table 3.20 Interrogative-Negative Sentences in Simple Past Tense Verbs and Tenses

S. No. Did Subject Not Verb The

remaining
part of the
sentence
NOTES
1 Did he not meet his teacher
the day
before
yesterday?

2 Did I not ring him in the

morning?

3 Did you not do the work

yesterday?

4 Did we not come here last

Friday?

Simple past tense is used in the following cases:

x This tense is used to describe a series of events that occurred in the past.
For example, ‘the Managing Director (MD) came to Delhi yesterday and attended
the meeting’.
x This tense is used to explain an event that occurred in the past. Some of
the examples of this type of sentence are:
We bought a television one week ago.
I watched a movie last Saturday.
She left for Chennai yesterday.
x This tense is used to refer to an event that engaged for quite some time in
the past and has now ended. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
I lived in Delhi for two years.
I worked in this company for ten years.
x This tense is used to explain an action that was a habit or usually performed
in the past. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
He attended the dance classes regularly in the winter vacations.
I always went to play at the same time in my vacations.
Past continuous tense
Past continuous tense denotes an event which was going on at some time in the
past. The time of occurrence of the event may or may not be specified. The format
for a statement in the past continuous tense is:
Subject + was/were + present participle + …
Table 3.21 shows some statements in the past continuous tense.

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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.21 Statements in Past Continuous Tense

S. No. Subject Was/were Verb The remaining

(ing) part of the
sentence
NOTES
1 I was waiting for the bus.

2 We were playing cricket.

3 She was feeding the child.

4 You were listening to the music.

The format for an interrogative sentence in the past continuous tense is:
Was/were + subject + present participle + …?
Table 3.22 shows some interrogative sentences in the past continuous tense.
Table 3.22 Interrogative Sentences in Past Continuous Tense

The format for a negative sentence in the past continuous tense is:
Subject + was/were + not + present participle + …
Table 3.23 shows some negative sentences in the past continuous tense.
Table 3.23 Negative Sentences in Past Continuous Tense

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 The format for interrogative-negative sentence in the past continuous tense Verbs and Tenses

is:
Was/were + subject + not + present participle + …?
Table 3.24 shows some interrogative-negative sentences in the past NOTES
continuous tense.
Table 3.24 Interrogative-Negative Sentences in Past Continuous Tense

The past continuous tense is used in the following cases:

x This tense is used to express the progressive development of an occurrence.
Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
It was getting hot.
The kid was growing nicely.
x This tense is used to explain an event that was in progression, sometimes
in the past. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
The jurisdiction was looking into the matter.
He was having his dinner at 10 p.m.
We were watching television at 8 p.m. yesterday.
At 7 a.m. in the morning, he was having his breakfast.
x This tense is used to express an event when another event comes into the
picture. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
I was working when the doorbell rang.
He was studying, when someone bumped into him.
x This tense also describes two actions occurring together in the past. Some
of the examples of this type of sentence are:
While I was reading, he was watching television.
We were working when it was raining.
x This tense is also used to convey disapproval or disagreement on a
repeatedly occurring event. Some of the examples of this type of sentence are:
They were always making a fool of others.
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Verbs and Tenses She was regularly asking for money.
He was constantly pressurizing me.
Past perfect tense
NOTES
The past perfect tense refers to an event that was finished before a particular
moment in the past. The format for the statements in the past perfect tense is:
Subject + had + past principle + …
Table 3.25 shows some statements in the past perfect tense.
Table 3.25 Statements in Past Perfect Tense

S. No. Subject Had Past Principle The

remaining
part of the
sentence
1 I had left when you
arrived.
2 He had finished his work
before his
friends
arrived.
3 He had completed his work long
ago.
4 He had left when I arrived.

The format for interrogative sentences in the past perfect tense is:
Had + subject + past participle + …?
Table 3.26 shows some interrogative sentences in the past perfect tense.
Table 3.26 Interrogative Sentences in Past Perfect Tense

S. No. Had Subject Past Principle The

remaining
part of the
sentence
1 Had I left when you
arrived?
2 Had he finished his work
before his
friends
arrived?
3 Had he completed his work long
ago?
4 Had he left when I
arrived?

The format for negative sentences in the past perfect tense is:
Subject + had not + Past Participle + …
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Table 3.27 shows some negative sentences in the past perfect tense.
 Table 3.27 Negative Sentences in Past Perfect Tense Verbs and Tenses

NOTES

The format for interrogative-negative sentences in the past perfect tense:

Had + subject + not + Past Participle + …?
Table 3.28 shows the interrogative-negative sentences in the past perfect
tense.
Table 3.28 Interrogative-Negative Sentences in Past Perfect Tense

Past perfect tense is used in the following cases:

x This tense is used to describe an event that was finished before another
event had occurred in the past. Some examples of this type of sentence are:
I went to office after the rain had stopped.
As soon as I had eaten, the bell rang.
x This tense is used to state an unrealized circumstance in the past. Some
examples of this type of sentence are:
If I had asked him, he would have helped me.
If you had left earlier before, you would have caught the bus.
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Verbs and Tenses x This tense is also used to state that a past intention was not realized. Some
examples of this type of sentence are mentioned below:
He had wished to become an athlete.
NOTES He had hoped to win the marathon.
He had intended to send his son to the US for higher studies.
Past perfect continuous tense
Past perfect continuous tense refers to those events that begin before a particular
point in the past and continue up to that point of time. Table 3.29 shows the form
of simple sentences, interrogative sentences, negative sentences and interrogative-
negative sentences in the past perfect continuous tense.
Table 3.29 Format of Different Types of Sentences in Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Types Format

Statements Subject + had been + verb (ing form) +

…
Interrogative Sentences Had + subject + been + verb (ing form) +
…?
Negative Sentences Subject + had not been + verb (ing form)
+…
Interrogative-Negative Sentences Had + Subject + not + been + verb (ing
form) + …?

Some examples of the past perfect continuous tense are:

He had been attempting to commit suicide.
Had he been attempting to commit suicide?
He had not been attempting to commit suicide.
Had he not been attempting to commit suicide?
I had been attempting this question for an hour.
She had been sleeping since morning.
The baby had been weeping for hours.
The children had been playing in the park for hours.
3.3.3 Future Forms
Future time can be expressed with the help of the following forms:
x Simple present
x Present progressive
x Be going to
x Be + infinitive
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x Modal auxiliaries-shall/will
66 Material
Simple present Verbs and Tenses

Simple present + adverbial of future tense is used to express a definite plan,

arrangement or event. Some examples of this form are:
The players board the bus to Delhi tomorrow. NOTES
India goes to play Pakistan next week.
Present progressive
Present progressive always employs an adverbial of future time to make it different
from the present + future time. Some examples of this form are:
I am visiting Delhi tomorrow.
The delegates are attending the meeting next week.
Be going to
Going is used to express the future time in case some action or event is expected
to occur in the future. Some of the examples of this form are:
I have saved enough money. I am going to purchase a house next month.
He has invited all his friends. He is going to celebrate his marriage anniversary
tomorrow.
Some of the important points to remember while using these three future
forms are explained follows:
x ‘Will’ represents simple future and is not used when the intention is depicted.
x ‘Going to’ generally refers to an immediate future, whereas ‘will’ can refer
to immediate as well as distant future.
x Present progressive form is preferred rather than using ‘going to come/
go’.
x The short form of ‘I am going to’ is ‘gonna’ and is used only in informal
speech.
Be + Infinitive
Am/is/are + infinitive do not merely express futurity; it also expresses a
future time + plan. Some of the examples of this form are:
The principal is to give away the trophies.
He is to get married next week.
Am/is/are + about/just about + infinitive is used to express an immediate
future. Some of the examples of this form are:
The president is about to begin his speech.
India is about to do a turn around.
Modal auxiliaries
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Verbs and Tenses There are four different forms of modal auxiliaries that are used to express
future time. These forms are:
x Simple future: For a verb, the simple future form is shall/will + bare
infinitive. For ‘be’, the simple future form is shall/will + be. For ‘have’, the simple
NOTES
future form is shall/will + have. Some examples of the simple future form are:
He shall be thirty on his next birthday.
We shall have a party tonight.
x Future progressive: For a verb, the future progressive form is ‘will be’
+ ‘present participle’. For ‘have’, the future progressive form is ‘will be’ + ‘having’.
‘Will’ is more commonly used than ‘shall’ for the first person. Some examples of
the future progressive form are:
He will be writing the novel tomorrow evening.
He will be leaving for the US next month.
x Future perfect: For a verb, the future perfect form is ‘shall/will’ + perfect
infinitive. For ‘shall/will’ + ‘have’, the future perfect form is ‘shall/will have’ +
‘had’. For the verb ‘be’, the future perfect form is ‘will have been’. Some examples
of the future perfect form are:
They will have built a fortune by the end of this year.
India will have won the match.
x Future perfect progressive: For a verb, the future progressive form is
‘shall/will’ + ‘have’ + present participle. Some examples of the future perfect
progressive form are:
By the end of this month, I will have been working here for one year.
By the end of this year, he will have been travelling for ten months.
x Future perfect: For a verb, the future perfect form is ‘shall/will’ + perfect
infinitive. For ‘shall/will’ + ‘have’, the future perfect form is ‘shall/will have’ +
‘had’. For the verb ‘be’, the future perfect form is ‘will have been’. Some examples
of the future perfect form are:
They will have built a fortune by the end of this year.
India will have won the match.
x Future perfect progressive: For a verb, the future progressive form is
‘shall/will’ + ‘have’ + present participle. Some examples of the future perfect
progressive form are:
By the end of this month, I will have been working here for one year.
By the end of this year, he will have been travelling for ten months.
3.3.4 Active and Passive Voice
Compare the following:
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 Rita helps Neha. Verbs and Tenses

Neha is helped by Rita.

You will find that though these two sentences express the same meaning,
they are different. In sentence 1, the form of the verb shows that the person denoted NOTES
by the subject does something.Rita (the person denoted by the subject)
doessomething.The verb helps is said to be in the Active Voice.In sentence 2, the
form of the verb shows that something is done to the person denoted by the
subject.Something is done to Neha (the person denoted by the subject).The verb
helped is said to be in the passive voice.
So,a verb is in the active voice when its form shows (as in sentence 1) that
the person or thing denoted by the subject does something; or, in other words, is
the doer of the action. The active voice is so called because the person denoted
by the subject acts.A verb is in the passive voice when its form shows (as in
sentence 2) that something is done to the person or thing denoted by the subject.
The passive voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject
is not active but passive, that is, suffers or receives some action.Voice is that form
of a verb which shows whether what is denoted by the subject does something or
has something done to it. Table 3.30 shows the change from the active voice to
the passive voice.
Table 3.30 Conversion of Active Voice to Passive Voice

Active Voice Passive Voice

1. Anjali loves Janaki. 1. Janaki is loved by Anjali.
2. The mason is building the wall. 2. The wall is being built by the
mason.
3. The watchman opened the gate. 3. The gate was opened by the
watchman.
4. Some children were helping the 4. The wounded man was being
wounded man. helped by some children.
5. He will finish the work in a 5. The work will be finished by
in week. him a week.
6. Who did this? 6. By whom was this done?
7. Why did your brother write such a 7. Why was such a letter written
letter? by your brother ?

It can be noticed that when the verb is changed from the active voice to the
passive voice, the object of the transitive verb in the active voice becomes the
subject ofthe verb in the passive voice. Thus, in sentence 1, Janaki,which is the
object of loves in the active voice, becomes the subject of is loved in the passive
voice.Since the object of a verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the
passive form, it follows that only transitive verbs can be used in the passive
voice, because an intransitive verb has no object.The passive voice is formed
with the suitable tense of the verb be followed by the past participle. Study Table
3.31.

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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.31 Tense and Voice

NOTES

Students must know when to use the active voice and when to use the
passive: the ability to change the active voice into the passive and vice versa is not
sufficient. The active voice is used when the agent (i.e.,doer of the action) is to be
made prominent; the passive voice is used when the person or thing acted upon is
to be made prominent. The passive is, therefore, generally preferred when the
active form would involve the use of an indefinite or vague pronoun or noun
(somebody, they, people, we,etc.) as subject; that is, when we do not know the
agent or when it is not clear enough who the agent is.
My pen has been stolen. (Somebody has stolen my pen.)
I was asked my name. (They asked me my name.)
English is spoken all over the world. (People speak English all over the
world.)
I have been invited to the party. (Someone has invited me to the party.)
All orders will be executed promptly. (We will execute all orders promptly)
In such cases, the agent with by is usually avoided.
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 Note, however, that, as in the examples given earlier, the by-phrase cannot Verbs and Tenses

be avoided where the agent has some importance and is necessary to complete
the sense.
3.3.5 Reported Speech NOTES
The speech of a person can be narrated in two ways:
x Direct speech or narration, by quoting the exact words said within inverted
commas: for example, Ram said, ‘You can do it.’
x Indirect speech or reported speech in which the words of the speaker are
reported without using the exact words: for example, Ram told him that he could
do it.
Table 3.32 Differences between Direct and Reported Speech

Direct speech Reported speech

1. Enclosed within inverted commas. 1. No inverted commas used. E.g., She
E.g., She says, 'I am reading a book.' says that she is reading a book.
2. Direct speech begins with a capital 2. Does not begin with a capital letter.
letter.
3. It is separated from the reporting 3. No comma is used.
verb by a comma.
4. A conjunction is used instead—that,
if, whether—after the reporting verb.
5. The tense of the reporting verb does
not change.

Points to remember for indirect speech

The following important points should be kept in mind while using indirect speech:
x While using indirect speech, an appropriate conjunction must be used in
place of the inverted commas.
x There should not be any change in the tense of the reporting verb.
x In indirect speech, the sentences with respect to questions and exclamations
are changed into assertive sentence.
x In the indirect speech, the tense of the verb in the reported speech is
changed in accordance with the specified rules.
Rules for changing tenses
The various rules that must be followed while changing tenses in indirect speech
are explained as follows:
x Rule 1: The tense of the verb in the reported speech is not changed if the
reporting verb is in the present or the future tense. Table 3.33 shows that if the
reporting verb is in the present or future tense, then there is no change in the
reported speech.
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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.33 Reporting Verb in the Present and Future Tense

NOTES

x Rule 2: The tenses of the verbs in the reported speech will also change
into the corresponding past tense if the reporting verb is in the past tense.Table
3.34 shows the different rules, which are to be kept in mind for changing the verbs
in the reported speech if the reporting verb is in the past tense.
Table 3.34 Rules to Change Verbs in Reported Speech

Present Indefinite changes into Past Indefinite Tense

Tense ate, did not eat
Do eat, does eat, eats,
eat, do not eat, does not
eat
Present Continuous changes into Past Continuous Tense
Tense was, were eating,
is / am / are eating
Present Perfect Tense changes into Past Perfect Tense
Has / have eaten had eaten

Present Perfect changes into Past Perfect Continuous

Continuous Tense Tense
Has/have been eating had been eating
Past Indefinite Tense changes into Past Perfect Tense
Ate/did eat had eaten

Past Continuous tense changes into Past Perfect Continuous

Was/were eating tense
had been eating

Shall, will changes into would

Can changes into could
May Changes into might

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Changing pronouns and possessive adjectives Verbs and Tenses

Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the first person are changed according to
the subject of the reporting verb. Some of the examples to depict this change are:
Direct: I said, “I want to consult my doctor.” NOTES
Indirect: I said that I wanted to consult my doctor.
Direct: You said, “I want to consult my doctor.”
Indirect: You said that you wanted to consult your doctor.
Direct: He said, “I want to consult my doctor.”
Indirect: He said that he wanted to consult his doctor.
Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the second person are changed
according to the object of the reporting verb. Some of the examples to depict this
change are:
Direct: Ram said to me, “Your friends are waiting for you.”
Indirect: Ram told me that my friends are waiting for me.
Direct: Ram said to you, “Your parents are waiting for you.”
Indirect: Ram told you that your parents were waiting for you.
Direct: Ram said to him, “Your parents are waiting for you.”
Indirect: Ram told him that his were parents waiting for him.
Pronouns and possessive adjectives of the third person remain unchanged.
Some of the examples to depict this change are:
Direct: I said to you, “She should be trusted.”
Indirect: I told you that she should be trusted.
Direct: You said to me, “Ram should not have neglected his friends.”
Indirect: You told me that Ram should not have neglected his friends.
Changes relating to nearness in distance and time
Besides making the changes in tenses and pronouns, some other changes are also
made while changing the sentences from direct to indirect speech. Table 3.35
shows the changes relating to distance and time.

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Verbs and Tenses Table 3.35 Changes Relating to Nearness in Time and Distance

NOTES

Check Your Progress

6. List the subparts of the present tense.
7. State two instances wherein the present perfect tense should be used.
8. State the subparts of the past tense.
9. Give an example of the past continuous tense used to express an event
when another event comes into the picture.
10. In what ways can future time be expressed?
11. When is a verb said to be in active voice?
12. State one rule that must be followed while changing tenses in indirect speech.

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 Verbs and Tenses
3.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

1. Verb is considered as an essential part of a sentence because it is an essential NOTES

part of the predicate of a sentence. Any word which characterizes an action
or state of being is a verb. Thus, a sentence cannot be formed without the
use of the verb.
2. An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone. It helps a main verb. For
example, Manoj has finished his dinner. In this example, finished is the
main verb; has is the auxiliary verb.
3. The three variants of mood are as follows:
(a) Indicative mood
(b) Imperative mood
(c) Present subjunctive mood
4. The meaning of modals changes as it depends on whether the speaker is
giving a statement or requesting for something or giving permission.
5. Following are the examples of weak verb:
(a) Call-called
(b) Dream-dreamt
(c) Earn-earned
(d) Enjoy-enjoyed
(e) Fade-faded
6. The present tense is divided into four subparts which are as follows:
(a) Simple present tense
(b) Present continuous tense
(c) Present perfect tense
(d) Present perfect continuous tense
7. The present perfect tense is used to:
(a) Refer to a past event that acts as an experience
(b) Explain an event that occurred in the past and is taken as a reference
to express its importance at the time of speaking.
8. The past tense is divided into the following subtypes:
(a) Simple past tense
(b) Past continuous tense
(c) Past perfect tense
(d) Past perfect continuous tense

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Verbs and Tenses 9. An example of the past continuous tense used to express an event when
another event comes into the picture is as follows: I was cooking when the
guests arrived.
10. Future time can be expressed with the help of the following form:
NOTES
(a) Simple present
(b) Present progressive
(c) Be going to
(d) Be + infinitive
(e) Modal auxiliaries–shall/will
11. A verb is in the active voice when its form shows (as in sentence 1) that the
person or thing denoted by the subject does something; or, in other words,
is the doer of the action.
12. The tense of the verb in the reported speech is not changed if the reporting
verb is in the present or the future tense.

3.5 SUMMARY

x A part of speech where an existence, action, or occurrence is expressed is

called a verb.
x A verb is an essential part of the predicate of a sentence. Any word which
characterizes an action or state of being is a verb.
x A transitive verb requires an object to complete its meaning.
x An intransitive verb does not require the action to pass to any object.
x An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone as it helps a main verb.
x The verb does not change when the subject is in first or second person or is
plural.
x Tenses in grammar are the various forms that indicate primarily different
relationships of events in time.
x Tenses can be broadly classified into two forms, namely, present tense and
past tense.
x As mentioned earlier, there is nothing like a separate future tense
corresponding to present tense and past tense. Futurity is implied by using
words that express or indicate an act that is to happen in the future.
x Present tense is further classified into subparts that explain the progress of
the event mentioned. Present tense is divided into four subparts or has four
aspects.
x Simple present tense refers to the normal or general events that occur on a
daily basis.
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 x Present continuous tense is used to explain the events that are in process. Verbs and Tenses

x Present perfect tense refers to those events that have been completed
recently.
x Present perfect continuous tense is used to describe an event that has been NOTES
occurring for some time and is still in continuation.
x Simple past tense is used to indicate an action completed in the past.
x Past continuous tense denotes an event which was going on at some time in
the past.
x The past perfect tense refers to an event that was finished before a particular
moment in the past.
x Past perfect continuous tense refers to those events that begin before a
particular point in the past and continue up to that point of time.
x Present progressive always employs an adverbial of future time to make it
different from the present + future time.
x Going is used to express the future time in case some action or event is
expected to occur in the future.
x A verb is in the passive voice when its form shows that something is done to
the person or thing denoted by the subject.
x Voice is that form of a verb which shows whether what is denoted by the
subject does something or has something done to it.
x It should be noted that when the verb is changed from the active voice to
the passive voice, the object of the transitive verb in the active voice
becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice.
x Since the object of a verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the
passive form, it follows that only transitive verbs can be used in the passive
voice, because an intransitive verb has no object.
x The Active voice is used when the agent (i.e., doer of the action) is to be
made prominent; the passive voice is used when the person or thing acted
upon is to be made prominent.
x The speech of a person can be narrated in two ways: direct speech and
indirect speech.

3.6 KEY WORDS

x Tenses: In grammar, tenses are the various forms that indicate the different
relationships of events in time.
x Simple Present Tense: It refers to the normal or general events that occur
on a daily basis.
x Modal Auxiliaries: It is a type of verb that is used to indicate modality
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Verbs and Tenses
3.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

NOTES Short Answer Questions

1. What are the uses of present tense?
2. Mention some cases where the present continuous tense is used.
3. What is future tense? Briefly explain simple future tense.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the meaning of verbs and its types in detail.
2. What do you mean by tenses? Discuss past tense and its various aspects in
detail.
3. Explain the rules for changing the tense of a verb while converting direct
speech to indirect speech.

3.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Auxiliaries and Adverbs

UNIT 4 AUXILIARIES AND

ADVERBS
NOTES
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Auxiliaries
4.2.1 Primary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs
4.2.2 Anomalous Finites
4.3 Adverbs
4.3.1 Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs
4.3.2 Position of Adverbs
4.3.3 Verbs Compounded with Adverbs: The Position of the Object
4.3.4 Adverb Clause
4.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
4.5 Summary
4.6 Key Words
4.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
4.8 Further Readings

4.0 INTRODUCTION

An auxiliary verb is a verb that adds functional or grammatical meaning to the

clause in which it occurs, so as to express tense, aspect, modality, voice, emphasis,
etc. Auxiliary verbs usually accompany an infinitive verb or a participle, which
respectively provide the main semantic content of the clause. While an adverb is a
word or an expression that modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner,
clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time,
frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc. answering questions such as how, in
what way, when, where, and to what extent. In this unit, we will discuss the concepts
of auxiliaries and adverbs.

4.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the concepts of auxiliaries and adverbs
x Discuss the significance of auxiliaries
x Describe the usage of adverbs

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Auxiliaries and Adverbs
4.2 AUXILIARIES

An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone. It helps a main verb. For example:
NOTES Manoj has finished his dinner.
In the above example, finished is the main verb; has is the auxiliary verb.
The auxiliary or helping verbs are:
x Be (is, am, are, was, were)
x Have (has, had)
x Do (does, did)
x May (might)
x Can (could)
x Shall (should)
x Will (would)
x Must; let.
Examples
Ravi is the chief manager.
The coffee mugs are in the cabinet.
Ruby does this kind of thing very often.
My husband and I do the cleaning every week.
I won’t be able to complete my work because Suzy still has my laptop.
We have many types of food in the fridge.
4.2.1 Primary and Modal Auxiliary Verbs
The primary auxiliary verbs are—be, have, and do—they most frequently occur
in English. They are also some of the trickiest to master, since each can also be
used as a principal verb in a sentence, and as a result, each can conjugate to
represent plurality and tense. ‘Be’ and ‘have’ as auxiliaries are used to conjugate
the continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses. For example, in case of
‘have’:
I have eaten my lunch.
She has been to Paris.
I have been waiting for ten minutes.
It is important to note that each perfect tense has different use (present
perfect, past perfect, future perfect).

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 In case of ‘be’: Auxiliaries and Adverbs

I am talking to you now.

The chicken is being eaten by him
‘Do’ is used to negate main verbs or form interrogative sentences, and may NOTES
also be used to emphasize a sentence, for example:
‘Do you have a pencil?’-‘Yes, I have a pencil’ or ‘No, I don’t have a
pencil’
Modal auxiliary verbs are used to show need, ability, will or possibility.
Unlike other verbs, these verbs have only one form. Usually, the verb forms change
to indicate whether the structure of the sentence is singular or plural. Also, most
verbs suggest that something has happened in the past, the present or the future.
This isn’t the case with most modal auxiliary verbs, which makes them easy to
correctly understand and use. Some of the prominent Modal auxiliary verbs are:
x May
x Might
x Can
x Could
x Must
x Ought
x Shall
x Should
x Will
x Would
4.2.2 Anomalous Finites
The term anomalous finites refer to the group of 24 finites given below:
x Is, am, are, was, were
x Has, have, had
x Do, does, did
x Will, would
x Shall, should
x Can, could
x May, might
x Must, ought,
x Need
x Dare
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Auxiliaries and Adverbs These are all auxiliary verbs. Some of them are also used as principal verbs.
As auxiliaries their function is to help principal verbs to form their tenses and
moods. As anomalous finites, they have other functions. Anomalous finites are
irregular. They do not form the past tense by the addition of -ed, -d or -t, but by
NOTES a change in the root vowel. Some anomalous finites (must, ought) have no past
tense forms at all. But these irregular finite verbs are different from other finite
verbs in many respects and hence they are called anomalous finites.
The most obvious difference between anomalous finites and other finites is
that they can be used with the contraction n’t which is the shortened form of not.
x It isn’t true.
x We aren’t going anywhere.
x You shouldn’t do that.
x I don’t know what to do.
Of the 24 anomalous finites, the forms be, have, do, need and dare are
sometimes used as principal verbs and sometimes as auxiliaries. The remaining
are always used as auxiliaries.
Use of anomalous finites
The anomalous finites are used in following ways:
x To form negative sentences
o I know him.
o I don’t know him. (NOT-I know not him.)
o She wrote to me.
o She didn’t write to me. (NOT-She wrote not to me.)
x Anomalous finites are the only verbs in modern English which can form
their negatives by the simple addition of not.
o He will come.
He will not come.
o He came.
He did not come. (NOT-He came not.)
o Can I do it?
No, you can’t.
o Should I take it?
No, you shouldn’t.
o He took the medicine.
He did not take the medicine. (NOT-He took not the medicine.)
x Anomalous finites are also the only verbs that can be used with the shortened
form of not.
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x To form questions: A question is usually formed by putting the anomalous Auxiliaries and Adverbs

finite before the subject of the sentence.

o He is a good singer.
Is he a good singer? NOTES
o They have won the race.
Have they won the race?
o The cat will kill the mouse.
Will the cat kill the mouse?
If the affirmative sentence does not contain an anomalous finite, the
auxiliary do and its forms are used to make questions.
o He killed the spider.
Did he kill the spider? (NOT-Killed he the spider?)
o They went to Beijing.
Did they go to Beijing?
o He fell off the ladder.
Did he fall off the ladder?
o They make good cheese.
Do they make good cheese?
o She likes ice cream.
Does she like ice cream?
x To form negative questions: The anomalous finites are also used to form
negative questions.
o He does not like it.
Does he not like it?
Doesn’t he like it?
o They do not eat meat.
Do they not eat meat?
Don’t they eat meat?
o She did not touch it.
Did she not touch it?
Didn’t she touch it?

Check Your Progress

1. What is an auxiliary verb?
2. Why are the primary auxiliary verbs most difficult to master?
3. What is the most obvious difference between anomalous finites and other
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4.3 ADVERBS

Adverbs add to the meaning of words and many adverbs of manner become
NOTES adverbs by the addition of –ly to the adjective, e.g. hurried (hurriedly), sad (sadly),
happy (happily). However, in case an adjective already ends in -ly, then it is not
possible to change this word. These words can be divided into two categories;
one where the word can be used as an adjective and an adverb, e.g., nightly,
biweekly, biannually, monthly.
Femina is a biweekly publication.
Femina is published biweekly.
We see the news nightly.
Reading is a nightly ritual.
4.3.1 Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs
There are some words ending with –ly which can only be used as adjectives.
Examples of such words are unlikely, lovely, lonely, ugly, and manly.
She is a lovely girl.
Her bringing the flowers home was a lovely gesture.
She was wearing very ugly shoes.
Her face twisted angrily in an ugly manner
The adjectives hard, most and late take on a different meaning adverbially
when one adds the suffix –ly.
x The adverb hard means relentlessly, fast, intensely. It is normally placed
before a verb.
He strove hard to meet his goals. (NOT-hardly)
He rode hard through the night to reach before dawn. (NOT-hardly)
Sometimes for emphasis the hard comes at the beginning of the sentence,
but this is for stylistic purposes only and not the norm.
Hard as he tried, he couldn’t reach the airport in time. (NOT-hardly)
x Hardly, on the other hand, means almost not. It is an adverb that explains
the degree of the verb, and is placed just before the verb, or in some complex
sentences between the auxiliary and the rest of the verb.
I could hardly sleep at night thinking of the next day.
I had eaten so much at tea that I could hardly eat any dinner.
x Late has two meanings, one meaning is not on time/schedule, or is overdue
or belated.
The train has been late every day this week.
I am returning the books two weeks late to the library.
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 The second meaning of late is after the end of a specific period of Auxiliaries and Adverbs

time.
She had a baby very late in life.
He was probably murdered late last night. NOTES
x Lately means currently or in recent times.
I have been hearing good things about that shop lately.
Lately, you have stopped going to your friend’s house.
x It differs from recently in that it doesn’t take a past or perfect tense but only
a perfect tense.
Recently there is a lot of publicity about the Commonwealth Games.
I just went to meet her recently. (NOT-lately)
If you wanted to use lately one would say, I have been to meet her
lately.
x Most means in the largest denomination possible.
The thing I dislike the most is seeing food being wasted.
She promises the most and delivers the least.
x Mostly on the other hand means predominantly or for the main part.
Mostly mothers come to pick their children up from school.
We notice that mostly women choose teaching as a career.
4.3.2 Position of Adverbs
Adverbs of frequency like (often, sometimes, always) are placed before the
main verb, not the auxiliary verb. However, if the verb is a part of to be, then the
adverb follows the verb.
He often eats food at home.
She sometimes likes to go for a walk after dinner.
He is always showing off about his wealth.
I am sometimes confused which way to go.
In the case of compound verbs, the auxiliary precedes the adverb in case
the auxiliary itself is in its compound form, the adverb is placed after the first word
of the auxiliary.
He is still planning the party tonight. (NOT-He is planning still...)
I have finally finished my painting.
As the verbs can, could, may, might, must and ought are treated as
auxiliaries, the adverb of frequency is placed between these words and the infinitive.
We ought never to drink and drive.
I can always find something to talk about.
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Auxiliaries and Adverbs The flight is always running late.
In negative sentences, the adverb of frequency follows the word not.
We do not usually eat meat on Tuesdays.
NOTES It does not usually rain at this time of the year.
She is not often available for consultation.
In interrogative sentences, the adverb of frequency is placed immediately
after the subject.
Do you often go to the movies?
How do you usually go to office?
When you do usually come home?
Have you ever seen a white tiger?
Very few adverbs of frequency can be used with imperatives, but those that
can, are placed immediately before the verb.
Never talk to strangers.
Always tell the truth.
Exceptions to the above-mentioned rules are:
x Often is placed at the end of the sentence if we need to stress on it. This
happens most often in negative sentences or questions.
We go dancing there often.
She is being punished so often.
x Never is sometimes put at the beginning of a sentence to emphasise it,
however the place of the verb and subject that follows it are interchanged.
We have never eaten so much food before.
Never have I heard so much rubbish.
x Ever is used in conditional clauses, and placed immediately after if, as these
two words are often found in combination.
If I ever see him again, I will hit him.
If I never see him again, it will be fine by me.
Adverbs of time, place, or duration of time, are most often found either at
the beginning or end of a sentence of clause (in the case of a complex sentence).
She needs to return before dark.
He has been gone for over three weeks.
They have been following the serial for more than two years.
We enjoy spending our vacations in the country.
For more emphasis, the adverb is placed at the beginning of the sentence.
In another two years I will have qualified as a doctor.
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 With imperatives, the adverbial clauses of time and place are found after the Auxiliaries and Adverbs

verb.
Come back at midnight.
Speak to me before the meeting. NOTES
When an imperative is used to give instructions to people, the adverbs are
placed before the verb.
During the monsoons, never leave home without an umbrella.
Just past the school, make a right and you will find the shop.
4.3.3 Verbs Compounded with Adverbs: The Position of the Object
Quite a few verbs are followed by adverbs, combining to form what is known as
a compound verb (take off, sit on, cut off, drop off). These verbs are often transitive,
i.e., they require both a direct subject and one or more objects, and if the object
is a noun it is usually located immediately before or after the adverb.
Last night, we ate dinner and watched a movie.
It took us a week to clean our house.
During the day I don’t do much.
An object which is a personal pronoun is placed after the adverb only.
If you are making dessert, have it ready by evening. (NOT-ready by evening
it)
Please tell the boys, they need to have a bath. (NOT-need to have a bath
they)
Demonstrative pronouns like this, that, these and those may be place
according to the word which needs to be emphasised, in which case, the word
being stressed is placed at the end.
Take this away. (Speaker asks for something to be taken away)
Take away this. (Speaker is asking for a particular thing to be taken away
The position of a noun object is decided by what the speaker wishes to
emphasise. If the speaker wants to count the number of people:
If you wish to go the zoo on Tuesday, raise your hands.
After doing the count, he will say the following as he puts emphasis on the
word down. Ok, you may put down your hands now.
In case the object is very long, it is placed after the adverb.
The secretary took away all the papers that the boss told her. (to say that
the secretary took away all the papers that the boss told her to take away, would
make the sentence sound awkward and place the adverb very far from the verb).
There are many words which are used as adverbs and prepositions. The
students should be able to differentiate when an adverb is followed by an object
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Auxiliaries and Adverbs and when the same word is used as a preposition at the beginning of a phrase. In
both cases, a noun or pronoun follows the word.
He looked up his friend. (Preposition)
NOTES He looked his friend up. (Adverb)
In certain word combinations, even though the verb is intransitive, it takes
on the effect of transitive verbs, e.g. look after, take care of, look at, etc. This is
because firstly the second word alone doesn’t make any sense, and secondly as
the second word is a preposition, it cannot be shifted to any other part of the
sentence.
She likes to look after her parents. (NOT-look her parents after)
4.3.4 Adverb Clause
Just like the adverb and adverb phrase adds meaning to a verb or modifies a verb,
the adverb clause also modifies a verb in the main part of a sentence. Adverb
clauses may be of: time, place, reason, condition, purpose, result, concession or
comparison.
Adverb clause of time
An adverb clause of time tells us when the action of the verb in the main clause
took place, takes place or will take place.
When the teacher entered, the children fell silent.
The students stood up when the flag was hoisted.
In these two sentences, the children fell silent and the students stood up
are the two main clauses. When the teacher entered and when the flag was
hoisted are the adverb clauses. Here are some more examples of adverb clauses
of time.
He kept waiting till the sun set.
You will understand when you grow up.
The children rushed out the moment the bell rang.
I feel happy whenever I meet my friends.
As long as the teacher is present, the children keep quiet.
Adverb clause of place
An adverb clause of place tells us where the action of the verb in the main clause
took place or will take place.
Keep the key where I can easily spot it.
Here, the main clause is Keep the key. Where I can easily spot it, is the
adverb clause of place, showing where the key is to be kept.

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 The words where, wherever, etc., are usually used to introduce adverb Auxiliaries and Adverbs

clause of place. Here are some examples:

I shall hide where no one can find me.
You will have to go wherever you are sent. NOTES
Wherever he lives he spreads warmth.
You can sleep wherever you like.
The dog followed him wherever he went.
Adverb clause of reason
An adverb clause of reason gives the reason for the action of the verb in the main
clause. Generally, the subordinating conjunctions because, as, that and since are
used to introduce an adverb clause of reason.
He could not attend the party as he was unwell.
Here, as he was unwell tells us the reason why he could not attend the party.
Therefore, as he was unwell is the adverb clause of reason. Here are some more
examples of adverb clauses of reason:
The boy has been punished because he did not complete his work.
Since Rita has hurt her knee, she cannot dance.
We are glad that he has recovered.

Adverb clause of condition

An adverb clause of condition mentions the condition imposed on the action of the
verb in the main clause. It is usually introduced by the subordinating conjunctions
if and unless. Sometimes, provided, in case and whether are also used.
If he practices, he will dance well.
Here, if he practices is the condition imposed on the main clause, so that
he will dance well. Here, unless can also be used to indicate an exception to what
is being said. For example:
Unless she practices, she will not sing well.
Here are some more examples:
x If the students do not keep quiet, they will be punished.
Unless the students keep quiet, they will be punished.
x If the sky does not clear, we cannot fly.
Unless the sky clears, we cannot fly.
x I will not eat if she does not give me an incentive.
I will not eat unless she gives me an incentive.
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Auxiliaries and Adverbs x In case you lose your way, give me a call.
x I am ready to shift, provided she accompanies me.
x If she had been a little pleasant, she would not have been so unpopular.
NOTES x If she had listened to her mother, she would not have been in trouble.
Conditional clauses can be of three types:
x Clauses of open condition: Clauses of open condition express conditions
that may or may not be fulfilled. For example:
If the fog clears, we can go for a drive.
If they receive the parcel, they will give it to her.
(the fog may or may not clear/the parcel may or may not be received)
x Clauses of improbable condition: Clauses of improbable condition
express conditions that are impossible to be fulfilled. For example:
If I were the Queen of England, I would generously feed the poor people
every day.
If I were a millionaire, I would visit a new country every month.
x Clauses of rejected condition: Clauses of rejected condition indicate
conditions that were not fulfilled in the past. They are used to indicate what
could or might have happened if the conditions had been fulfilled. For
example:
If he had studied hard, he would have scored well.
If the workers had been healthier, we could have delivered the goods on
time.

Check Your Progress

4. Which words ending with –ly can only be used as adjectives?
5. What is an adverb clause of reason?

4.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone. It helps a main verb. For
example, Manoj has finished his dinner. In the above example, finished is
the main verb; has is the auxiliary verb.
2. The primary auxiliary verbs are most difficult to master since each of them
can also be used as a principal verb in a sentence, and as a result, each can
conjugate to represent plurality and tense.

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 3. The most obvious difference between anomalous finites and other finites is Auxiliaries and Adverbs

that they can be used with the contraction n’t which is the shortened form
of not.
4. There are some words ending with –ly which can only be used as adjectives.
NOTES
Examples of such words are unlikely, lovely, lonely, ugly, and manly.
5. An adverb clause of reason gives the reason for the action of the verb in the
main clause. The subordinating conjunctions because, as that and since
are used to introduce an adverb clause of reason.

4.5 SUMMARY

x An auxiliary verb is one that is not used alone. It helps a main verb.
x The primary auxiliary verbs are—be, have, and do—they most frequently
occur in English. They are also some of the trickiest to master, since each
can also be used as a principal verb in a sentence, and as a result, each can
conjugate to represent plurality and tense.
x ‘Be’ and ‘have’ as auxiliaries are used to conjugate the continuous, perfect
and perfect continuous tenses.
x The term anomalous finites refer to the group of 24 finites
x Adverbs add to the meaning of words and many adverbs of manner become
adverbs by the addition of –ly to the adjective, e.g. hurried (hurriedly), sad
(sadly), happy (happily).
x There are some words ending with –ly which can only be used as adjectives.
Examples of such words are unlikely, lovely, lonely, ugly, and manly.
x Adverbs of frequency like (often, sometimes, always) are placed before
the main verb, not the auxiliary verb. However, if the verb is a part of to be,
then the adverb follows the verb.
x Just like the adverb and adverb phrase adds meaning to a verb or modifies
a verb, the adverb clause also modifies a verb in the main part of a sentence.
x Adverb clauses may be of: time, place, reason, condition, purpose, result,
concession or comparison.
x An adverb clause of time tells us when the action of the verb in the main
clause took place, takes place or will take place.
x An adverb clause of place tells us where the action of the verb in the main
clause took place or will take place.
x An adverb clause of condition mentions the condition imposed on the action
of the verb in the main clause. It is usually introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions if and unless. Sometimes, provided, in case and whether
are also used.
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Auxiliaries and Adverbs
4.6 KEY WORDS

x Finites: A finite verb is a form of a verb that has a subject and can function
NOTES as the root of an independent clause; an independent clause can, in turn,
stand alone as a complete sentence.
x Clause: In language, a clause is a part of the sentence that contains a verb.
A typical clause consists of a subject and a predicate, the latter typically a
verb phrase, a verb with any objects and other modifiers.

