cs BABANI PRESS No.10 ODERN CRYSTAL 10 TRANSISTOR SSHIMGIRGUINIS ST ORRBEGINNERSHI a) | eeu il llMODERN CRYSTAL AND TRANSISTOR SET CIRCUITS FOR BEGINNERS BY | B.B. BABANI BABANI PRESS The Publishing Division of Babani Trading and Finance Co Limited The Grampians Shepherds Bush Road London W6 7NFAlthough every care is taken with the preparation of this book the publishers will not be responsible for any errors that might occur. © 1973 1.8.B.N. 0 85934 009 0 The compiler of this book wishes to express his most sincere thanks to 'ELECTRONICS AUSTRALIA’ the leading radio, T.V. and electronics magazine published in that continent, and to Syndication International Ltd., their agents, for permission to use much of the mater- ial in this book which appeared originally as articles in that magazine. B. B. BABANI LONDON - OCT.1973 First Published October 1973 Printed by Lantex Printers Ltd., 3 Errol Street, London E.C,CONTENTS Simple Crystal and Transistor Sets ..... Crystal Set Users Selector Switch Typical Crystal Set . V.H.F. Crystal Set for Short Waves Two Transistor Reflex Receiver Simple Transistor Seto... esse eee Simple Amplifier 6.2... e sees : Simple Receiver of Novel Design 5 Unusual Crystal Sets Crystal 2eceiver - Medium Wave Coil Type PCC.1SIMPLE CRYSTAL AND TRANSISTOR SETS “Please send me 2 cenit for a crystal set” is one of the most regular pleay throuvh our query service. This, despite the fact that we have des: etibed many crystal sets through the years and that, more recently, we have tried ty oncourage beginners to start with something only slightly more expensive but vertamly much more satisfying. What tollows iy an attempt to satisfy the honour of all Pparties—infor- mation which witl allow you to build a crystal set if you really want to, or to take the further and recommended step into transistor circuitry. Therefor, progress | -tc-Follow steps. beginning with the crystal set, we supbtied crystal set, then to a regenerative receiver. Pew ill ve tes by vomparison with the crystal set that the performance of our tinct recetver certainly justifies the very small additional expense involved With these thoughts in mind and the fact that many will be on limited budgets, we have confined our thinking mainly to the use of “junk box” Parts and to simple “breadboard” construction. Considering firstly the theoretical side of things, the function of a crystal setis to select the desired signal by a selective tuning circuit and convert the radio frequency signals into audio frequency signals by the process of demodulation or detection. To understand how this latter process work stand first of all. something of the action w east station tis desirable to under- ich takes place at the broad- Virstly, the transnmtter generates a radio freque! which Is of constarit av cy signal or “carrier” we amplitude and this is used, as a medium for tuasporting the required intelligence from the transmitter to the receiver. Music or speech is caused to “modulate” or vary the carrier amplitude at a rate which is governed by the frequency of the modulating signal. In tact, the term amplitude modulation (AM) is given to the type of transmission normally used. If the incoming signal were applied to the phones directly, nothing would be heard because the phones are unable to respond to the rapid alter- nations of the carrier. But if we remove alternative half-cycles of the carrier wave by passing it through a rectifier, each successive half-wave Pulse will be in the same direction and the movement of the diaphragm of the phones will be according to the average carrier strength. Farly crystal sets generally depended upon the rectifying properties of “galena” crystal (lead sulphide, PbS) to carry out the detection process, This substance exhibited to some extent the properties of the valve diode in its ability to pass current in one direction and impede it in the opposite direction, The crystal was held in a clamp while a thin wire “catswhisker™ was adjusted to make contact with it at a point which gave the best signal 5AERIAL QA79,_OAB)I, GEX34,_ ete APPROX. Zz 3 = o 2 ” PREFERABLY HIGH IMPEDANCE Circuit A is that of @ crystal set in which elther ao germanium diode or the b to-emitter junction of a transistor can be used. The polar- ity of the detecting device Is not import. ant, Circuit B shows how few ports need be added to obtain an amplified signal,This, as dad will probably remember, was quite a fiddly adjustment and the family had to tread warily in order that the “whisker” would not be bumped from the sensitive spot Point Contact Diode Today a whole series of germanium and silicon diodes are available which are widely used as detectors, Most of these are inside tiny glass envelopes and are able to withstand quite heavy vibration without ill effect. The first circuit described here, the crystal set, uses a “point contact” germanium diode which consists of a small wafer of germanium con- taining a small amount of arsenic or antimony to produce N type sem conductor material. in contact with a phospher bronze wire. This has the peculiar property of allowing electrons to flow only in the direction of semiconductor to contact. Diodes of this type, subject to a voltage in the forward conducting direction, can have a resistance of a few hundred ohms. When subjected to a voltage in the reverse or non-conducting direction, their effective resistance may be several hundred thousand ohms. The detection process is accomplished by applying the incoming signal across the diode in series with a detector load which, in the case of a crystal set, is a pair of high impedance headphones. It is usual, though not essential. to connect a capacitor across the phones. which assists in smoothing out the half-wave pulses of carrier signal delivered by the detector. The capacitor charges during each pulse of carrier and maintains this charge during the intervals between pulses, resulting in a smooth audio signal closely resembling the original mod- ulating signal at the transmitter. So much for detection, but what of the unit’s ability to detect a particular signal and reject all others? This calls for a parallel tuned circuit consisting of a tapped coil and a variable tuning capacitor capable of resonating at any desired frequency within the band used by the broadcast stations. Resonates with Coil Signals reaching the set via the aerial are fed to a tapping on the coil, while the capacitor is adjusted to resonate with the coil at the fre- quency of the desired signal. Stations on other frequencies are rejected, while the wanted signal is retained by the tuned circuit. This selected signal is then fed to the detector via an appropriate coil tapping. These tappings on the coil are to enable the aerial and detector to be suitably matched into the coil in order to obtain the best compromise between signal level (sensitivity) and ability to select wanted stations (selectivity) Thus, tapping the aerial across a larger proportion of the winding may result in louder signals, but the selectivity will be poorer, resulting in stations overlapping. Bringing the tapping closer to the earth end, on 7TO FRAME OF — CAPACITOR TUNING CAPACITOR TRANSISTOR ALLIGATOR A GLIPS ye c OT SHIELD Yap LEAD — Bec fac TRANSISTOR LEAD CONFIGURATIONS The wiring diagram shows clearly the layout of components and the small amount of wiring necessary to construct the crystal Set according to circuit A, Either the diode or transistor can be used, the other hand, will improve the selectivity at the expense of signal strength. The tapping which gives the best balance, in any particular situation, between selectivity and sensitivity is the one which should be used. The results just discussed will Vary with the length of the aerial, Gen- crally speaking, a long acrial will have to be connected to a tapping close to the earthed end while a short aerial will connect toward the “hot” end. Location may also influence the final result. The optimum tapping for the diode is also a compromise between maximum signal with reduced selectivity and maximum selectivity with reduced signal. Tapping the diode across a major portion of the winding is like placing a resistor across the coil, damping it, and reducing the selectivity. The results obtained from the crystal set are good providing that you are in a reasonably strong signal area and have a good earth and aerial. The fundamental limitation is that the only power available to drive the headphones is that which is collected by the aerial. It cannot amplify the incoming signals, it can only make them audible. 8ple id ning as a sim the headphones wh ing is connected in series Firstly, func in rectly to in wind! with the headphones, the collector connects di it is shown in two forms. form (dotted) the regeneratio: ui plitier, in the second Our final cire detector-am I you desire to build just the crystal set, then you can purchase one of the diodes suggested in circuit (A). Tum to the latter part of article, go right ahead and construct it from the details given, But, if you take our advice, you will invest in a transistor of the type called for in circuit (Cy, By using only two leads of the device, it will be possible to make the crystal set. but you will also be able to use it for larger sets. But tinstly, whatis this transistor?Similar to Diodes The very first transistors were similar to the point contact diode referred to earlier, except that there were two wires contacting the wafer of N-type germanium instead of one. Nowadays, “point contact” transistors have given place to more sophisticated types such as the “junction” transistor. This is basically a thin wafer of N-type germanium sandwiched between two regions of P-type material, together forming the PNP transistor. Suitable leads are connected to the three regions and the unit is sealed into a metal or glass envelope. When wired into circuit, one junction is normally “biased” in the forward direction which results in a low resistance to current flow, while the other junction is biased in the reverse direction, resulting in a high resistance to current flow. Because the N region is thin, charges or “current carriers” so-called, flowing into the N region, due to the forward bias, continue through to the region of the reverse biased junction. A high proportion of this current passes through to the high resistance P region, while the small remaining current flows out of the N region via its external connection. Because the input current is fed into a low resistance circuit and appears in a high resistance output circuit, the device effec tively exhibits power amplification. In all transistors, the outer electrode of the forward biased junction is called the “Emitter”, the centre electrode the “Base” and the reverse biased electrode the “Collector. In general, a transistor can be compared to a thermionic valve in that the base is similar to the grid of the valve which serves to control the flow of electrons through the unit. The emitter and the cathode of the valve both provide the source of current carriers; the collector and the plate of the valve are similar, in that they are both normally part of the output circuit. The transistor’s input and output impedance, along with other char- acteristics, is governed by the method or configuration in which it is used, somewhat similar to that of the valve, In each case. one electrode is common to both input and output circuits and is referred to as being either grounded or common. The “common base” configuration is analsgous of a valve when used as a grounded grid amplifier and has the characteristics of low input impedance and high output impedance, So used, a transistor has con- siderable voltage amplification and approximately unity current amplification, resulting in moderate power amplification. The recotnised symbol for the current amplification in the common base configuration is “Alpha” and the frequeney at which the current amplification talls to 0.707 times, or by 3dB, its value at Ke, is Known as the “Alpha Cut-Off Frequency” . This ty governed by the transistor design, 10TUNING CAPACITOR 1.5 TO 9 VOLTS —, REGENERATION TUNED WINDING WINDING This slightly more complex diagram shows the wiring connections re- quired to con- struct circuit C, No battery on/- off switch = has been shown. We used an alligator clip for connection to one terminal but any type of switch could be used. The common collector configuration is analogous of a valve used as a cathode follower and possessing similar impedance characteristics, in that the input impedance is high and the output impedance is low. This arrangement iy only used in special applications, mainly serving as an impedance matching device, Although the voltage amplification is hear unity, there iy a considerable current amplification which accounts for a moderate power amplification. The tinal method of operation is that of “common emitter” and is similar to a common cathode circuit. In this contiguration both input and output impedances could be considered as being medium. A high amplification in both voltage and current are obtained, resulting in a Power amplification higher than the to previous configurations, llThe symbol used for the current amplification in common emitter is “Beta” and the upper frequency limit is the “Beta Cut-Off Frequency". This is approximately one-tenth that of the common base or alpha cutet? irequeney The common emitter configuration is generally employed in conventional circuit applications but, whichever is used, the maximum ratings of oils: tor voltage, current and operating temperature must not be exeorded: AL lug temperature the collector leakage current can inerease to the extent where “thermal runaway” will occur. This comes about when ar increase in temperature leads to sufficient rise in leakage current to «au-e sull further rive in temperature, and to a degree where