4.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What do you mean by primary and modal auxiliary verbs?
2. Write a short note on the confusion between adjectives and adverbs.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the uses of anomalous finites.
2. Discuss the different types of adverb clauses.

4.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Prepositions,

UNIT 5 PREPOSITIONS, Conjunction,

and Interjections

CONJUNCTION,
NOTES
AND INTERJECTIONS
Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Prepositions
5.2.1 Use of Prepositions at the end of Sentences
5.2.2 Phrase Prepositions
5.2.3 Nouns and Adjectives and their Specific Prepositions
5.3 Conjunction
5.3.1 Types of Conjunctions
5.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions
5.4 Interjections
5.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
5.6 Summary
5.7 Key Words
5.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
5.9 Further Readings

5.0 INTRODUCTION

A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words

within a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a
sentence. In grammar, conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, phrases,
or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. An interjection is a
word or expression that occurs as an utterance on its own and expresses a
spontaneous feeling or reaction. It is a diverse category, encompassing many
different parts of speech, such as exclamations, curses, greetings, response particles,
hesitation markers and other words. In this unit, we will discuss the concepts of
prepositions, conjunction, and interjections in detail.

5.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the concept of prepositions
x Discuss the significance of conjunction
x Describe the meaning of interjections

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Prepositions,
Conjunction, 5.2 PREPOSITIONS
and Interjections

Prepositions specify place, direction and time. A preposition establishes a

NOTES connection between the nouns, phrases and pronouns in a sentence to other words
in that sentence.
The flower is in the vase.
The flower is on the plant.
The flower is beside the bed.
She held the flower under her nose.
She plucked the flower during her morning walk.
In each of these sentences, a preposition helps to locate the ‘flower’ in space or in
time. Let us look at the following passage:
Sam’s arm was throbbing. He had been digging all day. He placed his shovel
against the wall and sat down to rest. He could hear the shouts of children from
across the field. He knew they had been to school, to learn about the world. He
did not regret being illiterate. The thought of reading gave him a pain in the head.
He felt the sweat on his forehead.
The words in bold are all prepositions. Some of the commonly used
prepositions are listed as follows:

out outside over past since through

throughout till to toward under
underneath
until up upon with within without
about above across after against along
among around at before behind below
beneath beside between beyond but by
despite down during except for from
in inside into like near of
off on onto

x Between, Among
Between is used with two persons or things.
Among is used with more than two persons or things.
There was a fight between team A and team B.
The dowry system still exists among the Hindus of North India.

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x At, In Prepositions,
Conjunction,
and Interjections
In, as a preposition of place, is usually used to talk about the position of someone
or something inside large places such as countries, continents, big cities, etc. In, as
a preposition of time, is usually used when talking about parts of the day. NOTES
At, as a preposition of place, is usually used to talk about the position of
someone or something inside small and unimportant places such as villages, small
towns, etc. At is also commonly used with proper names such as buildings or
organizations. At, as a preposition of time, is usually used with clock time.
That boy is at the top of his class.
My train leaves at 6.30 am.
The kids are already in bed.
I’ll see you in the morning, in the evening, in the afternoon.
x With, By
With is used as an instrument whereas by indicates the agent.
The house was built by him with help from his friends.
The note was scribbled by him with a piece of charcoal.
x Till, to
While till is used to indicate time, to is used to indicate place.
On Sundays he sleeps till ten in the morning.
We walked to the neighbourhood provision store.
x On, upon
On is used while speaking of objects that are stationary or at rest, whereas upon
is used for things in motion.
The teacher sat on a chair.
The monkey sprang upon the girl walking on the road.
x In, within
In is used before a noun that indicates a period of time in the sense of at the end of;
within means before the end of.
She was back in an hour (at the end of an hour).
She will be back within an hour (before the end of).
x Since, from
Both since and from are used to denote a point of time. Since is preceded by a
verb in some perfect tense, whereas from can be used with any form of tense.

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Prepositions, Also, since can be used only to talk about time in the past, whereas from can be
Conjunction,
and Interjections used for present and future time.
He has been surviving on plain water since last week.
NOTES He studied classical dance from the age of four.
From next Monday, the school will close at 5 p.m.
x Beside, besides
Beside is used to indicate by the side of, whereas besides means in addition to.
She sat beside him throughout the night.
Besides the participating children, there were five adults in the room.
x Due to, owing to
Due to and owing to are often confused. Due should be used as an adjective that
is qualifying a noun or pronoun. Example:
This month’s rent for this room is due.
Due to unforeseen circumstances, we had to leave the city in a hurry. (This
sentence is incorrect).
The correct usage would be as follows:
Owing to unforeseen circumstances, we had to leave the city in a hurry.
5.2.1 Use of Prepositions at the End of Sentences
It is kind of odd to use a preposition at the end of a sentence. However, there are
certain exceptions:
The dancer hates being talked about.
Nobody enjoys being shouted at.
This is the house that we were looking for.
This is the lake that he talked about.
This is the spot we came to.
What were you staring at?
This is the book we were talking of.
When there are two verbs which should be followed by different
prepositions, make sure that you put both the prepositions. Example:
The seniors have been talking and laughing at the freshers all night.
(INCORRECT)
The seniors have been talking about and laughing at the freshers all night.
(CORRECT)

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5.2.2 Phrase Prepositions Prepositions,
Conjunction,
and Interjections
Phrase prepositions are a group of words, or a phrase containing the force of a
single preposition. A phrase preposition ends in a simple preposition. Some examples
of phrase prepositions used in sentences are as follows: NOTES
In comparison to his elder brother, he is very dull.
On behalf of the staff, the executive handed over the gift to the boss.
In the event of his death, the property will go to his elder daughter.
In addition to being an ace tennis player, she is also a good singer.
On account of his poor health, he was dropped from the team.
5.2.3 Nouns and Adjectives and their Specific Prepositions
There are a number of adjectives that require specific prepositions to connect
them with the nouns that follow.
Examples:

beset with devoid of occupied with

acquainted with defective in ignorant of
astonished at capable of entitled to
applicable to contrary to guilty of
bent on disappointed with envious of
deaf to good at delighted with
afraid of doubtful of indebted to

A number of nouns require specific prepositions which connect them with

other nouns. Here are a few examples:

capacity for access to interest in

expert in cause for love for
appetite for fear of hope of
approach to difference between surprise at
invitation to comparison with acquaintance with
cure for attention to improvement in

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Prepositions,
Conjunction,
and Interjections Check Your Progress
1. What are prepositions?
NOTES 2. State two examples of phrase prepositions used in sentences.

5.3 CONJUNCTION

A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words or phrases together. In

other words, it is a joining word.
x But, And
‘But’ is used when the two statements that it connects are in contrast to one
another.
The room was freezing but there were no blankets.
When no contrast is implied, it would be incorrect to use but. It would be
more appropriate to use ‘and’.
x Since
‘Since’ is used as a conjunction in the sense of from and after the time when. It is
also used in the sense of seeing that or in as much as.
Since there is no other alternative, let us bid farewell and leave.
Many changes have happened since I left the city.
x Unless, If
‘Unless’ means ‘if not’ but is often confused with ‘if’.
Unless you practise daily, you will not be able to play the guitar.
If you do not practise daily, you will not be able to play the guitar.
x Than
As a conjunction, ‘than’ follows adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree.
Prevention is better than cure I visit her oftener than you.
x That
As a conjunction, ‘that’ is never used before a sentence in direct narration. It is not
used before interrogative adverbs or pronouns in indirect narration either.
She said that, “I will not lend you money”
She asked that why I was not present at the party.
In both these sentences, ‘that’ should be omitted.

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 She said, “I will not lend you money”. Prepositions,
Conjunction,
She asked why I was not present at the party. and Interjections

x Like
NOTES
‘Like’ is never used as a conjunction. For example, it would be wrong to say——
She does not sing like her grandfather did. The correct version would be:
She does not sing as her grandfather did.
x Until, So long as
‘Until’ means up to (the time that) and as far as.
‘So long as’ means during and up to the end of the time that and provided
that.
I was up until three o’clock trying to get it finished!
You should stay on the train until Manchester and then change.
So long as you are here, I’m fine
You may go, so long as you return by dinnertime
5.3.1 Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions can be of three types:
x Coordinating conjunctions: They can link single words or groups of words.
However, they will always join similar elements. That is, they will join two
verb phrases or two sentences of the same kind. The coordinating
conjunctions are: For, And, Not, But, Or, Yet, and So. Examples:
o Here are two examples of a coordinating conjunction linking two
sentences.
The girls practise in the hall and the boys practise in the garden.
I did not want to miss a single scene so I took my seat ten minutes
before the scheduled time.
o Here is an example of a coordinating conjunction linking two verbs.
Have you seen or heard the musical these children had prepared?
x Correlative conjunctions: Correlative conjunctions are used to join similar
elements and are used in pairs. The common ones are as follows:
Either….or
Neither…nor
Both……and
Not only …..but also
Hardly…..when

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Prepositions, No sooner….than
Conjunction,
and Interjections Though …yet
So……that
NOTES As…..as
Such….that
Such…..as
Here are some examples of correlative conjunctions in sentences. Some
common mistakes have also been brought out in these examples.
o Both Sam as well as I love this eating joint. (INCORRECT)
Both my father as well as my mother are doctors. (INCORRECT)
The correct versions are:
Both my father and my mother are doctors.
Both Sam and I love this eating joint.
Sam as well as I love this eating joint.
o Either all her dresses are black or white. (INCORRECT)
Either their decision will be right or wrong. (INCORRECT)
The correct versions would be:
All her dresses are either black or white.
Their decisions will be either right or wrong.
o Not only does she take dancing lessons, but she also teaches music to
underprivileged children.
o Neither the resident doctor nor the specialist was able to save the
patient’s life.
o No sooner he had returned than he was off again. (INCORRECT)
No sooner had he returned than he was off again. (CORRECT)
or
He had no sooner returned than he was off again. (CORRECT)
No sooner he reached the house, than it started raining. (INCORRECT)
No sooner did he reach the house than it started raining. (CORRECT)
o Whether you come or not, I have made up my mind to leave.
I am not sure whether the train stops at this station or not.
o She had scarcely begun dancing when the music suddenly stopped.
o Such was his loyalty that he spent his whole life in his master’s house.

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 o Though the girl had never seen her great grandmother, yet she recognized Prepositions,
Conjunction,
her at first sight. and Interjections
o There is no such temple which you mention. (INCORRECT)
There is no such temple as you mention. (CORRECT) NOTES
5.3.2 Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions are adverbs that act like conjunctions. Some of the
commonly used subordinating conjunctions are listed follows:
Subordinating conjunctions are adverbs that act like conjunctions.
Some of the commonly used subordinating conjunctions are listed follows:
since in order that while even if
when now that even though only if
after because although if
before since though unless
until so in case while
as whereas whether or not
Here are some examples:
We are going for a long drive after the rain stops.
Since I have spent my childhood in Calcutta, I know each and every street
of the city.
While I was talking to my sister, I ate the cutlets.
Although the queue was long and the wait lasted an hour, the purchase
was worth the wait.
Even if you have a special pass, you will still have to stand in the queue to
gain entry.
I love travelling in trains because I get to interact with so many new people.

5.4 INTERJECTIONS

An interjection is a word that is used to express an emotion or sentiment. These

words are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence. The isolated usage of an
interjection does not represent a complete sentence in formal English writing.
Interjections can be words, phrases or even sentences. They are very often
characterized by exclamation marks depending on the force of the emotion they
are expressing. Some of the examples of interjections are Alas Cheers, Hurray,
Oh God and Wow. Let us observe the use of interjection in sentences:

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Prepositions, Alas! She’s dead.
Conjunction,
and Interjections Oh dear! How did this happen?
Hey! Look at this flower!
NOTES Wow! He won the match!
Oh God! How did this happen?
The following elements play an important role in the formation of a sentence with
interjections: Punctuation, Subject, and predicate

Check Your Progress

3. How many types of conjunctions are there?
4. What are coordinating conjunctions?
5. Which elements play an important role in the formation of sentences with
interjections?

5.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. A preposition is a position word. It indicates where something or someone

is in relation to another thing or being.
2. The two examples of phrase prepositions used in sentences are as follows:
a. In comparison to his elder brother, he is very dull.
b. On behalf of the staff, the executive handed over the gift to the boss.
3. Conjunctions can be of three types:
a. Coordinating conjunctions
b. Correlative conjunctions
c. Subordinating conjunctions
4. Coordinating conjunctions can link single words or groups of words.
However, they will always join similar elements. That is, they will join two
verb phrases or two sentences of the same kind.
5. The following elements play an important role in the formation of sentences
with interjections: Punctuation, Subject, and predicate

5.6 SUMMARY

x Prepositions specify place, direction and time. A preposition establishes a

connection between the nouns, phrases and pronouns in a sentence to other
words in that sentence.
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 x Both since and from are used to denote a point of time. Since is preceded Prepositions,
Conjunction,
by a verb in some perfect tense, whereas from can be used with any form and Interjections
of tense.
x Due to and owing to are often confused. Due should be used as an adjective
NOTES
that is qualifying a noun or pronoun.
x Phrase prepositions are a group of words, or a phrase containing the force
of a single preposition.
x A phrase preposition ends in a simple preposition.
x A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two words or phrases together.
In other words, it is a joining word.
x Subordinating conjunctions are adverbs that act like conjunctions.
x An interjection is a word that is used to express an emotion or sentiment.
These words are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence.

5.7 KEY WORDS

x Phrase Prepositions: Phrase prepositions are a group of words, or a

phrase containing the force of a single preposition.
x Predicate: It is the part of a sentence which has the verb, and which tells us
what the subject is or does.

5.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Briefly explain the usage of different conjunctions.
2. Write a short on the interjections.
Long Answer Questions
1. Discuss the usage of prepositions in detail.
2. Explain the different types of conjunctions with examples.

5.9 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.

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Prepositions, Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Conjunction,
and Interjections Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
NOTES
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Types of Sentences
BLOCK - II
SENTENCE PATTERN
NOTES
UNIT 6 TYPES OF SENTENCES
Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences: Clauses
6.2.1 Analysis of Simple Sentences
6.2.2 Compound Complex Sentences and Analysis of Sentences
6.2.3 Synthesis of Sentences
6.3 Transformation of Sentences
6.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
6.5 Summary
6.6 Key Words
6.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
6.8 Further Readings

6.0 INTRODUCTION

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a capital
letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark.
Structurally, sentences are of four types: Simple sentence; Compound sentence;
Complex sentence, and Compound-complex sentence. In this unit, we will discuss
the types of sentences in detail, along with their analysis. We will also focus on the
synthesis and transformation of sentences.

6.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the types of sentences in detail
x Discuss the synthesis of sentences
x Describe the transformation of sentences

6.2 SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX

SENTENCES: CLAUSES

Simple sentences have one independent clause and expresses one idea. Complex
sentences contain subordinate clauses. Compound sentences are sentences joined
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Types of Sentences by a comma, semicolon or conjunction. Following rules are applicable when
changing one to another:
x Rule 1: Since/As/When Change is to be made in the subordinate clause.
NOTES When subjects are same.
Simple:
o Omit since/as/when
o (Verb+ing) of the subordinate clause
o Then write the rest part
o Use subject with the principal clause
o Principal clause remains unchanged
Example:
Since the boy worked hard, he made a good result.
Working hard, the boy made a good result.
Compound:
o Omit since /as /when
o Write down the rest part
o Join clauses by using and, and so, and therefore
o Write the main clause unchanged.
Example:
Since the boy worked hard, he had a good result.
The boy worked hard and had a good result.
x Rule 2: In case of be verb in subordinate clause:
Use being/ Because of + Pronoun/noun (possessive form) + being.
Example:
Since he was weak, he could not work hard.
Simple:
Because of his being weak, he could not work hard.
Compound:
He was weak and therefore could not work hard.
Note: And therefore, is used for showing reasons.
x Rule 3: When the subject of clauses are different:
Simple:
o Subject of subject clause
o Verb + ing ( be verb-being; Have verb-having)
Example:
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 The weather being foul, we did not go out. Types of Sentences

Compound:
o Use ‘and therefore’ to join two clauses.
Example: NOTES
The weather was foul and therefore we did not go out.
x Rule 4: ‘If,’ is Replaced by – ‘by + (verb + ing)’
Example:
If you work hard, you will succeed in life.
Simple:
By working hard, you will succeed in life.
Compound:
o Omit if + subject.
o Use ‘and’ to join two clauses.
Example:
Work hard and you will succeed in life.
x Rule 5: Simple: If-not/unless, is replaced by, - without + (verb + ing)
Example:
Complex:
If you do not work hard, you will fail in the examination.
Simple:
Without working hard, you will fail in the examination.
Compound: Use or/otherwise to join two clauses.
Example:
Work hard or you will fail in the examination.
x Rule 6: Simple: Though is replaced by In spite of+ Possessive form of the
subject+ (verb + ing)
Example:
In spite of his trying heart and soul he could not succeed in life.
Complex:
Though he tried heart and soul, he could not succeed in life.
Compound: Use ‘but’ to join two clauses.
Example:
He tried his heart and soul but he could not succeed in life.
x Rule 7: Simple: So that is replaced by to/in order to.
Example:
He works hard to/in order to prosper in life. Self-Instructional
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Types of Sentences Complex:
He works hard so that he may prosper in life.
Compound: ‘and want/wants to’ is used to join two clauses.
NOTES Example:
He works hard and wants to prosper in life.
x Rule 8: Simple: ‘so + adjective + that’ is replaced by ‘Too + adjective +
to’
Example:
The boy is so foolish that he cannot understand it.
Simple:
The boy is too foolish to understand it.
Compound: Use ‘And Therefore’ to make it a compound sentence.
Example:
He is so foolish and therefore cannot understand it.
x Rule 9: When (if mentions time) is replaced by
o For short time–At
o For month or season–In
o For age–At the age of
Example:
She woke up when it was midnight.
Simple:
She woke up at midnight.
Complex:
When it is spring, the cuckoo sings.
Simple:
In spring the cuckoo sings.
Complex:
When Samira was four she went to school.
Simple:
At the age of four, Samira went to school.
Compound: Use and to join clauses.
Example:
She woke up and it was midnight.
x Rule 10: Simple: If the clause says about a continuous fact then use ‘at
the time’ of instead of ‘When’.
Example:
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 Simple: Types of Sentences

At the time of my eating, the phone rang.

Compound: Use ‘and’
Example: NOTES
I was eating and the phone rang.
x Rule 11: Simple: Noun clause can be replaced by noun.
Example:
Complex:
He admitted that he was guilty.
Simple:
He admitted his guilt.
Complex:
That he is honest is known to all.
Simple:
His honesty is known to all.
Compound: Use ‘and’.
Example:
He is honest and it is known to all.
x Rule 12: Simple: If Complex sentence is made with relative pronoun (who,
what, which, that), omit it and make (verb+ing).
Example:
Complex:
The Doctor who is working in the hospital is known to all.
Simple:
The doctor working in the hospital is known to all.
Note: If the verb is in the past participle it remains unchanged.
Example:
The picture which was drawn by Liza is very fine.
Simple:
The picture drawn by Liza is very fine.
x Rule 13: Simple: Adjective Clause is changed into - Adjective, Past
participle, Phrase, Noun in apposition, infinitive.
Adjective:
A man who is drowning catches at a straw.
Simple:
A drowning man catches at a straw.
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Types of Sentences Compound:
A man is drowning and so catches at a straw.
Past participle phrase:
NOTES The answer that he wrote was not correct.
Simple:
The answer written by him was not correct.
Compound:
He wrote the answer and it was not correct.
Gerundial Infinitive:
I have no money that I can lend you.
Simple:
I have no money to lend you.
Compound:
I have no money and I cannot lend you.
x Rule 14: In the compound ‘not only——but also’ is changed into ‘Besides
+ (Verb + ing)’ in the simple.
Example:
Mr. Khan not only teaches us English but also writes novels.
Simple:
Besides teaching us English, Mr. Khan writes novels.
6.2.1 Analysis of Simple Sentences
Let us analyze the following simple sentence:
Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, was deeply versed in ancient learning.
We can observe following in the above sentence:
x Milton, the author of Paradise Lost, is the subject.
x Was deeply versed in ancient learning is the predicate.
x Milton is the principal word of the subject, and is modified by the
appositive, author.
x Author is modified by the adjective ‘the’, which is an article, and by the
adjective phrase, of Paradise Lost.
x Was is the predicate verb, and is modified by the predicate adjective,
versed, by the adverb, deeply and by the adverbial phrase, in ancient
learning.
x Learning is modified by the adjective, ancient.
We see from the analysis of this sentence that to analyze a simple sentence
is to name:
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 x Its subject. Types of Sentences

x Its predicate.
x The principal word of the subject with its modifiers.
x The modifiers of any other words in the subject. NOTES
x Its predicate verb.
x The modifiers of its predicate verb.
x The modifiers of any other words in its predicate.
6.2.2 Compound Complex Sentences and Analysis of Sentences
A compound-complex sentence combines the elements of both complex and
compound sentences. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more
independent clauses and one or more dependant clauses. For example:
x Because I am a French teacher, some people expect me to speak
perfectly, and other people expect me to write perfectly.
(The dependent clause is italicized, and the independent clauses are in bold.)
x Monica forgot her friend’s birthday, so she sent him a card when she finally
remembered.
Compound-complex sentences are usually longer than normal sentences;
therefore, it is very important to punctuate them correctly.
x The captain of the Indian cricket team jumped with joy, and the fans cheered
because they won the T20 World Cup.
Important terms
Some of the important terms are:
x Independent main clause is a group of words that carries the meaning of the
sentence. It has a subject and a main verb. This is normally called a simple
sentence.
x Subordinate clause adds extra information about the subject in the
independent main clause. It has a subject and a main verb and is always
introduced by a subordinating conjunction.
Analysis of compound and complex sentences
Analysis means separation of the parts of which the sentence is made up of. When
we break down a sentence in order to understand the relationship of its parts, it is
known as analysis of sentences. The analysis of compound and complex sentences
is discussed in the following sections.
Analysis of Compound Sentences
Two or more principal or main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction make
a compound sentence. Sometimes a compound sentence may include one or more
subordinate clauses. For example:
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Types of Sentences x They asked her how she got the wound, but she refused to answer.
This sentence has two main clauses and one subordinate clause.
x Rita says what she means, and means what she says.
NOTES This sentence has two main clauses and two subordinate clauses.
x They were fond of movies, watched various kinds of movies and indulged
in much viewing.
This sentence has three main clauses.
It is seen that a main clause of a compound sentence may be a simple or a
complex sentence. The link between the two main clauses of a compound
sentence can be one of the following kinds:
x Copulative:
He plays the flute, he sings also.
Akbar was not only a great warrior; he was also a judicious ruler.
She cannot speak English, nor can he write.
In all the above sentences, the main clauses are coupled.
x Adversative:
Ravi is slow, but she is sure.
He did his best, nevertheless he failed.
He has a great job, yet he is not happy.
He is an idiot, still his friends love him.
In all the above sentences, the main clauses are opposed.
x Alternative:
She must cry or she will not live.
Either he is lazy, or he acts lazy
Drive fast; else, you will not over take her.
In all the above sentences, the main clauses are disjoined in meaning and a
choice is offered.
x Illative:
Sita is diligent, therefore she will succeed.
Sabir is unwell, so he cannot attend school.
Liz is hungry, so she is eating her lunch.
In all the above sentences, the second clause is inferred from the first.
There are times when a compound sentence needs no connecting word to
join the clauses. For example:
Control promotes health, overindulgence destroys it.
Sometimes the clauses of a compound sentence are joined by a subordinate
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 Rita walked with Sam to the subway, where (=and there) they parted. Types of Sentences

I shall see him tomorrow, when (= and then) we can go shopping.

The analysis of compound sentences is not difficult. Each of the main clauses
should be analysed separately. This will help in pointing out the conjunctions, NOTES
which connects them.
The morning is snowy, and I am far from office.
This is a compound sentence since it has two main clauses. This sentence is
called a double sentence.

SUBJECT PREDICATE
Attribute
Simple of Adverbial
CLAUSES Subject Subject Verb Complement Qualification

A. The morning
was snowy morning The was snowy

B. I am far from
office. Coordinate far from
with A. and I am office

The sky was clear, the winds had gone up, and the bright sun was rising
radiantly in the east.
This compound sentence is made up of three main clauses and is called a
multiple sentence.

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Simple Attribute of Adverbial

CLAUSES Subject Subject Verb Complement Qualification

A. The sky was

clear sky The was clear

B. The winds had had

gone up winds The gone up

1. radiantly
2. in the
C.The bright sun east
was rising radiantly (1) The (2) was
in the east and sun bright rising

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Types of Sentences Analysis of complex sentences
The first step in analysing a complex sentence is to find the principal or the main
clause. Next is to find the subordinate clause or clauses, which shows the
NOTES relationship between each clause to the principal clause. Finally, the principal clause
and the subordinate clause are to be analysed separately. Let us now look at a
few examples of complex sentences that contains two subordinate clauses. For
example:
The student who sat behind me lent me a pen.
The plane that goes to New York is a jet.
The tape recorder, which Jim bought, is good.
The place where we have lunch is the cafeteria.
Let us now look at a complex sentence that contains three subordinate
clauses. For example:
When she heard the question, the old woman who lived in that hut, answered
that the earth is round.
This complex sentence contains three subordinate clauses.
x The old woman……answered. (Principal clause)
x When she heard the question. (Adverb clause of time, modifying
answered in 1.)
x Who lived in that hut (Adjective clause, qualifying woman in 1)
x That the earth is round. (Noun clause, object of answered in 1.)

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 Sometimes, a subordinate clause has a dependant clause within it. For Types of Sentences

example:
She replied that she played whenever she liked.
x She replied ……(principal clause) NOTES
x That she played…….(noun clause, object of replied in 1)
x Whenever she liked….. (Adverb clause, subordinate to 2, modifying
played.)

SUBJECT PREDICATE

No Subject Verb Adverbial Qualification

1 She replied

2 that she played

3 She liked whenever

Complex sentences can also be analysed differently. The complete sentence

can be analysed completely and then the subordinate clause can be analysed.
Let us look at an example of a complex sentence which has four subordinate
clauses. For example:
x The woman, who can sing most heartily when she has the chance of singing,
is generally the woman who can work most heartily when she must work.
The woman who is generally the woman… (Principal clause)
Who can sing most heartily [Adjective clause, qualifying woman (subject)
in 1]
When she has the chance of singing. (Adverb clause, subordinate to 2,
modifying sing.)
Who can work most heartily [Adjective clause, qualifying man
(complement) in 1.]
When she must work. (Adverb clause, subordinate to 4, modifying work.)

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Types of Sentences x I knew a woman who believed that, if a woman was permitted to make the
ballads, she need not care who made the laws of a nation.
I knew a woman… (Principal clause)
NOTES Who believed… [Adjective clause, qualifying woman (subject) in 1]
She need not care (noun clause, subordinate to 2, object of believed)
Who made the laws of nation (Noun clause, subordinate to 2, object of
care)
If a woman were permitted to make the ballads. (Adverb clause of condition,
subordinate to 3, modifying need not care.)
Alternatively, we can arrange this analysis in a tabular form.
SUBJECT PREDICATE

The Kind of Subject- Adverbial

Clause Clause word Attribute Verb Object Complement Qualification

Principal
The old Clause
woman (1)the
answered woman (2)old answered

Adverb
Clause of
Whenever Time,
she heard modifying
the answered
question in 1. whenever she heard the question

Adjective
Clause,
Who lived qualifying
in that woman the in that
house in1. who lived question house

Noun
Clause,
That the object of
earth is answered
round in1. that earth the is round

Whenever a complex sentence is analysed, you will be required to give a

clause analysis. In clause analysis, a sentence is broken into several clauses and
their relation to one another is shown. For example:
Rupa refuses to marry Jack (independent main clause), unless he will get a
proper job. (Subordinate clause)
Harry drinks (independent main clause) so that he can forget the reality.
(Subordinate clause)
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 Although he knows the language well (subordinate clause), Jack refuses to Types of Sentences

speak Italian. (Independent main clause)

Complex sentences can also be analysed differently. The complete sentence
can be analysed completely and then the subordinate clause can be analysed. For
NOTES
example:
When she heard the question, the old woman who lived in that hut, answered
that the earth is round.

SUBJECT PREDICATE

Subject-
word Attribute Verb Object Adverbial Qualification

(1)The (2)old that the

(3)who lived earth is whenever she heard the
woman in that house answered round question

6.2.3 Synthesis of Sentences

Synthesis of Sentences refers to the formation of a new sentence by combining a
number of simple sentences. It is the opposite of transformation of sentences. The
new sentence so formed could either be a simple sentence, a compound sentence,
or a complex sentence. The new sentences are formed by:
x By using a participle
He jumped up. He ran away.
Jumping up, he ran away.
x By using a noun or a phrase in apposition: By placing side-by-side two
coordinate elements, the second of which serves as an explanation or
modification of the first.
This is my friend. His name is Rama.
This is my friend, Rama
x By using a preposition with noun or gerund
The moon rose. Their journey was not ended.
Before their journey ended, the moon rose.

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Types of Sentences x By using, nominative absolute construction
The soldiers arrived. The mob dispersed.
Seeing the soldiers arrive, the mob dispersed.
NOTES x By using an infinitive
I have some duties. I must perform them.
I have some duties to perform.
x By using an adverb or an adverbial phrase
He deserved to succeed. He failed.
He failed, undeservedly.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the difference between simple, complex, and compound sentence?
2. What is the first step in analysing a complex sentence?
3. What is a compound–complex sentence?

6.3 TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES

The structure of a sentence can be changed without changing the meaning of the
sentence. In this section, you will learn various ways of changing the structure of a
sentence while retaining the meaning. Transformation of sentences is a good practice
as it educates you on the variety of expressions in written English.
x Sentences with the adverb ‘Too’: Any sentence that contains the adverb
‘too’ can be changed, however, the sentence will retain its core meaning.
The transformation takes place by removing the adverb ‘too’ and adding a
conjunction ‘so…that’. Study the examples given. You will see that although
the sentences have been rephrased, the meaning remains the same. If you
examine the sentences closely, you will observe that the emphasis is on one
part or the other of the idea. For example:
o The deal is too good to be true.
The deal is so good that it cannot be true.
You can see how the transformation takes place into the following examples
without changing the meaning of the sentences.
o These apples are too cheap to be good.
These apples are so cheap that they cannot be good.
o Raja is too clever not to see through your tricks.
Raja is so clever that he will see through your tricks.
o David drove too fast for the police to catch him.
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x Interchange of the degree of comparison: The degree of comparison Types of Sentences

of an adjective or an adverb in a sentence can be changed without changing

the meaning of the sentence. For example:
Ravi is as strong as Rahul.
NOTES
This sentence is in the positive degree. This sentence can be changed into a
comparative sentence.
Ravi is not stronger than Rahul.
x This sentence conveys the same meaning as the above sentence.
The degree of comparison can be changed into any other degree if required.
For example:
o No other man was as strong as Bhima. (Positive)
Bhima was stronger than any other man. (Comparative)
Bhima was the strongest of all men. (Superlative)
o The Anaconda is larger than all other snakes. (Comparative)
No other snake in the world is as large as the Anaconda. (Positive)
The Anaconda is the largest snake in the world. (Superlative)
o Venice is the most beautiful place I have seen. (Superlative)
No other place I have seen is as beautiful as Venice. (Positive)
Venice is more beautiful than any other place I have seen. (Comparative)
o Delhi is one of the biggest cities in India. (Superlative)
Very few cities in India are bigger than Delhi. (Comparative)
Most cities in India are not as big as Delhi. (Positive)
x Interchange of active and passive voices: Any sentence can be changed
from the active voice to the passive voice and vice versa. The nature of
these sentences will be changed without changing their meaning. A sentence
in the active form can be changed into the passive form as follows:
o Active: Anthony stabbed Mark.
Passive: Mark was stabbed by Anthony.
The proper auxiliary verb and ‘by’ are used in the passive form.
o Active: The committee members will make him the Principal of this
school.
Passive: He will be made the Principal of this school by its committee
members.
o Active: The audience loudly cheered the Minister’s speech.
Passive: The Minister’s speech was loudly cheered.
Whenever it is evident who the doer of the action is, it is not necessary to
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Types of Sentences the audience would have cheered the speaker. Therefore, it has been
avoided. In the same way, the proper pronoun form and verb should be
added when sentences are changed from the passive to the active form.
o Passive: Pankaj is known to me.
NOTES
Active: I know Pankaj.
o Passive: Promises should be kept.
Active: One should keep one’s promises.
The active voice is used to make the doer prominent. The passive voice is
used to make the action of the verb prominent. It can also be used when the
doer is not known.
o Active: We admire bravery.
Passive: Bravery is admired.
In this sentence, the agent ‘we’ has been omitted to generalize the statement
that bravery is admired although, the active sentence has used the pronoun
‘we’.
x Interchange of affirmative and negative sentences: A statement can
be either affirmative or negative. The following statements are affirmative:
Ram is a clever boy.
We go to school every day.
Delhi is the capital of India.
The following sentences are negative:
He cannot swim.
They do not like to read.
The roads are not safe today.
Here are some rules for forming negative sentences.
o The sentences which have different forms of the verbs be (is, am, are,
was, were) or have (has, have, had) as the main verb, are made negative
by just putting the word not after the verb. We often use the shortened
form ‘n’t’ instead of the full word not——particularly in sentences with
have. For example:
Affirmative Negative
1. He is a clever boy 1. He is not a clever boy
2. I am hungry 2. I am not hungry
3. They were at home 3. They were not home.
o Sentences in which auxiliary verbs (helping verbs) are used, are made
negative by putting not or n’t between the auxiliary and the main verb.

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 Affirmative Negative Types of Sentences

1. She is learning French 1. She is not learning French or She

isn’t learning French
2. They will help us. 2. They will not help us. NOTES
3. I have passed. 3. I have not passed or I haven’t
passed.
x Interchange of interrogative and assertive sentences: Interrogative
sentences are made negative by putting the word not after the subject, but
before the main verb. However, if the short form, n’t is used instead of not,
the n’t is joined to the auxiliary and the subject comes next. For example:
o Will you play with me?
Will you not play with me?
Won’t you play with me?
o Have you seen this movie?
Have you not seen this movie?
Haven’t you seen this movie?
o Did he visit you?
Did he not visit you?
Didn’t he visit you?
x Interchange of exclamatory and assertive sentences: An exclamatory
sentence can be changed into an assertive sentence, an exclamatory sentence
is ideal on many situations to an assertive sentence for the emotional factor
that an exclamatory sentence carries. For example:
o How sweetly the water sweeps upon the river-bank! (Exclamatory
Sentence)
The river sweetly sweeps upon the riverbank. (Assertive Sentence)
o If only we were young again! (Exclamatory Sentence)
I wish we were young again. (Assertive Sentence)
o How beautiful is this morning! (Exclamatory Sentence)
This morning is very beautiful. (Assertive Sentence)
You can see how the transformation of sentences takes place without
changing the meaning of the sentences.
x Change one part of a sentence for another part: A sentence with a
verb can be changed into another verb without any change in the meaning
of the sentence. For example:
It costs twelve rupees.
Its cost is twelve rupees.
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Types of Sentences Here also the verb has been changed into its noun form. You can see how
the transformation of sentences takes place without changing the meaning
of the sentence.
o She has disgraced her family.
NOTES
She is a disgrace to her family.
o She gave a curt reply.
She replied curtly.
Here the adjective has been changed into an adverb.
This scene is surpassingly beautiful.
The beauty of this scene is surpassing.
Here, the adjective has been changed into its noun form.
In the above section, you have seen the nature of transformations of
sentences. You have seen a simple sentence can be changed into a complex
sentence and vice-versa. At the same time, a compound sentence can be
changed into a complex sentence and vice-versa. A complex sentence can
be changed into a compound sentence and vice-versa. Let us further
understand the transformation of sentences.
x To transform a simple sentence into a compound sentence: A simple
sentence can be changed into a compound sentence by expanding a phrase
or a word into a coordinate clause. For example:
She must work hard to make up for the lost time.
This sentence can be broken into two parts and these two parts can be tied
by a conjunction ‘and’.
She must work hard and make up the lost time.
More examples are below:
o Besides robbing the poor man, he also killed the man.
He not only robbed the man and also killed the man.
o The mother punished the children for disobedience.
The children were disobedient, and so, the mother punished them
x Transform a compound sentence into a simple sentence: The compound
sentences are altered into simple sentences by substituting a particle for a
finite verb and a preposition by a clause.
o Compound: We must drink water or we cannot live.
Simple: We must drink water to live.
o Compound: She reached the Airport and met her friend
Simple: Having reached the airport, she met her friend.
o He must not be late or he will be asked to leave.
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122 Material In the event of his being late, he will be asked to leave
 These examples are enough to explain how compound sentences are Types of Sentences

transformed into simple sentences.

x Transform a simple sentence into a complex sentence: A simple
sentence can be transformed into a complex sentence by expanding a phrase
NOTES
into a subordinate clause. The clause may be a noun, an adjective or an
adverb.
o He confessed his crime.
He confessed that he was guilty of the crime.
o He seems to be an innocent man.
It seems he is an innocent man.
o I saw a wounded animal.
Here, the adjective phrase has been changed into a subordinate clause.
I saw an animal that was wounded.
x Transform a complex sentence into a simple sentence: The following
sentences will make it clear how to change the complex sentences into a
simple sentence.
o She said that she was an innocent.
This complex sentence has been changed into a simple sentence as follows:
She declared her innocence.
o How long he will stay is doubtful.
Here, the subordinate clause has been changed into a noun clause:
The duration of his stay is doubtful.
o Tell me where you live.
Here also, the subordinate clause has been changed into a noun clause:
Tell me your address.
o She died in the village where she lived.
Here the subordinate clause has been changed into an adjective clause:
She died in her native place.
o The moment that is lost forever.
Here also the subordinate clause has been changed into an adjective clause:
The moment is lost forever.
o She was too tired that she could not stand.
Here the subordinate clause has been changed into an adverb clause:
She was too tired to stand.
o She will not pay unless she is compelled.
Here also, the subordinate clause has been changed into an adverb clause: Self-Instructional
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Types of Sentences

Check Your Progress

4. How interrogative sentences are made negative?
NOTES 5. How is a simple sentence transformed into a complex sentence?

6.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Simple sentences have one independent clause and expresses one idea.
Complex sentences contain subordinate clauses. Compound sentences are
sentences joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction.
2. The first step in analysing a complex sentence is to find the principal or the
main clause.
3. A compound-complex sentence combines the elements of both complex
and compound sentences. A compound-complex sentence contains two or
more independent clauses and one or more dependant clauses.
4. Interrogative sentences are made negative by putting the word not after the
subject, but before the main verb.
5. A simple sentence is be transformed into a complex sentence by expanding
a phrase into a subordinate clause. The clause may be a noun, an adjective
or an adverb.

6.5 SUMMARY

x A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with a

capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation
mark.
x Structurally, sentences are of four types: Simple sentence; Compound
sentence; Complex sentence, and Compound-complex sentence.
x Simple sentences have one independent clause and expresses one idea.
Complex sentences contain subordinate clauses.
x A compound-complex sentence combines the elements of both complex
and compound sentences. A compound-complex sentence contains two or
more independent clauses and one or more dependant clauses.
x Analysis means separation of the parts of which the sentence is made up of.
When we break down a sentence in order to understand the relationship of
its parts, it is known as analysis of sentences.
x Two or more principal or main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
make a compound sentence. Sometimes a compound sentence may include
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124 Material
 x The first step in analysing a complex sentence is to find the principal or the Types of Sentences

main clause. Next is to find the subordinate clause or clauses, which shows
the relationship between each clause to the principal clause.
x Synthesis of Sentences refers to the formation of a new sentence by
NOTES
combining a number of simple sentences. It is the opposite of transformation
of sentences.
x The structure of a sentence can be changed without changing the meaning
of the sentence.
x Any sentence that contains the adverb ‘too’ can be changed, however, the
sentence will retain its core meaning. The transformation takes place by
removing the adverb ‘too’ and adding a conjunction ‘so…that’.
x The degree of comparison of an adjective or an adverb in a sentence can
be changed without changing the meaning of the sentence.
x Any sentence can be changed from the active voice to the passive voice
and vice versa. The nature of these sentences will be changed without
changing their meaning.
x Whenever it is evident who the doer of the action is, it is not necessary to
mention him in the passive voice.
x Interrogative sentences are made negative by putting the word not after the
subject, but before the main verb. However, if the short form, n’t is used
instead of not, the n’t is joined to the auxiliary and the subject comes next.
x A simple sentence can be changed into a compound sentence by expanding
a phrase or a word into a coordinate clause.
x The compound sentences are altered into simple sentences by substituting
a particle for a finite verb and a preposition by a clause.

6.6 KEY WORDS

x Semicolon: It is a mark (;) used in writing for separating parts of a sentence

or items in a list.
x Principal Clause: It is an independent clause which can exist even without
a subordinate clause.

6.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Analyze the complex sentences with appropriate examples.
2. Write a short note on the synthesis of sentences.
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Types of Sentences Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the rules applied to transformation of sentences from simple to
compound.
NOTES 2. Describe the rules for the transformation of sentences in detail.

6.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Direct/Indirect Speech,

UNIT 7 DIRECT/INDIRECT Punctuation, and Capitals

SPEECH, PUNCTUATION,
NOTES
AND CAPITALS
Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Direct and Indirect Speech
7.2.1 Converting direct speech into indirect speech
7.3 Punctuation
7.4 Capitals
7.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
7.6 Summary
7.7 Key Words
7.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
7.9 Further Readings

7.0 INTRODUCTION

It is crucial that one knows the proper use of language while directly or indirectly
quoting someone in our daily lives. It is nevertheless, a source of confusion for
many people. This is why the usage of reported speech has become important.
This unit focuses on navigating the various specificities related to tenses and different
types of sentences while dealing with direct and indirect speech. This unit will also
focus on the usage of punctuation and capitals.

7.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the significance of direct/indirect speech
x Discuss the usage of punctuation
x Describe the usage of capitals

7.2 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

In our lives we quote others in various circumstances. Sometimes we quote verbatim

and put them within inverted commas while suggesting that it is exactly as it was
said, or we report or acknowledge it when we do not use inverted commas. Thus,
while directly and indirectly quoting someone or to report something that is being
said by someone, we need to keep in mind certain grammatical changes that we Self-Instructional
need to follow. Material 127
Direct/Indirect Speech, In a direct speech, the actual words of the speaker are reproduced, whereas
Punctuation, and Capitals
in an indirect speech the main idea of the speaker is reported by another person.
There is use of quotation marks in direct speech, whereas indirect speech does
not use them.
NOTES
Direct speech
Quoting the exact words of the speaker is known as direct speech.
John said, ‘I am writing a book now’.
Indirect speech
Reporting of what a speaker said without quoting his or her exact words is known
as indirect speech.
John said that he was writing a book then.

If the reporting verb is in the present or future tense (e.g., say, will say)
there is no change in the tense of the verb in the indirect speech.
Arthur says, ‘I ate a banana’. (Direct)
Arthur says that he ate a banana. (Indirect)
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 If reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported Direct/Indirect Speech,
Punctuation, and Capitals
speech or indirect speech must be generally changed. The specific uses of
tenses in reported speech are discussed below:
x Present tense in the direct becomes past tense.
NOTES
Farhan said, ‘I write a letter’. (Direct)
Farhan said that he wrote a letter. (Indirect)
x Past tense in the direct becomes past perfect or remains unchanged.
Anjali said, ‘I brought a dress yesterday’. (Direct)
Anjali said that she had bought a dress the day before. (Indirect)
x Present continuous in the direct becomes past continuous.
Ranjan said, ‘I am going to the temple’. (Direct)
Ranjan said that he was going to the temple. (Indirect)
x Past continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
David said, ‘I was playing football’. (Direct)
David said that he had been playing football. (Indirect)
x Present perfect in the direct becomes past perfect.
Arnold said, ‘I have done my revision’. (Direct)
Arnold said that he had done his revision. (Indirect)
x Present perfect continuous in the direct becomes past perfect continuous.
She said, ‘I have been reading a magazine’. (Direct)
She said that he had been reading a magazine. (Indirect)
x ‘Will’ and ‘Shall’ are changed to ‘would’.
He said, ‘I will go to Rome tomorrow’. (Direct)
He said that he would go to Rome the next day. (Indirect)
To be noted:

Sheila said, ‘I must go now’. (Direct)

Sheila said that she (or must) had to go then. (Indirect)
Exception to the above rules
If the direct speech contains a universal truth, the tense of the direct speech remains
unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.
The teacher said, ‘The sun sets in the West’. (Direct)
The teacher said that the sun sets in the West. (Indirect)
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Direct/Indirect Speech, 7.2.1 Converting direct speech into indirect speech
Punctuation, and Capitals
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and indirect.
In direct speech we repeat the original speaker’s exact words:
NOTES She said, ‘I have read the book’.
Direct speech is seen usually in conversations in books, plays and quotations.
In indirect speech the exact meaning of a remark in speech is given, without
necessarily using the speaker’s exact words.
She said that she had read the book.
Some examples of direct and indirect speech are as follows:
x She said, ‘Jake will be in Paris on Saturday’.
She said that Jake would be in Paris on Saturday.
x ‘I never work late’, she explained.
She explained that she never worked late.
x She said, ‘I know I could’.
She said that she knew she could.
x He promised, ‘I will be there’.
He promised that he will be there.
x She said, ‘He is arriving this Monday’.
She said that he was arriving that Monday.
x She said, ‘I bought this phone for my brother’.
She said that she had bought that phone for her brother.
x He said, ‘Where is Preeti going?’
He asked where Preeti was going.
x She said, ‘Luke, when is the next flight?’
She asked Luke when the next flight was.
x ‘Is anyone there?’, she asked.
She asked if anyone was there.
x Mother said, ‘Sit down, Cathy’.
Mother asked Cathy to sit down.
x She said, ‘Don’t jump on the bed, kids’.
She asked the kids not to jump on the bed.
x He said to her, ‘Please do not mention it again’.
He asked her to never mention that again.

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Reported speech: Mixed type Direct/Indirect Speech,
Punctuation, and Capitals
Let us observe the following sentences:
x ‘I don’t know that route. Do you?’ she asked him.
She said that she didn’t know the route and asked him if he did. NOTES

x She said, ‘Oh! It’s a spider. Stay away from it, children’.
She exclaimed with disgust that it was a spider and told the children to stay
away from it.
x ‘If the riots get any more violent we must stay at home’, she said (Must =
will have to)
She said that if the riots got any more violent they would have to stay at
home.
In all these sentences the reported part has more than one clause and tense.
So, both the parts need attention to be converted into the indirect speech from the
direct. This type of sentence is known as mixed type. When statements and
questions are mixed, each section must be introduced by an appropriate verb, viz.
tell, say, explain, remark, etc. for statements and ask, enquire, want to know,
wonder, etc. for questions. A useful connective phrase for a statement is ‘adding
that’... For example:
‘I’m off to the mall. Where are you going?’
He said that he was off to the mall and wanted to know where I was going.
Reported speech: Statement: Rules
Regardless of the tense of the reporting sentence, if it tells a universal fact,
no change is made in the tense of the reported sentence.
Example no. 1:
Direct speech:
The mother is saying to the son, ‘The third month of the year is March’.
x Step 1: The reported sentence is: ‘The third....March’.
x Step 2: It is a statement and a universal fact.
x Step 3: So, the conjunction word is–‘that’.
x Step 4: ‘is saying to’ changes into ‘is telling’.
x Step 5: No change of pronoun.
x Step 6: It is a universal fact. So, no change of tense is necessary.
x Step 7: No change of extension.
Now, the Indirect Speech is:
The mother is telling the son that the third month of the year is March.

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Direct/Indirect Speech, Example no. 2:
Punctuation, and Capitals
Direct speech:
The History teacher says, ‘Magellan was the first navigator to travel around the
NOTES globe’.
x Step 1: The reported sentence is: ‘Magellan....globe’.
x Step 2: It is a statement.
x Step 3: The conjunction word is–‘that’.
x Step 4: ‘Says’ does not change. Use it as it is.
x Step 5: There are no pronoun to get changed.
x Step 6: No change of tense is made.
x Step 7: No extensive word to get changed.
Now, the indirect speech is:
The History teacher says that Magellan was the first navigator to travel around the
globe. The following models have been answered for you:
x The teacher has told the students, ‘Sea-water is different from river water’.
The teacher has told the students that sea-water is different from river water.
x Dean answered, ‘The caves are under the surface of the earth’.
Dean answered that the caves are under the surface of the earth.
x James said to his friend, ‘U.N.O. is a world organisation’.
James told his friend that U.N.O. is a world organisation.

Check Your Progress

1. What is direct speech?
2. What is indirect speech?
3. When is direct speech not converted into indirect speech?

7.3 PUNCTUATION

Punctuation refers to the use of spacing, punctuation marks, and certain

typographical devices in order to aid the understanding and correct reading of
written text, whether read silently or aloud. In written English, punctuation is essential
to get the meaning of sentences. For example: ‘woman, without her man, is nothing’
(emphasizing the importance of men to women), and ‘woman: without her, man is
nothing’ (emphasizing the importance of women to men) are same sentences with
two very different meanings. Often the simple differences in punctuation produce
sharp differences in the meaning of sentences. The rules of punctuation vary with
language, location, register, and time and are constantly evolving. This section
Self-Instructional discusses the various punctuation marks and their usage:
132 Material
 x Full stop (.): It is also called a period. It is used in the following cases: Direct/Indirect Speech,
Punctuation, and Capitals
o To mark the end of a statement.
o To mark an abbreviation
o Ellipsis marks, which refer to three full stops indicating an omission. NOTES
When they occur at the end of a sentence, they are followed by a full
stop.
x Question mark (?): The question mark is used to mark the end of a question
sentence. For example, ‘Will you be able to submit the report by next Friday?’
It is not used at the end of an indirect question like ‘I asked the executive if
he would be able to submit the report by next Friday.’
x Exclamation mark (!): The exclamation mark is used to mark the end of
an exclamation, interjection or a sharp command. For example, ‘Oh no!
You cannot shut down the factory.’
x Comma (,): Commas are used to break up the elements of a sentence to
make it easier to read. The presence or absence of a comma can change
the meaning of a sentence. For example, the following two sentences are
worded identically, but their meanings are different.
The textual questions of Section A, which are compulsory, must be answered
in more than 100 words. (All questions of Section A are compulsory)
The textual questions of Section A which are compulsory must be answered
in more than 100 words (Some of the questions of Section A are compulsory)
A comma is needed in the following cases:
o Between two or more adjacent adjectives that modify the same noun. For
example, ‘The manager is hardworking, diligent and committed.’
o To separate words in a series or list. For example, ‘Please supply 10 quintals
each of rice, sugar, wheat and gram.
o To separate clauses used in series. For example, ‘The official reached the
metro station, waited for a few minutes, got on the first train and reached his
destination in 10 minutes.’
o To separate clauses and also clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb like
‘accordingly’, ‘anyway’, ‘besides’, ‘otherwise’, ‘still’, ‘then’, ‘therefore’,
‘consequently’, ‘furthermore’, ‘however’, ‘indeed’ and ‘moreover’.
o Generally, a comma is not used before ‘and’, but sometimes it may be used
to make a sentence structure clearer or to improve the rhythm of the sentence.
For example, ‘The journey begins by train, continues by bus, and concludes
by ferry.’
o In pairs, to mark off words in a parenthesis. For example, ‘the boss, I
know, is right, but I just cannot get myself to do it.

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Direct/Indirect Speech, o To mark off the beginning of direct speech or a quotation. For example:
Punctuation, and Capitals
The chairman said, ‘We have called this meeting to discuss cost cutting
measures that need to be introduced’.
x Semicolon(;): The semicolon is used in two ways:
NOTES
o To separate items in a list when the list themselves contain commas. For
example,
Our guest list included Mr R. Chidambaram, Managing Director, Sun
Industries; Mr Rohtash Garg, Deputy Chairman, Sun Industries; and Ms
Geeta Joshi, Vice President, Global Enterprise.
o To separate clauses, the sense of which would be weakened if they were
split off into separate sentences. Example
Puzzled by the absence of clues, the police was looking for a new lead;
they suspected that one might be overlooked in the confusion.
x Colon (:): The colon is used in these ways:
o To introduce an explanatory material. Expressions commonly used to
introduce explanatory material are: the following, as follows, this and
these. Make sure the clause preceding the explanatory material can stand
alone as a complete sentence. Do not place a colon after a verb or a
preposition that introduces a listing.
Correct: ‘I have scheduled the selection interviews on the following three
days the next week: Monday, Wednesday and Thursday.’
Incorrect: ‘While I was in the US, I took a liking to: eating pizzas, going
jogging and watching movies.’
Correct: ‘While I was in the US, I took a liking to eating pizzas, going
jogging and watching movies.’
o To introduce a quotation or lengthy items of direct speech. For example,
‘Keats wrote: ‘A thing of beauty is a joy forever’.
o To mark a dramatic break between two main clauses. For example:
‘Man proposes: God disposes.’
o To introduce a clause that explains or expands on a statement made in the
earlier clause. For example,
The profits have been declining: the cost of raw material has increased two-
fold.
x Apostrophe (’): An apostrophe is used to show either possession or that
letters have been omitted. Use the apostrophe in the following conditions:
o To form the possessive of a singular noun add an apostrophe plus ‘s’.
For example: ‘Mr Sharma’s salary’, ‘my subordinate’s promotion’, etc.
o To form the possessive of a plural noun that ends with ‘s’; in that case,
Self-Instructional add only an apostrophe. For example:
134 Material
 Both companies’ stock was grossly undervalued. Direct/Indirect Speech,
Punctuation, and Capitals
The ladies’ clothing section is on the second floor.
In two years’ time we will double our turnover.
o To form the possessive of a plural noun that does not end in ‘s’, add an NOTES
apostrophe plus ‘s’. For example:
Use the men’s entrance on the other side of the building.
o When two or more proper nouns show possession, the one nearer to the
noun is marked with an apostrophe. For example:
In the group discussion, Mr Kumar and Mr Reddy’s oratory skills were not
up to the mark.
o To mark the omission of a letter or letters, an apostrophe is used. For
example:
Please don’t touch the machinery (do not)
Please be here at five o’clock (of the clock)
o To form the possessive of an indefinite pronoun (anybody’s, everyone’s,
no-one’s, nobody’s and somebody’s), add an apostrophe plus ‘s’. However,
do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive of a personal pronoun
(yours, theirs, its, hers, his, ours). For example:
Everybody’s photograph will be taken during the lunch hour.’
The company reviewed its financial figures,
Note: Do not confuse the possessive pronoun ‘its’ with its contraction which
is ‘it’s’ (it is).
x Inverted commas (‘‘ ’’) or (‘ ’): Inverted marks are also called speech
marks or quotation marks. Use quotation marks in the following conditions:
o In direct speech, that is, around the exact words of a person. Do not
use quotation marks in reported speech. For example,
Direct speech: The chairperson said, ‘We will break for lunch and meet
again at two o’ clock.’
Reported speech: The chairperson said that they would break for lunch
and meet again at two o’ clock.
o Around the title of a newspaper or magazine, article, chapter in a book,
conference etc. For example:
The news of the takeover was reported in ‘The Indian Express’.
o Around a particular term to clarify its meaning or to show that it is being
used in a special way. Example:
The article ‘an’ is used before vowels with certain exceptions.
x Hyphen (-): The presence or absence of a hyphen can change the meaning
of a word. For example, the meaning of the word ‘recover’ changes by Self-Instructional
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Direct/Indirect Speech, using a hyphen, that is, it becomes ‘re-cover’. A hyphen is used in the
Punctuation, and Capitals
following cases:
o To join up individual words in a compound word, for example, ‘self-
contained’ and ‘thirty-five’.
NOTES
o To indicate that an unfinished word at the end of a line is completed at
the beginning of the next line.

7.4 CAPITALS

In English, as you know, we have small letters and capital letters and both of them
are used in writing, but capital letters are used in some specific cases. Capitalization
in English grammar is the use of a capital letter at the head of a word. English
usage varies from capitalization in other languages. We will discuss the rules of
using capital letter in this section.
x Every sentence must start with a capital letter without any fail.
x The personal pronoun ‘I’ is always written in Capital.
x Speeches always begin with capital letter, for example, Mary asked, ‘Do
you love me?’
x When one is writing a title of a work or a paper one usually uses Capital
letter. For example, Waiting for Godot, As You Like It, etc.
x Proper Nouns always start with capital letters, for example, Alagappa
University, Karan, Modi, Microsoft, Everest, Narmada, etc. Sometimes,
exceptions are there such as the phone from Apple is called an ‘iPhone’, or
the popular e-commerce website is called ‘eBay’.
x Names of days, weeks, months, holidays, countries, languages, nationalities,
and religions are always written in capital letters.
x Capitals are usually used in acronyms such as, BBC, BJP, TDP, UAE, etc.
x For Contractions, usually Capitals are used for example, HiFi for ‘High
Fidelity’ or SciFi for science fiction
x Sometimes one breaks the rules and write everything, even the whole
sentence for emphasizing on a thing and in formal writing is it usually
considered to be very rude.

Check Your Progress

4. Define punctuation.
5. What is the difference between ‘its’ and ‘it’s’?

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136 Material
 Direct/Indirect Speech,
7.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Punctuation, and Capitals

QUESTIONS

1. Direct speech refers to quoting the exact words of the speaker. NOTES
2. Indirect speech refers to the reporting of what a speaker said without quoting
his or her exact words is known as indirect speech.
3. If the direct speech contains a Universal Truth, the tense of the direct speech
remains unchanged even if the reporting verb is in the past.
4. Punctuation refers to the use of spacing, punctuation marks, and certain
typographical devices in order to aid the understanding and correct reading
of written text, whether read silently or aloud.
5. ‘Its’ is the possessive pronoun, while ‘it’s’ is a contraction of ‘it is’.

7.6 SUMMARY

x It is crucial that one knows the proper use of language while directly or
indirectly quoting someone in our daily lives. It is nevertheless, a source of
confusion for many people. This is why the usage of reported speech has
become important.
x In our lives we quote others in various circumstances. Sometimes we quote
verbatim and put them within inverted commas while suggesting that it is
exactly as it was said, or we report or acknowledge it when we do not use
inverted commas.
x In a direct speech, the actual words of the speaker are reproduced, whereas
in an indirect speech the main idea of the speaker is reported by another
person.
x When statements and questions are mixed, each section must be introduced
by an appropriate verb, viz. tell, say, explain, remark, etc. for statements
and ask, enquire, want to know, wonder, etc. for questions.
x Regardless of the tense of the reporting sentence, if it tells a universal fact,
no change is made in the tense of the reported sentence.
x Punctuation refers to the use of spacing, punctuation marks, and certain
typographical devices in order to aid the understanding and correct reading
of written text, whether read silently or aloud.
x In English, as you know, we have small letters and capital letters and both
of them are used in writing, but capital letters are used in some specific
cases. Capitalization in English grammar is the use of a capital letter at the
head of a word.

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Direct/Indirect Speech,
Punctuation, and Capitals 7.7 KEY WORDS

x Assertive Sentence: An assertive statement or a statement is a sentence

NOTES that states a fact.
x Interrogative Sentence: An interrogative sentence is a sentence which
asks a question.

7.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the rules of changing direct speech into indirect speech when it
comes to mixed type sentences? Give examples.
2. Why is punctuation significant in writing?
3. Write a short note on capitalization of English letters.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the rules of changing direct speech into indirect speech with respect
to tenses. Give examples.
2. Discuss the different types of punctuation marks along with their usage.

7.9 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

Self-Instructional
138 Material
 Verb Patterns and
BLOCK III Word Formation

ENRICHING VOCABULARY

NOTES
UNIT 8 VERB PATTERNS AND
WORD FORMATION
Structure
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Objectives
8.2 Verb Patterns
8.2.1 Verb Structures
8.3 Word Formation
8.3.1 Compounds
8.3.2 Clipping
8.3.3 Blending
8.3.4 Acronym
8.3.5 Phrases
8.3.6 Phrasal Verbs
8.3.7 Idioms
8.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
8.5 Summary
8.6 Key Words
8.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
8.8 Further Readings

8.0 INTRODUCTION

Verbs patterns refer to what follows a verb. For example, some verbs can stand
alone, (They laughed). Others have to be followed by an object (They loved it).
Other verbs are followed by objects + prepositions (Put it on the table), or
verbs in other forms (I hate waiting, I prefer to walk), or by a clause (They told
us to wait. He told us (that) we were wrong. She agreed to come. We agreed
(that) it was better). The meaning of the verb is often in the whole pattern, not
just in the verb. In this unit, we will discuss verb patterns and structure in detail.
We will also focus on word formation.

8.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the verb patterns in detail
x Discuss the verb structure in detail
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Verb Patterns and
Word Formation 8.2 VERB PATTERNS

Sometimes in a sentence, one verb follows another. For example, I want to buy
NOTES roses. The first verb is want; the second verb is buy. In sentences like this,
there are different possible patterns. For example:
I want to sleep.
I dislike driving.
In the first sentence, the first verb is followed by an infinitive. In the second
sentence, the first verb is followed by a gerund (-ing) form.
The verb patterns are dependent upon the first verb. There are several
different types of pattern. When you learn a new verb, you need to learn the verb
pattern. At times, some verbs have more than one possible pattern. Sometimes, if
a verb has two patterns, each pattern can have a different meaning or use. Here
are examples of some of the verb patterns:
x Verb + to + verb: All these verbs use this pattern: want, hope, decide and
agree.
I want to eat chocolates.
Tim hopes to acquire a new car.
Sita decided to go out with Ram.
Alice might agree to go out for a walk.
x Verb + Verb + ing: All these verbs use this pattern: enjoy, mind and consider.
I enjoy playing cards.
Alice does not mind working late in the office.
Tim is considering shifting to a new place.
x Verb + Preposition + Verb + ing: All these verbs use this pattern: specialize
and think.
He specializes in photography skills.
Michal is thinking about visiting a tourist destination.
x Verb + Object + Verb: All these verbs use this pattern: let and make.
My boss let me leave early today from the office.
He made me take four rounds of the ground.
8.2.1 Verb Structures
We have already understood what verbs are; verbs can have six basic forms and
they are:
x Base form: Children play in the field.
x Infinitive: Tell them not to play
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 x Past tense: They played football yesterday. Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
x Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
x Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
x Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise. NOTES
English verb structure
In English language, the order in which different category of words appear in a
sentence is important. This structure determines the meaning of the sentence.
These three forms of English verb structure are the same for any verb, and in any
tense. This is the framework that all communication in English is based on. The
three forms of Basic English verb structure are:
x The Positive structure (sometimes called the Positive Form)
x The Negative structure (sometimes called the Negative Form)
x The Question structure (sometimes called the Question Form)
The positive form
The most common English Verb Structure is the Positive form - SUBJECT-
AUXILIARY-VERB. For example, “He is doing the work well.” where “is” is
auxiliary and doing is the main verb.
The negative form
This form of English verb structure is almost exactly the same as for positive
sentences, but we use the word “not” before the main verb to make it negative.
SUBJECT-AUXILIARY + NOT-VERB
For example, He is not doing his work well.
We use contractions with the Auxiliary a lot with the negative structure to
make things quicker and easier to say.
x Do not = don’t
x Have not = haven’t
The question form
The auxiliary verb no longer comes directly before the main verb but moves before
the subject.
For example, ‘Is he doing his work well?’

Check Your Progress

1. Which of the verbs follow the pattern Verb + Preposition + Verb + ing?
2. What is the verb structure in case of the question form?

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Verb Patterns and
Word Formation 8.3 WORD FORMATION

Apart from borrowing words from various foreign languages like Latin, Greek
NOTES and French, the English language has been constantly enriching its word store by
the making of new words out of its own resources. Some of the processes by
which words are formed in English are:
x Compounds
x Clipping
x Blend
x Acronym
x Phrases
x Idioms
8.3.1 Compounds
In compound formation, two roots are joined together to make a longer word.
This combining process is technically known as compounding and is very commonly
found in German and English. For example:
x Playground – play + ground
x Blackboard – black + board
x Battlefield – battle + field
x Everybody – every + field
x Everlasting – ever + lasting
x Aircraft – air + craft
x Backdrop – back + drop
x Backfield – back + field
x Backfire – back + fire
x Background – back + ground
x Citizenship – citizen + ship
x Clapboard – clap + board
x Claptrap – clap + trap
x Clockwise – clock + wise
x Clockwork – clock + work
x Daytime – day + time
x Deadbeat – dead + beat
x Deadline – dead + line
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x Deadlock – dead + lock Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
x Deadwood – dead + wood
x Deathbed – death + bed
x Eardrum – ear + drum NOTES
x Earflap – ear + flap
x Earmark – ear + mark
x Earmuff – ear + muff
x Earphone – ear + phone
x Earring – ear + ring
x Earshot – ear + shot
x Earthquake – earth +quake
x Fanfare – fan + fare
x Fanlight – fan + light
x Farewell – fare + well
x Farmhouse – farm + house
x Farmyard – farm + yard
x Farsight –far +sight
x Fatherhood – father + hood
x Featherbed – feather + bed
x Featherweight – feather + weight
x Feedback – feed + back
x Freshman – fresh + man
x Freshwater – fresh + water
x Fretwork – Fret+ work
x Frogman – frog + man
x Frostbite – frost + bite
x Gatekeeper – gate + keeper
x Gateway – gate + way
x Gearbox – gear + box
x Gearshift – gear + shift
x Gemstone – gem + stone
x Ghostwriter – ghost + writer
x Gingerbread – ginger + bread
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Verb Patterns and x Giveaway – give + away
Word Formation
x Glendale – glen + dale
x Globetrotter – globe + trotter
NOTES x Glow-worm – glow + worm
x Goalkeeper – goal + keeper
x hazelnut – hazel+ nut
x Headache – head + ache
x Headband – head + band
x Headdress – head + dress
x Headfirst Head + first
x Headgear – head + gear
x Headland – head + land
x Headlight – head + light
x Headline – head + line
x Headlock – head + lock
x Headlong – head + long
x Headmaster – head + master
x Headmistress – head + mistress
x Headphone – head + phone
x Headquarters – head + quarters
x Jackknife – jack + knife
x Jaywalk – jay + walk
x Jigsaw – jig + saw
x Ladybird – lady + bird
x Landlord- land +lord
x Landslide – land +slide
x Lawsuit – law+ suit
x Layout – lay + out
x Letterhead – letter + head
x Limelight – lime +light
x Mankind – man + kind
x Masterpiece – master + piece

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x Needlework – needle + work Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
x Network – net + work
x Newborn – new + born
x Nightclub – night + club NOTES
x Outdated – out + dated
x Outermost – outer + most
x Outlook – out + look
x Overweight – over + weight
x Passport – pass + port
x Payroll – pay + roll
x Potbelly – pot + belly
x Purebred – pure + bred
x Rainfall – rain + fall
x Rhinestone – rhine +stone
x Sandstorm – sand + storm
x Saucepan – sauce + pan
x Shipmate- ship + mate
x Textbook – text + book
x Thickset – thick + set
x Toadstool – toad + stool
x Typewriter – type + writer
x Understood – understood
x Underworld – under+ world
x Upward – up + ward
x Windowpane – window + pane
x Wisecrack- wise + crack
x Woodpecker- wood + cracker
x Workshop – work + shop
x Worldwide – world + wide
x Yardstick- yard + stick
x Yearbook – year + book
x Yourself – your + self

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Verb Patterns and Apart from nouns, adjectives are also created by compounding like good-looking,
Word Formation
well-behaved and compounds of adjective plus noun as in a fast-food restaurant
or a well-paid job.

NOTES 8.3.2 Clipping

In clipping, a word is made smaller without any change in its meaning or the
grammatical class. In this process, a word of more than one syllable is reduced to
a shorter form, usually beginning in casual speech. For example:
x Laboratory – lab
x Gasoline – gas
x Examination – exam
x Advertisement – ad
x Telephone – phone
x Cellular phone - cell
x Refrigerator – fridge
x Mathematics – maths
x Maximum – max
x Influenza– flu
x Introduction – intro
x Photograph – photo
x Demonstration - demo
x Spectacle- specs
x Gentlemen – gents
x Condominium – condo
x Hippopotamus – hippo
x Rhinoceros – rhino
x Doctor – doc
x Pornography – porn
x University- varsity
x Zoological garden – zoo
x Luncheon – lunch
x Memorandum – memo
x Typographical error – typo
x Dormitory – dorm

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 x Bicycle – bike Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
x Limousine – limo
x Gymnasium – gym
x Pantaloons – pants NOTES
x Moving picture – movie
x Promenade – prom
x Modulator-demodulator – modem
8.3.3 Blend
Blending is a process of word formation in which a new word is formed by
combining the meaning and sound of two words. It is accomplished by taking only
the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word. The words
formed by this process are called blends or portmanteau words. For example:
x Breakfast + lunch – brunch
x Breath + analyzer – Breathalyzer
x Camera + recorder – camcorder
x Documentary + drama - docudrama
x Electricity + execute – electrocute
x Emotion + icon – emoticon
x Gleam + shimmer – glimmer
x Hindi + English – Hinglish
x Information + entertainment – infotainment
x Motor + Cavalcade – motorcade
x Motor + hotel – motel
x Motor + pedal – moped
x Net + etiquette - netiquette
x Sex + escapade – sexcapade
x Slang + language – slanguage
x Smoke + fog – smog
x Sports + broadcast – sportscast
x Stay home + vacation – staycation
x Television + broadcast – telecast
x Television + photogenic – telegenic
x Work + alcoholic – workaholic

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Verb Patterns and 8.3.4 Acronym
Word Formation
Acronymy is a process of word formation in which a word is formed of the initial
letters of a group of words. This is a type of abbreviation known as acronym. It is
NOTES the result of the human desire for minimizing human effort. There are three types of
acronyms in English:
x The sequence of initial letters pronounced as words. For example:
UNICEF–United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
NATO–North Atlantic Treaty Organization
SAARC–South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation
UNESCO–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
PIN–Personal Identification Number
AIIMS–All India Institute of Medical Sciences
CAT–Common Admission Test
CATE–Common Admission Test for English
FIITJEE–Forum for Indian Institute of Technology Joint Entrance Exam
x The sequence of initial letters which are pronounced as a sequence of letters.
For example:
CD – Compact Disc
VIP – Very Important Person
BBC- British Broadcasting Corporation
GBM – General Body Meeting
ATM – Automatic Teller Machine
x Abbreviations formed from letters taken from the same word. For example:
TB – Tuberculosis
TV – Television
8.3.5 Phrases
Another process of word formation is through phrases. In this process, a phrase is
used in place of a word to express a meaning. For example:
x Cats and dogs–It was raining cats and dogs. (heavily)
x A dime a dozen–People like him are a dime a dozen. (found in plenty)
x A feather in the cap–The player added another feather in his cap.
(achievement / honour)
x A fool’s paradise–He lives forever in a fool’s paradise. (a state of happiness
based on false hope)
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 x Dark horse–Peter was the dark horse in the last elections. (someone who Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
rose to prominence)
8.3.6 Phrasal Verbs
NOTES
A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase that contains a verb and another element,
either an adverb or a preposition. For example,’ break down’ or ‘look down on’.
The latter example shows a combination of adverb and preposition.
List of phrasal verbs
x Act Up: misbehave, not work properly
Example: The teacher acted up with the child in the class.
x Act Like: to behave in a way similar to somebody else
Example: Sunil is behaving like a joker.
x Catch on: develop understanding or knowledge of something
Example: John caught on medical studies very quickly and now he is one
of the renowned doctors.
x Add up (1) : logically fit together
Example: His solution to the problem adds up and makes sense.
x Add up (2): sum up the total
Example: Add up all the payment made till date and then calculate the total
expenditure.
x Back down: to not follow a threat
Example: The minister backed down after he stopped receiving the calls.
x Back up: move backward, proceed in a reverse direction
x Draw up: create a formal document
Example: The official documents of the merger will be drawn up this month
x Knock out: make unconscious
Example: Sam was knocked out by the other boxer and therefore, he got
defeated.
x Call off: cancel a scheduled plan or meeting etc.
Example: The coaching classes were called off because of sudden rain.
x Drop out (of): stop attending or leave something such as school, office etc.
Example: Anna dropped out of school because her father died suddenly.
x Draw out: prolong or extend something beyond the expected limits
Example: The Professor drew out the lecture and held up the students for
extra time.
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Verb Patterns and x Call on: ask someone for an answer in class
Word Formation
Example: The teacher always calls on Pinky as she knows all the answers.
x Eat out (no object): have food outside and not in the house
NOTES Example: She was too tired to cook last night and so they ate out.
x Beg off : deny an invitation, ask to be excused from doing something
Example: Sharika begged off going to the party saying that she was not
well.
x Break down: separate something into several parts, stop functioning
Example: Margaret’s car broke down on the highway and she could not
reach for the meeting.
x Face up to: accept or take responsibility for
Example: Sia had to face up to her boss for the loss incurred on the new
project.
x Egg on : instigate towards doing something (usually negative)
Example: The husband and wife had a mild argument but their friends
egged them on and they had a bad fight.
x End up: finally arrive at
Example: Jade and his friends lost their way and ended up in the
neighbouring town.
x Fall through: not happen
Example: Our trip to Nainital fell through because my friend’s wife fell
sick.
x Feel up to: feel strong enough or comfortable enough to do something
Example: The boy was asked if he felt up to the mark to talk about the
bomb blast.
x Figure out: to logically find an answer to a problem
Example: She has been finally able to figure out the correct answers.
x Iron out: reach an agreement mutually or resolve difficulties
Example: Rahul and Tina disagree on several issues which can be ironed
out if discussed in a peaceful way.
x Turn down: to decrease the intensity of
Example: She requested him to turn down the TV when the guests arrived.
x Make after: chase
Example: The police made after the thief.

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x Press upon: to compel someone to accept something Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
Example: He pressed upon us to attend the marriage and so we cancelled
the meeting.
x Put up with: tolerate NOTES
Example: Tashi struggles every day to put up with her husband.
x Nod off: to fall asleep
Example: The movie was so boring that the audience nodded off.
x Jump all over: to scold someone very badly
Example: Laila’s mother jumped all over her because she had not completed
her homework.
x Let down: to disappoint somebody
Example: Her husband let her down in front of everyone by using bad
language.
x Run into: to meet by chance in an unplanned way
Example: She ran into her old school teacher in the market.
x Slip up: make a mistake
Example: He slipped up his speech because of which the students got
confused.
x Tick off: to irritate or upset somebody
Example: It really ticks her off if somebody cancels the appointment in the
last minute.
x Pan out: succeed, happen as planned
Example: Her trip to New York could not pan out because her mother fell
sick.
x Write up: to record or report
Example: Could you write up the important points discussed in the meeting?
x Do over: to do something again
Example: The documents he was working on got deleted before he could
save and so he had to do them over again.
x Bone up on: to assess or review
Example: You had better bone up on your mathematical skills before the
exam.
x Chip in: contribute or donate
Example: Would you like to chip in for the farewell party?