the process Keeps on going, Thermal ranaway is thus the transistor’s cumulative process of self destruction in order to minitnise the chances of this occuring it is always desirable to previde some means whereby a change in base to emitter voltage will maintain the collector current within acceptable limits for a reasonable range in operating temperature. This is referred to as bias stabilisation and shouid receive due attention Our transistor can be used in the first eizcuit (A) by ignoring the collector lead and using just the base and emitter leads, But we need not stop here. From circuit B it will be seen that an attempt hay been made to use the collector in conjunction with a smali battery to obtain an amplified version of the detected signal. The signals obtained in our first attempt were strong but distorted, The addition of a resistor/capacitor network in series with the base lead across which the audio could develop improved things somewhat. But even so, with this circuit it was apparent that the transistor, although functioning effectively as a detector was not operating under optimum conditions for audio ampiitication We therefore set about to devise a circuit in which the base and emitter, electrodes could function as a detector and also, along with the collector, provide efficient audio amplitication, Forward Bias This involved the provision of a forward bias network and bias stabili- sation as can be seen in circuit C. A voltage divider across the battery consisting of a47K ohm and 2.2 meg. resistor enable the base-emitter Junction to be slightly forward biased, while the base-vollector junction is reversed biased, A form of biay stabilisation is provided by the use of an emitter Fesistor across which portion of the supply voltage is developed. If the collector current increases above the quiescent point, the voltage drop across the resistor will increase, reducing the effective base-emitter potential 12This circuit constitutes an extremely good “amplified crystal set” and ts well worth those extra few shillings. The high sensitivity achieved wit'> this set enables a coil tapping nearer to the earthed end to be used for both aerial and base connection, resulting in improved selectivity. However, in order to obtain a still further improvement in selectivity, we recommend that the final step be taken in the addition of a regeneration winding and control. As before, the signal is tuned, detected and amplified. But the added requirement of the transistor is to amplify the incoming radio frequency signals sufficiently to enable a controlled portion of this sign.1 to be coupled in such a manner as to produce positive feedback. This will be seen, in the dotted portion of circuit C, in that the collec lor load now consists of a pair of headphones in series with an untuned winding. which is positioned at the earthed end of the tuned winding. The headphones provide the load for the audio frequency signal as before and are bypassed to radio frequencies while the regeneration winding is the load for the radio frequency signals. It will be appreciated that the polarity of this winding is of major importance, in that the feedback signal must assist the received signal to the extent of being able to produce an audible oscillation in the headphones as the control is advanced, However, the amount of regeneration is vital when actually listening. Too little, and the signals may not be separated sufficiently or foud enough; too much and the detector will commence to oscillate. We then have two frequencies, the incoming signal and that of the Oscillating detector. ‘These produce a hotorodyne note which appears as a continuous whistle along with the required signal. Optimum performance is normally obtained with the detector adjusted just short of active oscillation. The transistor used in all the circuits, including the elementary crystal set arrangement, was a 2N370, which has a fourth lead interposed bet- ween the base and collector leads. It serves as a shield in special appli- cations but you can please yourself whether you connect it to the emitter or leave it disconnected as we have done, A locally made equivalent of the above is type 2N1636, which has the more conventional three leads, Other Types Similar types are 2N371, 2N372, 2N373, OC170, OCI71. These have an alpha cut off frequency of 30 megacycles and higher, When used in the common emitter configuration the cut off will be much lower than this, but still adequate for present requirements. By the way, the above types of transistor were recommended for the Simple All-wave Two Transistor Set described in the June 1960 issue, along with data on coils operating up to 20 megacycles. This could open the way to further development of the circuit after the Tegencrative set, if you want to continue your experiments, 13Other transistor types having a lower cut off frequency and recommen- ded in previous broadcast band regenerative receivers could also be used in the accompanied circuits. These include types OC44 and OC45, The tuning capacitor can be of almost any type, providing that it has a maximum capacitane of about .0004 mfd (micro-farad). Almost any junk box will contain at least one of these, be it either a single or a double section ganged type either of which will suit. If the latter is used, only one tuned circuit is involved. Our capacitor consists of about 12 plates held rigidly in a metal frame by insulating supports and a second set of about 13 plates which can be rotated so that the two sets may be interleaved to obtain the desired capacitance. Make sure, by the way, that the plates do not touch as the spindle is rotated. Many of the large capacitors of the type used in our set have a 3/8in diameter shaft intended to fit the many standard dials used with larger sets. As most instrument knobs available are designed for in diameter shafts, it will be necessary to use a reduction shaft which itself has a Yain spindle, but fits over the 3/8in shaft of the capacitor. Both the very early types and the latest miniature type have “in diameter shafts and will not require an extension shaft. All later-type capacitors have provided with them a set of mounting feet which allow them to be attached to the baseboard. Older types may lack this feature and a special bracket will need to be made from a scrap of aluminium. Coil Details To make the coil, you will need a coil former and a length of enamelled copper wire. The former can have a diameter between [in to 244in and this can be purchased in the form of a bakelite or cardboard tube or made from stiff cardboard. Our coil was wound on a Vain former, using 24 B and S enamelled copper wire, but a few gauges either Way will not alter things greatly. What will alter things is the coil diameter in that the number of tum: will have to be adjusted to give the same inductance tor different dia- meters, A small diameter coil will require propertionately more turns than a large diameter one in order to have the same inductance. Therefore we have included a table giving details for three likely coil diameters. The regeneration Winding included in this table will be used for the regenerative detector and can be either wound at this stage or left until you require it The following remarks on cou winding should assist those readers who have not ay vet constructed a coil 14Firstly, to anchor the wire to the former at the start, drill two small holes toward one end about %in apart. Then wind one end of the wire through the holes a couple of times, allowing about 6in of free lead for Connecting into circuit, Proceed to wind until it is required to provide a tapping as given in the table. Before laying this turn, place a wooden matchstick along the former and pass this turn over it. Wind on more turns, passing the wire under the matchstick until the next tapping point at which the wire again passes over the matchstick, Continue in this manner until the total number of tums have been wound in accordance with the table. Drill two more holes in the former to anchor this end and again allow 6in of wire for connection into circuit. Next, push a second matchstick alongside the first under the raised turns, then push the two matches apart by about ‘in. These wires will now be clear of the remaining turns, enabling the enamel to be scraped away without damaging the adjacent wire. The regeneration winding is wound in the same direction and the ends anchored similar to those above. With regard to headphones, the high resistance types of between say 2,000 and 4,000 ohms are most suited for our sets, particularly the crystal set. Next best in terms of performance are the telatively low impedance ex-disposals type, having a resistance of several hundred ohms. The ex-disposal dynamic type headphones, the type fitted with ear- muffs and of about 45 ohms resistance, aré quite unsuitable for these circuits, As an alternative to purchasing a set of headphones, one of the hearing aid type carpieces could be used. There are two types available, the low impedance magnetic, which is unsuitable for our circuits, and the crystal type, which can be used, though with some loss in performance. As with alt crystal devices, there is no path through which a direct current can flow in order to fulfil the requirements of the associated circuitry. We therefore suggest that a resistor of say 15,000 ohms be connected across the phone terminals. The carpiece connects across this resistor, In series with a 0} capacitor. The supply used in the latter circuits could be cither a single 1,5-volt cell or a battery of any voltage up to 9 volts. There is surprisingly little difference in performance with large variations in supply voltage, so you need not spend extra money if a couple of torch cells are available. Remember that the positive battery terminal is the one to be earthed when using PNP transistors. A reversal of the supply terminals could Tesult in permanent damage to your transistor, 15Care should be taken that excessive heat is not applied to the transistor by the soldering iron. The suggested idea is to hold the leal with e pair of long-nose pliers until the joint has cooled, With the aid of the Wiring diagrams there should be no difficulty in constructing these sets. There are no problems with layout except Possibly the need to allow some space between the coil und the tuning capacitor, With the regenerative receiver, optimum performance is normally ob- tained with the regeneration control adjusted just short of active oscillation and the actual position of the control will vary from station to station. Some adjustment to the placement and number of tums of the feedback winding is permissible if you desire to experiment, It is hoped that these circuits provide interesting hours during con- struction, followed by more hours of enjoyable listening. COIL WINDING DATA Tuned Winding Regeneration Turns per Winding Diameter Length* Turns tap Turns 1%4in 130 10 21 2in 90 ? Min a) 6 12 *Based on 24SWG wire. CRYSTAL SET USES SELECTOR SWITCH This novel crystal set uses a switch to tune various stations in place of the usual variable capacitor. Instead of tiddling with a knob to select the Station, the flick of a switch tunes the station in “spot on™ every time, This crystal set is capable of driving a pair of headphones in the normal way. If the reader wishes to incorporate an amplifier, a redistor of 10K Or more would be substituted for the phones. The earthed side of the resistor would connect to the “earthy” input of the amplifier, while the other end of the resistor would go to the amplifier’s “live” input connection. Apart from the “switch-tuned” aspect of this set, another novel feature is incorporated. This is the “voltage doubler’ detector, which is claimed to have twice the output of a normal detector using only one diode in series with the headphones, Although the two diodes are specified as 1N34s on the circuit diagram, they may be almost any of the common type of germanium diode, for example: 0A91L, 0A90. OA8S. 0A81, OA80, 0479, OAS, etc, The values of the two capacitors, however, should not be changed, 16” FREQUENCY (KH) 4 CAPACITANCE (pF) cE ge at eg = The coil used in this set may be any coil of a type designed for use from 500KHz to 1600KHz. It may be a commercial type, or may be home- made. Coil details are as follows: “Coil wound on 2-inch diameter former. 80 tum 22SWG wire, close wound and tapped every 5 turns. Approximately 7 taps required commencing from earthy end.” Experimenting with the different taps will give the best position of the aerial and “‘active” lines, Start by placing the aerial on the 2nd tap and the active on the 4th tap from earthy end. This should give results. Then 17moving one or the other to a different tap and comparing loudness will help to determine the best position, This setting up would probably best be done using a normel tuning condenser. The switch used will depend on the number of stations required. An ordinary rotary switch (as shown in the circuit diagram) would be the easiest to use. It would need to have an extra pole and an “off” position only if an amplifier was incorporated, as there is nothing to tum off in a crystal set The ereatest problem in a set of this tyne is to determine the amount of capacitance to be uyed to select the station, Besides the obvious method of a large number of capacitors being substituted by trial and error until the correct one iy found, some method of accurately determining the capacitor ss required, One method requires the use of a capacitance bridge. An ordinary 10-415-pl tuning condenser is connected in parallel with either a 15p! Capacitor or « 30ph trimmer set at its middle capacitance. This iy substituted in the circuit for the switching bank, A station is then tuned (ike a normal crystal set) and the amount of capacitance is read on a capacitance bridge, Thiy reading