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Verb Patterns and x Work out: to solve a problem or to overcome a difficult situation
Word Formation
Example: The director consoled the employees that he could work out the
crisis by taking help from the other shareholders.
NOTES x Hold up: to lift to a higher position or delay
Example: The team arrived late for the match because they were held up
in a traffic jam.
x Zonk out: fall asleep quickly
Example: She zonked out when she reached home because she was highly
exhausted.
x Get by: to survive financially even in a difficult situation
Example: It is going to be tough to pay the loan without a job but we will
get by.
x Lay off: to dismiss someone from a job because of lack of job or money
Example: The employees were laid off because the company went in a
loss.
x Fill in: add information in a form
Example: Could you fill in the educational details also?
x Get across: to make somebody understand something
Example: Juan is capable in writing but he is unable to get across his thoughts
verbally.
x Hang up: to end a telephonic conversation by replacing the receiver
Example: She desired to talk more but she hung up because her brother
had to make an urgent call.
x Keep on: to continue to remind someone to do something unless he or she
does it
Example: Rhea’s mother kept on her till Rhea completed her essay writing.
x Get off: to make someone escape punishment
Example: His lawyer helped him to get off easily in just ten days.
x Knock out: to make unconscious
Example: Rahul was knocked out during the boxing match.
x Set back: to cause a delay in scheduling
Example: They had to set back the project because of technical problems.
x Take after: to resemble in appearance
Example: Both he and his brother take after their father.
x Point-blank: To say something directly or rudely, without explaining or
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 Example: The company owner told the workers point-blank that their Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
demands could not be met.
x So-so: Not very satisfactory.
Example: My new job is so-so but I cannot afford to give it up. NOTES
x Chit-chat: Small talk or unimportant conversation.
Example: The boss asked them to stop their chit-chat and get on with their
work.
x See-saw: Something that goes up and down.
Example: The Indian rupee has been see-sawing for the last one year.
x Black-and-white: Something which is extremely clear.
Example: The employees have been told in black-and-white that they have
to deliver or quit.
x Dos and don’ts: The rules.
Example: A good driver always follows the dos and don’ts of driving.
x Haves and have-nots: Those who are rich and those who are not.
x Example: In India, there is a wide gap between the haves and have-nots of
the population.
x Ins and outs: The details.
Example: As I don’t know the ins and outs of the situation, I can’t really
comment on it.
x Pros and cons: Advantages and disadvantages.
Example: One must consider all the pros and cons before buying a new
car.
x Tried and tested: Something which has been well-tested.
Example: Drinking green tea is a tried and tested way of improving the
digestion.
x Ups and downs: Very good times and very bad times.
Example: He has had a lot of ups and downs in his business.
x Flesh and blood: One’s close family.
Example: You must help your brother – after all, he’s your flesh and blood.
x By and large: Generally.
Example: By and large, people prefer quality products to low prices.
x Dead and buried: Something that is not going to happen again.
Example: Their long dispute is now dead and buried.
x Wine and dine: To entertain someone lavishly.
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Verb Patterns and Example: The Chopras are known for wining and dining their guests.
Word Formation
x Bread and butter: The main source of income, or the most important
issue.
NOTES Example: Making shoes was the poor shoemaker’s bread and butter.
x Spick and span: Very clean and tidy.
Example: Mrs Khanna’s house is always spick and span.
x A bit much: Something that is excessive or annoying.
Example: All that violence in today’s movies is a bit much.
x Bad egg: A person who cannot be trusted.
Example: Don’t hire that man – he is a bad egg.
x Behind bars: To be in prison.
Example: Corrupt people find themselves behind bars one day.
8.3.7 Idioms
An idiom is a non-literal linguistic expression that is characteristic of different
languages. It is not a grammatical trait and the meaning of an idiom is not dependent
upon its literal expression but its idiomatic usages. For example, in Shakespeare’s
play Macbeth, Lady Macbeth feels that all the perfumes of Arabia will not wash
the blood from her hands. ‘Washing the blood’ is not a literal reference to washing
her hands clean but is an indication of guilt because she feels responsible for the
death of the king. So ‘having blood on your hands’ is to be responsible for someone’s
death. Notice how the literal explanation is different from the idiomatic one. Each
language has idioms that have evolved from a particular historical or cultural context
and with the passage of time have become a part of the vocabulary and usage.
Fluency and familiarity with a language enables us to both use idioms while speaking
and also identify them in written language.
So, an idiom is a usage in which the meaning is not literal, as the writer is
actually referring to something else. An idiomatic expression might not mean the
same in another language, so translating an idiom may change the meaning. In the
following section, we will study the commonly used idioms. For example:
Spill the beans–His friend spilt the beans (divulged a secret)
Pull the strings-He wanted to take his own decision without anybody pulling
the strings (controlling someone’s actions secretly)
Miss the boat–My son missed the boat (too late to take advantage of an
opportunity)
Bear the brunt–The common people have to bear the brunt of rising prices
(suffer a large part of something bad).
There are hundreds of idioms in the English language. Below are some
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x Add fuel to the fire: To make a bad situation worse. Example: He was Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
already in a bad mood and his wife’s nagging added fuel to the fire.
x Now and then: Occasionally. Example: We manage to go for a movie
now and then. NOTES
x On the back burner: To give an issue low priority. Example: The
women’s reservation bill was put on the back burner by the government.
x With bated breath: Very excited. Example: We waited with bated
breath for the magic show to begin.
x Beeline for: To head directly to a place. Example: At the Diwali Mela,
the children made a beeline for the snacks stalls.
x Neck to neck: Very close competition Example: The two candidates
are running neck to neck in the elections.
x Apple of the eye: Someone who is cherished above all others. Example:
Abhishek is the apple of his father’s eye.
x To cry wolf: To raise a false alarm. Example: We were told that there
was a fire in the building, but someone was just crying wolf.
x From rags to riches: To go from being very poor to being very wealthy.
Example: The famous actor went from rags to riches in one year.
x A knee-jerk reaction: An automatic response. Example: Please think
carefully about the proposal – don’t give a knee-jerk reaction.
x Over the top: Very excessive. Example: The businessman went over
the top in spending money at his daughter’s wedding.
x Pass the buck: Avoid responsibility by giving it to someone else.
Example: When the workers complained, the manager passed the buck
to the supervisor.
x Go scot-free: To escape without punishment. Example: The people
who had started the fake finance company went scot-free.
x Turn a blind eye: Refuse to acknowledge something. Example: Despite
many accidents, the local authorities turned a blind eye to the bad roads.
x A cut above: To be superior or better. Example: The actress who won
the National Award is certainly a cut above the rest.
x Rain or shine: No matter what the weather is like. Example: Rain or
shine, he goes for a walk at the same time every day.
x Wild goose chase: A futile or hopeless pursuit. Example: The police
thought that they would catch the gang leader, but they were on a wild
goose chase.
x Last-ditch effort: A final effort. Example: The team made a last-ditch
effort and managed to win the match.
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Verb Patterns and x Lock horns: To have a heated argument. Example: The two politicians
Word Formation
locked horns in Parliament over the issue of corruption.
x Nip something in the bud: To end something at an early stage. Example:
NOTES It is said that evil should always be nipped in the bud.
Some more idioms
x I have covered my syllabus from A to Z (gone over the entire portion).
x Mathematics to me is as easy as ABC (as elementary and simple as learning
ABC).
x The open manholes on the road are an accident waiting to happen (a situation
that is likely to be dangerous because of someone’s carelessness)
x She has all the aces (all the advantages, not a card game).
x Sumita’s support of her wayward son was her only Achilles heel (Her only
weakness which could make her vulnerable).
x It was very clear from the minister’s policies that he had a hidden agenda
(hidden intentions).
x I could give an arm and a leg to work on this project (Ready to do anything
and pay a high price).
x After dismissing the director, the minister said that he had no axe to grind
(no questionable personal motive).
x In office he is very quick to pass the buck (shirk responsibility and blame
someone else).
x The investigation brought to light the truth about the alleged break-in
(disclosed).
x She broke down when she met her child after a decade (emotionally
agitated).
x The police had to bear the brunt of the crowd’s anger (suffered the most
because of the crowd’s behaviour).
x He always has a bone to pick with him (a reason to quarrel).
x Rajiv cannot be trusted because he always goes back on his word (never
sticks to what he says).
x The two neighbours decided to bury the hatchet, and meet for tea (to end
hostilities).
x Before any examination, Ravi always has butterflies in his stomach (feels
nervous).
x The student changed colour when her teacher found her eating in class (to
become pale with fear).

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x She cannot hold a candle to her mother’s beauty (not as good).
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x Children have to be disciplined with a carrot and stick policy (alternately Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
rewarded and disciplined, promise of reward and also threat of punishment).
x The surprise party was not a surprise, because Anita let the cat out of the
bag (revealed the secret). NOTES
x After its policy on reservations, the government found itself in a catch 22
situation (difficult situation both ways).
x The twins are as different as chalk and cheese (completely different with
nothing in common).
x Madhu felt relieved after speaking to the principal and getting everything off
her chest (expressing something which was hidden and wanting to tell
someone).
x Vinita is extremely helpful, but she has to learn that charity begins at home
(Be helpful first to your immediate family and friends).
x The two brothers are constantly at daggers drawn (hostile to each other as
enemies).
x Though she could not get admission in any college, Rita was confident that
as one door closed, another would open (Failure is not final because new
opportunities will soon come one’s way).
x At the office party Meena was dressed to kill (attractively dressed to create
an impact)
x After watching the movies there was not a dry eye left (moved to tears).
x Whenever we have lunch together we go Dutch (sharing the cost equally).
x His contribution for the homeless was a drop in the ocean (an extremely
small amount, as negligible as a drop of water in the ocean).
x It was beyond my wildest dreams when I got the Rhodes scholarship (better
than what one imagined or hoped for).
x He goes on leave at the drop of a hat (at the slightest excuse).
x The boss was very happy with his new employee who was a real eager
beaver (ready and enthusiastic worker).
x She always submits her work at the eleventh hour (at the last possible
moment).
x Once Collins started speaking, no one could get a word in edgeways (you
cannot speak much, because the other individual does not stop speaking).
x He is his own worst enemy (self-destructive).
x By the end of the day, the baby sitter was at the end of her tether (had no
more patience and energy left to deal with anything).
x The designer has an eye for good fabric (can recognize and judge).
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Verb Patterns and x The public were told to keep their eyes open and look out for suspicious
Word Formation
objects (be on guard and alert).
x You can never pull the wool over my grandmother’s eyes (deceive someone
NOTES lie to them).
x Resigning from one company to join the rival company was like jumping
from the frying pan into the fire (going from one tough or taxing situation to
a worse one).
x It was a feather in Rahul’s cap when he was selected for the test team (an
achievement to be proud of).
x Being unemployed for a long period, Ravi could feel the pinch (financial
hardship).\
x She did not have the faintest idea of what to do after her retirement (had no
clue or idea).
x Rita does not want to work for anyone because she hates to play second
fiddle (be in a subordinate post).
x The local official is not reliable because he always speaks with a forked
tongue (to make false promises).
x Meena’s boss often tends to fly off the handle (losing one’s temper).
x The author’s award winning book seems to be a flash in the pan (one time
success which has not been repeated).
x The class representative has the gift of the gab (can speak persuasively and
eloquently).
x Once the new financial policies are released, there is bound to be much
gnashing of teeth (feel angry and upset).
x The children at the orphanage were told never to look a gift horse in the
mouth (to refuse a gift, or be critical about a gift).
x He is ready to grease palms to get his contract renewed (bribe someone).
x The employees heard through the grapevine that there was going to be a lay
off (unofficial nerves, rumours).
x Whatever her problems, Anita always grins and bears it (does not complain
about misfortune).
x It is anybody’s guess who will win the next elections (no one can predict it).
x Despite being isolated by his colleagues, Robin stuck to his guns (did not
compromise, stuck to his position).
x The students let their hair down after their board exams (behave with
abandon, uninhibitedly).
x The employee of the firm was discovered to be hand in glove with the
Self-Instructional intruder (in conspiracy, plotting together).
158 Material
x After the closure of their factory, the Bhatia’s led a hand to mouth existence Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
(having money just for basic necessities).
x After a long stint as the chairman, he was ready to hang up boots (to give up
working and retire). NOTES
x After the dramatic decline in sales, heads are bound to roll (employees will
be fired, or strong action will be taken).
x The mother watched her children like a hawk when they went to play (keep
a close watch on someone).
x We all need to put our heads together and plan for the next quadrennium
(work together).
x All hell broke loose when the students were not allowed to meet the principal
(unruly behaviour, chaos).
x The assistant’s involvement in the theft was just the tip of the iceberg (only
a tiny part of the problem is evident, the larger situation is still hidden).
x The seniors made a special effort to break the ice by welcoming all the
freshers (initiate a conversation with people you have just met, or break the
tension)
x Robin was involved in a terrible accident and was within an inch of his life
(nearly died).
x The announcement that all the employees had to work extra hours and
would not get compensatory leave, was adding insult to injury (aggravating
an existing problematic situation).
x Brutus in the play ‘Julius Caesar’ accuses Cassius of having an itching palm
(greedy for money).
x The chairman of the company has had good innings (long and successful
life).
x She was out of pocket after the negotiations failed (financial loss).
x Manju knows all the ins and outs of the deal (detailed information).
x The little boy finishes eating before you can say Jack Robinson (very fast).
x India was the jewel in the crown of the British Empire (the best and most
valuable part).
x The Raos always want to keep up with the Joneses (have the same materials,
lifestyle like the neighbours).
x My boss is always ready to jump down someone’s throat (react angrily).
x The jury is still out regarding the benefits of stem cell cloning (undecided).
x In court he always goes for the jugular (aggressive).
x The director’s assistant is a jack of all trades but master of none (can do
different things but does not excel at anything). Self-Instructional
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Verb Patterns and x I have hit the jackpot (unexpected financial gain).
Word Formation
x After Manoj became the Managing Director, he gave his friend a kick in the
teeth and refused to promote him (a setback or disappointment, usually
NOTES viewed as betrayal).
x She was always ready to kiss the ground in front of her guru (bow down as
a token of respect).
x Christmas and New Year is the time to greet your kith and kin (relations).
x You could have knocked me down with a feather when I heard that the
Director was resigning from the company (extremely surprised).
x At the interview the chairman enjoys getting the applicants tied up in knots
(confuse someone).
x The knives are out for Bharat who has recently superseded his colleagues
and become the manager (open hostility).
x Reena’s success after a delayed start proves that you can’t keep a good
man down (competence and skill will win).
x By marrying the director’s daughter, Ravi killed two birds with one stone
(achieve two aims at one go).
x I like to be up with the lark and start my daily routine (early morning).
x There are increasing instances of mobs taking the law into their own hands
(doing as you please, punishing someone illegally and violently).
x With most game shows asking people to vote for the winner,
telecommunication companies are laughing all the way to the bank (lots of
money with little effort).
x A good leader should lead from the front (by example).
x It is no point expecting Suresh to change because a leopard cannot change
his spots (cannot change your basic nature).
x It is amazing to see how pilgrims who are on their last legs are ready to
undertake strenuous journeys (physically exhausted, nearing the end of your
life).
x Unlike her mother who is very hard working, the daughter refuses to lift a
finger (does not do any work).
x For our country to prosper, it is important that we all learn to live and let live
(be tolerant of each other).
x Multinational companies take the lion’s share of profits (major share).
x The medical reports showing that everything was clear was a load off his
mind (sense of relief).
x The new director is well liked by everyone as he is a man for all seasons
Self-Instructional (suitable for all occasions, appropriate behaviour).
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x His decision to be part of the new project will make or break the company’s Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
profits (decisive factor).
x The coalition of political parties is obviously a marriage of convenience (a
collaboration for practical purposes). NOTES
x The dictator was given a taste of his own medicine (treated in the same
manner).
x The opposition made mincemeat of the ruling party in Parliament (decisive
defeat).
x As children we were told to watch our P’s and Q’s when we went visiting
(be careful to behave well).
x Mother Teresa was overflowing with the milk of human kindness (care and
compassion for others).
x Though she got many opportunities to study abroad, she still missed the
bus/boat (not knowing how to make use of opportunities).
x She wanted to join films to make a name for herself (to become famous).
x The intelligence agencies were caught napping when the terrorists attacked
(not ready for action, unprepared).
x Both the companies are neck and neck in a bid to release their product first
(equal in a race).
x The hostages were rescued by the police just in the nick of time (just in
time).
x The new employer is a real taskmaster and keeps Sunil’s nose to the
grindstone (makes him work hard).
x The management has been giving a nudge and wink to the government’s
questionable policies (quiet support).
x From the minister’s actions one can see that the department head’s days
are numbered (his time is up).
x We are just on nodding terms with our neighbours (to know someone just a
little).
x He was the only civilian and he always felt he was the odd one out when he
was with colleagues (different from the others, does not fit in).
x The negotiator held out an olive branch to the two warring partners (offer of
peace).
x When opportunity knocks at your door, you should make full use of it
(chances for better avenues).
x It is no use going overboard with the new plans until they are approved
(over enthusiastic).
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Verb Patterns and x Ajay always behaves as if he owns the place (overbearing manner).
Word Formation
x He resigned from his job and joined another company with his eyes open
(aware of consequences).
NOTES x The election between the two candidates is a one horse race (one candidate
seems sure to win).
x It is an old wives’ tale that you should not cook during a solar eclipse
(traditional belief that is unscientific).
x With new technology many of our traditions have paled into insignificance
(lost their value).
x The students’ behaviour with their teacher was beyond the pale and was
criticized by everyone (unacceptable, beyond the norm).
x It was a mutual decision by both individuals to part company (go their
separate ways).
x Everyone paid through their nose for a club membership (pay an extremely
high price).
x Giving her expensive designer gifts is like casting pearls before the swine
(giving valuable things to someone who does not appreciate them).
x I hope Rahul does not take over the family business because he is a square
peg in a round hole (situation unsuited to his abilities).
x Senior citizens are often made to run from pillar to post to get their pension.
(From one place to another, uselessly).
x You could hear a pin drop when the name of the selected candidates was
announced (complete silence).
x The budding actress said that she had many films in the pipeline (being
planned).
x Suresh is an astute politician who always plays his cards close to his chest
(secretive).
x As children we used to quake in our shoes when we heard our grandfather’s
voice (be scared).
x It was only a question of time before his financial dealings were exposed
(matter of time).
x Among the siblings Seema is quiet as a mouse (docile person).
x The company and its employees decided to call it quits (mutually part ways,
part with a company).
x She was quick of the mark in class and was her teacher’s favourite (quick
to comprehend).
x The parents were cut to the quick by their children’s remarks (distressed
Self-Instructional by hurtful remarks).
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x Nobody trusted him as he was always trying to queer someone’s pitch Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
(spoil someone’s chances).
x Who will contest the elections together is a million dollar question (unknown
outcome on which a lot depends). NOTES
x I have to rack my brains on what to say at the meeting (think hard).
x His life is a rags to riches story (from poverty or difficult time to wealth).
x Having a punk hairstyle today is all the rage (in fashion).
x Many militant organizations abduct people and hold them to ransom (demand
money or concessions for their release).
x The statements made to the press by the minister were off the record (not
official statements).
x ‘Unless we see a reasonable change in your behaviour, there is no place for
you in this company’ said Manoj (behave in a reasonable manner).
x She was red as a beetroot when Raghu proposed publicly to her (red with
embarrassment).
x I like movies and books where everyone rides off into the sunset (happy
endings).
x He is known for riding roughshod over everyone in the company
(disregarding others’ wishes).
x She has the knack of smoothing ruffled feathers (to make someone less
angry or upset).
x In international relations many countries do not follow the principle that
what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander (what is right for one
should be the same for the other).
x He is willing to sell his soul to the devil in order to achieve his ambitions (go
to any extent).
x Some schools follow the principle of dividing the sheep from the goats
(superior and inferior groups).
x The proposal to increase the number of schools was passed with a show of
hands (express consent by raising a hand).
x When you are born with a silver spoon in your mouth, it is difficult to
understand how the other half lives. (Wealth and riches).
x In today’s economic scenario the sky is the limit to what one can achieve
(limitless opportunities).
x The government’s decision about increased surveillance measures is not to
be sneezed at (not to be dismissed).
x Sudhir’s response to his neighbour’s new iPod is so obviously a case of
sour grapes (be critical of something that you cannot have). Self-Instructional
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Verb Patterns and x I knew that the management kept tabs on everything juniors did in office
Word Formation
(monitor someone).
x She was able to turn the tables on her opponent and reach the second
NOTES position (reverse your position to one of advantage).
x The judge pointed out to the petitioner that it took two to tango (both
parties are equally responsible).
x On being caught cheating, the student shed crocodile tears (show false
grief).
x Ever since the announcement of new tariffs, Reet is on tenterhooks about
his proposals (state of anxiety).
x The public was always throwing stones at the municipality (be critical).
x The lawyers succeeded in throwing dust in the policemen’s eyes (mislead/
divert).
x The new president loves to blow her own trumpet and take credit for
everything (boast about her achievements).
x The students were warned in no uncertain terms about the consequences of
bunking (strongly and forcefully).
x After a prolonged illness she is up and about (active).
x In their fight for control of the party, the dissidents have gained the upper
hand (gained control).
x She was the ugly duckling who went on to win the Ms India crown
(unexpected change from ordinariness to beauty or talent).
x Everyone sensed that something was up from the secretive behaviour of the
neighbours (something unusual).
x She only associates with people who are upwardly mobile (moving to a
higher social position).
x The defence prosecutor was up to his tricks again (misbehaving in his usual
fashion).
x Rina drives her father’s car but is underage (below the permissible age).
x The villain of the piece was someone who also worked in the bank (main
culprit).
x She takes a dim view of her colleague’s behaviour (disapprove).
x The manager is hot tempered and frequently vents his spleen (express your
anger).
x He is never transparent in his functioning and always draws a veil over his
dealings (avoid discussion).
x At the end of the day he wondered whether his pyrrhic victory had been
Self-Instructional worth anything (at too great a cost).
164 Material
x She loves to travel and explore the world because she believes that variety Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
is the spice of life (new and exciting experiences).
x After her boss ticked her off, she worked with a vengeance to complete her
assignments (more than expected). NOTES
x When it is time to settle the bill, Raja always does the vanishing act. (to
disappear especially when people are looking for you).
x The newly married couple was busy washing their dirty linen in public (argue
publicly about personal matters).
x The chairman’s post is being kept warm for someone (hold a post for
someone else).
x He lacks maturity as he is still wet behind the ears (immature).
x The government is contemplating selling off a public enterprise which has
become a white elephant (difficult to maintain).
x The overburdened mother was at her wits end (not knowing what to do
next).
x You can count on him because he is a man of his word (reliable, keeps his
promise).
x With the arrival of the twins, the mother had her work cut out (hard task).
x The writing is on the wall that the company is going to be in trouble (clear
indication of something unpleasant about to happen).
x We never take him seriously because he loves to spin a yarn (tell long stories).
x Her new hairstyle takes years off her (makes you look younger).
x Newspapers are not interested in yesterday’s news (no longer of interest).
x The gatekeeper has been with the office for donkey’s years (long period).
x After his studies he wants to travel into the wide blue yonder (unknown
distance).
x The chancellor cannot accept the fact that he is yesterday’s man (individual,
especially a politician whose career is over).
x It is important to celebrate the New Year with you and yours (family and
friends).

Check Your Progress

3. What do you mean by portmanteau words?
4. How are words formed by clipping?
5. Give two examples of acronyms.
6. Give two examples of phrases and idioms.
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Verb Patterns and
Word Formation 8.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. The verbs which follow the pattern Verb + Preposition + Verb + ing are:
specialize and think.
2. In case of the verb pattern of the question form, the auxiliary verb no longer
comes directly before the main verb but moves before the subject.
3. The blending is accomplished by taking only the beginning of one word and
joining it to the end of the other word. The words formed by this process
are called blends or portmanteau words.
4. Clipping is a process of word formation in which a word is made smaller
without changing its meaning or the grammatical class. For example,
examination – exam
5. Two examples of acronyms are: WHO (World Health Organisation) and
UNO (United Nations Organisation)
6. Two examples of phrases: Dark horse and Fool’s paradise
7. Two examples of idioms: Spill the beans and Bear the brunt

8.5 SUMMARY

x The verb patterns are dependent upon the first verb. There are several
different types of pattern. When you learn a new verb, you need to learn
the verb pattern.
x At times, some verbs have more than one possible pattern. Sometimes, if a
verb has two patterns, each pattern can have a different meaning or use.
x In English language, the order in which different category of words appear
in a sentence is important. This structure determines the meaning of the
sentence.
x Apart from borrowing words from various foreign languages like Latin,
Greek and French, the English language has been constantly enriching its
word store by the making of new words out of its own resources.
x In compound formation, two roots are joined together to make a longer
word. This combining process is technically known as compounding and is
very commonly found in German and English.
x In clipping, a word is made smaller without any change in its meaning or the
grammatical class.

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 x Blending is a process of word formation in which a new word is formed by Verb Patterns and
Word Formation
combining the meaning and sound of two words.
x Acronymy is a process of word formation in which a word is formed of the
initial letters of a group of words. This is a type of abbreviation known as
NOTES
acronym. It is the result of the human desire for minimizing human effort.
x Another process of word formation is through phrases. In this process, a
phrase is used in place of a word to express a meaning.
x A phrasal verb is an idiomatic phrase that contains a verb and another
element, either an adverb or a preposition.
x An idiom is a non-literal linguistic expression that is characteristic of different
languages. It is not a grammatical trait and the meaning of an idiom is not
dependent upon its literal expression but its idiomatic usages.

8.6 KEY WORDS

x Linguistic Expression: It is any physical form (sound, visual image or

sequence thereof) used to represent a linguistic unit. A linguistic expression
may be spoken, written, or signed.
x Root: In English grammar and morphology, a root is a word or word
element (in other words, a morpheme) from which other words grow, usually
through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.

8.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Briefly explain the difference between clipping and compounds.
2. What do you mean by phrases and phrasal verbs?
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the significance of verb pattern and structure in detail.
2. Discuss the meaning and usage of idioms with examples.

8.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.

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Verb Patterns and Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Word Formation
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
NOTES
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Prefix/Suffix and

UNIT 9 PREFIX/SUFFIX AND Synonyms/Antonyms

SYNONYMS/ANTONYMS
NOTES
Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 The Use of Prefixes and Suffixes
9.2.1 Prefixes
9.2.2 Suffixes
9.2.3 Infixes
9.3 Compound Words, Synonyms and Antonyms
9.3.1 Synonyms
9.3.2 Antonyms
9.3.3 Synonyms and Antonyms in Sentences
9.4 Words often Confused
9.4.1 Common English Errors
9.4.2 Words with Appropriate Prepositions
9.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
9.6 Summary
9.7 Key Words
9.8 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
9.9 Further Readings

9.0 INTRODUCTION

A prefix is a group of letters placed before the root of a word. For example, the
word ‘unhappy’ consists of the prefix ‘un-’ [which means ‘not’] combined with
the root (or stem) word ‘happy’; the word ‘unhappy’ means ‘not happy’. A suffix is
a group of letters placed after the root of a word. For example, the word flavourless
consists of the root word ‘flavour’ combined with the suffix ‘-less’ [which means
‘without’]; the word ‘flavourless’ means ‘having no flavour’. In this unit, we will
discuss the meaning and usage of prefix and suffix in detail, along with compound
words. We will also focus on synonyms/antonyms and the correct way of using
preposition with words.

9.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the meaning and usage of prefix and suffix
x Discuss the usage of synonyms and antonyms
x Describe the correct way of using preposition with words
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Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms 9.2 THE USE OF PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Let us take a group of words like goes, walks, talked, smiled, and received. An
NOTES analysis of the words will reveal the following facts:
Goes – go + -es
Walks – walk + -s
Talked – talk + -ed
Smiled – smile + -d
Received – receive + -d
Deceived – deceive + d
In the words, ‘goes’ and ‘walks’, ‘-es’ and ‘–s’ are bound morphemes
which make the root words ‘go’ and ‘walk’ singular. Similarly, ‘-ed’; and ‘–d’
have been joined with the free morphemes talk, smile, receive and deceive to
change them into past tense. These are free morphemes as they have their own
meaning without being added to any other morpheme. ‘–es’, ‘-s’, ‘-ed’ and ‘–d’
are the bound morphemes because they are independently meaningless.
Thus, we see that every word of the above group has one independent
(free) morpheme, which has some meaning, and there is a bound morpheme added
to each to form a new word. Since the bound morphemes have no independent
meaning, the free morphemes are the roots to which the bound morphemes are
added as affixes. In English, the roots are mostly free morphemes. A word may
consist of one or more morphemes, one morpheme usually as the central and one
or more morphemes as the peripheral. The central morpheme is known as root
morpheme and the peripheral, affixes. Affixes can be divided into three types
which are discussed below.
9.2.1 Prefixes
A prefix is added at the beginning of a root word to form a new word. In English,
prefixes are profusely used to make new words or to modify or extend the concept
which is denoted by the root word. In this way, the English language has evolved
and kept pace with the changing needs of time. Some of the native prefixes are:
x ‘Be-’: Originally meaning about, it forms derivative verbs which can have
two kinds of meanings – beset, bemoan, besmear, etc. It also forms verbs
from nouns and adjectives. For example, befool, befriend, belittle.
x ‘Un-’: This negative prefix is freely used with adjectives and adverbs to
form words like unhappy, untidy, and unnatural. Un- is very commonly
used in Modern English with present participles to change them into
permanent verbs like unbecoming, untiring and unyielding. In the Old and
Middle English periods, un- was commonly used with nouns as in the word
unreality.
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 x ‘With-’: Though a very productive prefix in the Old English period, only Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
one derivative word has survived in Modern English, i.e., withstand.
Withdraw and withhold were two new words that were added in the Middle
English period.
NOTES
x ‘For-’: This prefix has now become obsolete though it was very much used
in the Old English Period. For example, forbid, forgo, and forbear.
x ‘Mis-’: This prefix has been used with verbs, nouns and adjectives to form
new words like misbehave, mislead, misconception.
Apart from native prefixes, new words have been formed by foreign prefixes
mainly borrowed from French, Latin and Greek languages.
French prefixes
x En-: endanger, enlist
x Em-: embark, empower
x Demi-: demigod, demister
Latin prefixes
x Re-: return, rewrite
x Pro-: prodemocracy, proceed
x Pre-: prenatal, prevent
x Super-: supernatural, superficial
x Dis-: disadvantage, discomfort
x Post-: postgame, postpone
x De-: decode, decalcify
x Trans-: transplant, transfix
x Multi-: multinational, multilingual
x Extra-: extraordinary, extravascular
Greek Prefixes
x A-: atypical, aside
x Anti-: antinational, antisocial
x Pan-: pantheism, panorama
x Hyper-: hyperactive, hypersensitive
x Pseudo-: pseudoscientist, pseudoephedrine
x Neo-: neonatal, neophyte
x Auto-: autobiography, automobile

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Prefix/Suffix and General list of words with prefixes
Synonyms/Antonyms
x Advance
x Anti-aircraft
NOTES x Antibiotic
x Anticlockwise
x Bejewelled
x Bemuse
x Beset
x Bespatter
x Bespectacled
x Bewitch
x Bicycle
x Bifocal
x Bilingual
x Bisexuality
x Decantation
x Decentralization
x Decode
x Decompose
x Defame
x Deforestation
x Defrost
x Degenerate
x Degradation
x Degrade
x Dehydration
x Derange
x Disadvantage
x Disappear
x Disconnect
x Dishonest
x Embitter
x Embitter
x Engulf
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x Enlighten Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
x Enmesh
x Enrage
x Entangle NOTES
x Hyperactive
x Hypersonic
x Illegal
x Immaterial
x Impossible
x Invisible
x Invisible
x Irresistible
x Irresponsible
x Misbehave
x Mischief
x Monocle
x Monolith
x Monologue
x Monotony
x Nonentity
x Nonfiction
x Nonsense
x Nonsense
x Overbearing
x Overboard
x Overcast
x Overconfident
x Overview
x Prehistoric
x Reconnect
x Recover
x Replay
x Reserve
x Review
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Prefix/Suffix and x Rewind
Synonyms/Antonyms
x Submarine
x Subservient
NOTES x Subsoil
x Subtitles
x Sub-tropical
x Subway
x Telecommunication
x Telepathy
x Telephoto lens
x Television
x Telegraph
x Unable
x Unacceptable
x Uncover
x Underarm
x Underdeveloped
x Underground
x Undersecretary
x Undertake
x Undertaker
x Unfair
x Unforgettable
x Unhappy
x Unhealthy
x Unlucky
x Unmanned
x Unmask
x Unplug
x Unreal
x Untamed
x Untidy
x Unwind

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9.2.2 Suffixes Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
A suffix is attached at the end of a root word to form a new word. It can change
the word- class and meaning of a word. Suffixes may be used to form nouns from
verbs and adjectives, and adjectives from nouns and verbs. The following lists NOTES
contain different suffixes and their uses to form new words.
Nouns from verbs
x –ment: appointment, arrangement
x –ion: selection, collection
x –ance: assistance, insurance
x –al: arrival, dismissal
x –sion: extension, compulsion
x –ing: reading, walking
x –ure: failure, literature
Nouns from adjectives
x –ity: activity, reality
x –ness: happiness, sadness
x –ance: distance, ignorance
Adjectives from nouns
x –y: cloudy, dusty
x – ly: fatherly, manly
x –al: accidental, classical
x –ish: boyish, reddish
x –ful: beautiful, thoughtful
x –less: penniless, careless
Adjectives from verbs
x –able: admirable, agreeable
x –ful: thankful, helpful
9.2.3 Infixes
Infixes are not very commonly found in English except in plural words like geese,
men, etc. These words change their inflection by bringing some variations in the
vowels in their middle structure. For example:
x Man–men
x Mouse–mice
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Prefix/Suffix and x Foot-feet
Synonyms/Antonyms
x Tooth-teeth
Such changes are known as replacive because they involve the replacement of
NOTES vowels. All English words formed by this derivational process have either prefixes
or suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead has a prefix, disrespectful has both a prefix and
a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes.

Check Your Progress

1. How are affixes divided?
2. What is a suffix?
3. Give any two examples of infixes.

9.3 COMPOUND WORDS, SYNONYMS AND

ANTONYMS

As we have already discussed in Unit 8, compound word is a word that is made

up of two or more other words. For example, the word dragonfly is made up of
two words, dragon and fly. In this section, we will go on to discuss synonyms and
antonyms in detail.
9.3.1 Synonyms
Effective expression in the English language—oral or written—comes from
knowledge of vocabulary. Synonyms are words that mean the same or nearly the
same thing but their usage in sentences may sometimes vary depending on the
context of the passage. Synonyms are also used to avoid repetition of the same
word in a sentence, yet conserve the meaning of the sentence. In fact, to have a
good control over the English language, it is important to have a good command
over synonyms.
Two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same implication.
Synonyms can be found in any of the parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair belong to the same
part of speech.
Examples of a few synonyms are:
x Baby (noun): infant, child, toddler, newborn
x Petty crime: misdemeanour (noun),offence
x Student (noun): pupil, learner, beginner, trainee
x Buy (verb): purchase, procure, obtain, acquire, get
x Pretty (adjective): attractive, good-looking, sweet, cute
x Sick (adjective): ill, unwell, ailing, under the weather
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 x Quickly and speedily (adverb): rapidly, hastily, promptly Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
x Freedom and liberty (noun): choice, freewill, sovereignty
x Dead and deceased (adjective): lifeless, departed, silent, boring
You must note that some synonyms are defined with respect to the sense of NOTES
certain words. Look at the following examples:
x The word expired as in ‘having lost validity’ (used in the context of
medicines, or the tenure of a position held by someone) does not
necessarily mean death.
x The word ‘pupil’ as in ‘the iris of the eye’ does not necessarily mean
student.
There are very few words which are truly synonymous in meaning, that is,
have exactly the same meaning. Generally, there are some differences in
the usage if not in the meaning.
For example, the words aged, ancient, obsolete, and matured.
x Aged implies of advanced age and is applicable to people.
x Ancient implies of or in time long past and is applicable to objects,
animate or inanimate.
x Obsolete implies no longer in general use and is applicable to fashion,
mobile phones, gadgets.
x Matured implies ripe, and is applicable to fruits, or fully aged, as in
cheese or wine
Examples of synonyms
Let us now look at a few important synonyms.
x Absolute
o Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Having and exercising complete political power and control.
Synonyms: absolutistic, arbitrary, autarchic, autarchical
o Part of Speech: noun
Synonyms: positiveness, positivity, totality, unconditionality
x Candid
o Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Manifesting honesty and directness, especially in speech.
Synonyms: artless, blunt, clear, direct,
o Part of Speech: noun
Synonyms: candidness, candour, honesty

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Prefix/Suffix and x Definite
Synonyms/Antonyms
o Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Having distinct limits.
NOTES Synonyms: determinate, fixed, limited
o Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Known positively.
Synonyms: certain, positive, sure
o Part of Speech: noun
Synonyms: definiteness, definitude, finality, finitude, inevitability,
precision, tangibility
x Economy
Definition: Careful use of material resources.
o Part of Speech: adjective
Synonyms: cheese-paring, economic, economical, frugal,
o Part of Speech: noun
Synonyms: administration, austerity, conservation, discretion,
o Part of Speech: verb
Synonyms: curtail, cut back, economize, and retrench
x Fastidious
Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Showing or marked by attentiveness to all aspects or details.
Synonyms: meticulous, painstaking, punctilious, scrupulous
x Gamut
Part of Speech: noun
Definition: the full range or compass of recognized musical notes; by
extension, the compass of an instrument or voice
Synonyms: compass, continuum, extent, field,
x Illiterate
Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Without education or knowledge.
Synonyms: ignorant, uneducated, unlearned, and unschooled
x Immaculate
Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Free from dirt, stain, or impurities.
Synonyms: flawless, clean, spotless, unblemished
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 x Innocuous Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Devoid of hurtful qualities
Synonyms: harmless, innocent, inoffensive NOTES
x Morbid
o Part of Speech: adjective
Definition: Susceptible to or marked by preoccupation with
unwholesome matters
Synonyms: diseased, sick, unhealthy, dreadful
o Part of Speech: noun
Synonyms: cachexia, gruesomeness, morbidity
Use easy words
The golden rule for good English is to use small and easy-to-understand words.
Avoid using big and difficult words. However, it is important to know both easy
and difficult words. There are instances when big words are appropriate to drive
home the meaning, than the small ones. The following is a list of big words and
their synonyms which are easy and simple to understand and use.
Big words Small words Big words Small words
Cinerary ashes Mendicant beggar
Accessory additional Salutary beneficial
Contiguous adjoining Vaunt boast
Pristine ancient Eructation belching
Callisthenics athletics Clocher belfry
Derelict abandoned Nigrescent blackish
Eschew avoid Setaceous bristly
Fortuitous accidental Vociferate Bawl
Minauderie affectation Osseous bony
Pugnacious aggressive Alacrity briskness
Propitiate appease Succinct brief
Supercilious arrogant Turpitude baseness
Vituperate abuse Acerbity bitterness
Ficititious artificial Compendious brief
Plenipotentiary ambassador Pugilist boxer
Dudgeon anger Benediction blessing
Cecity blindnes Grandiloquent bombastic
Jejune bare Consuetude custom
Audacious bold Recreant coward
Sanguinary blood-thirsty Debonair courteous
Encephalon brain Sangfroid coolness,
Thrasonical boasting calmness
Decapitate, Malediction curse
Decollate behead Pureile childish
Impeccable blameless Cupidity covetousness
Terminus boundary Pellucid clear
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Prefix/Suffix and Credence belief Chanticleer cock
Synonyms/Antonyms Sterile barren Felicitation congratulation
Delinquent culprit Lethal,
Perfunctory careless Lethiferous deadly
Chronometer clock Quotidian daily
NOTES Querimonious, Demise death
Querulous complaining Negation denial
Vitiate corrupt Quiescent dormant
Calcareous chalky Assiduity diligence
Myriad countless Delectable dilightful
Coerce compel
Lexicon,
Vanquish conquer Thesaurus dictionary
Insouciant careless Tenement dwelling-house
Acatalectic complete Hallucination delusion
Twaddle chatter Intrepidity daring
Obsequious cringing Aphonia dumbness
Hamate hooked Esculent edible
Vouchsafe condescend Edible eatable
Ingenuous candid Avidity eagerness
Vicissitude change Aximious excellent
Ludicrous comical Elucidate explain
Frigid cold Inane, vacuous empty
Coagulation clotting Sempirvirent evergreen
Masticate chew Commutation exchange
Tranquil calm Sempiternal everlasting
Ambiguous, Tentative experimental
Equivocal, Adversary enemy
Dubious doubtful Exorbitant excessive
Opporbrium disgrace Oriental eastern
Beguile deceive Reverberate echo
Ignominy disgrace Interminable endless
Desuetude disuse Gratuitous free
Internecine deadly Valediction farewell
Commination denunciation Intimidate frighten
Inebriate drunk obese fat
Labefaction decay quondam former
Procrastinate defer Adulation flattery
Sediment dregs Parsimonious frugal
Defeasance defeat Absolution forgiveness
Denegation denial Plenary full
Evanesce disappear Plenitude fullness
Insubordinate disobedient Decrepit feeble
Portal door Oblivion forgetfulness
Decadence decay Timorous fearful
Traduce defame Aliment food
Inundate flood Manacle handcuff
Vapulation flogging Assuetude habit
Prospicience foresight Co-adjutor helper
Fatucus, Pendulous hanging
Desipient foolish Colossal huge
Prognosis forecast Recluse hermit
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Fugacious fleeting Asperity harshness Prefix/Suffix and
Insipience foolishness Deleterious, Synonyms/Antonyms
Plumose feathery Noxious hurtful
Sebacious, Corneous homy
Adipose fatty Animosity hatred
Pusilanimous faint-hearted Cursory hasty NOTES
Mendacity falsehood Nostalgia home-sickness
Spurious false Secrete hide
Amity friendship Moiety half
Fecundity fruitfulness Faineant idle
Replete full Propensity inclination
Amicable friendly Inadequate insufficient
Aptitude fitnes
Long words Short words Long words Short words
Edacious greedy Incarcerate imprison
Hiatus gap Irascible irritable
Mucilage gum Nescient ignorant
Cupidity greed Simulacrum image
Vertigo giddiness Animus intention
Confabulate gossip Valetudinarian invalid
Porraceous, Afflatus inspiration
Viridescent greenish Contumelious insolent
Authentic genuine Disingenuous insincere
Chivalrous gallant Inexorable inflexible
Conjecture,
Surmise guess Facetious jocular
Jocund gay Succulent juicy
Habiliment garment Convivial jovial
Culpable guilty
Voracious gluttonous geniculate knotted
Gravement grievance Osculate kiss
Merchandise goods
Wraith ghost Erudite learned
Rapacious greedy Inanimate lifeless
Colleen lass, girl
Domicile house,home Indolent lazy
Gigantic huge Lascivious lewd
Ululate howl Deficiency lack
Innocuous,
Innoxious, harmless Extortionate oppressive
Acephalous headless Transluscent opaque
Senile old
Missive letter Encomium,
Vivacious lively Eulogy praise
Avocation occupation Fortitude strength
Elliptical oval Contumacious stubborn
Sudation sweet
Udometer rain-gauge Amorphous shapeless
Veritable real Insomnia sleeplessness
Alacrity readiness Subaltern subordinate
Temerarious reckless Immaculate spotless
Compunction remorse Asphyxia suffocation
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Prefix/Suffix and Refescent reddish Tardy slow
Synonyms/Antonyms Desultory rambling Conspectus synopsis
Renovate renew Reticent silent
Insurgent rebel Condiddle steal
Insurrection rebellion Succeedaneous substitute
NOTES Transgression sin Vilify slander
Exiguous slender
Vascid sticky Garrulous,
Arenaceous sandy Loquacious talkative
Deglutition swallowing Cogitate think
Espionage spying Totile twisted
Aspersion slander Endeavour try
Truculent savage Lacerate,
Velocity swiftness Lancinate tear
Disseminate scatter Veracity truth
Somnolence sleep Minacious threatening
Edulcorate sweeten Sepulchre tomb
Expectorate spit Titillate tickle
Lentitude slowness Anourous tailless
Pertinaceous stubborn Stratagem trick
Acauline slemless Tenuity thinness
Proclivitous steep Chicanery trickery
Homily sermon Diaphanous transparent
Consign send Edentate toothless
Exiguous small Histrionic theatrical
Obdurate stubborn
Surreptitious, Consentaneous unanimous
Clandestine secret Incertitude uncertainty
Acerbity sourness Incessent unceasing
Interstice space Oecumenical universal
Prehensile seizing Rectitude uprightness
Declivity slope Inefidel unspeakable
Pishogue sorcery Mendacious untruthful
Amanuensis secretary Subterranean underground