should be of the tuning condenser alone, taken out of circuit. A fixed capacitor of this value (or one very close to it) is put in parallel with the 30p! trimmer and soldered into the circuit Another method is to ese the graph herewith, which has been worked out for a broadcast band coil and a variable capacitor of LO-415pb. Start by adjusting the coil (adding or removing turns from the switched end) until the lowest frequency station in your area can be tuned with the predicted value of capacitance, Other stations should be received with about the predicted values of capacitance. To take an example in reading the value from the graph, London has a frequency of 93017. Looking at the graph, we see that 930 lies some- where between 126 and 101, As the graph is not a linear function, (Le. the distance between cach unit of capacitance is not a constant), iti: necessary to take an educated guess at where the exact figure lies. In this case, 120ph would be close enough. As we are using a 30pF trimmer across this, we must allow tor it, by subtracting 1SpF (Le. halt the value of the trimmer) trom the value we read. So to tune Radio 104, we would require approximately LO5pF in parallel with a 30pE trimmer. Setting up now becomes a simple matter of switching the required station in, then adjusting the trimmer for maximum gain. Subsequent tunings will then only require the switching in. 18TYPICAL CRYSTAL SET The construction and wiring of the receiver shoutd be fairly obvious from the photographs and wiring diagram. The components are moun- ted on a piece of plywood some 6!3in \ Sin, to which is nailed a wooden front panel approximately 8in x 6in. Two terminals on the front panel are used to allow the aerial and earth Jead-in wires to be connevted easily. The aerial should be as long and as high as is practical. and should preferably be a length of 7 x 0.022in copper “earth” wire. It must be insulated trom tts supports, and this may be done with “ege™ type insulators of plastic or porcelain, The earth may be connected to the house water-pipe near where it leaves the ground, or it this is not practical, it may be a connection to a yard or so of galvanised pipe driven into fairly damp ground. Don't connect to a gus pipe, though, for this is frowned upon by the authorities, The tuning capacitor need not be anew one. A tuning gang salvaged from an old radio set may be pressed into service providing it is still working satisfactorily. Make sure that none of the moving plates touch the fixed plates, and connect to only one set of fixed plates if the unit happens to be a multisection or “gang” capacitor The shaft of the capacitor is taken through 2 hole in the front panel and fitted with a large knob. as -an he seen in the photograph. A dial scale pasted on the front panel can then be marked with the station names when the set is comple ted. The table in the wiring diagram gives cuil winding details for those who would like to wind their own, The former may be of plain or waxed cardboard, or even of wood. To muke the taps, wind the appropriate tums over a piece of match-stick, The raised wire at each tap can then he scraped free of enamel and soldered to when required. If desired, of Course. a commercial coil may be used in place of the home-wound one. The most suitable type Would be a high-gain trans- Istor acrial coil, such as that used tor our “Three Band Transistor Fight” receiver. Connect aerial, curth, und the two sets of capacitor plates to the coi] exactly as originally intended. using the “baw” tapping for the detector in the crystal set The germanium diode may be almost any of the common types, such as the OAY]. OAYD, OASS, OA8RT, OASO, OA79, OAS, GEX3S, GEX34 or GEX33. If readers have an old “cats-whivker” detector they could ry It. but results generally will not be as good ay with one of the modern diodes. For this particular application, it does not matter which way round the diode is connected into the circuit The 0.00 1ul capacitor may or may not bave much effect. depending upon the type of earphones ued. Since it will only cost a few pence, 19Coll wound on 2 meh diameter former 80 turns 228 & S wie, close wound 3nd 1 Crery 5 teens, Apgroxemalely even taps. recenred conmene ng fhe IRS eae Uy 664 HEADPHONE od 41501 TUNING CAPACITOR Using this wiring diagram and the circuit shown in the theory erticle, it should be a simple matter to build up the receiver even if you hove never wired up a circuit before. it may as well be put in. Low impedance earphones are not suitable for this type of receiver. For best results, use high impedance 1000-4000 ohm units. Crystal earpieces are in general rather too insensitive, despite their high im- pedance, although they may prove satisfactory in strong signal areas. ‘The earphones are connected to a jackplug, which plugs into a jack mounted on the front panel of the set. ‘There is no need for an on-off switch, for there is nothing to tum on and off, Simply connect up the aerial and earth, plug in the earphones, and you should be able to tune in to one or more stations, provided you are not further from them than about 15-20 miles. How many stations you will actually be able to receive without mutual interfere will depend on relative strengths at the listening site, some sites being much more favourable for crystal sets than others. 20A VHF CRYSTAL SET FOR SHORT WAVES. Shown below is the circuit for a relatively simple crystal set—but it is a crystal set with a difference. Unlike normal crystal sets, which are only able to receive on the broadcast band (530-1600KHz), this set is able to receive a small portion of the VHF band (Very High Frequency). We live about five miles from the transmitting mast of ABS channel 2 (63-70MHz), and in this location output from the crystal set is quite sufficient to drive a pair of high impedance headphones. When used with a simple amplifier, the output is quite remarkable. The design makes use of the “slope detection” method of demodulating an FM (or Frequency Modulation) signal. All TV sound is broadcast as FM. Also, an AM (or Amplitude Modulation) signal can be detected, in the same way as a normal crystal set. The aerial used was a single piece of wire cut to resonant length. Alternatively, we simply connected the set toa TV antenna, (Our correspondents do not say how this was done, but we imagine that it was across the 120pF capacitor, ie, the aerial and earth terminals.) While we do not know if it is possible, we should imagine that by some experimentation this simple set could be made to cover possibly a couple of TV channels, and maybe the 52MHz amateur band. This may be possible by varying the values of capacitors. Practically any small signal germanium diode could be used for the detector. AERIAL Us ETURNS 16 @AUGE B 8 $ ON FORMER I.1/14" DIA, SPACED TO 1-3/8" LONG U2 48 TURNS 30 GAUGE HAS ON 5/14" FORMER, CLOSE WOUND In Gt. Britain for L1 use 18 S.l!.G. for L2 use 32 S.W.G. 21A TWO-TRANSISTOR, REFLEX BROADCAST RECEIVER A two transistor reflex broadcast receiver is the subject of our feature. This circuit, as far as I can ascertain, includes certain features that are original, I have chosen to call it the “Transporta Two”, as it is truly transportable, giving a most creditable performance at the bedside or on the beach. Its volume is more than adequate and inter-station inter- ference is at a very low level in the background. At my location, stations at the top end of the band are received rather weakly. The circuit was designed around a two-stage RC coupled amplifier possessing high gain and wide band width. Use of alloy diffused AF IIS transistors. together with iow loads, assures sufficient bandwith to amplify all frequencies within the broadcast band to the same degree as at Al. Those wishing to use transistors other than these must be pre- pared to experiment Ti iy operated at approvimately 0.5mA, which might seem to be un- duly high at such alow power level. but is necessary in order to obtain sufficient Beta. T2 draws approximately (.3mA and little improvement is to be gained by operating it at a higher current level. The total drain should not amount to more than approximately 0.9m, so battery life should be quite lone: Bias stability is not the hest. but good enough for such an application, unless of course the set is to be operated in a laundry or some such place. Those who decide to operate the receiver from a source higher than the specified 3V. would be well advised to re-design the bias network alony more conservative line. A few words regarding the 0. Jul interstage coupling capacitors: Crystal earpivces are notoriously inefficient at low frequencies, but those that are sufficiently puserful cnowzh to be heard produce an annoying buzz. Titay considered that the Tinal result isa bit “tiny” these may be in- creased to 0. 22a] At AD, the circuit operates us a two-stage, RC coupled, common emitter amplifier, with its inpuc derived from the demodulator, and its output taken across the 4.7K resistor. ACRE, the input transistor is connected sa common collector, the collector being effectively maintained at chassis potential by the O2UP capacitor The toad tor 121s provided by the 2.SmIl choke, the demodulatin, network. Consisting of the OAT9 diode, 0S and O1ul capacitors, the 27K resistor, and the input impedance of TI. The 27K and 47K resistors forward bias the diode slighty, thus wiving a higher detection efficiency, the result being equivalent to that obtained from a voltage doubler, The value of the coupling eapacitor is chosen to give a small degree of negative feedback ath frequencies to improve the stability, By directly coupling the diode to the base of T2, one coupline component is saved and a small amount of AGg is gained, 22ZxAF LDN 47K CRYSTAL EARPIECE Whilst higher gain could be achieved at RE by operating T2 in com- mon emitter, the circuit would then be potentially unstable due to the feeding back. in phase, of high frequency components through the de- modulating network to the base of TI. By operating T2 in common collector, any high frequency component is fed back to TI out of phase, and the problem of instability is eliminated. Also, with T2 operated in this configuration, there is good isolation between the input and output at RV. Admittedly, its gain is then restricted to approximately 10dB, but, overall, sufficient gain is available. No volume control is provided as sufficient control over this can be exercised due to the directional characteristic of the rod aerial, and the limited AGC present. The selectivity is adequate without resort to regeneration, but sensitivity is low ‘The aerial coil is wound on a piece of ferrite rod of approximately 2'4in in length. The number of turns on the primary is dependent on the tuning capacitor used, with 10 turns on the secondary a good compromise between sensitivity and selectivity. Those living in a good reception area might be able to reduce this number of turns, but do not expect any spectacular increase in selectivity by doing so. binally, just how small the set may be built is up to individual ingenuity. A SIMPLE TRANSISTOR SET For beginners we are presenting another version of the popular single stage regenerative recviver. Using a relatively inexpensive transistor it has been delibvrately designed to use as many * parts as possible, und should appeal particularly to younger readers on a limited budget. In spite of this. it is an excellent performer. Along with the crystal set, the simple regenerative receiver has always provided a good starting point for the beginner. Even in the days of valves, many a schoolboy chose this type of set for his first venture into 23the wonders of radio. With the advent of transistors, the job has been made a good deal simpler and cheaper. There is nothing new about this circuit, and we have described a number of similar sets in the past. However, these usually incorporated modern techniques and components, such as coils wound on ferrite rods or toroids, midget tuning capacitors, crystal carpieces, and so on. PHONES SWITCH CS OC 44 etc A SIMPLE ONE TRANSISTOR SET = < w Although these components contribute towards smaller overall size and, sometimes, greater efficiency, they can also contribute to the dis- couragement of prospective beginners by their sheer strangeness and expense. We have therefore, in this set, attempted to preserve the early “breadboard” layout and components more familiar to constructors of the classic crystal set, In fact, if you already have a crystal set it should be quite a simple matter to convert it to this present set. You will already have the 24— necessary tuning capacitor, coil former and headphones, and all that will be required is a few resistors, capacitors, a short length of coil winding wire, the transistor and a battery. Before describing the actual construction, a few words about the purpose of the main components may assist the reader to form a picture of how the set functions. The tuned circuit, consisting of a coil and variable capacitor, enables us to select the desired station and attenuate stations on other frequencies. In other words, to “tune in” the station we want. The signal developed across this coil/capacitor combination is fed via a suitable tapping on the coil, to the transistor base-emitter circuit. The transistor performs three functions, the first being detection This is performed by the base and emitter junction acting as a diode and is the process of extracting the audio frequency signal (modulated carrier wave). An audio signal voltage is therefore developed across the 47K resistor, The second function is to amplify this signal, To do this the transistor performs as a common emitter audio amplifier with the signal injected at the base and a pair of headphones providing the collector load. The voltage divider formed across the battery by the 47K detector load and the 2.2Meg