9.3.2 Antonyms
You have already learnt about synonyms or words having similar meanings.
Antonyms on the other hand, are more commonly known as opposites. An antonym
is a word or a phrase that means the opposite of another word or phrase. An
antonym is often the negative connotation of a particular word as is evident from
the following examples:
Rich Poor
Friend Enemy
Truth Lie
Knowledge Ignorance
Win Lose

While conversing, there is always an unavoidable need for an appropriate word

suitable to the occasion. With a good knowledge of words, one can express one’s
thoughts and feelings exactly.
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Examples of antonyms Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
x The Finance Minister tried to be as precise as possible in his statement on
public policy. One should try to be exact in his calculations.
Antonyms: NOTES
Incorrect
Inaccurate
Inexact
Wrong
False
x Power corrupts a man and absolute power corrupts absolutely.
Antonyms:
Submission
Obedience
Subjection
Thralldom
Slavery
x Ravi is a bold and courageous person.
Antonyms
Afraid
Cowardly
Daunted
Timid
Intimidated
x His approach was so brutal that we all maintained a distance from him.
Antonyms
Humane
Merciful
Kind
Sympathetic
Compassionate
x He is cleaver at algebra.
Antonyms:
Foolish
Dull
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Prefix/Suffix and Doltish
Synonyms/Antonyms
Incapable
Stupid
NOTES x She is curious to know what he said about her.
Antonyms:
Incurious
Indifferent
Uninterested
Common
Everyday
x The depraved employees will come forward to raise their issues against
the Company.
Antonyms:
Chaste
Decent
Ethical
Good
Honorable
x Rita’s stupidity will drive me to despair.
Antonyms:
Confidence
Encouragement
Elation
Hopefulness
Expectation
x His extravagant habits explain why he is always in debt.
Antonyms:
Reasonable
Judicious
Moderate
Temperate
Economical
x She was enchanted with the poems you wrote for her.
Antonyms:
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 Disgusted Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Repulsed
Replied
Nauseated NOTES
Frequently used antonyms
Let us now look at a list of commonly used nouns, verbs and adjectives, along
with their antonyms.
Nouns and their antonyms
Nouns Antonyms Nouns Antonyms
Absence presence Comparison Contrast
Ald hindrance Darkness light
Arrival departure Day night
Ascent descent Death birth
Attack defence Delay haste
Beginning end Disease, Sickness health
Belief disbelief, doubt Dwarf giant
Bravery top Equality inequality
Bravery cowardice Enemy friend
Care neglect Entrance exit
Exterior interior Master servant
Fact fiction Merit demerit
Failure success Miser spendthrift
Falsehood truth Motion rest
Freedom slavery Peace war
Pleasure pain
Gain, Profit loss Plenty scarcity
Pride humility
Glory shame Prose poetry
Happiness misery Punishment reward
Head tail Rear front, van
Heaven hell Sea land
Honour shame, dishonour Smile frown
Solid liquid
Hope despair Synonym antonym
Ignorance knowledge Tolerance intolerance
Import export Union disunion
discord; split
Increase decrease
Interest indifference Use disuse, abuse
Joy sorrow Victory defeat
Likeness difference Virtue vice
Love hatred War peace

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Prefix/Suffix and Verbs and their antonyms
Synonyms/Antonyms
Verbs Antonyms Verbs Antonyms
Accept reject, refuse Continue discontinue
Acquit convict Contract expand
NOTES Advance retreat Create, destroy
Agree disagree, differ Encourage discourage
Enrich impoverish
Enter exit
Allow disallow, forbid Enthrone dethrone
Appear disappear Fail pass, succeed
Approach retire Gather scatter
Go come
Assemble, disperse Grant reject
Collect Help hinder
Attract repel Hide seek
Beautify disfigure Hurt heal
Borrow lend Include exclude
Compare contrast inhale exhale
Conceal reveal Join disjoin
Confess deny Laugh weep
Lead follow Remember forget
Lessen extend Rise fall, set
Lock unlock Sink swim
Make mar Strengthen weaken
Obey disobey lake give
Offer refuse Teach learn
Open shut Tie untie
Oppose yield Unite disunite
Please displease Wake sleep
Praise defame Wane wax
Punish reward Win lose
Raise lower Worry comfort

Adjectives and their antonyms

Adjectives Antonyms Adjectives Antonyms
Absent present Definite indefinite, vague
Active inactive, passive Dense sparse, rare
Acute obtuse Different similar
All none Difficult easy
Ancient modern Diligent lazy
Animate inanimate Doubtful sure
Artificial natural Dry wet
Barren fertile Early late
Base noble Equal unequal
Beautiful ugly Eligible ineligible
Bitter sweet Empty full
Blunt sharp External internal
Bold timid Fair foul
Brave cowardly Faithful faithless
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 Bright dull False true Prefix/Suffix and
Broad narrow Far near Synonyms/Antonyms
Careful careless Familiar strange
Certain uncertain Famous notorious
Cheap dear Foolish wise
Cheerful cheerless Fortunate unfortunate NOTES
gloomy Fresh stale
Clean dirty Friendly unfriendly
Clever stupid Fruitful fruitless
Coarse fine General particular
Cold hot Glad, happy sad
Cool warm Great small
Correct incorrect Guilty innocent
Cruel kind Hard soft
Dead alive Heavy light
Deep shallow Hollow solid

9.3.3 Synonyms and Antonyms in Sentences

In this section, we will discuss the usage of synonyms and antonyms in sentences.
This town is famous for its beautiful castles.
The above sentence can be rewritten, using either of the following synonyms,
without changing the meaning.
Synonyms
Noted
Celebrated
Renowned
However, the use of the antonyms of the word ‘famous’ would change the meaning
of the sentence completely. For example, the use of obscure instead of ‘famous’
would result in a sentence like:
The castles in this town are obscure.
Antonyms
Obscure
Fugitive
Inglorious
Let us now look at a few more examples:
x His taking to alcohol was a great grief to his parents.
Synonyms:
Pain
Sorrow
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Prefix/Suffix and Trouble
Synonyms/Antonyms
Antonyms:
Glee
NOTES Joy
Contentment
x He told us a story full of humour.
Synonyms:
Wit
Fun
Comedy
Antonyms:
Solemnity
Gravity
Sobriety
x When there is no work, one remains idle.
Synonyms:
Inert
Unoccupied
Lazy
Antonyms:
Active
Busy
Diligent
x He is very innocent like a newborn baby.
Synonyms:
Blameless
Sinless
Untainted
Antonyms:
Blameworthy
Culpable
Guilty

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x My college days are the most joyous days in my life. Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Synonyms:
Ecstatic
Elated NOTES
Jovial
Antonyms:
Gloomy
Miserable
Morose
x This lonely mountain village has produced many writers of high repute.
Synonyms:
Solitary
Desolate
Isolated
Antonyms:
Escorted
Attended
Befriended
x His music was full of melody.
Synonyms:
Unison
Tune
Symphony
Antonyms:
Discord
Distortion
Disruption
x Is the meaning of the word still obscure to him?
Synonyms:
Dark
Doubtful
Dim

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Prefix/Suffix and Antonyms:
Synonyms/Antonyms
Apparent
Intelligible
NOTES Lucid
x The atmosphere in that hotel is odious to stay there even for a day.
Synonyms:
Abhorrent
Abominable
Detestable
Antonyms:
Agreeable
Charming
Congenial
x Ram prefers quality to quantity.
Synonyms:
Measure
Amount
Bulk
Antonyms:
Shortage
Deficiency
Insufficient
x How do you rate this movie?
Synonyms:
Appraise
Compute
Estimate
Antonyms:
Miscalculate
Underrate
Undervalue

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x The President is held in high respect. Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Synonyms:
Esteem
Regard NOTES
Consideration
Antonyms:
Contempt
Disregard
Disown
x He is lost in the shallow argument.
Synonyms:
Trifle
Superficial
Slight
Antonyms:
Wise
Intelligent
Shrewd
x The tedious work took an entire day to complete.
Synonyms:
Banal
Drab
Dreary
Antonyms:
Enjoyable
Enthralling
Exciting

Check Your Progress

4. What is a synonym?
5. Define an antonym?

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Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms 9.4 WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED

There are some words which often create confusion as they sound alike. Words
NOTES that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings often cause writers
trouble. Here are a few of the most common pairs of words causing confusion:
Accept / Except
Affect / Effect
A Lot / Alot
Allusion / Illusion
All Ready / Already
Altogether / All Together
Apart / A Part
Ascent / Assent
Breath / Breathe
Capital / Capitol
Cite / Sight / Site
Complement / Compliment
Conscience / Conscious
Council / Counsel
Elicit / Illicit
Eminent / Immanent / Imminent
Its / It’s
Lead / Led
Lie / Lay
Lose / Loose
Novel
Passed / Past
Precede / Proceed
Principal / Principle
Quote / Quotation
Reluctant / Reticent

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 Stationary / Stationery Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Supposed To / Suppose
Than / Then
Their / There / They’re NOTES
Through / Threw / Thorough / Though / Thru
To / Too / Two
Who / Which / That
Who / Whom
However, the above-mentioned words are definitely different as can be seen from
the following examples. We are discussing few of them:
x ACCEPT-to receive
He didn’t accept the defeat well.
EXCEPT-to take or leave out
Please take all the shirts except for the red one.
x AFFECT-to influence
He was affected by that insult.
EFFECT-n., result, v., to accomplish
The pollution was an effect of toxic fumes from factories.
Can the government effect such a change without resistance?
x BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled
You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale
If you don’t breathe, then you are dead.
x CAPITAL-seat of government, financial resources.
The capital of India is New Delhi.
The manufacturer had enough capital to update their technology.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
The capitol was decorated in anticipation of the President’s visit.
x COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete
A blue pair of jeans often complements any attire.

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Prefix/Suffix and COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise
Synonyms/Antonyms
The professor complimented her for her high grades.
x ELICIT-to draw or bring out
NOTES The politician was able to elicit a positive response from the crowd.
ILLICIT-illegal
His illicit activities did not remain hidden for much longer.
x LOSE-verb, to misplace or not win
She was quite upset on losing that game.
LOOSE-adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)—to release
Her pants were so loose that she was sure it will fall down.
He found it sensible to set loose the tiger cub into the wild.
x PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority
The principal ingredient in the recipe was missing.
The principal of the school punished every violator personally.
PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
Her thesis was based on the principle of gravity.
x STATIONARY-standing still
The onion price has remained stationary for a week now.
STATIONERY-writing paper
Nowadays, stationery is slowly being replaced by digital devices in colleges.
x TO-toward
I was going to her house when she called.
TOO-also, or excessively
Her problem was that she was too gullible.
TWO-a number
She only had two close friends.
9.4.1 Common English Errors
Some of the common English errors are discussed below:
x Some errors arise out of the incorrect use of a word or an expression in
place of the correct one. Some examples are:

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 Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms

NOTES

x Some errors arise not because of the incorrect use of a word or an

expression, but because of a redundant (extra) word in the sentence. Some
examples are:

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Prefix/Suffix and x While some errors occur because of an extra word in the sentence, other
Synonyms/Antonyms
errors occur because a word or some words have been omitted. Some
examples are:

NOTES

x Some errors occur because of the wrong arrangement of words in a sentence.

Some examples are:

x Many errors occur because of our tendency to translate literally from Hindi
to English. Some examples are:

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 Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms

NOTES

9.4.2 Words with Appropriate Prepositions

The usage of prepositions is a matter of concern as not every word can go with
every preposition. Some verbs, adjectives and nouns are followed by particular
prepositions. It is to be noted that alternatives are sometimes possible, and that
British and American usage sometimes differ. The followings words are usually
used with these prepositions:
x Admit to
He was admitted to the Medical College.
x Admit of
This is an urgent matter which admits of no delay.
x Anxious to
She is anxious to hear from her son.
x Avail … of
Avail yourself of this opportunity.
x Aware of
I am not aware of their plans.
x Backward in
She is rather backward in her studies.
x Believe in
Do you believe in ghosts?
x Call at (=visit)
On the way we called at a friend’s house.
x Call for (= demand)
The principal has called for an explanation from the suspended students.
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Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
Check Your Progress
6. Give two examples of the incorrect usage of a word. Give the correct
NOTES sentence in brackets.
7. Give two examples of the use of an extra word in a sentence. Give the
correct sentence in brackets.

9.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Affixes can be divided into three types: prefixes, suffixes and infixes.
2. A suffix is attached at the end of a root word to form a new word. It can
change the word- class and meaning of a word.
3. The examples of infixes are: man–men and mouse–mice.
4. Synonyms are words that mean the same or nearly the same thing but their
usage in sentences may sometimes vary depending on the context of the
passage.
5. Antonyms are more commonly known as opposites. They are words which
have an opposite meaning to each other.
6. The examples of the incorrect usage of a word are:
a. What is the time in your watch? (What is the time by your watch?)
b. The murderer was hung this morning. (The murderer was hanged this
morning.)
7. The examples of the use of an extra word in a sentence are:
a. He should not have picked up the quarrel. (He should not have picked
the quarrel.)
b. Please return back the book by Sunday. (Please return the book by
Sunday.)

9.6 SUMMARY

x A prefix is added at the beginning of a root word to form a new word. In

English, prefixes are profusely used to make new words or to modify or
extend the concept which is denoted by the root word.
x A suffix is attached at the end of a root word to form a new word. It can
change the word- class and meaning of a word.

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 x Infixes are not very commonly found in English except in plural words like Prefix/Suffix and
Synonyms/Antonyms
geese, men, etc. These words change their inflection by bringing some
variations in the vowels in their middle structure.
x Synonyms are different words or phrases that have similar meaning; for NOTES
example, the words ‘bigger’ and ‘larger’. Either one could be used in a
sentence. Both these sentences mean the same.
x There is nothing like a ‘true’ synonym. This means that although certain
words can be substituted for other words, at no point will they mean exactly
the same.
x Antonyms are words that mean the opposite; for example, the antonym for
pure is impure.
x Antonyms are often the negative connotation of a particular word. Simply
put, it is a word or phrase that is opposite in meaning to a particular word or
phrase.
x There are some words which often create confusion as they sound alike.
Words that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings often
cause writers trouble.
x The usage of prepositions is a matter of concern as not every word can go
with every preposition. Some verbs, adjectives and nouns are followed by
particular prepositions.

9.7 KEY WORDS

x Connotation: It is a commonly understood cultural or emotional association

that any given word or phrase carries, in addition to its explicit or literal
meaning, which is its denotation. A connotation is frequently described as
either positive or negative, with regard to its pleasing or displeasing emotional
connection.
x Bound Morphemes: In linguistics, a bound morpheme is a morpheme
that can appear only as part of a larger expression

9.8 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the different uses of suffixes?
2. Write at least three synonyms for each of the following words: Achieve,
accord, apparent, bashful, build, common, defend, invisible, defend, favour,
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Prefix/Suffix and kindle, mislead, numerous, precarious, pretend, risk, sacred, superb, tragedy,
Synonyms/Antonyms
vague.
3. Write at least three antonyms for each of the following words: Comic, famine,
NOTES complex, guilt, genuine, benevolent, expand, forcible, hostile, deep, repulsive,
suddenly, worthless, forcible, feminine, optimistic, wicked, yawn, zeal,
submissive.
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the major types of prefixes.
2. Discuss the usage of synonyms with examples.
3. Describe the ways in which words are often confused and used incorrectly.

9.9 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Paragraph and
BLOCK IV Letter Writing

WRITING SKILLS

NOTES
UNIT 10 PARAGRAPH AND
LETTER WRITING
Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Objectives
10.2 Paragraph Writing
10.2.1 Different Elements of a Paragraph
10.2.2 Paragraph Writing Process
10.2.3 Characteristics of Good Paragraph-writing
10.2.4 Sample Paragraphs
10.3 Letter Writing
10.3.1 Parts of a Business Letter
10.3.2 Layout of a Business Letter
10.3.3 Types of Business Letters
10.3.4 Essentials of a Good Letter
10.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
10.5 Summary
10.6 Key Words
10.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
10.8 Further Readings

10.0 INTRODUCTION

Writing for some seems to be a difficult task. People fear that what they write will
not be worthy to be read by others. This fear prevents them from writing or
expressing themselves. As a written document can be preserved for a longer time
and can be referred to in future, therefore, one usually tends to think that what he/
she writes needs to have a certain standard. One should keep in mind that writing
is a craft which can be learnt through proper training.
It has to be kept in mind that to be an effective writer, one should not only
have ideas, but should also know how to put those ideas on paper using proper
words and phrases. It is necessary, therefore, that the writer chooses proper words
and expressions to formulate coherent sentences to express oneself. This unit will
discuss in detail the process of paragraph and letter writing, its elements and
characteristics.

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Paragraph and
Letter Writing 10.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

NOTES x Understand the process of letter and paragraph writing
x Discuss the elements and characteristics of good paragraph writing.
x Describe the elements and characteristics of letter writing.

10.2 PARAGRAPH WRITING

The definition of a paragraph to a layman can be given as a series of coherent and

organized sentences that are all connected to a single specific theme/topic. As a
writer, your attempt should be to organize into paragraphs, any piece of writing
that comprises more than a couple of sentences. Paragraphs help the reader identify
the various parts of a piece of prose or an essay; they help identify where the
essay begins and where it ends. Whether a paragraph contains a series of events,
compares two incidents or things, describes a place, discusses an individual or an
opinion, one thing it will definitely have is a topic sentence. You will read about this
and other elements in the following paragraphs.
A paragraph is a specific portion of written or printed text that deals with a
specific idea. This portion usually begins on a new line with an indentation. It
usually forms a part of a large piece of text or composition, such as an essay, a
prose chapter or a story. However, we can also treat a paragraph as a separate,
complete and stand-alone unit. It is a short literary composition comprising a
continuous series of meaningful sentences that are properly linked and together
bring out a systematically developed unit of thought. The basic purpose of a
paragraph is to not only widen the perspective of the learner but also expand his
mental horizon and help his writing skills. Paragraphs can be of many types as
discussed:
x Narrative paragraphs: This type of paragraph records an event or
happening in a chronological manner. The event or incident could be
real or a figment of imagination. The main idea is highlighted in the
beginning, and the elements are then unified using sentences. The
concluding sentence usually sums up the effect of the event. Some
examples of this type of paragraph are a piece of prose on ‘A visit to a
national sports meet’ or ‘A trip to the market’. Such paragraphs comprise
chronological accounts of personal experiences. Coherence in such
paragraphs is achieved by using adverbial expressions of time, for
example, then, when, meanwhile, the next day. These experiences are
usually narrated in the past tense.
x Descriptive paragraphs: Such paragraphs comprise descriptions of
places, objects, events and individuals depicting the individual’s
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 perspective in response to such situations and objects. ‘An ideal Paragraph and
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husband’, ‘A good student’, and ‘Life of a sportsperson’, are examples
of descriptive-writing. The details in such paragraphs are spatially
arranged in order using adverbials of time and place in order to give the
details a structured pattern. NOTES

10.2.1 Different Elements of a Paragraph

Topic Sentence–Supporting Sentences–Concluding Sentence
Topic sentence

The different elements of a paragraph include:

The first sentence in a paragraph is usually known as the topic sentence and it
introduces the main idea of the paragraph. In other words, it is a sentence in
which the main idea of a paragraph is summarized so that the readers can figure
out what they can expect in the rest of the paragraph. Though it is not always true,
as the topic sentence can also be elsewhere in the paragraph, depending upon the
demand of the writing. The following points should be kept in mind while writing
the topic sentence:
x The topic sentence is the governing sentence of the paragraph. The whole
paragraph should revolve around the topic sentence.
x In most cases, the topic sentence is not about just stating a fact; but it is
about a point of view. A point of view that the writer is about to develop in
the rest of the paragraph.
x Every sentence in the paragraph should support/uphold/hold/go on to prove/
analyse/explain/annotate the topic sentence.
Supporting sentences
Supporting sentences are sentences which support or uphold the topic sentence
and make the body of a paragraph. The supporting sentences support by providing
facts, details and examples to logically present the argument presented in the topic
sentence. One should keep in mind so as to provide specific details to show how
the ideas are valid.
x While stating facts, examples, studies, experts’ opinions, etc. be specific.
o Use the experts’ names and other details.
o Examples should also be specific in terms of their names, places, dates, etc.
o Use specific numbers and dates.
o In case of scientific studies, explain in short how the study was done.
o Use vivid descriptions to provide details.
x One should make sure that all the details provided in the supporting sentences
are relevant; otherwise, the reader may lose interest and focus with
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Paragraph and x Try to explain things in detail so that the readers do not have to think too
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hard to figure out the significance.
x Supporting sentences should not be used to merely repeat your topic
sentences in other words, but they should be the explanations, justifications,
NOTES
interpretations and analyses of the topic sentence.
x One should also make sure that all the supporting sentences are in a logical
order.
Concluding sentence
The last sentence of the paragraph is termed as the concluding sentence which is
usually a review of the paragraph. It should emphasize on the main point or the
topic sentence. It is advisable not to end the paragraph therefore with a quotation,
but to end with your own words and idea; so that the readers know that you are
giving your idea in the paragraph and not merely saying what others have thought
and written.
The four basic things to remember while writing a paragraph are:
x Unity: By unity it means that all the sentences in the paragraph should
deal with a specified idea, topic, argument or point of view. It should
not seem that any sentence of the paragraph is redundant; in the sense
that, without that sentence the paragraph would have made the same
sense. The topic sentence of the paragraph should be the governing
idea or the umbrella sentence according to which all the supporting
sentences of the paragraph should be written. Moreover, the supporting
sentence should provide details and discuss the topic sentence.
x Order: Order in paragraph writing refers to the logical progression of
ideas. Sentences randomly written on a particular topic will not make it
a paragraph. This will be random jotting and won’t make any sense till
they are joined together in manner that makes it sound like an argument.
Therefore, it can be said that order is essential. For example, if you are
narrating an incident then the order should be chronological; if you are
presenting an argument or writing an argumentative paragraph then the
arguments should be presented in order of importance. In other words,
it can be said that order is the structure or organization of the sentences
in a particular way so that the paragraph makes sense to the readers.
x Coherence: Coherence makes any writing understandable to the
readers. What it means is that sentences within a paragraph must logically
connect to each other so that when one reads the paragraph he or she
gets the notion of the paragraph as a whole. Most significant aspect in
bringing about coherence in a paragraph are transition words which
connect one sentence with another such as:
o Show order (first, second, third)
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 o Spatial relationships (above, below) Paragraph and
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o Logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact).
Moreover, it is also significant that the whole paragraph is written from
a single point of view and a tense which is consistent. Such as, if the NOTES
paragraph has begun with past tense then the whole paragraph should
carry on with past tense and there should not be a mix of tenses.
x Completeness: An idea or an argument should be fully developed within
a paragraph. In other words, the topic sentences should be justifiably
given supporting sentences for the topic sentence to stand upright.
10.2.2 Paragraph Writing Process
If the outlines of the paragraph and the title are available, the paragraph can be
easily developed using the hints. Of course, appropriate conjunctions and linking
words and phrases can be used generously to bring about the desired continuity
and spontaneity of thought. In the absence of guidelines or hints like the title or
paragraph outlines, a proper plan is required to make paragraph-writing effective.
The following steps could be followed:
x Topic selection: Keeping in mind the broad areas of interest, the topic
should be first selected. It should be one with which the writer is most
familiar, involving his personal knowledge and experiences. He needs to
think clearly and have complete understanding of the topic before he can
write.
x Statement of idea: The most dominant idea should be stated in the
introductory statement or sentence. The subsequent statements in the
paragraph should be built up around this main theme or idea. This sentence
could also be referred to as the topical sentence. The tone and style of the
introductory sentence should be capable of drawing and sustaining the
attention of the reader.
x Information gathering: The contents of the paragraph can be developed
only when all the required information and material related to the concerned
paragraph are put together as a meaningful whole. To unify the various
elements of the paragraph, there should be certain supporting ideas.
x Conclusion: Once the content is logically organized, the paragraph should
reach a proper conclusion. This conclusion should wind up the paragraph
by either reiterating the main theme forcefully or by highlighting the effect of
the event or experience on the mind of the narrator.
10.2.3 Characteristics of good paragraph-writing
Generally, you will find that the first sentence of a paragraph is a topic sentence. It
contains the topic and an opinion on the topic. It does not give any supporting
ideas which cannot be avoided in the sentence that is to follow. There would be at
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Paragraph and least two or three sentences to support the main idea/ideas with examples, reasons,
Letter Writing
comparisons, or even anecdotes. The end of the paragraph is as good as its
beginning. Therefore, the conclusion usually reasserts the writer’s opinion without
expressing it in words used earlier. To write an effective, clear and good paragraph,
NOTES the following points should be kept in mind:
x The writer should ensure that he is very clear about what he wants to write.
There should be clarity in thought and also in the way these thoughts are
expressed.
x The language used should be simple. The thoughts should be lucidly
expressed using crisp sentences.
x The thoughts and facts expressed should flow in a logical sequence so that
there is continuity and spontaneity. The natural flow should not be lost.
x The events being expressed or described should be placed in the natural
order. They could be arranged as per the importance or as per the
chronological order.
x Connectives can be used to bring about coordination of sentences. Next,
then, when, after, there, near, next, etc. can be used to refer to the time
and place. Transitional words can be used to carry forward an idea or
debate. Besides, on the contrary, in other words, in addition, on the
other hand, etc. Other sentence linkers depicting cause-effect relationship
can also be used such as hence, since, therefore, thus and in short. Still,
however, nevertheless and but can also be used to achieve structural
coordination. In addition, writers can also use rhetorical or parallel sentences
for effect.
x The paragraph can be given an impressive form by using variety in terms of
vocabulary.
x The written text should be revised once to get rid of grammatical and spelling
errors and even wrong punctuation.
x During revision, all material that is irrelevant should be deleted. Digressions
could be rectified and repetitions could be avoided.
x The paragraph should be within the word limit, and be precise and to-the-
point.
10.2.4 Sample Paragraphs
Following are some of the samples on different subjects.
x Interview: Its Various Aspects
In social and business life, there are various types of interviews. The
interviewees stand to gain and benefit when they put up their best during the
interview. It is therefore expected that the candidate for the interview shows
a high level of keenness to face and do well in the interview. This should
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 translate into reaching on time, being presentable, listening well, Paragraph and
Letter Writing
communicating sincerely and projecting proper body language on the part
of the interviewee. It is also expected that the interviewer does the utmost
to make the interviewee comfortable, and the process of the interview is
pleasant, whatever be the outcome. The job interview, although a powerful NOTES
factor in the employee selection process in most organizations, may not
deserve all of the attention it receives. Other background checking and
work history references provide the much needed factual information to
make hiring decisions. Nonetheless, the job interview remains key to assessing
the candidate’s cultural fit and to effectively selecting the people who best
fit the organizational needs. To do this, interview process, questions, and
exchanges must be legal, ethical, and must never offer assurances that
potential staff can interpret as promises.
x Effective Speaking Skills
As presentations are delivered orally, under relatively public circumstances,
they require some special communication techniques. A presentation is a
one-time event. Though the audience may have a chance to listen to the
recorded speech, they miss the opportunity of exchanging their views and
appreciating the speaker. Therefore, you must make sure that each member
of the audience hears what you say and remembers it. To do so, you must
capture their attention immediately and keep them interested. Effective
speaking requires voice control, good presence of mind, and ability to use
effective body language.
x Communication Design
Communication design is a mixed discipline between design and information
development which is concerned with how media intermission such as printed,
crafted, electronic media or presentations communicate with people. A
communication design approach is not only concerned with developing the
message aside from the aesthetics in media, but also with creating new
media channels to ensure the message reaches the target audience.
Communication design seeks to attract, inspire, create desires and motivate
the people to respond to messages, with a view to making a favourable
impact on the bottom line of the commissioning body, which can be either
to build a brand, move sales, or for some humanitarian purposes. Its process
involves strategic business thinking, utilizing market research, creativity, and
problem-solving.
x Perception: Its Several Interpretations
The word ‘perception’ has many shades of meanings according to the
dictionary. It can mean ‘an act or power of perceiving’, or ‘discernment’ or
‘appreciation of any modification of consciousness’. It could also be used
to indicate ‘the combining of sensations into the recognition of an object’,
‘reception of a stimulus’ or ‘action by which the mind refers its sensations to
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Paragraph and external objects as cause’ and so on. Perception implies discernment,
Letter Writing
reception of a stimulus and an act by which the mind refers its sensations to
an external object as cause. In other words, perception is a process of
making sense out of events. It is a process by which we perceive the meaning
NOTES of any event. In the organizational context, the commonly used word is
‘role perception.’As against a defined role, there is a perceived role. The
definition may or may not be adequate. It is the attitude of an individual that
will influence the perception of the role—whether to confine to the defined
role or to go beyond it. Great leaders and achievers bring their own
perceptions to the legally or organizationally defined roles. It is such positive
perception that helps people become more creative and makes human
endeavour much more meaningful.
x Relevance of Speech in Everyday Scenario
Speeches can be delivered as an extempore or impromptu or they can be
prepared and delivered. A person may be invited to speak as a guest at a
seminar; a subject matter expert or professor can be asked to speak on his
subject and explain certain issues related to his subject to a lot of interested
students; one of the invitees at an official dinner may be casually called
upon to say a few words at the end of the dinner; a team member may be
asked to give a speech to welcome a new entrant to the group or to thank,
praise or bid farewell to an old member of the team; a director may be
asked to deliver a speech about the progress of a company at a board
meeting, a CEO may be asked to speak to the media about his company at
a press conference. Whatever be the situation or occasion, in order to be
effective, speeches need to be structured. They can be structured in many
ways; it is up to the speaker to decide on a structure that he finds most
convenient or suitable.

Check Your Progress

1. Name the different elements of a paragraph.
2. How are paragraphs helpful for the reader?
3. What does the narrative type of paragraph record?

10.3 LETTER WRITING

A letter is a permanent and tangible record of a formal relationship. It is generally

written for enquiry, to give information, instruction, or to persuade the recipient
towards the desired action. A well-written formal letter can achieve much for a
purpose. It can act as an effective sales person, create goodwill, strengthen the
relationship with customer and act as a source of reliable, useful information.
Considering its importance, it is a must that formal letters be effectively written
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and maintain conformity to certain standards. A badly written letter reflects poorly Paragraph and
Letter Writing
on the organization and is a cause of embarrassment to the managers. Some of the
deficiencies of a poorly written letter are summarized below:
x Lack of clarity
NOTES
x Poor use of words and expressions
x Incorrect spellings and grammatical errors
x Too short or very lengthy
x Factually incorrect
x Too much of jargon and technical words
x Offensive language
x Lacking in courtesy
x Absence of relevant information or too much information
x Use of poor quality ink, paper, etc.
x Wrong address/No address
Business is all about creating goodwill, favourable impressions, attracting attention,
creating interest, wooing customers, reaching prospects, and building relationships.
All this calls for conscious effort, concerted action and correspondence on a regular
basis. As this has to be done in a world that is full of competition, one bad letter
can cause avoidable damage to the reputation of the business. Badly written letters
cause embarrassment to the people involved in the business and show the
organization in poor light.
10.3.1 Parts of a Business Letter
A business letter consists of the following essential parts:
x Heading: Business letters are written on letterheads that show the name
and address of the organization, its telephone and fax numbers; the Internet
and e-mail addresses along with the logo of the company. At the foot of the
page, the address of the ‘registered office’ and a registration number might
appear. Only the first page of any letter on letter-head stationery, with
subsequent pages on blank pages. The heading also consists of a
‘reference’—this could be a file number. It indicates the company’s reference
or the recipient’s if this is a continuing correspondence. The heading also
consists of a date. There are two styles of writing the dates on which the
letter must be written—British style (25 April 2007) and American style
(April 25, 2007).
x Name and address of the recipient: The name and address of the recipient
as it will appear on the envelope is also mentioned in the letter. This ensures
that the letter reaches the correct person even if the envelope gets damaged.
The name includes the title of the person (Mr, Ms, Dr, etc.).
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Paragraph and x Opening salutation: Salutation is a way of addressing the addressee. The
Letter Writing
words generally depend upon the relation of the writer with the addressee.
Although ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dear Madam’ is still used in very formal
correspondence, it is a little old-fashioned and organizations now prefer to
NOTES use a more personal approach.
x Subject line: This is often omitted, but its inclusion means the reader can
quickly see what the letter is about. Subject heading is prefixed with the
word ‘Subject’ or ‘Sub’or ‘Ref’ and underlined to make it more prominent.
Let us take an example:
Subject: Request for quotation
Ref: Our letter No Pur/134/ 07 Re: Delay in receipt of goods
x Main body of the letter: This part contains the actual message/content of
the letter. If consists of several paragraphs. Always leave a line space between
paragraphs. The first paragraph is the introductory one which may include
a reference to a previous correspondence or a telephonic conversation.
The middle paragraphs constitute the main body and deal with the subject
matter. The last paragraph is the concluding paragraph and states the
expectation of some action.
x Complimentary closure: It is a polite, formal way to end a letter. Standard
forms are ‘Yours faithfully’ or ‘Yours sincerely’. The complimentary closure
must match the salutation. Dear Sir or Dear Madam matches with ‘Yours
faithfully’.
Dear Mr Smith matches with ‘Yours sincerely’.
x Signature space: Leave space for the writer to sign the letter, usually
about 5 blank line spaces. The signature is written in handwriting below the
complimentary close. The name and designation of the person signing the
letter are printed below signature for clarity.
x Enclosures: In case any documents are being sent with the letter, it is
indicated on the left hand bottom corner of the letter. It is abbreviated as
‘Encls’ or ‘Encl’ and after the abbreviation is given the number of enclosures.
10.3.2 Layout of a Business Letter
These days, there is a tendency to adopt a friendly and informal style. However,
you should follow an established type or form to avoid inconvenience, confusion
and wastage of time. The company’s in-house style includes rules on the layout of
its business letters. A proper layout also gives the letter a formal look. For most
business letters, single line spacing is used as this gives the letter a compact look.
In case the letter is very short, you may need to use double spacing. There are
various styles of layouts available for business letters. In different forms there are
different systems of indentation followed. The various styles include:

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 x Fully indented style Paragraph and
Letter Writing
x Semi indented style
x Fully blocked style
x Modified blocked style NOTES
Fully indented style
This style has become old fashioned and is being fast replaced by other styles.
Each paragraph appears prominently in this type of layout. This style is at times
found cumbersome because of its numerous indentations. It has the following
characteristics:
x The name, address and paragraphs of the body are five spaces indented.
x The letter is typed in single line spacing.
x The subject heading is two line spacing below the salutation which is three
line spacing below the inside name and address.
x The paragraphs are separated by double line spacing.
x The complimentary closure begins at the centre of the typing line and the
typed signature and designation follow ten spaces and five spaces as is
determined depending on the length of the two.
x The inside address is offset to give the letter a balance.

Fig. 10.1 Fully Indented Style

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Paragraph and Semi indented style
Letter Writing
This is a modified version of the fully indented style. It has the following
characteristics:
NOTES x The inside name and address does not have any indentation and is in a
block form.
x The complimentary close and designation are typed evenly across the centre
of the typed line. However, sometimes they are placed to the right hand
side.
x This style provides a neat and compact look because of the block form of
name and address.

Fig. 10.2 Semi Indented Style

Fully blocked style

This is a modern style and is most commonly used. Earlier the ‘indented’ format
was used for business letters, but as a result of word processing, the ‘fully blocked’
format is the most commonly used one now, as it saves time setting up tabs and
indents and the letters look more neat and tidy. It has the following characteristics:

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 x All typed entries including date, inside name and address, subject line Paragraph and
Letter Writing
paragraph, complimentary close, signatures begin at the left-hand margin,
forming a vertical line down the page.
x There is a complete absence of punctuation marks from the date, salutation,
NOTES
the complimentary close and the end line of the inside name and address.
x In some letters, the date and complimentary close are placed towards the
right margin so as to give the letter a more balanced appearance. This style
is known as semi-blocked style.

Fig. 10.3 Fully Blocked Style

Modified blocked style

This style is similar to the fully blocked style. The difference in this style is that the
date, subject heading and the complimentary close signature are placed like semi-
indented style. There is a treble line spacing between paragraphs to differentiate
between paragraphs as paragraphs do not have indentation.
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Paragraph and
Letter Writing

NOTES

Fig. 10.4 Modified Blocked Style

10.3.3 Types of Business Letters

Businesses are of numerous types. They may be big or small, old or new, local or
national, public or private, proprietary or partnership, monopolistic or competitive,
manufacturing or service units, and so on. Nevertheless, by and large, all these
businesses have certain common concerns and approaches within any given business
environment. They deal with people internally as well as externally. They have
their stakeholders in owners, employees, customers and the community. Businesses
are also organized into various functional areas such as personnel, marketing,
sales, purchase, accounts, administration, secretarial and so on. Business letters
are of a wide variety and emanate from all these sources. Similarly, people who
deal with these businesses also correspond with all these departments at some
stage or other. To be able to correspond effectively with all these departments
under various business situations, one has to familiarize oneself with various types
of letters and their features. Although the general principles of good letter writing
discussed earlier hold good, the approach will have to vary depending upon the
functional area to which the letter relates.
When we refer to various types of business letters and their replies, we are
covering letters that move both ways, i.e. letters from business organizations to
various other agencies as well as individuals and other agencies to business
organizations. Some common areas of business correspondence or the specific
types of letters with which a business letter-writer should be well versed are as
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From the purchase department Paragraph and
Letter Writing
x Calling for quotations for products and services
x Inviting tenders for jobs and supplies
x Asking for samples and drawings NOTES

x Placing test orders

x Placing orders
x Status enquiries
x Technical bids and commercial bids
When we refer to tenders, quotations and orders, it must be emphasized that there
are financial implications. The subject matter and the details of the quotation, tender
or order have to be specifically and clearly stated so that there is no ambiguity.
Specifications or details which must be unambiguously mentioned should cover
the following:
x Number or quantity: Given the economies of scale, the cost would vary
depending upon the quantity or volume of the work order. Moreover, some
businesses may not evince interest if the quantity or size of the job is small
or uneconomical. The letter calling for quotations or inviting tenders should
therefore clearly state the size of the order or quantity of supply.
x Quality or specifications: Modern businesses attach considerable
significance to the qualitative aspects of any job. Suppliers who do not
conform to present acceptable standards are often rejected. In view thereof,
it is imperative that the qualitative dimensions such as strength, thickness,
purity, colour, texture, age, weight, accuracy, etc. are clearly stated. This
will also ensure that those who are not in a position to meet the required
standards or quality levels do not respond.
x Delivery time: The third dimension of significance while calling for orders,
tenders, quotations, etc. is time. The time taken for delivering the supplies
or executing the order has to be covered. For many businesses, time is
money. Time overruns of a project under implementation translate into cost
overruns and therefore, execution or delivery time needs to be specifically
stated.
x Additional unit: While calling for quotations, quite often, apart from
mentioning the fixed number or quantity, quotes are also sought for every
additional unit. For example, if it is an order for printing a booklet, the
quotation called for will be, say, for 32 pages, and also plus or minus every
four pages so that calling for fresh quotations in case there is a small variation
in the order size is avoided. Calling for quotations, tenders or orders
presupposes a competitive scenario and the intention is to get the most
competitive offer. It is therefore essential that quotations or orders are sought
in such a way that evaluation of alternative quotes is facilitated.
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Paragraph and x Response time: Orders, tenders, etc. relate to the purchase of material,
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execution of a job, completion of a process, and so on, which are undertaken
as per the time schedule. It is necessary to specify a date and even time
within which the response is to be made. When the quotations and tenders
NOTES called for relate to high-value jobs, business organizations, especially
government and public sector units follow an open and transparent system
for opening the tenders. Any such procedure, wherever applicable, has to
be stated while inviting tenders. In such cases, in order to ensure
confidentiality and fair play, the quotations or tenders ought to be made in
sealed covers.
x Other aspects: Apart from the just mentioned points, there are often several
other relevant aspects concerning orders, tenders and quotations. These
would vary depending upon the nature of the work—whether it is supply of
material, execution of a work, a comprehensive project or turnkey order,
etc. The terms and conditions of the supplier or the service provider should
be clearly ascertained. If the rates quoted are valid only for a specific period,
the same is to be ascertained. Correspondingly, the presence of any
escalation clause is also to be clarified. So also, if accessories are a part of
the quoted price and which are chargeable. In order to avoid any likely
ambiguity on account of negotiability of prices and terms, while calling for
quotations and tenders, quite often the words, ‘your lowest offer,’ ‘your
most competitive rate,’ ‘your best terms and conditions,’ and such phrases
are used. The idea is to ensure that the work specifications are clear to all
and that they are in a position to give relevant and timely quotes to facilitate
proper assessments of relative merits.
We have, in the foregoing paragraphs, listed some key features relevant in the
context of seeking quotations and tenders. It is important to be clear about the
technical and other details of the job so that the communication can be clearly
worded. Any student keen on developing appropriate skills in this area should
study a variety of such orders, tenders and other such related communication
appearing in newspapers, trade journals and other sources, and build up a set of
models for use. Since the appropriate model itself would vary depending upon the
size, nature and complexity of the work, it is essential that the principles stated
above are kept in mind.
Tenders
A tender is an offer or a proposition made for acceptance, such as an offer of a
bid for a contract. A tender is something that is offered in return for a specific
payment, subject to well-laid down terms and conditions. Tenders are invited by
large organizations, especially governments and undertakings, for supply of items,
construction of buildings, roads, maintenance activities, and other such relatively
high value works. Tenders are invited to ensure competitive offers and transparent
decision-making. Since substantial monetary payments are associated with the
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process of inviting tenders and awarding contracts, every care has to be taken to Paragraph and
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ensure clarity, openness and fair play. Inadvertent omission of key/relevant details
could lead to avoidable confusion, complaints and legal action. Important points
that need to be covered in a tender are as follows:
NOTES
x Name of the organization and address
x Tender number and date
x Captions such as:
o Tender notice
o Tender notification
o Notice inviting tenders
o Sealed tenders invited
x Who can apply?—Sealed tenders are invited from:
o Class I civil contractors
o Established contractors having customs house agency licence
o Manufacturers or their authorized Indian agents, etc.
x Experience/Requirement:
o With experience in completing similar work
o Satisfying the eligibility criteria mentioned below
o Who have supplied the tendered items successfully to other government
organizations
x Brief description of work or items/material to be supplied
x Contract period and/or delivery schedule
x Earnest money deposit
x Contact address or authority
o For further details, please contact/write to
o Tender documents can be obtained from
x Date of issue of blank tender forms
x Cost of tender document—mode of payment
x Last date for receipt of sealed tenders—time
x Time and date of tender opening
x Other relevant details such as:
o Amount of tender
o Average turnover (annual) for the last 3 years
o Technical bids and commercial bids
o Website
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Paragraph and x Authority issuing the tender notice
Letter Writing
We have seen that tenders can be invited for supply of items or construction
works, or also for cleaning, upkeep, and maintenance. In order to elicit a high
response, the tender notices are widely advertised. At the specified time and date,
NOTES
the tenders are opened, in the presence of representatives of the tender applicants,
and therefore, a final decision is taken on the successful bids, and the same is
communicated in writing. The following exhibit illustrates how the organizations
communicate the acceptance of the tender for maintenance work.
Sample tender letter
Koyla Bhavan, 25, M.G. Road, Indore, M.P
Notice Inviting Tenders
Tender No:- BCL\JAB\JACK\1112
Date: 11 December, 2002
Sealed offers are invited from manufacturers or their authorized Indian agents
who have supplied the tendered items successfully to Central or State
Government Undertakings for the supply of the following items: Supply of
200 Te Hydraulic Jacks – 8 numbers. LAST DATE FOR RECEIPT OF
TENDER: 28.12.2002 – 3:00 p.m. DATE AND TIME OF TENDER
OPENING: 28.12.2002 – 4:00 p.m. DATE OF ISSUE OF TENDER
FORMS: 22.12.2002 TO 25.12.2002. Cost of Tender Document – ‘ 200/
-. Tender fee to be paid by Demand Draft favouring M/s Bharath Coal Fields
Ltd, Drawn on Indore, M.P. Schedule of tenders with details of terms and
conditions can be had from the office of the General Manager (Purchase),
Bharath Coal Fields Ltd, Koyla Bhavan, 25, M.G. Road, Indore, M.P.
Assistant General Manager
(Purchase)
Orders
Orders are placed by business organizations for purchases to be made by them.
They may be for purchase of a commodity, rendering of a service, installation and
maintenance or any such activity. Orders are to be specific and clear. An order is
a direct request. An order is not an ‘order’ or command. Hence, the statements
need to be courteous and yet clear cut. Specific areas to be covered while placing
an order are as follows:
x Order request: The following statements are generally used:
‘Please send us the following items’
‘We are pleased to place an order with you for the supply of’

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 x Description: The order should clearly state the type of items or material, Paragraph and
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capacity, number of items or quantity and related details unambiguously.
x Rate: The rate at which the order is being placed should be clear and
should relate to units or quantities referred to on the quotations as far as
NOTES
possible. Mention specific details clearly such as rate per piece, rate per
metric ton, rate per 1000 ml, rate per box of 10 pieces and so on, as is
relevant. Mention whether any tax or packaging charges would need to be
paid or whether the rate/amount is all-inclusive.
x Packaging specifications: Mention the specifications relating to packaging,
especially considering the breakage, transport and other such relevant
factors.
x Delivery schedule: Clearly mention when, where and in which lots, the
items ordered are to be delivered. This is especially significant when there
are penalties for delayed delivery. Further, the delivery may not be at one
place and instead may be at different centres/offices. For example, an
organization that is placing orders for calendars or diaries may place a
centralized order but may instruct that the delivery be made to various offices/
branches.
x Mode of payment: While placing the order, mention the mode of payment
and terms, if any. Payments are normally done by demand drafts or cheques
payable at specific centres/branches. If payments are in instalments, such
details should be clearly stated.
x Validity: Any purchaser would like to have the items or goods within a
specific time period, especially when the goods are perishable or seasonal.
The period for which the order is valid has to be stated for ensuring clarity.
x Other terms and conditions: The orders should also specify the other
terms and conditions as are relevant, such as special packaging, if any,
discounts sought, insurance details and conformity to samples.
Quotations
Quotations relate to offers sought by intending purchasers from intending sellers
or suppliers of goods and services. When the proposed purchases are substantial
and the purchaser is interested in getting competitive offers, quotations are called
for. Based on their experience and enquiries, the probable suppliers are identified
or shortlisted and thereafter, their quotations are sought. Thus quotations have
two phases. The first part is when the buyer calls for quotations from the seller.
The second part is when the supplier responds and sends the quotations or offer
with all the relevant details. On many occasions, the supplier may not wait for the
request and instead send the quotation, suo moto, for the consideration of the
buyer. Quotations are sought and sent by business organizations as regular business
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Paragraph and Both while inviting and sending quotations, due attention should be given to all the
Letter Writing
relevant details and specifications. These include:
x Description covering quantity and quality
NOTES x Rates and discounts for bulk orders
x Mode and terms of payment
x Delivery time
x Taxes, duties and charges
x Transportation and delivery
x Samples and approval
x Insurance, breakage allowed
x Guarantee period and after sales service
x Annual Maintenance Contract (AMC) details
As clearly stated, in all these business letters, due attention should be given to all
relevant details to ensure clear mutual understanding, and avoid different
interpretations or expectations.
From the sales/marketing department
x Sales letter
x Circular letters
x Preparation of sales letters with the conditions of sale on the reverse
x Preparation of market survey reports
x Reports from salesperson to sales executives
x Offer of discounts and business concessions
x Launch of a new product or scheme
x Mailing of company literature
x Letter of acknowledgement
In this category, there are two types of business letters. One set relates to the
letters emanating from within the sales departments, or from salespersons and
marketing personnel in the field to other departments, or to their own executives.
The other set of letters relates to letters written by people in sales and marketing
to people outside the organization—customers, prospects, agents and distributors,
and other agencies. It is the latter category that needs particular attention. Letters
to the customers, prospects and the like either substitute or supplement personal
contacts, and as such can make or mar the business promotion efforts. They carry
the image of the organization and the people behind the letters. Sales letters should
also be elegant and appealing. The presentation should be such that it elicits the
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Sales letters Paragraph and
Letter Writing
A good sales letter highlights what is of interest to the addressee and prompts
them to seek more details and respond positively. A pleasing layout and appealing
language, along with relevant facts and figures, are a must. Unlike the letters NOTES
emanating from the purchase department, the letters sent out by the marketing
department can be highly creative and innovative. They bring out the product
differential. They focus on the unique selling proposition (USP). While avoiding an
overdose of superlatives and tall claims, the sales letter should focus on the strength
of the company and the merits of the offer.
The business letter-writer should have a good understanding of the essential
features of product marketing or services marketing, as the case may be, and use
them to their advantage while drafting sales letters. Any product has its tangible
and measurable features. If the sales letter concerns a product, it is desirable that
the product-related features such as price, strength, colour, weight, ease of operation,
after sales service, and varied qualitative and quantitative dimensions are
appropriately highlighted. Similarly, if the sales letter concerns a service which is
essentially intangible, the service-related features such as courtesy, promptness,
employee attitude, physical facilities, customer identification/recognition, speed,
clarity, communicative and interpersonal skills are to be highlighted.
There is tremendous scope for being creative and imaginative while drafting
sales letters. A good letter-writer makes it a point to develop appropriate word
power and play with words and ideas. It is necessary to consciously avoid dull
and outdated words and instead use vigorous and current words. Some examples
of vigorous and current words are robust, cost-effective, user friendly, savvy, eco-
friendly, quality standard, zero defect, premium brand, win-win proposition, tailor-
made, designer, garden fresh and fast moving, to name a few. Similarly, compelling
phrases can also be used to make a point. For example, the freshness of the
product was imaginatively brought out by a restaurant in the following statement—
‘The fish you are eating today was swimming yesterday’. The skill lies in making
the product or service look special or exclusive or distinctly different.
From the accounts department
x Dues and collection letters to various agencies and customers
x Follow-up letters
x Correspondence with banks
o Opening/closing of accounts
o Regarding overdrafts, cash credit and current accounts
o Stop payment instructions
o Request for issue of letters of credit (LCs)
o Protest for wrongful dishonour of cheques
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Paragraph and o Letters relating to interest payments and service charges
Letter Writing
o Complaint letters covering wrong credits and debits and delays in
realization of instruments
NOTES x Correspondence with insurance companies regarding payment of premium,
renewal of policies, claims and settlements
x Correspondence with agencies like the Telephone Department, Post and
Telegraph Authorities, the Provident Fund Office, Income Tax Office,
Commercial Tax Department, etc.
By their very nature, these types of business letters should be accurate,
brief, simple and to the point. In particular, letters relating to collection of dues and
recovery of money need to be drafted with a keen sense of understanding and
sensitivity. Such letters should necessarily vary in terms of terseness or intensity
and choice of words, depending upon the nature of dues, age of dues and other
such relevant factors. Some of them have to be polite, some persuasive and some
firm.
Collection and recovery letters are plain speaking and sometimes worded
harshly. The letter writer should know which approach would be appropriate
under each circumstance. Some organizations follow the practice of sending a
reminder even before the due date. Obviously, such letters should be very polite
and make for pleasant reading. Similarly, even after the due date, the first set of
letters will have to be polite and worded warmly. It is common practice to send a
simple pre-printed reminder using a well-worded format, duly filling up the name,
address, due date, etc. It is possible that the addressee has forgotten or overlooked
making the payment, or has been out of station or any such genuine reason. Under
no circumstance should such a person be embarrassed or undermined. While
collection of dues is important, as far as possible it should be done with sensitivity
and without hurting the feelings of the person from whom the amount is due. The
letter-writer should discriminate between a wilful or intentional and an unintentional
defaulter. The letter-writer should also discriminate between a first-time defaulter
and a habitual or hardened defaulter. The customer is important and the business
will have to deal with him in future too, as long as the relationship is worthwhile.
The letter should not hurt the feelings of the addressee and result in severing the
business relationship, unless such an extreme situation is warranted.
Notwithstanding what is stated above, there will be occasions when a strongly
worded letter will have to be drafted. Skills of letter writing come into full play
under these circumstances. A series of letters may have to be addressed with
increasing intensity. Politeness and consideration for feelings and relationship will
give way to plain speaking and emphasis on business compulsions. In the Sanskrit
language and ancient texts, there is a reference to Chaturopaya, i.e. four options,
viz. Sama, Dana, Bhedha and Danda. Starting with a friendly approach, one
moves on to threatening and punitive messages. The letter-writer should not only
know the category to which the addressee belongs, but also the payment culture
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in that particular line of business, and when to blow the whistle. ‘Please note that Paragraph and
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we will be compelled to take the extreme step of legal action against you’ should
be the last resort, as far as possible. Another important aspect to remember is not
to make a final or terminal statement, limiting the scope for further correspondence.
A keen sense of understanding, appropriate choice of words and persuasive skills NOTES
assume significance.
Sample business letter
18, Global Mansions
Mumbai
M/s Greenway Travels
Bandra
Mumbai
Ref: GAL\ACC\PM\405
Dear Sir,
Sub: Default on Promissory Note
This is with reference to promissory note under date of 20 August, 2015,
in the original amount of ‘ 2,00,000/-.
You have defaulted under the aforementioned note in that the installment
due on 2 January 2016, in the amount of ‘ 20,000/-has not been paid.
Accordingly, demand is hereby made upon you for full payment of the
entire balance on in the amount of ‘14,867/- including accrued interest to
date. In the event the entire balance is not paid within the next seven days,
I shall refer this matter to an attorney resulting in additional costs of collection.
Very truly,
S.M. Singh
Finance Manager
Global Airlines Ltd.
Source: http://www.4hb.com/letters/index2.html
From the personnel department
x Calling candidates for written tests
x Interview call letters
x Offer of appointment
x Provisional and final appointment orders
x Confirmation in service
x Changes in emoluments

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Paragraph and x Disciplinary matters—Show cause notices, charge sheets, calling for
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explanation, discharge and other punishments, letters of dismissal, etc.
x Leave and travel sanctions
NOTES x Training programmes and deputation
x Letters of reference
When you refer to letters from the personnel department or employee-related
letters, you are indeed discussing a very wide variety of letters. These letters may
be general or specific, routine or special, pleasant or unpleasant. Letters from the
HRD department are normally pleasant or otherwise motivating and training related,
whereas letters from the Industrial Relations Department or from the Disciplinary
Authority are normally of the none-too-pleasant category. These two are obviously
widely different in nature and the letter-writer must use the appropriate language
and approach. While HRD and training-related letters should carry a positive,
encouraging and developmental stance, disciplinary letters will have to carry an
authoritarian and even a legal or procedural approach. It is necessary to acquire
adequate familiarity with the terms and ensure that there are no inadvertent
inadequacies in the letter.
Sample Letter
Mr. Gurpreet Sandhu 18, Global Mansions
A 26, Sector 40 Mumbai, NOIDA
Dear Mr Sandhu, 15 April 2015
Sub: Interview Call
This is with reference to your application for the post of Assistant
Manager-Sales and Marketing dated 22 March 2005.
You will be glad to hear that you have been shortlisted for the interview
and group discussion on 6 May 2005 at our Mumbai Office at 10 a.m.
You will be paid AC 3 tier fare to and from Mumbai.
Please confirm your availability for the same at the earliest.
Thanking you,
Yours Sincerely
S. Barocha
Manager-HR
From the administration and secretarial departments
x Change in management
x Changes in business hours
x Opening and shifting of branches and offices

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 x Invitations and public notices Paragraph and
Letter Writing
x Correspondence with directors and shareholders
x Agenda and minutes of company meetings
x Correspondence with shareholders and debenture holders NOTES
pertaining to dividend and interest payments, transfer and transmission
of shares
x Correspondence with agents and transport companies
x Representations to trade associations, chambers of
commerce and public authorities
x Letter seeking appointments/personal interviews
Correspondence relating to directors and shareholders and matters concerning
company meetings, especially in listed companies and larger organizations, are
often handled by qualified Company Secretaries. The point to be noted here is
that such correspondence is generally specialized in nature and will have to be
attended to in a systematic and organized manner. The business letter-writer keen
on acquiring such letter writing skills will have to necessarily understand secretarial
functions.
Other types of business communication
x Job applications
x Preparation of bio-data and curriculum vitae
x Export and import-related correspondence
x Preparation of bill of exchange, promissory note, hundi, etc.
x Telegraphic and fax messages
x Mild and strong appeals
x Correspondence with foreign institutions and agencies
x Advertisements of various types—newspapers and print media, hoardings,
banners, etc.
x Press releases
x Questionnaires and opinion polls
x Legal correspondence
x Publicity literature such as brochures, booklets, etc.
x Newsletters and house journals
x Preparation of charts, graphs, stickers, etc.
x Social letters in business
x Inviting a guest
x Congratulation letters on achievements
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Paragraph and x Letters of appreciation
Letter Writing
x Accepting or declining invitations
x Condolence letters
NOTES x Letter of introduction
x Goodwill messages
10.3.4 Essentials of a Good Letter
Before discussing the essentials of a good business letter, it would be desirable to
keep in view what such a letter can achieve for business. A good business letter
can reach out and directly address the target, be it a customer or a prospect or a
patron or regulator. It can address the prospect and set the sales pitch and can act
as an effective salesperson. A business letter of good quality can strengthen the
bond and provide further details to an existing customer. A good business letter
can, thus, act as your relationship officer. It can dispel disinformation and create
goodwill. It thereby acts as your ambassador. A good business letter can make
announcements, share relevant information and keep you in touch with people
who matter. In this way, a good business letter can be your Public Relations Officer
(PRO). Well-written and imaginatively drafted letters can play the role of a
salesman, a relationship officer, an ambassador and a PRO for business
establishments. This is true especially for small businesses which cannot afford to
employ people specifically for carrying out these functions. Let us now briefly
discuss the requisites or essentials of a good business letter.
x Clarity: A letter must have clarity. The underlying message should be
expressed in clear terms. Care should be taken to avoid ambiguity. The
purpose of communication should be made clear. Whether it is to inform,
invite, reiterate, emphasize, remind, announce, seek participation or clarity
and correct the earlier message, the purpose should clearly be stated. If a
letter-writer is writing a letter on behalf of somebody else, it should be done
after obtaining clear instructions. For instance there are occasions when
one may receive a letter informing the date and the venue of a meeting
without an accompanying invitation or request to attend. The reader or the
receiver of the communication, in such an instance, will be in a dilemma. Is
the invitation intended and implied but not specifically stated? Or is the
letter just meant to be informative and no invitation is being extended. One
way or the other, the message should be clear. Just imagine the
embarrassment when people who are not meant to be invited turn up at the
venue and have to be turned back, or when the people who have to attend
the meeting feel there is only an intimation and not invitation, and hence fail
to turn up. When this happens, due to lack of clarity in communication, the
business suffers. This is just one example. There are umpteen ways in which
the lack of clarity affects the intended purpose of the letter. A letter- writer
should be conscious of this and exercise due care.
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x Impact: The letter should create the necessary impact. Behind every letter, Paragraph and
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there is an objective and the letter should have a clear purpose. The purpose
of writing a letter is not just to reach out to the customer. Every letter has an
intended impact which must be felt. To create the desired impact, it is often
necessary to lay emphasis. Emphasis can be laid in many ways. It can be NOTES
done by proper positioning—placing them in an important position. It can
be done by repetition. It can be done by underlining or using a larger type
or font. Similarly, to create the right impact, the letter-writer should address
the letter to the right person. The right person is the specific person who is
the target of the communication, and whose action or response, the business
considers to be of value. Creating an impact also calls for establishing an
appropriate wavelength. The letter-writer should write keeping in view the
skill, knowledge, status, and comprehension ability of the reader or the
addressee.
Yet another requisite of an impact-creating letter is coherence. It is necessary
to use words, phrases and clauses clearly, so as to form balanced sentences.
Coherence seeks to establish a proper relationship and link sentences to
make the intended message clear. Coherence brings consistency and
orderliness to the encoded message. A letter succeeds in creating the desired
impact when it ensures purpose orientation, lays the right emphasis,
establishes an appropriate wavelength and is coherent. Some of the common
questions asked or statements made in relation to these attributes are:
o What is one trying to convey? (Purpose Orientation)
o Which of these is really urgent? (Emphasis)
o Is it too elementary or is it an overhead transmission? (Wavelength)
o What is the sequence? (Coherence)
It is necessary to give due attention to these areas and build up skills so that
the letters become impactful.
x Relevance: The letter should provide the relevant details forming part of
the message. Facts, figures, illustrations and other such information, which
are both accurate and reliable, as well as relevant to the context of the
communication, should be incorporated in the letter. The principle of
communication that we are referring to here is also known as adequacy or
completeness. A communication can be said to be complete only when it
contains all the facts and details which the receiver needs to know in order
to respond or act on the basis of that communication. Not giving all the
required details leads to protracted correspondence, loss of customers or
lack of response. Worse still, although non-submission of full details may
be due to an oversight or inadequate attention to details, the receiver may
infer that there is a deliberate attempt to withhold or conceal facts and
figures. Imagine a letter received from a departmental store announcing the
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Paragraph and opening of a new branch and seeking your patronage, that does not give
Letter Writing
details of the new address or timings. Another requirement of a business
letter is concreteness. A communication is said to be concrete when it is
specific, definite and to the point, and not vague and generalized. Often the
NOTES letters are so rambling in nature that one can imagine the reader screaming,
‘Please come to the point and be specific’. A concrete letter does not ramble
and is sharp and focussed.
x Brevity: Any good communication—oral or written—should necessarily
incorporate this essential feature. Brevity is a very important attribute for
any business letter. For everyone connected with business, time is of essence.
The time that one can allot for reading business letters is certainly limited.
The receiver does not have unlimited time to spare towards reading and re-
reading the letter and drawing out the message in its entirety. On the contrary,
any business letter is competing with a huge mass of business related and
other communication targeted at the receiver, waiting to catch attention and
time. Recognizing this, any business will have to value the receiver’s time.
Brevity in letter writing, therefore, is a must. Long letters, whatever be their
merits, are often kept aside for ‘later reading’. Brevity in communication is
also referred to as conciseness. Conciseness refers to the skill of conveying
what one wants to convey in the fewest possible words, without sacrificing
completeness or courtesy. Conciseness eliminates unnecessary words and
phrases, repetitive sentences, and keeps the letter focussed. A good letter
makes economical use of words. Brevity is a skill that a business
communicator must develop. As people move up in an organizational
hierarchy, their ability to condense messages into brief and focussed letters
counts for a lot. In typical bureaucratic and hierarchical work situations,
one can see the ‘drafts’ of letters prepared by the junior staff moving
upwards, tier by tier, ‘for final approval’ and much time and effort are wasted
if brevity is not ensured.
x Simplicity: Simplicity is the hallmark of any good communication. Simplicity
refers to the ease of understanding. Simple writing is the opposite of complex
and involved writing. The art of simple writing is mastered through conscious
effort and practice. A letter written in a simple, easy, informal style using
easily understood words catches the attention, and makes an impact.
Simplicity in writing does not, however, necessarily imply simple or plain
thoughts. The thoughts may be complex, and the subject quite complicated,
but the manner of expression or presentation is kept simple. It takes
tremendous insight and skill to express complex matters and complicated
issues in a simple form. The normal tendency on the part of the communicator
is to resort to complex sentences, clichés, technical jargon and high-sounding
words to communicate not-so-simple thoughts and developments, resulting
in confusion and bewilderment. One must make constant endeavours to
write simple, yet meaningful and impact-creating business letters. It involves
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 not only the use of simple words, but also, more importantly, a clear insight Paragraph and
Letter Writing
into the structure of sentences and paragraphs. Brevity and simplicity are so
essential for good communication that many writers refer to it with the
acronym KISS—Keep It (the letter) Short and Simple. The style of writing
varies from person to person. There are people who can communicate very NOTES
effectively even with the minimum of words. Here is a classic example. The
briefest correspondence in history is reported to be a letter from the great
French writer Victor Hugo and the reply to it from his publisher. Hugo’s
letter was just ‘?’ He wanted to know how his newly published novel, Les
Misérables, was faring in the market. The publisher’s reply was just ‘!’
Understandably, it would be virtually impossible for anyone to communicate
so effectively and yet be so brief. To be brief and yet convey effectively is
indeed a very fine art of effective communication.
x Timeliness: Business letters, to be effective, should have proper timing.
Letters should be written and dispatched on time. Some messages have a
sense of urgency. They call for action, which is ‘immediate’ or ‘urgent’, or
within a given time frame. Letters which carry such messages should reflect
the associated urgency. They should be so addressed and delivered that
there is enough time to permit action within the given time frame. It is not
uncommon to see letters seeking some action by a specified date reaching
the receiver after that date. Some not-so-uncommon examples of this are:
o A communication from a controlling office to a branch stating, ‘Please
send us the statement without fail by 30 September 2011’, reaching on
2 October 2011
o A letter from a committee secretariat asking the member to attend the
meeting scheduled on the 10th of the month, reaching him that evening
o A letter from a departmental store announcing ‘Clearance sale for 3
days’, reaching after the sale
o A letter from a personnel department asking an officer to appear for her
promotional interview on 6 October 2014 at the regional office, reaching
on 5 October 2014
Apart from negating the purpose of communication, such letters reflect poorly
on both the organization and the sender of the message. If the action called
for is so urgent, the minimum that anyone would expect from the sender is a
clear demonstration of the urgency by ensuring speedy communication. This
necessitates not only timely writing but also timely dispatch. For example,
there may be occasions when a letter dated 15 September 2001 or 20
September 2001 reaches the addressee on 2 October 2001 or 5 October
2001. Goal-oriented and effective communication presupposes that the
person concerned acts and intervenes at every stage in the transmission of
communication. Timeliness in business writing also involves the choice of
the right channel—mail, telegram or courier, as the case may be. Sending
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Paragraph and letters too much in advance is also to be avoided because unless there is a
Letter Writing
timely reminder, the message is likely to be forgotten.
x Suitability of language: Language is an extremely important facet of
business communication. First and foremost, it is necessary to ensure that
NOTES
the language used is appropriate, i.e. the language with which the reader is
at ease. Apart from English and Hindi, various regional languages are in
common use in businesses in different parts of the country. Public sector
organizations such as banks follow the three-language formula. Many printed
letters are bilingual—both in Hindi and English. Business letters should use
the language which the prospect, customer, or addressee can read and
understand. Choosing the appropriate language for a large multinational or
multi-regional organization is important, not only for furthering business
interests, but also for ensuring that the sensibilities of certain sections of
people are not offended. When organizations and businesses go global, the
choice of appropriate language becomes highly relevant. Having chosen
the right language, the next step is to ensure that the phrases, expressions,
words, grammar and spellings are correct. Grammatical errors and spelling
mistakes have no place in a good business letter. They create a poor
impression on the reader. Every business writer may or may not achieve
grammatical perfection. The use of commas at all relevant places in the
sentence and avoidance of split infinitives, for example, may not always
take place. In fact, certain grammatical imperfections such as the use of
split infinitives are tolerated as long as the message is clear. The important
point emphasized here is that while the letter-writer may or may not achieve
grammatical perfection, glaring and obvious grammatical errors have no
place in good writing. A good letter-writer should know his grammar well
and seek appropriate reference when in doubt. A business letter with
noticeably bad grammar, notwithstanding whatever other merits, creates a
poor impression on the reader.
x Effective vocabulary or word power: For the language to be effective,
an important prerequisite is abundant vocabulary or word power. Words
are the very essence of written communication. Words translate thoughts
and carry the message to the reader. They lay emphasis as and when required.
Since words have the potential to make or mar the language of the business
communicator, this aspect has been dealt with in some detail in the following
paragraphs. The world of words, as we have noted earlier, is wonderful
and fascinating. The English language has an enormous stock of words.
With new words being added constantly, the stock of useable English words
keeps growing. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2000
edition) gives as many as 80,000 words and references covering both British
English and American English. This vast and growing reservoir of words
offers at once, both an opportunity and a challenge, to the communicator. It
is an opportunity because there is a tremendous choice of words available
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to the person. It is a challenge no doubt, for the building up of word power Paragraph and
Letter Writing
calls for a systematic and ongoing effort, using familiar words and learning
new words. One can easily spend one’s lifetime learning new words,
understanding their shades of meaning and effectively using all the words
available. NOTES
Words make the letter. A good letter-writer should choose words with care.
To do so, one must necessarily build an enormous word power. Every
person keen on becoming an effective communicator should delve deeply
into words and their meanings. Most words have many shades of meaning.
The appropriate word or set of words depends on the context, tone and
gravity of the message, and also the relationship with the person to whom it
is addressed. Much as one would like, it is not always possible to readily
recall the exact word. As a result, one may often find oneself groping for the
right word. Until a writer gets a fine command over English words, and
even thereafter when a reconfirmation is required on the shades of meanings
a word conveys, constant reference to these two sources would be
immensely helpful. To make it clearer, let us take a look at a few words and
try to understand all that they convey. Take, for example, the word
‘communication’. Roget’s Thesaurus refers to the following shades of
meaning: Joining, Transfer, Intercourse, Information, Messages, Oral
communication, Conversation, Epistle, Passageway, Giving, and Social
intercourse.
Each one of them is in turn elaborated under different sections with nouns,
verbs, adjectives, and exclamations associated with the word. One of the
meanings of communication listed above is information. In turn, the word
information covers the following: Enlightenment, Light, Acquaintance,
Familiarization, Instruction, Intelligence, Knowledge, The know, The dope,
The goods, The swoop (all slang), Communication report, Word, Statement,
Mention, Notice, Notification, Intimation, Sidelight, Inside information, The
low-down, Tip-off, Point, Pointer, Hint, Indication, Suggestion, Suspicion,
Inkling, Glimmer, Cue, Clue, Scent, Tell-tale, Implication, Allusion,
Insinuation, Innuendo, Gentle hint, Broad hint and many more.
The point to be noted here is that words in the English language have
multifarious connotations and uses. There are words which convey the same
meaning but each one perhaps has a context where it fits in perfectly. Similarly,
there are many words belonging to the same word family. A good writer
must build up his word power in such a way that words of all kinds are on
top in memory, or as an alternative, the writer has ready access to sources
like the Thesaurus. In the absence of a proper supply of appropriate words,
the smooth flow of writing gets obstructed. Groping for the most appropriate
word or even just a sufficient word causes frustration.
In letter-writing or any other written communication, it is essential that words
are not frequently repeated. Repetition tends to irritate the reader. If you Self-Instructional
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Paragraph and come across a particular word repeated again and again in a sentence and
Letter Writing
the sentences that follow in the same paragraph, the reader is likely to get a
poor impression of the writing. To be able to avoid repetition, the writer
should have a good stock of equivalent words or synonyms. Synonyms are
NOTES words identical and co-extensive in sense and usage with another of the
same language.
x Appeal: A good letter should appeal to the reader’s sensibilities. It should
go beyond the message it conveys and make an overall good impression. It
should have elegance, which means taste, beauty, and decency. A good
letter also ensures certain aesthetic appeal. No letter can be called elegant
or aesthetically appealing if it does not give due attention to appearance.
Mistakes and corrections, striking, overwriting, improper ink flow,
unintended gaps and other such deficiencies rob an otherwise good letter
of all its elegance. A letter is appealing when it shows consideration.
Consideration means thoughtfulness. It means keeping in mind the reader
and putting oneself in the reader’s shoes while writing the letter.
Consideration means visualizing the reactions of the reader and
accommodating them in the approach to the communication. A good letter-
writer invariably makes it a point to think from the other person’s point of
view. Another essential for a good writer is empathy. A letter shows empathy
when it reflects understanding and comprehension of the impact on the
reader. It tells the reader what is of interest to the reader. A good letter uses
the ‘you’ more frequently than ‘I’. A good letter makes the reader feel
important.
x Good style: Style refers to the manner of writing. It constitutes the collective
characteristics of the writing or impression or way of presenting things.
Every person has an individual style. The writing style, to create an impact,
again needs conscious effort, on an ongoing basis. While encompassing
various requisites of letter writing, the letter brings to bear the individual’s
stamp on the letter. If you are regularly reading the letters emanating from a
particular source, you get to identify the style. People tend to judge the
style and categorize them—good style, bad style, free style, etc. Style can
be associated with the person writing the letter and carries certain
distinctiveness. Style is also understood as ‘Proper words in proper places’.
One can also describe style in other ways—personal or impersonal, formal
or informal, narrative or descriptive, rambling or focussed, considerate or
harsh, simple or verbose. A simple, informal, considerate and focused style
of writing scores high in building a rapport with the reader.
A good writing style also implies the proper use of idioms and expressions.
An idiom is described as the way ideas are used in a language. It is a form
of expression peculiar to a language. Like any other language, English too
has its idioms. Another aspect worth noting in the context of developing a
good writing style is to avoid clichés. Clichés are hackneyed literary phrases.
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 They are often repeated ad hauseum. Some commonly used clichés are; Paragraph and
Letter Writing
‘Last but not least’; ‘Better late than never’; ‘However, there is no room
for complacency’, and so on. A good writing style carries sincerity. Sincere
writing is straightforward and there is no attempt at manipulation. The writer
comes through as honest, genuine and frank. Some writing also gets described NOTES
as candid and transparent. Being sincere, therefore, means writing naturally.
The words reflect feelings, concerns and expectations in a forthright manner.
A good writing style should also encompass politeness or courtesy. It should
respect the reader as an individual. It should reflect the basic minimum
courtesies that any transaction or relationship demands. It should be
appreciative and complimentary to the extent appropriate in the given context.
Business letters, by and large, seek to strengthen the relationships that are
good for business when the occasion demands. The writer should not hesitate
to apologize for omissions or errors. A good writing style also refers to
writing naturally, without undue efforts. Otherwise the writing becomes
laboured and loses spontaneity. After a while, the tediousness starts showing.
The ability to write spontaneously and effortlessly for all occasions has to
be consciously developed.
x Positive approach: A good business letter, in the ultimate analysis is that
which has a positive approach. It creates a friendly atmosphere. It avoids
negative feelings. One must be in a proper frame of mind to write a really
good letter. Thoughts and words must be synchronized. The basic objective
should not be lost sight of. The letter should bestir and motivate the reader
to act or respond as visualized. Good letters cannot be written under extreme
emotional conditions such as sorrow, depression, anger, frustration or shock.
Such letters may not carry the overall balance in approach which is so
essential for effective writing. Similarly, a good letter cannot be written in a
great hurry. One must take adequate time to put thoughts into words,
choosing the most appropriate ones for the context. The writer should write
the letter taking adequate time, with due attention to all relevant
considerations. Apart from the various characteristics already listed, a good
letter should have integrity, accuracy and promptness. There should be
respect for values, and ethical and moral standards. The writer should
demonstrate a sense of legitimacy in his writing. Messages should be accurate
and there should not be any misrepresentation and out of context passages.
Positive approach also means being prompt in responding. A writer is often
also a recipient of communication. The writer should make it a point to
respond without any undue delay.
A positive approach does not mean that one has to say ‘yes’, for everything.
Any business has its commercial considerations. It has its rules, norms and
compliances. One cannot say ‘yes’ if it is commercially imprudent and if the
set norms are not met. Good letter-writing, therefore, is the art of learning
to say ‘no’ by packaging ‘no’ in a pleasing manner. It is the art of packaging
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Paragraph and ‘no’ in an acceptable format. It is the art of winning over the customer even
Letter Writing
while losing that particular offer or transaction. The business offer may or
may not come up to the expectation, but, nevertheless, the communication
should leave behind a favourable impression.
NOTES
In any organization and business, there will be umpteen occasions to say
No, to disagree, to convey displeasure, to punish, to pull up, to do plain
speaking and to call a spade a spade. Quite often this will have to be done
by way of a letter. In all such instances, it is necessary that the damage, the
feeling of hurt or ill will, if any, is kept to the minimum. While the nature of
the message would have certain unpleasantness associated with it, the tone
and style can make a difference and soften the blow. It is under such
circumstances that the skill of good writing comes into full play. A skilful
writer learns to mitigate the hardship or adverse impact of the message
through choice of words and manner of presentation. Although what is being
said is not pleasant, how it is being said makes it less unpleasant.
A positive approach in letter-writing does in many ways create goodwill for
the writer and the organization. It creates regard for the writer and a friendly
disposition towards the business. It generates heartiness and kind feeling
essential for the success of any business organization in today’s marketplace.
Another essential characteristic of good business writing is imagination. The
writer has to bring a unique perspective and experience and, to the extent
appropriate, relate them to the letter on hand. It is this imagination that
brings excitement into the communication. Communication becomes active
and creative. Imaginative writing takes the level of writing to a reader-friendly
mode. Organizations and businesses that succeed in the present intensively
competitive environment are those that sparkle with innovation and creativity.
Written communication emanating from business organizations should,
therefore, duly reflect enthusiasm. A good letter radiates enthusiasm. Any
good communication should have variety. It is said that variety is the spice
of life. Variety adds spice to writing. It makes communication lively and
interesting. A good letter makes its impact the very first time. When the
letter is repeated, however good and relevant it may be, the impact gets
diluted. The reader’s interest wanes. When the subject of the message is
repetitive in nature, in terms of thoughts and ideas, there may not be much
change. Nevertheless, in terms of choice of words, structure of sentences
and intensity of the tone, the letter can and should be different.
Viewed against the backdrop of so many essentials for good letter-writing,
models or drafts or stereotyped formats of letters are of limited value. Barring
areas such as documentation, legal drafting, routine procedural forms, etc.
it is not desirable to follow stereotyped writing models. Any draft or model
letter would also carry the writer’s style or approach. Moreover, copying
or adopting such formats blindly restricts the writer’s ability to develop a
distinctive style of writing. In any case, each situation and every context is
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 quite different and no standard format can be followed without appropriate Paragraph and
Letter Writing
refinements. At best, such formats can only be taken as broadly suggestive
or indicative. Instead of taking a model and attempting to make requisite
modifications to suit one’s specific needs, it would be worthwhile to
understand the principles and develop one’s writing skills. NOTES
x Excellence: A good letter-writer should try to achieve a significantly high
standard of letter-writing and endeavour to achieve excellence. All the dozen
or so essentials outlined above are relevant in building up the skills of effective
letter-writing. When we talk of business letters, we refer to a great variety
of letters. They range from the routine, repetitive letters to the more complex,
goal-oriented ones. They seek not only to inform, educate and appeal, but
also to carry out complex and composite functions such as evaluation,
justification, motivation, persuasion, penetration, dispelling of wrong
impressions and even award of punishment. They may be as short as half a
page or as long as eight to ten pages. The bigger and more complex the
letter, greater the scope for skilful writing.
The essentials outlined above are not to be taken as a checklist against
which every letter has to be evaluated. Some letters need to be just simple
and straightforward and there may not be much scope for imagination or
creativity. The nature of the subject, the context of the communication and
the relationship of the recipient determine how many qualities or essentials
one can build into any letter. Being aware of as many essentials as are
relevant in writing a wide range of business letters helps in developing effective
letter writing skills.