resistors, together with the 220 ohm emitter resistor pro- vides the necessary bias stabilisation for the transistor. RF Amplification The third function is to amplify the incoming radio frequency signals. Because the headphones are bypassed for radio frequency, the load will be provided by the small winding beside the main tuned winding. Providing that this amplified RF energy is coupled back into the tuned winding in phase with the received signal, positive feedback or ‘regen- eration’ is produced. When correctly adjusted, this amplified RF energy can be usefully employed in improving the efficiency of the tuned circuit and restoring the energy lost during detection. It is not unusual for the amplification from regeneration to be almost as great as that obtained by adding another transistor, while the selectivity can be better than would result if an extra tuned circuit were included. The amount of regeneration is vital, however. Too little and the per- formance may not be boosted sufficiently; too much and the receiver will commence to oscillate or generate a signal of its own accord. We then have two signals, the incoming signat and that of the oscillating detector. These produce a heterodyne note which appears as a contin- uous whistle, mixed up with the required signal. Optimum performance is normally obtained with the regeneration adjusted to just short of active oscillation. 26ly in this drawing lear wiring diagram. | | Sy cl | to provide a REGENERATION g= CONTROL stmt IN fi - g Chie — ff eS REGENERATION WINDING a 7 - i TUNIN CAPACITOR 4 ag ti ee / — | | a The 10K potentiometer shunted across the feedback winding provides a means to control the regeneration. Minimam Tegeneration occurs when the moving arm of the potentiometer carries the collector directly to the end of the winding connected to the phones. Maximum Tegeneration Occurs at the other end of the winding. In small sets this control can be used as a volume control because reducing feedback reduces the efficiency of the circuit and hence the yolume. When a number of audio stages are employed it is usually des- irable to have a separate volume contre! 26So much then, for clementary theory, which we hope may help the reader to understand something of how the set works. Now let us, consider some of the more practical aspects: the types of components, method of construction, ete. Almost any transistor will detect radio frequency signals with reason- able efficiency and amplify the resulting audio trequeney components. But to enable smooth and reliable revencration while tuning across the entire broadcast band a transistor must be chosen which is capable of amplifying signals up to at least 1.5 megacycles We have used an OC44, but listed below are a number of ty pes which have also been recommended on previous occasions: OC4S, ~N218, 2N252, 2N308 and SPTIOS, Any of these shoul be pertectly satis- factory. Variable capacitors come i many phisical shapes and sizes, but the main requisite is that the one selected should have a maximium capacity of 350-480 picro-farads «00035-60045 midi. Almost any junk box will contain at least one of these. ne tt either a single or a double section “ganged” type. either of which will aiffice. In the latter case, one section will remain unused The tuning capacitor appropriate for the job will consist ef one set of about 12 parallel plates held rigidly in a metal frame by insulating supports, and a second set of about 13 plates, mounted on a shaft which can be rotated so that the two sets of plates may be interleaved to any desired capacity. [he sets of plates are electrically insulated from each other and must remain so throughout the entire tuning range. Most large tuning capacitors. of the type used in our Teceiver, have a 3/8in diameter shaft intended to fit the standard dials used in larger sets. Therefore, in some circumstances, it will be nec essary to use a 3/8in to “4in reduction shaft to enable a knob to be attached, Virtually all tuning capacitors made in recent years are provided with mounting brackets. However, some very old ones may lack this feature, in which case it may be necessary to make a suitable bracket from a scrap of aluminium, The coil is home-made. It consists of a tuned winding, which must be tapped, and a regeneration winding. A former is required, having a diameter between, say, 114 to 2'%inches. This need be nothing more than a piece of carddoard tubing which can be readily purchased, or, alternatively, quite a good one can be made from ordinary cardboard by pasting it together. According to the diameter of the former used, so the number of turns will have to be adjusted in order to produce a coil with the same induc- tance as the original. The accompanying table gives the number of turns required for several likely former diameters. together with the number of turns per tap, length of winding. and turns for the regeneration wind- ing. The latter may require slight modification as a result of “on the air” experiments. 2?The gauge of winding wire used is not critical and must be goverened by what is available locally. We have used 24 B&S gauge and the details given will not alter greatly for a few gauges either side of this. For the benefit of those readers who have not as yet constructed a coil, some details outlining the procedure which we followed will be of considerable advantage. Firstly, to anchor the wire to the former at the start of each winding we drilled two small holes about sin apart, through which the wire was threaded a number of times, remembering to leave about 6in of wire free for terminating. We then proceeded to close-wind five tums, after which a wooden matchstick was placed along the former and the sixth turn was passed over the top of this. Five more tums were wound under the match- stick and the twelfth turn passed over the top. This was continued until the final turn was anchored in the same manner as that detailed at the start of the winding. The next job was to push a second matchstick in alongside the first, then push the two apart by about ‘in. By carefully removing the enamet from the wires passing over the matchsticks we were able to make connection to these taps with alligator clips. The feedback winding was wound starting about 1/16in from the bottom or earthy end of the main tapped winding. This consisted of 12 turns of the same gauge wire wound in the same direction. Both ends were anchored to the former in the manner described above and sufficient wire allowed for termination on the regeneration potentio- meter. Resistors Resistor values are not critical, and ordinary half-watt types. with a tolerance of 20 percent are used. Values given are from the “preferred value” range (e.g., 47K) and those readers wishing to salvage resistors from oid receivers will have to set about looking for simitar values but under the old system (e.g., 50K) and therefore different colour bands will be encountered. ‘The two