Check Your Progress

4. What is the significance of a well-written formal letter?
5. Which is the most commonly used format in formal letter writing?
6. How can a collection or a recovery letter made less harsh in its content?
7. How can a letter create the desired impact?

10.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. The different elements of a paragraph are topic sentence, supporting

sentences, and concluding sentence.
2. Paragraphs help the reader identify the various parts of a piece of prose or
an essay; they help identify where the essay begins and where it ends.
3. Narrative type of paragraph records an event or happening in a
chronological manner. The event or incident could be real or a figment of
the imagination. Self-Instructional
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Paragraph and 4. A well-written formal letter can achieve much for a purpose. It can act as
Letter Writing
an effective sales person, create goodwill, strengthen the relationship with
customer and act as a source of reliable, useful information.
5. The most commonly used format in formal letter writing is the fully blocked
NOTES
style of letter.
6. Collection and recovery letters are plain speaking and sometimes worded
harshly. This can be avoided by discriminating between a wilful or intentional
and an unintentional defaulter. The letter-writer should also discriminate
between a first-time defaulter and a habitual or hardened defaulter. The
letter should not hurt the feelings of the addressee and result in severing the
business relationship, unless such an extreme situation is warranted.
7. A letter succeeds in creating the desired impact when it ensures purpose
orientation, lays the right emphasis, establishes an appropriate wavelength
and is coherent.

10.5 SUMMARY

x The definition of a paragraph to a layman can be given as a series of coherent

and organized sentences that are all connected to a single specific theme/
topic.
x Whether a paragraph contains a series of events, compares two incidents
or things, describes a place, discusses an individual or an opinion, one thing
it will definitely have is a topic sentence.
x A paragraph is a specific portion of written or printed text that deals with a
specific idea. It usually forms a part of a large piece of text or composition,
such as an essay, a prose chapter or a story. However, we can also treat a
paragraph as a separate, complete and stand-alone unit.
x Narrative paragraphs records an event or happening in a chronological
manner. The event or incident could be real or a figment of imagination.
x Descriptive paragraphs comprise descriptions of places, objects, events
and individuals depicting the individual’s perspective in response to such
situations and objects.
x The first sentence in a paragraph is usually known as the topic sentence and
it introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
x One should make sure that all the details provided in the supporting sentences
are relevant; otherwise, the reader may lose interest and focus with
unnecessary digressions.
x The last sentence of the paragraph is termed as the concluding sentence
which is usually a review of the paragraph. It should emphasize on the main
point or the topic sentence.
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 x The writer should ensure that he is very clear about what he wants to write. Paragraph and
Letter Writing
There should be clarity in thought and also in the way these thoughts are
expressed.
x A letter is a permanent and tangible record of a formal relationship. It is
NOTES
generally written for enquiry, to give information, give instruction, or to
persuade the recipient towards the desired action.
x A business letter consists of the following essential parts: heading, name and
address of the recipient, opening salutation, subject line, main body of the
letter, complimentary closure, signature space and enclosures.
x The different types of layout in formal letter writing are fully indented style,
the semi indented style, the fully blocked style and the modified blocked
style.
x A good business letter can reach out and directly address the target, be it a
customer or a prospect or a patron or regulator. It can address the prospect
and set the sales pitch.
x A badly written letter reflects poorly on the organization and is a cause of
embarrassment to the managers.
x Some letters need to be just simple and straightforward and there may not
be much scope for imagination or creativity.
x The nature of the subject, the context of the communication and the
relationship of the recipient determine how many qualities or essentials one
can build into any letter.
x Being aware of as many essentials as are relevant in writing a wide range of
business letters helps in developing effective letter writing skills.

10.6 KEY WORDS

x Paragraph: It is a specific portion of written or printed text that deals with

a specific idea.
x Topic sentence: The first sentence in a paragraph is usually known as the
topic sentence.
x Show Cause Notices: It means a Court order that requires a party to
appear before the court and explain why a certain course of action should not
be taken against it. If the party cannot convince the court or fails to appear,
that course of action is taken.
x Salutation: Salutation is a way of addressing the addressee. The words
generally depend upon the relation of the writer with the addressee.

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Paragraph and
Letter Writing 10.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

NOTES Short Answer Questions

1. Write a paragraph developing the idea or the theme of the topics stated
below:
a. A visit to a forest
b. Mass communication
2. What are the basic things to remember while writing a paragraph?
3. Differentiate between tenders and orders.
4. What are the characteristics of letter from the purchase department?
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the elements of a paragraph.
2. Discuss the characteristics of a good paragraph.
3. Explain the different parts of a letter.
4. Describe the essentials of a good business letter.

10.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Précis Writing and

UNIT 11 PRÉCIS WRITING AND Expansion of Passages

EXPANSION OF PASSAGES
NOTES
Structure
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Objectives
11.2 Précis Writing
11.2.1 Some Examples of Précis Writing
11.3 Expansion of Passages
11.3.1 Writing: A Process
11.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
11.5 Summary
11.6 Key Words
11.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
11.8 Further Readings

11.0 INTRODUCTION

Comprehending what a passage is trying to convey is an important skill in any

language. The reader should be aware of the key points discussed in an essay or
paragraph. This is where the ability to create a précis becomes very useful. In this
unit, we examine précis writing and see how a well-worded summarisation can
effectively be a substitute for the main passage. We will also focus on the expansion
of passages.

11.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the précis writing and expansion of passages
x Discuss the significance of précis writing
x Describe the expansion of passages

11.2 PRÉCIS WRITING

A précis is a shortened version of a long passage. While writing a précis, one has
to take care that the meaning of the original passage has been effectively conveyed.
According to the Oxford dictionary, précis is defined as ‘a summary or abstract of
a text or speech’.

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Précis Writing and To write a good précis, go through the following steps:
Expansion of Passages
x Read the passage carefully and try to understand what the writer is
trying to say. Read the passage more than once if you have not been
able to understand the writer’s meaning the first time.
NOTES
x Form a clear idea of the author’s meaning.
x Frame a title for the précis. Even if the original passage does not have a
title, you must give a short title to the précis.
x Go through the passage once again and make a note of the main points.
x From the points you have noted, write a short passage which covers all
the points. Remember to use your own words and not copy the language
of the original.
x While writing the précis, omit any examples or illustrations that the original
contains.
x Compare the précis with the original passage to make sure that all the
important points have been included.
x Count the words in the original and in the précis you have written. The
précis should be roughly one-third the length of the original.
x Write the final précis neatly on another sheet of paper.
x At the end of the précis, mention in brackets the number of words it
contains.
Points to remember
While writing a précis, some important points should be kept in mind. These are:
x Whatever the person or form of speech of the original, write the précis in
third person in indirect speech.
x Write the précis in one tense only.
x Make sure that the précis is contained in one paragraph, even if the original
passage has more than one paragraph.
x The opinion of the original author should be conveyed in the précis, not that
of the writer of the précis. Do not express your own opinion or make any
comment of your own in the précis.
11.2.1 Some Examples of Précis Writing
Some examples of a précis are discussed in this section.
Sample 1
Teaching is the noblest of professions. A teacher has a sacred duty to perform. It
is he on whom rests the responsibility of moulding the character of young children.
Apart from developing their intellect, he can inculcate in them qualities of good
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citizenship, remaining neat and clean, talking decently and sitting properly. These Précis Writing and
Expansion of Passages
virtues are not easy to be imbibed. Only he who himself leads a life of simplicity,
purity and rigid discipline can successfully cultivate these habits in his pupils.
Besides a teacher always remain young. He may grow old in age, but not in
NOTES
spite. Perpetual contact with budding youths keeps him happy and cheerful. There
are moments when domestic worries weigh heavily on his mind, but the delightful
company of innocent children makes him overcome his transient moods of despair.
Précis
Teaching is the noblest profession. A teacher himself leading a simple, pure and
disciplined life can mould the character of the young children and make them neat
and good mannered citizens. Besides he remains every young forgetting his own
domestic worries in the constant company of the young.
Sample 2
When we survey our lives and efforts we soon observe that almost the whole of
our actions and desires are bound up with the existence of other human beings.
We notice that whole nature resembles that of the social animals. We eat food that
others have produced, wear clothes that others have made, live in houses that
others have built. The greater part of our knowledge and beliefs has been passed
on to us by other people though the medium of a language which others have
created. Without language and mental capacities, we would have been poor indeed
comparable to higher animals.
We have, therefore, to admit that we owe our principal knowledge over the
least to the fact of living in human society. The individual if left alone from birth
would remain primitive and beast like in his thoughts and feelings to a degree that
we can hardly imagine. The individual is what he is and has the significance that he
has, not much in virtue of the individuality, but rather as a member of a great human
community, which directs his material and spiritual existence from the cradle to
grave.
Précis
Being social animals, human beings have their actions and desires bound up with
society. In matter of food, clothes, knowledge and belief they are interdependent.
They use language created by others. Without language their mental power would
not grow. They are superior to beast, because they live in human society. An
individual life left alone from birth would grow utterly beast like. So human society
and not individuality guides man’s material and spiritual existence.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the most important thing to be considered while creating a précis?
2. How does the Oxford dictionary define précis writing?
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Précis Writing and
Expansion of Passages 11.3 EXPANSION OF PASSAGES

Expanding of passages is a writing skill exercise which one needs to follow in the
NOTES initial phases of writing skills training as it prepares the learners to improve the
following:
x Writing skills
x Thought process
x Analytical skills
x Critical thinking abilities
x Sense of understanding
x A sense of logical direction in a writing
When a line or a sentence or a paragraph is given to us and we are asked to build
the rest of the paragraph(s) to produce a comprehensive, cohesive, conclusive
and coherent piece of writing, it is what we can call the expansion of passages. To
begin one first has to read the given line/sentence/paragraph carefully to understand
the way the writer of that particular sentence has put in their thought. Following
which one can think of the ways it can be developed further.
We all know that human mind is such that only by cultivation of proper
habits, we can develop our skills. Writing is no different as only by developing a
regular habit, one can understand the nuances of good writing. There are certain
norms to be followed in academic writing, but those norms come to play a role
only when you have got the competence of basic writing skill. To develop basic
writing skill, it is necessary to develop a regular writing program in your daily
schedule which will help you in putting across your ideas in a coherent and cohesive
manner.
However, before one can get into writing, the question that comes to mind
is what one should write about. There is nothing to write. Yes, thoughts only come
to our mind when we read. To write well, we need to read; read all kinds of things.
Read anything and everything that comes your way. Notice how the writer has
presented the thought. Observe how the ideas are presented in a logical fashion.
Observe the choice of words. Think about the intended audience of the piece of
writing and how the author has chosen words which are meant for that specific
audience. If it is persuasive writing, then the kinds of persuasions and emotional
connect that the writer has used. If it is argumentative writing, then the kinds of
arguments for and against the thesis that the writer has presented to reach the
conclusion. If it is expository writing, then the kind of information that is being used
to present the idea or the process. If it is narrative writing, then how the piece of
writing has built up suspense and carried it till the end of the story. If it is a news
story, then according to the pyramid structure of writing how the writer has given
all significant information in the beginning of the news story and then gave facts in
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the diminishing order of importance. Thus, as you read more, there are many Précis Writing and
Expansion of Passages
benefits that you will gain, such as:
x Reading makes one knowledgeable, makes one a more informed person
and helps in making rational decisions and choices
NOTES
x Reading increases vocabulary
x Reading makes one aware of the correct usage of English language
x Reading makes one aware of the different styles of writing
x Reading makes one understand how one can develop their arguments in
writing in a logical fashion.
There are hosts of benefits of reading. Therefore, for the sake of becoming
a better writer, start with a sound reading habit, in much the same fashion as one
becomes a better speaker by listening well. As you read, thoughts will occur to
you. You can carry on writing them and that is how you can take the first step of
developing a regular writing habit. Get into the mode of writing and within a short
span of time, you will find yourself to be an efficient and effective writer. For the
sake of understanding how to progress with writing, Let us deal with writing as a
process.
11.3.1 Writing: A Process
Writing is a process which we need to plan properly so as to be effective. We
need to know how to put down our thoughts in a logical and cohesive manner so
that the intended audience of the writing finds it meaningful. We need to develop
and strengthen our writing by understanding writing as a process. Writing is not a
random unplanned activity which can be undertaken without any thoughts put in.
In other words, to write effectively we need to plan writing in a step by step
manner. There are usually different steps of writing:

Source: https://www.toppr.com/guides/business-correspondence-and-reporting/
introduction-to-basic-writing/steps-for-writing/

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Précis Writing and People differ in their opinion in terms of the steps to be followed in the process of
Expansion of Passages
writing. However, one can basically divide the process of writing into three parts:
PREWRITING– WRITING–REVISING, though each of this process can be
broken down into different steps again. For the sake of simplicity, we will follow
NOTES writing to be having three steps.
First step: Prewriting
In the essay, ‘Dream Children’, Charles Lamb must have thought that he would
write an essay about his children and then sketched an outline of what he is going
to write about. He wanted to talk about his children who did not actually exist, as
he was a bachelor. So, he decided that he will write about his relationship with his
children and then at the end will divulge the information that he is sitting in ‘bachelor’s
arm chair’. He decided that he would write in a narrative mode. This is the Pre-
writing phase of the essay. The actual writing was done when Lamb arranged
various incidents with children in a particular manner to keep the interest of the
readers alive. After finishing his writing, he must have revised the writing to come
up with the final essay which we read today.
Thus, the first step of any writing begins with the decision that you need to
write on a certain topic. However, since the topic or rather the outline/passage is
already given in case of the expansion, half of your problem is solved as you do
not have to spend time figuring out the topic. Otherwise, you would have to think
of a topic which interest you and on which you can research and find sufficient
information and details within a specific time period. After receiving the passage to
extend a topic, it is time to identify the underlying theme and then do some readings
on that topic (you can also watch some audio-visuals, scan through some blogs/
vlogs, search through some websites, visit some libraries, etc.). This will help in
the development of ideas to expand the passage.
Doing research and collecting information on the topic is a necessity when
one thinks of effective writing. While writing, you need to take a position, if you
are writing argumentatively. If you are doing expository writing, then you need to
be informative. If you are narrating, then imagination and descriptive competence
should be put to use. So, after researching on the topic, you need to decide which
mode of writing you need to employ to do justice to the topic as well as to the
readers. The mode of writing should necessarily correspond to the topic as well as
to the intended audience/readers. For example, suppose you have gotten a passage
with a topic ‘Industrialization’. This topic can be thought about and written from
various perspectives. You can write argumentatively on how industrialization is
detrimental for environment or you may choose to write in an expository manner
on the history of industrialization or you may choose to write a narrative involving
how a particular character has been benefited by industrialization or you may
judge the tone of the given passage and write accordingly. The topic that you
choose and then the mode of writing that you employ to do justice to the topic will
decide your future course of action in writing. When you have chosen these two–
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the topic and the mode of writing–it is time to make a rough structure of the write Précis Writing and
Expansion of Passages
up. If you make a rough outline, it helps immensely in the writing process as you
know how to progress.
Second step: Writing NOTES
You need to remember that when you are a reader and is about to read something,
you necessarily are trying to find an answer to the five W and one H questions that
is, Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How. So, while writing you also need to
give answers to these questions so that the readers’ queries are resolved. Let’s
suppose, if you are writing a news story for a newspaper then these six questions
need to be answered in the very beginning of the story (the term used in newspapers
for introduction is Lead). But if you are doing creative writing and doing a short
story, you probably would postpone the answers to some of these questions till
the end of the narrative, so that you can keep the readers hooked.
Now, it is time to delve into the actual writing process, in which you will
write the first draft. It is to be understood here that the first draft you write is not
the final draft. You need to rework on your drafts time and again to come to the
final stage of the process. However, it is always advisable that you focus on keeping
the logical flow as well as cohesion of the write up at par with the standard. It is
also significant to understand that writing is often a messy affair and therefore, if
you are not organized about it, it can lead to even more mess, which will become
difficult to deal with in the later period. Writing should not be taken as an end in
itself, as when you write, you also learn at the same time. Each writing exercise
you take up helps you learn many things. The important ones among them are:
x Your writing skill and competence develops and strengthens with each
writing task that you get into
x Your subject knowledge increases as you write as writing often provides
you clarity of thought. Reading different things on a subject makes us
have many ideas on that subject; but when writing, those thoughts are
amalgamated into a unified whole and presented in a coherent and
cohesive manner, leading to a better organization of thought on that
subject.
Certain points to be kept in mind while writing are:
x Writing has to be in a language in which your readers are comfortable. It
should always be kept in mind that you are writing for your intended
audience and therefore, their comfort zone and linguistic skills should be
kept in mind while writing.
x One should follow proper grammar and sentence structure as it helps in
putting across your thoughts properly to the readers.
x Jargons and flowery language may often take away the beauty and depth
of your thought or idea. So, it is preferable that you use a language,
which presents your thoughts in a manner, which justifies the subject
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Précis Writing and and the intended audience. For example, if you are writing for a legal
Expansion of Passages
journal, you can use legalese (law specific jargons), but the same cannot
be used if you are writing for a newspaper article as your intended
readers are common men and women, who do not understand legal
NOTES language.
x While writing, connecting words/transitions are very significant as they
provide some cohesion to your writing. So, it is advisable that you use
transitions properly as that would make your write up easier to understand.
In the process of reading ‘Dream Children’, you must have felt that there is
an ease in reading the essay. It is an easy flowing essay, which immediately strikes
chord with the readers because of the language it employs. Since ‘Dream Children’
is an emotional journey of the writer, it is evident that the writer is trying to get the
readers emotionally involved in the journey as well. He is not only taking the
readers in a mental tour of his children, but is also making us revisit our own
childhood. Thus, the essay evokes emotions, which makes the reading pleasurable.
Third step: Editing and revising
When one has written the first draft, it is time to take a break and go back to your
writing after some time. Often reading your writing, immediately after finishing
writing does not let you figure out the mistakes, lacunas and the shortcomings of
your writing. So, it is better to let it rest for a while and then go back to it. While
revising the draft, the things that you should be extra careful of are:
x If the idea/thought presented in your write up is logically presented
x If the writing is comprehensible to your intended readers
x There are no grammatical and syntactical (sentence structure) mistakes or
punctuation errors.
x There are proper transitions or connecting words used so as to make the
writing cohesive.
x The thesis statement is properly stated in the beginning of the write up.
x That each paragraph has a topic sentence.
x That paragraph division is justified and each paragraph deals with a concept
or idea related to your topic.
x That the conclusion restates the thesis statement in a different language than
originally used in the beginning of the write up.
x If you are writing a narrative, then the suspense element is maintained.
x That citation is provided for the references, evidences and statistics so that
the readers can figure out the sources of information and if needed they can
cross-check.
x That the bibliography is made according to the standard format/prescribed
style (MLA or APA or Chicago Style Sheet).
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When you have done all these–taken a step by step process from prewriting to Précis Writing and
Expansion of Passages
revising, it is time that you can present the work to your readers or submit it to
your instructor for evaluation.
Some other ways of strengthening your writing NOTES
By now, you must have understood that when you write, you should consider it as
a process in which you need to be extra careful as your writing is a document
which is going to be there for a longer period and can make a difference. So while
writing, some of the things that you should not use are:
x Don’t use discriminatory language of any kind whether it is gender
discrimination or discrimination on the basis of any race, colour, or ethnicity
or people with special needs. For example, don’t use the word ‘man force’;
use the word ‘workforce’; don’t use ‘Chairman’; use ‘Chairperson’ as these
are gender discriminatory. Similarly, we should think of all such words which
are discriminatory in some way or the other and avoid using them at all
times.
x You should not use any informal language. Writing as an academic exercise
should be taken with utmost seriousness. Any casual words can mar it
altogether.
x Writing is a communication where you are not writing for yourself (except
for Diary Writing) but for your readers, therefore, it is essential that you
keep in mind your readers.

Check Your Progress

3. What is the last step of writing before it reaches its intended readers?
4. What should be emphasized while writing an expository essay?
5. What is the first step in the strengthening of one’s writing on a particular
topic?
6. What kind of language should be used while writing?

11.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. While creating a précis, the most important thing to be considered is to

make sure the meaning of the original passage has been effectively conveyed.
2. According to the Oxford dictionary, précis is defined as ‘a summary or
abstract of a text or speech’.
3. Editing and revising is usually considered to be the last step of writing as in
this process we polish our writing in such a manner so as to make it
presentable to the readers.
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Précis Writing and 4. While writing an expository essay, the main emphasis should be on the
Expansion of Passages
informational content of the essay.
5. The first step in the strengthening of one’s writing on a particular topic? , the
first step should be To do adequate research to have a fair notion of the
NOTES
topic
6. The language while writing should be such that it corresponds with the
reader’s linguistic and mental competence.

11.5 SUMMARY

x A précis is a shortened version of a long passage.

x While writing a précis, one has to take care that the meaning of the original
passage has been effectively conveyed.
x There are many steps to be considered while writing a précis.
x The opinion of the original author should be conveyed in the précis, not that
of the writer of the précis. Do not express your own opinion or make any
comment of your own in the précis.
x Expanding of passages is a writing skill exercise which one needs to follow
in the initial phases of writing skills training.
x When a line or a sentence or a paragraph is given to us and we are asked to
build the rest of the paragraph(s) to produce a comprehensive, cohesive,
conclusive and coherent piece of writing, it is what we can call the expansion
of passages.
x There are hosts of benefits of reading. Therefore, for the sake of becoming
a better writer, start with a sound reading habit, in much the same fashion as
one becomes a better speaker by listening well.
x The first step of any writing begins with the decision that you need to write
on a certain topic. However, since the topic or rather the outline/passage is
already given in case of the expansion, half of your problem is solved as you
do not have to spend time figuring out the topic.
x You need to remember that when you are a reader and is about to read
something, you necessarily are trying to find an answer to the five W and
one H questions that is, Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How.
x When one has written the first draft, it is time to take a break and go back
to your writing after some time. Often reading your writing, immediately
after finishing writing does not let you figure out the mistakes, lacunas and
the shortcomings of your writing.

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 Précis Writing and
11.6 KEY WORDS Expansion of Passages

x Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of an academic paper, research

article and the like and mentions the purpose, scope, and methods used to NOTES
arrive at the reported findings of the said paper.
x Blog: A blog is a journal that is available on the web. It is derived from the
term ‘Web Log’.
x Vlog: A video blog or video log, sometimes shortened to ‘vlog’ is a form of
blog for which the medium is video, and is a form of web television.

11.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What are the things to be kept in mind while creating the précis of a passage?
2. What are the benefits of reading?
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the process of précis writing.
2. Describe the complete process of writing in detail.

11.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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Précis Writing and Websites
Expansion of Passages
https://writingcooperative.com/how-to-improve-your-writing-skills-exercises-you-
should-know-about-aa2e97e14946
NOTES https://www.uww.edu/learn/improving/restiptool/improve-student-writing
https://www.atindaba.com/single-post/2016/06/08/Remember-that-
understanding-is-key
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10343/10343-8.txt

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 Essay and Story Writing

UNIT 12 ESSAY AND STORY

WRITING
NOTES
Structure
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Objectives
12.2 Essay Writing
12.2.1 Order and Organization
12.2.2 Types of Essays
12.2.3 Important Aspects of Essay Writing
12.3 Writing Stories from Outlines
12.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
12.5 Summary
12.6 Key Words
12.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
12.8 Further Readings

12.0 INTRODUCTION

Writing essays is one of the most important language skills. This is because it helps
improve one’s creative writing as well as develop logical thinking. To begin with, it
involves the proper use of grammar, application of analytical faculties, prior research,
sound vocabulary and clear presentation, among other things. This unit studies the
essential requirements of a well-worded essay, the different kinds of essays and
the guiding points to help improve the students’ compositions. We will also focus
on story writing from outlines.

12.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the process of essay and story writing
x Discuss the main components of essay writing
x Describe the meaning of story writing from outlines.

12.2 ESSAY WRITING

Essays sometimes examine an argument present a detailed report, or express the

writer’s reflections and views on a topic that personally interest him. The
organizational skills and analytical ability that are often required in writing an essay
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Essay and Story Writing can be rather challenging. However, practice and following certain guidelines can
help you in writing an essay.
In school, one goes through the discipline of writing compositions. The basis
NOTES for a composition is ‘to form by putting together or to create. A composition
consists of separate, distinct paragraphs, which are logically connected by one
critical focus that runs through the entire composition or essay. Apart from a
command over the English language, clarity of thought, the ability to write with
some style and general awareness do contribute in making a composition interesting
and readable. The basic structure of a composition lies in its paragraphs, which
give shape, content and form. The principle of writing essays is similar, because an
essay looks at important characteristics like unity, logical structure, presentation
of content, language and expression and conclusion.
Essay writing is also a literary form of writing. It is both instructional and a
pleasure to read essays by famous writers like Addison, Steele, Hazlitt, Mathew
Arnold, Charles Lamb and nearer home, V. S. Naipaul, Namwar Singh, U. R.
Ananthamurthy, and Shashi Deshpande. Critical essays are written by analysing a
particular aspect of a literary work, or a specific issue. The middle page of a
newspaper has essays on topical issues, e.g. reservations, the lndo-US nuclear
deal or should there be censorship. An essay discusses the content, and presents
the writer’s critical ability, his comments and his point of view.
The structure of an essay follows the well-known introduction, body,
conclusion format, and is written in paragraphs. The primary characteristic of an
essay is its underlying unity and coherence in dealing with a given question, or
subject, or statement. For example, ‘Global Warming’ is a subject. ‘Reservation
of women is important for development’, is a statement. ‘Should the age for driving
be reduced further’, is a question. In all the three instances, one has to think about
the concerned topic, understand what the subject or question demands, what is
the line of argument or perspective that you need to take, and how to arrange all
the relevant information and ideas.
12.2.1 Order and Organization
In writing the essay, you have to pay attention to the order and organization of
facts and ideas. Flowing from the main topic, there are related issues, and these
have to be presented in an organized manner and not as separate, disparate facts.
The main body of the essay should deal with a comprehensive examination of the
concerned subject. The opening paragraph sets the tone of the essay, and the next
few paragraphs proceed to amplify, develop and illustrate the topic. You have to
think about how you want to introduce your main topic, as a statement of fact, or
by provoking the reader or defining the topic. Writing an introduction that clearly
defines the subject, evokes the reader’s interest and makes him or her want to

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read more, is half the battle won. This requires effort, planning and thinking about Essay and Story Writing

the topic.
First, there has to be clarity about the subject. Does the subject require
definition? Do you have adequate information and understanding about it? What NOTES
are your own views on the subject? Does the subject require comprehensive
information or does it lend itself to debate, argument and a conclusion? Warming,
mention who is responsible, state the consequences, explain the steps to be taken
to control and reduce the negative impact. An essay like this requires information
and familiarity with the subject, so you need to read relevant material and assimilate
it, organize your facts under different headings and present them in a logical manner.
However, a topic like this does not require you to take a personal stand. However,
if the topic is ‘Global warming today is because of industrialized nations’, then the
emphasis shifts. This topic does look at global warming, but the emphasis is different,
and it requires a line of argument that leads to a conclusion. You should demonstrate
with facts that industrialized nations are responsible, or if you feel that, they are not
completely responsible you have to substantiate it with verifiable information. Your
position, whether you are in agreement or disagreement with the topic or if you
feel the statement is partially correct has to be corroborated with evidence. So,
understanding the topic and what it requires, before you proceed to write is crucially
important, as that will determine how the essay is written. In exams and written
assignments, the topic is usually given. However, if you are given a choice, you
should always select a topic that interests you and that you are familiar with or can
easily research, and a topic that is not too generalized and vague.
Having defined the topic, clarify the scope of the topic and decided whether
the subject is analytical or descriptive. Next, you need to research the subject.
Read relevant books, journals and articles. Discuss the title with your teacher or
anyone who can guide you. These days, information is quite easily available, but
you must select the appropriate facts, that will support your argument. Overloading
an essay with too much information, can be boring and make the essay irrelevant.
Where statistics are appropriate, include them, or use examples. While debating a
particular point, you may want to refer to a well-known individual’s remarks and
incorporate them in your essay. Always acknowledge the source. Sometimes
quotations can be extremely illustrative if used correctly.
After the introductory preparations, it follows that the information has to be
logically and conceptually arranged. Write down brief points and arrange all your
information according to topics under the main head. Each idea should have some
connection with another. Just as the spokes in a wheel are all connected to the
hub, i.e., the centre, you must arrange your points in a theoretically logical manner,
that is both coherent and unified and will be convincing to the reader. Avoid
repetitions and remain focused. It is not possible to include every tiny detail on a

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Essay and Story Writing given topic and it is not required. Include representative major evidence, so that
your essay appears comprehensive without losing focus and seeming too general.
It is important that the paragraphs are interconnected and the essay is a unified
whole. As a rule, each paragraph should have several sentences and does not
NOTES
need to be numbered. Having organized your facts and ideas, proceed to write
your essay.
Main body
While writing the main body of the essay, you have to pay attention to your content,
language and style. Grammatical mistakes, incorrect spellings, poorly structured
sentences and paragraphs detract from the essay. Do not leave out steps in your
arguments, use connectives and conjunctions such as, so, and, therefore, meanwhile,
because, to link paragraphs and points.
If, in the course of your reading, you if have referred to any secondary
sources and incorporated certain points in your essay or you have quoted from
another writer, you must footnote and acknowledge the source. Copying verbatim
from another article and using it in your essay without citing a reference, would be
plagiarism. While we all draw upon ideas and theories and critical points made by
other writers, we cannot pass them off as our own original thinking. At the end of
the essay, you must provide a bibliography that indicates all the secondary sources
that you have consulted. Quotations are used quite often in an essay to amplify a
point. Quote, only if the quotation is relevant to the main point or if you are using
a particular quotation to state your opposition. Long quotations can be tedious.
Avoid quoting too often and do not include a quotation if it has no relevance.
In the matter of style, how you write is extremely important. Is the essay
descriptive, analytical or imaginative? In an imaginative essay, wit and humour
make a lot of difference. Clarity of thought can be expressed only through clarity
of language and expression. Shorter sentences are easier to compose and to read.
There is less probability of mistakes with tenses and grammar. Do not use unfamiliar
words, words that appear impressive or jargon, and avoid superfluous details.
Writing an essay is a formal exercise, so avoid using colloquial expressions that
we often use while talking. It is better to use the impersonal expression ‘it is generally
agreed’, rather than using the first person all the time, for example, ‘I think’, ‘I
feel’, ‘I suggest’. Where your personal views need to be presented, do so, without
an exaggerated emphasis on the I. Finally, it is a combination of all the factors that
we have discussed, along with an effective conclusion that contributes to a good
essay.
Conclusion
An arresting opening and a satisfying conclusion are equally important. A good
conclusion ties up all the loose threads of arguments, leaves no room for confusion
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and doubt, restates the main points without repeating the introduction and concludes Essay and Story Writing

the arguments in a tone of conviction and finality. Do not use clichés and stereotypical
statements. Having completed your essay, reread it and revise it, once, twice or
even thrice if necessary until you are satisfied with your work. We have now
NOTES
defined what an essay is, examined its major characteristics, and listed all the
steps preparatory to writing an essay and the actual writing of the essay itself. We
will now look at some of the different types of essays.

12.2.2 Types of Essays

The more popular forms of essays are narrative, descriptive, expository, discursive
and imaginative essays:
x Descriptive essay: As the word suggests, a descriptive essay primarily
focuses on specific details and facts pertaining to animate and inanimate
things. You could describe a particular creature, or types of clouds.
Describing places, buildings and objects, requires familiarity with the subject
or close observation. The selection and arrangement of facts should highlight
specific characteristics and if there is anything unique or special, you could
mention it. A descriptive essay has many images and the tone is usually
objective and impersonal. However, the writer’s response to the subject he
is describing is evident from his choice of words.
x Expository essay: The word expository means ‘to explain’. An essay that
deals with the explanation of a particular process, for example, rain
harvesting, an institution, (how legislative bodies function), a natural
phenomenon, (black holes in the universe) or the discussion of a particular
text or style of writing, is classified as an expository essay. The writer attempts
to explain why and how something happens. Here, the writer is expected to
demonstrate his familiarity with the subject, provide the necessary information
and elaborate wherever possible. It is better to write in a linear, sequential
manner and it is important to see that your material is well structured. If you
are going to talk about rain harvesting, you need to first explain the term, tell
the reader what is required and go through a systematic process, so that the
reader understands the entire process and the importance of rain harvesting.
x Discursive essay: Quite often, an essay requires that the writer discuss a
particular subject and come to a conclusion, after examining the merits and
demerits of the topic. Take for example, the following sentence, ‘Attendance
should be compulsory in a university’. A statement like this challenges a
response. You have to be clear about your own view and structure the
essay such that the body of the essay examines the arguments that eventually
lead to the conclusion. As far as possible, it is advisable to objectively state
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Essay and Story Writing both sides and then proceed to your personal conclusion. An essay like this
tends to be more analytical as both arguments and counter arguments have
to be rationally debated and concluded with a statement or point of view.
NOTES x Imaginative essay: Imaginative essays are among the most interesting
because the writer gives rein to his imagination and the essay is often
characterized by wit, humour, originality. The writer has complete freedom
to develop the topic in whichever way he wants to and the style can be
personal and subjective. In an imaginative essay, you are visualizing a
particular situation, which you may not have experienced, except
imaginatively. For example: ‘The day my father cooked dinner’. Such a
situation may never have taken place, yet you can vividly imagine what
might transpire if your father had to cook dinner. Imaginative essays are
lively in tone, have an original perspective and are personal in expression.
Fictionalizing an episode and writing creatively about it, is also considered
as an imaginative essay. For example, ‘My summer holidays’. You can write
about events that may not have actually taken place, but what you have
imagined. Imaginative essays are fun to write and students should be
encouraged to use their imagination and express themselves.
x Narrative essay: Narrative essays incorporate features of other styles of
essay writing. While the primary emphasis is on narrating or talking about,
‘recounting and relating’ events in an orderly fashion, descriptive and
reflective features are present. A narrative account of any historical event,
individual or, episode has to be given in a logical and sequential manner.
The narrative could be dramatically presented but you have to keep an
overall coherence in mind. Most newspaper articles tend to be narrative
and students find it easier to write narrative essays.
12.2.3 Important Aspects of Essay Writing
The following are important points to be noted while composing an essay.
x Language: Language is a critical and the most important part of essay
writing. Hence, the language of the subject should be good.
o All words should be spelt correctly and all sentences should be
grammatically correct.
o Ensure all verbs are in agreement with the subject. Pronouns must have
a clear and correct reference.
o All incorrect punctuations must be avoided.
o Sentences should be simple, concise and clear.
o Finally, your essay should display coherence of tense.

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 x Style: The style of an essay should be dignified and literary. One should Essay and Story Writing

avoid the use of colloquial language and slang. However, the essay should
not have unnecessary verbosity and complexity. One should focus on clear
thinking, which will lead to clear writing.
NOTES
x Structure: An essay should have a theme and a definite purpose. The subject
should be treated in different ways and from different viewpoints. The essay
should follow a chain of thought, should have an effective introduction and
follow a definite conclusion. Ensure the length of the essay is not too long; it
should be limited to three hundred words. Although this is not a strict rule,
the length will depend on the nature of the subject. However, as a rule,
essays should be brief and concise.
x Other: The essay should sound and read convincing. It should not
‘buttonhole’ the reader. It should be able to maintain the reader’s interest.
Further, the presentation of the essay is very important. It should be neatly
presented, and be easy to read. Finally, ask yourself if you are personally
satisfied with your essay, and even a bit proud of it.

12.3 WRITING STORIES FROM OUTLINES

A story writing is a work of ‘fiction or imagination’ that is usually written in ‘easily

understandable grammatical structure’ with ‘natural flow of speech’. Story writing
is meant to be read at a single sitting and therefore it should be as direct and brief
as possible. In case of outlines, one needs to understand the hints and then write
the story accordingly. Outline works as a summary of the story, a short description
of what the story will be about, what will happen, who will do what, etc. from
beginning to end. A story typically has five key elements – Character (fewer is
better), Setting (brief but poetic and vivid), Plot (as simple and interesting as
possible), Conflict (intense but one), and Theme (relating to majority of readers).
We will discuss this in detail in the Unit 13.

Check Your Progress

1. What is the primary characteristic of an essay?
2. What is the importance of using quotations in an essay?
3. What sort of essay centres on specific details and facts related to living
things or inorganic objects?
4. What does an expository essay entail?

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12.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
QUESTIONS

NOTES 1. The primary characteristic of an essay is its underlying unity and coherence
in dealing with a given question, or subject, or statement.
2. In an essay, quotations are used quite often to amplify a point.
3. Descriptive essays centre on specific details and facts related to living things
or inorganic objects.
4. An expository essay entails the explanation of a particular process, an
institution, a natural phenomenon, or the discussion of a particular text or
style of writing.

12.5 SUMMARY

x Essays sometimes examine an argument, or present a detailed report, or

express the writer’s reflections and views on a topic that personally interest
him.
x Critical essays are written by analysing a particular aspect of a literary work,
or a specific issue.
x The primary characteristic of an essay is its underlying unity and coherence
in dealing with a given question, or subject, or statement.
x In writing the essay, you have to pay attention to the order and organization
of facts and ideas. Flowing from the main topic, there are related issues,
and these have to be presented in an organized manner and not as separate,
disparate facts.
x The main body of the essay should deal with a comprehensive examination
of the concerned subject.
x Writing an introduction that clearly defines the subject, evokes the reader’s
interest and makes him or her want to read more, is half the battle won.
x After the introductory preparations, it follows that the information has to be
logically and conceptually arranged.
x While writing the main body of the essay, you have to pay attention to your
content, language and style. Grammatical mistakes, incorrect spellings, poorly
structured sentences and paragraphs detract from the essay.
x Do not leave out steps in your arguments, use connectives and conjunctions
such as, so, and, therefore, meanwhile, because, to link paragraphs and
points.

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 x At the end of the essay, you must provide a bibliography that indicates all Essay and Story Writing

the secondary sources that you have consulted.

x Quote, only if the quotation is relevant to the main point or if you are using
a particular quotation to state your opposition. NOTES
x A good conclusion ties up all the loose threads of arguments, leaves no
room for confusion and doubt, restates the main points without repeating
the introduction and concludes the arguments in a tone of conviction and
finality.
x The different types of essays are as follows: descriptive, expository,
discursive, imaginative and narrative.
x In order to write a good essay one should focus on the language, style,
structure, convincing power of the topic, engaging the reader’s attention
and neat presentation.
x In case of outlines, one needs to understand the hints and then write the
story accordingly. Outline works as a summary of the story, a short
description of what the story will be about, what will happen, who will do
what, etc. from beginning to end.

12.6 KEY WORDS

x Critical Essays: Critical essays are written by analysing a particular aspect

of a literary work, or a specific issue.
x Plagiarism: Copying verbatim from another article and using it in an essay,
or any other type of composition, without citing a reference is called
plagiarism.

12.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What is the significance of an effective conclusion?
2. What is the difference between a descriptive and a narrative essay?
Long Answer Questions
1. Explain the requirements of a methodical essay.
2. Write an expository essay of 750-1000 words on the following topics:
a. Surgical Attacks
b. The detection and treatment of depression in India. Self-Instructional
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12.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

NOTES Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Writing Stories

UNIT 13 WRITING STORIES

Structure NOTES
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Objectives
13.2 Writing Stories from Outlines
13.2.1 Creative Writing
13.2.2 Types of Creative Writing
13.3 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
13.4 Summary
13.5 Key Words
13.6 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
13.7 Further Readings

13.0 INTRODUCTION

We come across all sorts of examples of creative writing starting from our
experience in school as well as in our professional life. These days a lot of importance
is given to project based learning where students are made aware about the
importance of presentation and clear communication at an early age at school. At
college, business communication is embedded in different courses wherein students
are made aware of the practical use of their learning. This serves many purposes–
the students have clarity about their field of study or specialization, they are able to
promote their course to others, they become aware of the opportunities available
to them during and after the completion of their course. In this unit, we will discuss
the process of developing stories from outlines.

13.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the process of developing stories from outlines
x Discuss the main components of stories
x Describe the significance of creative writing

13.2 WRITING STORIES FROM OUTLINES

Outlines provide an idea to a writer. It works as a hint or suggestions. This means

it is a short description of what the story will be about, what will happen, who will
do what, etc. from beginning to end. It’s like creating a blueprint for a house
before you start building. After studying this blueprint of a story, you will have a
better idea of the progression and sequence of the story or other piece of writing.
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Writing Stories Below are the examples of outlines. These will give your idea on how the outlines
look.
x Outline: The mice very unhappy-the cat killed many of them-held a meeting
to discuss how to get rid of the cat-various suggestion. Then a young mouse
NOTES
suggested that a bell should be tired round the cat’s neck - all welcomed
the proposal with joy - an old mouse stood up?-asked who was going to
tie the bell round the cat’s neck?
x Outline: The hare laughed at the slow moving tortoise - the tortoise not at
all ashamed of his slow pace - retorted that he could beat the hare in a race
- agreed - the hare went away in lighting leaps - the tortoise went slowly
after him - the hare confident - had a nap - the tortoise went on and on?
In the above examples, one needs to use their creative skills in order to proceed
with the story.
13.2.1 Creative Writing
Creative writing is required in all walks of life be it in school or higher studies, at
the work place or at the market place. If you pay attention to the written content
you come across from morning till evening be it inside your house when you sit
and have your breakfast with a newspaper in hand to when you step out and walk
on the road, look at all the text you can read on your way, you will realize that
creativity is delivered to you in different forms. It is indeed a part and parcel of our
day to day life. To sum up creative writing is required:
x To communicate
x To entertain
x To sell a product
x To create awareness
x To grab your attention
x To bring up artistic expression
x To stimulate new ideas and imagination
x To clarify the thought process
x To search for identity
x To read and write
These days creative writing is offered as a full time course at few universities
across the globe. Few other courses may include creative writing as a part of their
curriculum such as mass media and communication, but what is important is that
this should not be seen like just any other subject. A proper environment of learning,
practicing, discussion, feedback and assessment process should be in place so as
to hone the skills for creative writing.

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 You may have come across student publications in schools from children Writing Stories

and also newsletters in work places. They are good platforms for one to express
and communicate to a larger group. While at one hand for a student writing in a
school publication gives a sense of pride and achievement to him/her, on the other
hand it also gives an opportunity to do an extra bit of revision, proofreading, etc. NOTES
which they otherwise might be not like to do.
Importance of creative writing
Creative writing is the foundation stone of innovation and ideas which goes on to
prove the famous saying. ‘It was impossible until someone did it’. Creative writing
is an important skill as it develops the individual’s powers of expression, empathy
and critical thinking. While some may be of the idea that the skill of creative writing
is needed only for the ones in the liberal arts field, well that may be untrue because
to communicate effectively it is important in all aspects of life be it in the business
or the non-business world. Many people, especially in the business world,
appreciate information shared with them in a concise way as much as they would
appreciate a well worded creatively written newsletter. Be it internal memos, emails
or any other form of corporate communication, it will be appreciated more when
it is tailored to their requirement.
On a very individual level, creative writing is used to explore and magnify
writing skills that you never knew you had and the process of writing itself makes
you a “balanced” human being. While some education systems tend to work more
towards developing the left side of the brain with numbers and logic and neglect
the right side which leans more towards the creativity and emotions. This
discrimination creates an imbalance and hence creative writing is important.
When students pursuing higher education take creative writing as a subject,
it inculcates so many emotions and creative aspects in them and not just builds
their creative writing skills. It produces historians, researchers, critical thinkers,
commentators, problem solvers and communicators. It helps us to analyze human
nature so intimately. For a better reception to one’s creative writing it is important
to be original, authentic and relatable.
Tips to develop, improve and excel in creative writing
Most writers who intend to do creative writing will take off with the work the
moment they think they have a pen and a paper. While they are of the idea that
they are born geniuses at work and hence need no preparation. However they
would have no idea as to what they would be writing upon. This approach plagues
most of the writers today who would start abruptly and would soon be worn out.
x Planning and getting started: If you are planning to start with an assignment,
which is short term but still demands high on creative index then it requires
planning. First and foremost we have to think about the reader and what
would it take to keep them interested. For example if you are writing for an
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Writing Stories exam , an essay that would be read by the teacher and evaluated, you have
to bear in mind that if you write the same routine stuff then there are chances
that you would be marked averagely . For you to stand out you have to
write something different which awakens the teacher because she is going
NOTES to read multiple pieces of writing. If the style is different and the language is
simple, the plot is catchy and the message is clear chances are that you
would be marked better than the rest of the usual crowd. Since the teachers
would also be pressed for time, they would also be impressed with short,
clear, precise, and well written pieces of rich content.
x Create time for reading and writing: As a young budding creative writer,
we need to develop a habit of reading literary works; to develop a taste for
literature and creative writing. Nothing can better feed creativity than reading
books. We need not be selective about the genre. But at the same time we
should read books that drive our imagination, and make us think about life
and people.
x Gather experiences: If we get stuck in the monotony of our lives and the
routines that come along with it free then we fail to gather experiences. The
more risks we take, newer experiences we create, the more we will have to
write about.
x Interacting with people: While it may seem difficult to interact with varied
walks to life, it’s advisable to have a versatile group of people in our lives
that will introduce us to various aspects in our life and hone our writing skills
as a whole.
x Watch movies: Nowadays with the onset of the digital age, movies have a
lot of impact on our lives and they are easily accessible as well. We should
be able to choose those with good vocabulary and dialogues with high
quality dramatic content.
x Live with it: No matter how good you are at writing, you will not be able
to connect with the audience until and unless we are able to relate with it.
Live with each character you create.
Tips for Quality Creative Writing
Usage of language and the styles of writing are ever changing and hence good
creative writing not merely a matter of talent. We also need to learn good creative
writing skills. This could be achieved either by proactive apprentice or by organized
learning institutions. The selective quality of good creative writing or the lack of it
to express whether one is in the field of journalism advertising or any corporate
position makes one a good or a bad communicator. Since the requirement and the
toning required for each position is unique, any trained communicator or writing
even if one is trained, has to undergo training in a unique way. Thus industries like
publishing, journalism, creative communication, advertising requires special skills
and orientation. Hence it becomes necessary to take them through a special training.
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 Good creative writing gives a lot of rewards as a person and as a professional. Writing Stories

However you need to take care of certain things. For example in creative fiction
writing:
x Long paragraph and rich details: Short paragraphs are easier to read
NOTES
and understand but a skilled writer used long and detailed picturisation.
Over the weekend the vultures got into the presidential palace by pecking
through the screens on the balcony windows and the flapping of their
wings stirred up the stagnant time inside, and at dawn on Monday the
city awoke out of its lethargy of centuries with the warm, soft breeze of
a great man dead and rotting grandeur. Only then did we dare go in
without attacking the crumbling walls of reinforced stone, as the more
resolute had wished, and without using oxbows to knock the main door
off its hinges, as others had proposed, because all that was needed was
for someone to give a push and the great armoured doors that had
resisted the lombards of William Dampier during the building’s heroic
days gave way.
Abridged from Nobel laureate Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s Autumn of
the Patriarch.
x Breaking the punctuation rule: At times you can break the punctuation
rule and still be a good writer.
x Poetic Justice: At times you may not understand the language and the
meaning that you are reading or writing. But you should learn to enjoy
the beauty of the language.
Self-Evaluation of creative writing
Many a times you need not have someone else to tell you how good your current
piece of work is or how it could have been better. There are many pointers along
the journey of your creative writing which will show them their improvements.
Often writers have a feeling that they are not good enough. This is especially self-
discouraging as they fail to see the merits and the strengths in their own words. But
the point is they have conquered them again and again. Here are some pointers
that can reassure that you are a good writer or you are on a definite path of
improvement.
x Positive peer review: If you come across any peer and friends who have
been impressed with your writing and have congratulated on your piece of
creative writing you can rest assured that you are on the path of progress.
This can also be sought by showing a piece of work to your fellow writers
and seek an opinion. It could be a risky proposition but this can be one of
surest way to seek impartial feedback.
x Look back and compare: Whether you are a poet, composer, blogger or
a prose writer, from time to time you need to compare your old work with
the newer ones to see how you have written in the past and how you are
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Writing Stories writing today. You may not see that there is a paradigm change but you can
always compare to check for improvements in the overall structure of your
work or basic things like sentence construction.
x Better grasp of basics: One of the surest signs of improvement is that if
NOTES
you have improved grammar spelling and punctuation which are an important
part of a good piece of writing. You need not always be formally instructed
about the usage but if you approach them with an intuitive manner, that it
will be enough. Most writers concentrate on the creative bit while the editors
with their sharp eyes look for the grammar spelling and punctuation.
x Police yourself for sloppy work: We are smart at finding faults at others
and tend to overlook our own badly written pieces of work. Any time you
get a chance to critically evaluate your own bit of work, do not hold back
and wear the editor’s hat. You will find that you can be your own critique
and see for improvements yourself.
x Your guest post is published: Here is a big one. We all read the web
blogs and tend to comment and write critically. If you follow a big and a
famous blog and you in your natural instincts, post some comment as a
guest and this guest post gets published, consider that your writing skills
have improved so much so that it is being acknowledged by others. Famous
blogs just don’t take comments from anyone and publish them. It takes
some finesse to be published.
x Shortlisted in a competition: They say – you can’t win, or get shortlisted
– if you don’t enter. There are plenty of writing competitions from major
national ones to focused writers competitions. Many magazines call for
monthly entries at various levels. You might not win–in the first few attempts
but even if you reach the shortlist, forget worrying about how tough the
competition is, or how good other writers are, you put your best piece
forward.
x Get paid: None of the professional would hire you as a writer or pay off
your piece of work if your piece is not worth it and you are not confident
about it. You need not always make a living from your creative writing; you
can also be a freelance who can make some extra income from which will
be a revalidation that you are a good writer.
Distinguishing good from ordinary
As a reader of literature or fiction, one does not look for a great writing style; he
or she is looking for a great story. Well, that does not mean that making an extra
effort to meticulously check for grammar, diction, and syntax should ever be
regarded redundant. What differentiates the amateur from professional writing is
that professional writers go that extra mile by conceiving, planning, and drafting,
writing, rewriting, editing, proof reading and so on. Here is an example of how the
author is describing the interior settings of a church:
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 ..It had hat shelves and coat racks along both sides. There were double doors Writing Stories
leading into the sanctuary, which was plain but neat. There was a carpeted main
aisle that ran from the doors to the altar. There were neat rows of oak pews on
both sides of the aisle. Secondary aisles ran along both sides of the church
between the pews and the windows. On the raised platform in front, there was an
altar, a lectern, and behind that were two rows of chairs for the choir. There was NOTES
a fairly new piano on the left side of the platform…
This is a piece of ordinary writing because of the simple reason because the
larger picture for the reader is not kept in mind while writing the piece but just the
words written are in focus. This excerpt contains ten clauses, eight of which have
has or have for the main verb. There have been a lot of word repetitions and the
sentence opening like ‘... it had hat shelves’. is abrupt. I do not say that such
paragraphs once in a while in the whole book will spoil the entire mood of the
reader but this can lead to the writer being underrated. Since the word choice is
imaginative and passages just contain words and nothing to connect the scenes in
the book. This is one just concrete example. There could be many instances which
differences a great piece from ordinary.
In a drama, dialogues are the blood and characters are brought to life and
depending on the scene readers can be in tears. In prose, the words, the
perspective, the characters, and how closely the story is knitted. So as a writer of
fiction or nonfiction, your focus should not only be on your subject but also on the
reader. Here are some common pitfalls that you can avoid to take yourself away
from the ordinary:
x Repetition: Repetition of words, sounds, letter combinations and word
forms can lead to disinterest and permanent rejection from the readers.
x Direct dialogue: Sometimes in a creative piece of work where you
want to portray the characters through dialogue. It is a good idea that
you can avoid direct questions and answers in a straight forward manner.
This is the biggest distraction for the reader. Rather it is sometimes a
good idea to be subtle, indirect and deliberate antagonism between
characters. But only sometimes and in perspective
x Uninterrupted dialogue: Stories succeed because they are a mix of
action, dialogue, exposition, conflict and so on. When any element takes
over or is stretched then this is noticed by readers and becomes a drag.
x Usage of flowery language: Usage of adverbs, adjectives and lofty
words in place of simple language where it is not required is not advised.
This does not appeal to the readers today.
x Avoiding fillers: If the story or the plot is simple and straight forward,
it has been noticed that the writers tend to use a lot of fillers. Simple and
straight if we want to differentiate the good from the ordinary then we
will have to put the dialogue to work. Avoid the fillers and go for the
substance with purposeful talk.
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Writing Stories x Words that don’t fit the era: Many contemporary writers in modern
day times are able to churn quality literature because they have used a
modern style of writing which the readers are used to hearing and reading.
Also the choice of words has to be relevant rather than archaic.
NOTES
x Freedom to characters: A good writer would let the characters be as
they are supposed to be and not curb for the want of political correctness.
The characters should have the freedom to express whatever it is.
x Dialogue with a subtext: A good writer will always understand that
importance of dialogues with an underling meaning. If it is all surface
then the charm of the creative writing is lost and readers will quickly get
bored.
x Preaching political /religious beliefs: One of the surest ways to limit
the readers and ensure that they don’t come back is when you start
making the characters your mouthpiece of the political and the religious
beliefs that you carry. That could be done through the dialogues that we
use and the setting that can be done with our piece of writing. You will
have readers who may agree with your theories but then you will have a
hard time convincing your unbiased genuine readers. This is similar to
the spiritual gurus preaching their pet theories. You definitely want the
readers to experience that you are teaching or preaching.
While the above was more focused to fictional writing, some of them are
also applicable to non-fiction writing as well. However here are some caveats that
can help us producing some great nonfiction work:
x Spontaneity: While this could be a great plus for fiction writing, it is not
so welcome in non-fiction writing. Non-fiction requires lot of research
and planning and hence it is a good idea to be well-planned and calculated.
x Lack of purpose: Many a times writers start with a great focused
target, while on the way they lose sight of the original purpose. This is an
easy pitfall. Writers in genres of journalism and memoirs should try and
write to the point and not let the plot go haywire. Things like the plot,
the points that the writer is trying to convince the readers should be kept
in mind. Each portion of the writing should be well planned so that readers
don’t lose interest while reading it. For example, while planning an
autobiography it is important to plan each chapter and do justice to the
chronological layout of the events.
x Unconvincing statement and poor arguments: Lot of non-fiction
research work and essays are all flat because of the simple fact that they
present loosely bound statements and unconvincing arguments. Such a
piece is bound to be less appreciated by the readers, especially, when
all such statements should be backed by knowledge, research and validity.
It is better to be conservative in the claims that present poor arguments
which can be outrightly rejected by the readers.
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 x Lifeless writing: Though the genre is non-fiction, even a straight forward Writing Stories

email or a well-researched essay can be lifeless if this is not well worded

and lifeless.
x Illogical confusing and non-existent transitions: Be it a book,
NOTES
chapter, article from a magazine, blog post, or an email, nothing is more
confusing for the readers if the ideas are that aren’t clearly explained.
That is why editing is important to bring about a considerable quality in
the writing so that readers are not left confused and don’t jump the ship.
Above all, every writer needs to discover his or her niche while attempting
to succeed because the generalist writers’ arena is flooded with freelance writers,
bloggers and content creators. One needs to discover their own specialty and
expertise that they have that sets him or her apart from other writers. Knowing
ones strengths and weaknesses can also help decide what work to take and what
to avoid. By this they would do a great service to the readers. It is also important
that they realize this because they have to play an important role in opinion building.
13.2.2 Types of Creative Writing
Commonly referred forms of creative writing are prose and poetry. However,
given the endless scope of creative writing, there are different types of creative
writing. Some of them are mentioned below:
x Story Telling
o Fiction and Non-fiction
o Novels
o Essays
o Diaries/Journals
o Essays
o Memoirs/Biographies
x Poetry
x Drama
o Comedy
o Tragedy
o Farce
o Musical Drama
x Translation
o Literary
o Technical
x Others
o Blogging
o Journalism Self-Instructional
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Writing Stories Fiction (Story)
This form of writing is generally the most lucrative form of writing. It is mostly an
outpour of imagination and creativity. This is often a description of events that are
NOTES not true, of people and things crafted out of an unreal world. This involves imaginary
events and places. The writer needs to master the art of weaving ‘daydreams’ in
such a manner that the readers / audience are often ‘lost in the book’. Here the
writer should create such an experience while reading that the reader should be
lost in the book.
Often this is very subjective whether the writer is able to cast a magical
spell on the readers or not. It also depends a lot on the writer’s ability and his/her
command over the subject, how powerful the plot is, whether the writer has been
able to develop the characters into the plot, and the form and style of writing that
has been adopted to narrate the story. It depends on how effectively the writer
has described his plot and controlled the settings of his plot to influence the readers
mind and let them understand the way he wants them to. Within fiction there is a
world of genres for the readers to enjoy.
x Novels: Modern drawing rooms are witnesses to a rack full of novels.
Hence we assume that they do not need any introduction. But that just
stays a mere assumption given the vast open scope of this genre of
creative writing presentations. Novels are the most popular form of fiction
writing and quite difficult to define. This form, by and large, is a long
narrative sequential prose with characters personified. These stories may
or may not have any connection with the real life. The writer has the
freedom to paint, predict, presume, present, and plot the entire story.
Normally novels have lengthy storylines presented in the form of chapters.
Some people say that the length of a novel should be upwards of 40000
words. Romance, mystery, science fiction, fantasy and crime thrillers
are all examples of novel genres. Some of the famous contemporary
Indian novelists and their works are mentioned below:
o Kiran Desai – The Inheritance Of Loss
o Arundhati Roy – The God of Small Things
o RK Narayan – The Guide
o Arvind Adiga – The White Tiger
o Chetan Bhagat – Revolution 2020
x Essays and storytelling: These are other forms of fiction writing which
are popularly used to bring about some point of view across. Historically,
almost all cultures have used story telling form of fiction work very
effectively. This has been used to make an emotional connect and
organize our thoughts properly. Instructions to large societies are usually
made in the form of essays and storytelling.

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Non-Fiction Writing Stories

Non-fiction writing are literary forms of work which are based on real events.
These events / facts may not be portrayed in total truth but helps one understand
the world around them. Most non-fiction writers use their work to express, inform NOTES
or analyze certain events or facts but one thing that necessary stands out is that
they involve real around person’s, places or events. Almost everyone has access
to the internet these days. This means that people have easy access to information
such as newspapers, journals, documentaries, biography, etc. at almost every step
in life.
Forms of non-fiction writing
Literary non-fiction which is more popularly termed as Creative non-fiction is the
style adopted by writers to use literary techniques to create factually correct
narratives. This form of writing uses narrative prose and deals with facts and reality.
All biographies, autobiographies, memoirs, diaries, travelogues, food blogs, literary
journalisms, chronicles, and personal essays fall under the category creative
nonfiction. So in a way, creative non-fiction is almost similar to reporting where
the writer adopts a creative literary style to communicate information. Let’s look
at each form one by one:
x Biography: A detailed account of someone’s / person’s life written by
someone else. This includes not just his education works and life facts but a
vivid description of his overall persona weaved around the subject’s life
events. The person who writes the biography is called the biographer. Some
of the famous work of biographies are
o Narendra Modi: A Political Biography by Andy Marino
o Amitabh Bachchan: The Living Legend by Bhawana Somaaya
o Beyond The Last Blue Mountain: The Life Of J. R. D. Tata by R.M.
Lala
o Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson
o Shakespeare: The World as Stage by Bill Bryson
x Autobiography: This form of non-fiction is the one where the writer pens
his own account of his life himself. Meaning to say, if you write your own
story in form of a big and include events, incidences, experiences knitted
around the milestones and facts, this is called Autobiography. One typical
characteristic is that it is usually chronologically based and usually starts
from the very beginning onwards. Say for example if a doctor wants to
write his autobiography, he would usually start recounting his initial formative
years and then his schooling and then his higher education and the hardships
that he might have faced, then a bit about this personal life going own to
professional experiences to sharing his career highlights. So there is a
chronological order of events that he would be following. This is usually
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Writing Stories written late in life when a person thinks that this is the opportune time to pen
down an autobiography.
o Long Walk to Freedom – Nelson Mandela
NOTES o Dreams from My Father – Barack Obama
o An Autobiography – Jawaharlal Nehru
o Truth Love and a Little Malice – Khushwant Singh
o The Race of My Life – Milkha Singh
x Memoirs: Memoirs are events written or recorded by an individual who is
believed to have complete knowledge about the subject. This includes more
of memories and remembrances. This could be one part or small episode
of the entire set of events that could have taken place. Readers might confuse
memoir with an autobiography. Taking the same example of the doctor. If
he wrote just a book – My Autobiography which is an end to end narrative
of the sequence of events, then this is a real autobiography. However if he
chooses to write only about his experience in fighting an epidemic in a remote
area for two years, then this piece becomes a Memoir and not an
Autobiography. This piece of memoir could be a part of his Autography.
o Nine Lives by William Dalrymple
o Maximum City – Bombay Lost and Found by Suketu Mehta
o Climbing the Mango Trees: A Memoir of a Childhood in India by
Madhur Jaffrey
x Travelogues: One of the most popular styles of non-fiction writing and is
greatly enjoyed by the readers of all ages across generations. A travelogue
is a person’s account of a journey or a travel experience to another place,
new region, unfamiliar territory, or a new territory. This can be in form of a
detailed factual report or a narrative story about self-impressions and
rejoinders of the travel appended with pictures. With an objective of absorbing
the readers so much so that they reader lives the experience first-hand. For
a good travelogue, it is important that the writer researches about the place
through local people and it legends, or self-travel to unravel all the hidden
truth and secrets that could ignite an interest among the tourists. Pictures,
local information, things to do and things to avoid tips will be useful and
handy for possible tourists and visitors reading the travelogue. While writers
are painters through words, there is a very old saying that a picture is worth
a thousand words. If the writer is able to include some pictures which is
best to attract readers and get immersed in the experience. These pictures
could also help highlight various attractions and could guide the reader to
reach the destination all the way. What stand out in a travelogue, is the fact
that this could become a ready reckoner for readers or people to follow/
visit to the place. If the writer could give a cultural background of the place,

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 weather conditions, guide readers to reach the place, mention a few good Writing Stories

hotels on the way, highlight the various top most visited interest points, for
the readers to explore if they are interested and not to mention some does
and don’ts. Some examples of famous travelogues are as follows
NOTES
o Around India in 80 Trains by Monisha Rajesh
o City of Djinns: A Year in Delhi by William Dalrymple
o Goa-Reason to Return by Rajiv Butalia
o Tibet: Kailash Mansarovar Yatra by Sumanta Roy Chowdhury
x Literary journalism: Literary journalism is a form of non-fiction where
fact based reporting is combined with narration included in it. Literary
journalism is a journalistic text which almost reads like a novel. In this style
the author needs to handle the subject like any journalist would have handled
this subject but the differentiator would be how he uses the literary techniques
so that it reads like a novel and is as interest engrossed like any novel would
be. However every sentence and every word used in any piece of literary
journalism should necessarily be true. No dialogue should be made up and
no scene invented. Like any newspaper journalism, literary journalism depicts
moments in time as opposed to the traditional way of just addressing who,
what, where, when, and how. While a memoir is written in first persons ‘I
was…’ a literary journalism should be written as (He/she…) based on
another person’s life or events or experiences external to the writer’s own
life story. What makes a literary journalist stand out is the how well he can
write ‘literature of facts’. One can choose from an array of topics including
persons, places, events or idea like Jallikattu or Indian elections or any
other mundane topic, but the key ingredient is that in a literary journalism
write up, facts should be verifiable. Observations, personal interviews,
quotes, dramatized presentations, strong use of figures of speech, and key
ingredients for a strong and impactful literary journalism. Some of the finest
examples of literary journalism are as follows:
o Another Day of Life by Ryszard Kapuœciñski
o The Emperor by Ryszard Kapuœciñski
o India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy
by Ramachandra Guha
o The Idea of India by Sunil Khilnani
x Chronicles: Chronicle is an account written about events important and
historical, both in chronological sequence of their occurrence. These are
detailed and factual in form of a dossier or register.
o The Lord of the Rings by J R R Tolkien
o The Shawshank Redemption by Stephen King

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Writing Stories

Check Your Progress

1. What is the importance of creative writing?
NOTES 2. Why do writers need to discover their niches?
3. Name the different forms of non-fiction writing.
4. What are chronicles?

13.3 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Creative writing is an important skill as it develops the individual’s powers

of expression, empathy and critical thinking. While some may be of the idea
that the skill of creative writing is needed only for the ones in the liberal arts
field, well that may be untrue because to communicate effectively it is
important in all aspects of life be it in the business or the non-business
world.
2. Every writer needs to discover his or her niche while attempting to succeed
because the generalist writers’ arena is flooded with freelance writers,
bloggers and content creators. One needs to discover their own specialty
and expertise that they have in order to set them apart from other writers.
3. Different types of non-fiction writings are:
a. Biography
b. Autobiography
c. Memoirs
d. Travelogues
e. Literary journalism
f. Chronicles
4. Chronicle is an account written about events important and historical, both
in chronological sequence of their occurrence. These are detailed and factual
in form of a dossier or register.

13.4 SUMMARY

x Outlines provide an idea to a writer. It works as a hint or suggestions. This

means it is a short description of what the story will be about, what will
happen, who will do what, etc. from beginning to end.
x Creative writing is the art of written expression which conveys ideas and
thoughts in an imaginative way.
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 x Creative Writing knows no boundaries like the white canvas and depending Writing Stories

on thoughts and intellect of the writer and his or her scope of imagination,
anything and everything is possible in the world of creative writing.
x Different forms of creative writing is being churned out these days through
NOTES
various sources, written by different people who may be professionals,
amateurs, bloggers or maybe freelancers.
x Creative writing is required in all walks of life be it in school or higher studies,
at the work place or at the market place.
x A proper environment of learning, practicing, discussion, feedback and
assessment process should be in place so as to hone the skills for creative
writing.
x Many people, especially in the business world, appreciate information shared
with them in a concise way as much as they would appreciate a well worded
creatively written newsletter.
x Usage of language and the styles of writing are ever changing and hence
good creative writing in not merely a matter of talent. We also need to learn
good creative writing skills. This could be achieved either by proactive
apprentice or by organized learning institutions.
x What differentiates the amateur from professional writing is that professional
writers go that extra mile by conceiving, planning, and drafting, writing,
rewriting, editing, proof reading and so on.
x Every writer needs to discover his or her niche while attempting to succeed
because the generalist writers’ arena is flooded with freelance writers,
bloggers and content creators.
x Commonly referred forms of creative writing are prose and poetry. However
given the endless scope of creative writing, there are different types of creative
writing.
x Fiction is often a description of events that are not true, of people and things
crafted out of an unreal world. It involves imaginary events and places.
x Novels are the most popular form of fiction writing and quite difficult to
define. This form, by and large, is a long narrative sequential prose with
characters personified.
x Most Non Fiction writers use their work to express, inform or analyze
certain events or facts but one thing that necessary stands out is that they
involve real around person’s, places or events.

13.5 KEY WORDS

x Screenplay: It refers to the script of a film, including acting instructions

and scene directions.
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Writing Stories x Feedback: It refers to information about reactions to a product, a person’s
performance of a task, etc. which is used as a basis for improvement.
x Freelance: It refers to a person who works as a writer, designer, performer,
or the like, selling work or services by the hour, day, job, etc., rather than
NOTES
working on a regular salary basis for one employer.

13.6 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND

EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. What do you mean by outlines? Give examples.
2. How can one distinguish a good piece of writing from an ordinary one?
Long Answer Questions
1. ‘It was impossible until someone did it.’ Explain the statement with reference
to creative writing.
2. Differentiate between fiction and non-fiction stories in detail with examples.

13.7 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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 Concord and

UNIT 14 CONCORD AND TAG Tag Questions

QUESTIONS
NOTES
Structure
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Objectives
14.2 Concord
14.2.1 Concord of Nouns, Pronouns, and Possessive Adjectives (Third Person)
14.3 Tag Questions
14.4 Answers to Check Your Progress Questions
14.5 Summary
14.6 Key Words
14.7 Self Assessment Questions and Exercises
14.8 Further Readings

14.0 INTRODUCTION

Concord generally means peace and agreement or the harmony between any two
entities. In grammar, concord is used about words in a phrase. It refers to the fact
of having to have a particular form according to other words in the phrase or in
other words maintain harmony between two words. In this unit, we will discuss
the concord in grammar in detail. We will also focus on the tag questions.

14.1 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to:

x Understand the concepts of concord and tag questions
x Discuss the concord in grammar in detail
x Describe the significance of tag questions

14.2 CONCORD

Concord or Agreement (abbreviated AGR) occurs when, according to the other

words to which it relates, a word changes form. It is an example of inflection,
which typically involves ‘agreement’ between different words or parts of the
sentence to attach meaning to some grammatical category (such as gender or
person). For example, in Standard English, one can say ‘I am’ or ‘he is’, but not ‘I
is’ or ‘he am’. This is because the language’s grammar demands that the verb and
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Concord and its subject agree in person. The pronouns I and he, like the verb forms am and is,
Tag Questions
are first and third person, respectively. In contrast to notional agreement, which is
based on meaning, the verb form must be chosen so that it has the same person as
the subject. For example, the word United Nations is treated as singular for the
NOTES
purposes of agreement in American English, even though it is officially plural.
14.2.1 Concord of Nouns, Pronouns, and Possessive Adjectives (Third
Person)
A noun is a naming word for a person, place, animal, thing, idea, feeling or quality.
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun to avoid using the naming word
repeatedly, e.g., instead of saying Anjali took Anjali’s book to school, we say
Anjali took her book to school. ‘Her’ is the pronoun in the example given.
x When the noun is of a masculine gender, i.e., applies to names of male
animals or human beings, they are referred to as he, him, his, himself. In
the case of feminine gender, the pronouns used are she, her, hers, and
herself. A neuter gender refers to all objects that are inanimate and when
reference is made to a general animal. This would bring in the use of it, its
and itself.
My brother wants to eat by himself.
My sister wants to eat by herself.
The cat wants to eat by itself.
x In case the noun could be referring to persons of either sex, the masculine
pronouns are applied.
A cook prefers to buy his vegetables himself.
A miser does not like to share his money.
x When the context is clear that reference is to a woman or girl, then feminine
forms are used. Also, in case a generic noun such as student is used but the
reference is to a girl’s school, then too it is obvious that the student is
feminine.
The student was asked to come onto the stage to accept her award.
x In case of words like baby and children, when the gender could be masculine
or feminine, the neutral gender it is used.
The baby was crying for its milk.
The child needs to behave itself.
x Plural forms of pronouns are they, them, themselves, and their.
Children should learn to clean up their own rooms.

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 The students organised the play themselves. Concord and
Tag Questions
x Animals are generally referred to in the neutral form it, unless the situation
specifically refers to the sex of the animal, in which case he or she is used.
However pet animals which are considered family members are referred to NOTES
by their sex appropriate pronoun.
The dog ate its bone.
The cat was licking her young ones clean.
We want to play catch with our dog. Do you also want to play with him?
x It should be noted that ‘every’ and words beginning with every- (everyone,
everything) are taken as a single unit, and therefore the singular pronoun is
applied here.
Everybody had to have a dip in the Ganga before entering the temple.
Everyone I know loves this movie.
x Possessive pronouns should comply with the gender of the subject they
refer to. The possessive does not depend on the gender of the noun that
follows it.
She gave a present to her father. (NOT-his father)
The nurse attended to the patient whose blood pressure was falling. (NOT-
her blood pressure)
x The following table will guide you in the use of the correct pronoun or
adjective:

Man, boy, everyone, everybody, a person He, him, his, himself

Woman, girl, every woman, every girl She, hers, her, herself
A thing, an animal It, its, itself
One One, one’s, oneself
Men, women, people, animals, things They, them, themselves,
their, theirs

x Possessive pronouns refer to the person who owns or possesses something.

The car parked there is mine.
His hair is turning grey very fast.
x Possessive adjective indicates ownership, e.g., my, your, their.
My hair used to be very long and thick.
Their house is the envy of everyone in the colony.

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Concord and
Tag Questions 14.3 TAG QUESTIONS

Tag questions are questions added to the end of a statement for emphasis. They
NOTES are rhetoric in nature as they take the person’s agreement for granted, even though
they are asking the person his opinion. They are used in an informal setting only, in
speech or correspondence with friends. The important points to note are:
x A positive statement is followed by a negative tag and vice versa.
That is correct, isn’t it?
She will be there, won’t she?
We will be on time, won’t we?
x A negative statement does not have to include a negative verb. It can have
a positive verb where the subject, object or complement is negative, or a
negative adverb which can modify the verb.
You don’t read English, do you?
You can’t cook, can you?
We didn’t know anyone, did we?
x Semi negative or depreciative words like little, scarcely, few, and hardly
are also regarded as negatives and are followed by a positive tag.
You speak very little, don’t you?
Few people passed their exams, didn’t they?
We seldom eat Indian food, don’t we?
It should be noted that though few and little are negatives, a few and a
little are positives and so the appropriate tags should be applied.
A few people in this world are so helpful, aren’t they?
A little kindness can go a long way, can’t it?
x The adverb only can take both a positive and a negative tag.
There were only twenty children in class today, weren’t there?
There were only five dollars there, were there?
x When a personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence, it is repeated in the
tag question as well. The general pronoun one, does not carry a pronoun
other than itself.
He is very handsome, isn’t he?
She is your daughter, isn’t she?
One can never tell about a person, can one?
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x When the verb is simple tense form of to be or to have, the same tense is Concord and
Tag Questions
followed in the tag as well.
Hari has a younger brother, hasn’t he?
He is older than Hari, isn’t he? NOTES
x For any other verb, the tag that follows uses do or did.
She challenged him to a game, didn’t she?
He claimed to know her, didn’t he?
x The verb used to uses the form do, and the past tense did.
You used to live there, didn’t you?
x When the verb is in a compound form, only the auxiliary is used in the tag,
and for this reason, verbs such as can, need, must, and ought are considered
auxiliaries.
You need to go to the doctor, don’t you?
She ought to go to the dentist oftener, oughtn’t she?
x In the case of imperatives, always use a ‘will you?’ whether forming a negative
or positive tag.
Please don’t drop it, will you?
Don’t forget to call when you reach home, will you?
Invitations use will you, but if the statement wants to emphasise urgency,
then won’t you is used.
Please come for dinner, will you?
Please come for dinner, won’t you?
x When a suggestion begins with let’s, the tag used is shall we?
Let’s go out for dinner tonight, shall we?
x Imperatives used to express impatience or as a rebuke, use can’t you? as
the tag.
You can do something right, can’t you?
x The words everybody and everyone, though treated as singular generally,
in tag questions are taken as plural, and referred to as they.
Everybody can’t be so lucky, can they?
Everyone has a secret, don’t they?
x In the same vein, none of, when followed by a plural noun is treated as
plural and takes ‘they’. None of us, though has ‘we’ has the tag.
None of the students got more than 80%, did they?
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Concord and None of us have ever been to Europe, have we?
Tag Questions
x Some of us uses we in the tag if the speaker is included in the people being
referred to and if the speaker is excluded, then the tag uses they. Some of
NOTES you uses you in the tag.
Some of us can take our cars tomorrow, can’t we?
Some of us can’t take no for an answer, can they?
Some of you will have to help on Tuesday, won’t you?

Check Your Progress

1. What do you mean by concord?
2. Which of the pronouns are used in case the noun is referring to persons of
either sex?
3. Define a tag question.

14.4 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

QUESTIONS

1. Concord or Agreement (abbreviated AGR) occurs when, according to the

other words to which it relates, a word changes form. It is an example of
inflection, which typically involves ‘agreement’ between different words or
parts of the sentence to attach meaning to some grammatical category (such
as gender or person).
2. In case the noun is referring to persons of either sex, the masculine pronouns
are applied.
3. Tag questions are questions added to the end of a statement for emphasis.
They are rhetoric in nature as they take the person’s agreement for granted,
even though they are asking the person his opinion. They are used in
informally only, in speech or correspondence with friends.

14.5 SUMMARY

x Concord or Agreement (abbreviated AGR) occurs when, according to the

other words to which it relates, a word changes form.
x A noun is a naming word for a person, place, animal, thing, idea, feeling or
quality. A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun to avoid using
the naming word repeatedly.

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 x When the noun is of a masculine gender, i.e., applies to names of male Concord and
Tag Questions
animals or human beings, they are referred to as he, him, his, himself. In
the case of feminine gender, the pronouns used are she, her, hers, and
herself.
NOTES
x When the context is clear that reference is to a woman or girl, then feminine
forms are used. Also, in case a generic noun such as student is used but the
reference is to a girl’s school, then too it is obvious that the student is
feminine.
x Animals are generally referred to in the neutral form it, unless the situation
specifically refers to the sex of the animal, in which case he or she is used.
However pet animals which are considered family members are referred to
by their sex appropriate pronoun.
x Tag questions are questions added to the end of a statement for emphasis.
They are rhetoric in nature as they take the person’s agreement for granted,
even though they are asking the person his opinion.
x A negative statement does not have to include a negative verb. It can have
a positive verb where the subject, object or complement is negative, or a
negative adverb which can modify the verb.
x Semi negative or depreciative words like little, scarcely, few, and hardly
are also regarded as negatives and are followed by a positive tag.
x When a personal pronoun is the subject of a sentence, it is repeated in the
tag question as well. The general pronoun one, does not carry a pronoun
other than itself.
x In the case of imperatives, always use a ‘will you?’ whether forming a negative
or positive tag.
x Some of us uses we in the tag if the speaker is included in the people being
referred to and if the speaker is excluded, then the tag uses they. Some of
you uses you in the tag.

14.6 KEY WORDS

x Inflection: In linguistic morphology, inflection is a process of word

formation, in which a word is modified to express different grammatical
categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood,
etc.
x Standard English: The term Standard English refers to both an actual variety
of language and an idealized norm of English acceptable in many social

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Concord and situations. As a language variety, Standard English is the language used in
Tag Questions
most public discourse and in the regular operation of American social
institutions.
NOTES
14.7 SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS AND
EXERCISES

Short Answer Questions

1. Write a short note on concord with examples.
2. Add the appropriate tag to the following sentences.
a. We haven’t had our lunch yet.
b. We were only just in time.
c. The car broke down at a most awkward time.
d. Everyone is liable to make mistakes.
e. She will miss the train if she doesn’t hurry.
Long Answer Questions
1. Describe the concord of nouns, pronouns, and possessive adjectives.
2. Discuss the important points in case of the tag questions.

14.8 FURTHER READINGS

Wren, P. C. and H. Martin. 2007. High School English Grammar and

Composition. New Delhi: S. Chand and Company.
Sidhu, C. D.; Prem Nath; and Kapil Kapoor. 2007. Comprehensive English
Grammar and Composition. New Delhi: Khosla Publishing House.
Straus, Jane; Lester Kaufman; and Tom Stern. 2014. The Blue Book of Grammar
and Punctuation: An Easy-to-Use Guide with Clear Rules, Real-World
Examples, and Reproducible Quizzes. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.

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NOTES Concord and
Tag Questions

NOTES

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Concord and NOTES
Tag Questions

NOTES

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