fixed capacitors may have values anywhere between about .001 and .002 mfd. (1000 to 2000 picrofarads). The lowest voltage rating available will be quite suitable. With regard to headphones, undoubtedly the best results will be ob- tained from the standard high impedance types. This term embraces those which have a DC resistance of about 200 to 4000 ohms and an impedance of about 7000 to 20,000 ohms, depending upon their construction, Down the scale somewhat in terms of performance are the so-called low impedance ex-disposals headphones which are often cheaper to buy. These have a DC resistance of little more than 100 ohms and an impedance of several hundred ohms to AC. 28Ex-disposals dynamic headphones, the type used with earmuffs and with an impedance of about 50 ohms, are not suitable for this set. Although we have used and recommended a 4.5 volt battery, any supply, from a single 1,5 volt cell to a 9 volt battery will work, and is worth using should you already have one on hand. The change in per- formance is almost imperceptible between 4.5 and 9 volt operation. The potentioneter used for generation control was an old carbon type. Should it be necessary to purchase this part new it can be obtained with an ON/OFF switch attached to the rear, and this will eliminate the need for a separate switch. As it was, we had this pot on hand and therefore elected to use a separate toggle switch for ON/ON facilities. Spring-loaded terminals have been used for earth, aerial and head- phones, Should your phones be fitted with a standard phone plug {tip and sleeve type) it will be just as easy to install a matching socket (phone jack) on the panel instead of a pair of terminals. For the baseboard we used a piece of ’2in plywood measuring approx- imately 8% x 6%4inches. The front panel was ‘sin ply measuring approximately 9 x 6 inches. Both pieces were planed square and then given a coat of varnish stain to improve the overall appearance. The general layout of both the base and panel can be seen clearly from the drawing and photographs. We drilled the appropriate holes in the panel and attached the components to the base, using 3/8in x No.4 wood screws. We screwed the coil to the chassis by making a pair of diametrically opposed saw cuts, each 3/8in long and about ‘in from the end of the former. A piece of scrap metal 3/8in wide and 2'/in long, with a hole through the centre, is pushed through the slots. The coil is then mounted on the baseboard by a single wood screw. An eight-lug tagstrip screwed to the base supports most of the wiring and small components, including the transistor. A major portion of the wiring was done using tinned copper wire, which was first cut to length then covered with spaghetti. The physical form we used is only a suggestion and if you have ideas about making it in a box or cabinet which you already have, there is no reason why you should not do so. The coil is the only component which is critical with regard to mounting position. It should not be placed hard against the frame ‘of the tuning capacitor or any other metal surface. Having completed the set and connected an earth and some kind of aerial for testing purposes, the stage has been reached at which you are about to switch on. This is a good time to have just that final check that both the transistor and battery have been connected in the correct manner. If incorrect, there is a good chance that you will net have ancther opportunity —at least, not using the same transistor. 29Atier itching on. a quick tune across the band and an inerease in Uv unountof tevdback Py udvancing the regeneration control should he aTiiceit ts verity that the set 1s operating and that positive feedback tyovcurring, [hus will he sigmined by heterodyne oscillation (whistles) aN Sou TUNG across & station. The conteet witing tor the regeneration winding and control to ensure both positive jesdbeck amd a clucksise rotation for increased feed- back. wih oe assured by closely following the wiring diagram given. Butt soins difficulty Shoid arise and regeneration does not occur, try the resetver with the winding connected both ways, In this way the marked difference between the correct and incorrect connection will remove ny doubt which may exist Should Hie ser still tad to wseillate, it would signify insufficient turns | on the revenvrauon sanding. a faulty transistor or flat battery, assuming that the Headphones are Kuown to be okuy and all wiry is correct. COLLECTOR BASE EMITTER Use this diagram to identity your transistor leads. The collector is the marked lead in each case, or it may simply be spaced trom the other two. Vor the benefit of readers in country areas, who may be a considerable distance for a broadeast station, we would suggest that they provide themselves with a reasonably efficient aerial, The simplest form which the aerial can take is that of the “Inverted L™. or, better still, an almost vertical wire, the height being the impor- tant factor. This will be governed by existing trees, masts, and chim- neys (where available}. Copper wire, thick enough to support itself in the wind. can be attached to some high point via an insulator and halyard, the other end being attached ina similar manner to, or near, the house. A lead-in wire, attached to this end. connects to the receiver aerial terminal An excellent “earth” is obtained by connection to a water-supply pipe buried in the ground. or, alternatively, a length of waterpipe driven into the ground. 30With a small regeneration set such as this, in which the aerial is directly coupled to the tuned circuit, there is an optimum position for both the aerial and transistor base to tap into the coil. These must be determined by experiment to obtain a compromise between sensitivity and selectivity. In general, when using a long aerial, you will get best results by tapping it down toward the earthy end of the coil. A short aerial will give better performance if moved toward the top. The transistor base will be tapped toward the earthy end, because of the low input impedance of this device, as mentioned earlier. There is no reason why both aerial and transistor base clips should not be connected to the same tap. Optimum performance is normally obtained with the regeneration control adjusted just short of active oscillation and the actual position of the control will vary from station to station. Some adjustment of the number of turns and placement of the feedback winding is per- missible if you want to experiment. Increasing the number of turns or reducing the space between the re- generation winding and the tuned winding will cause regeneration to occur when the control is close to its minimum position. Either reducing the number of turns, or increasing the space between the two windings, will require the control to be advanced well toward maximum. Incidentally, it is not necessary to have any special licences to carry out experiments with receivers. The Broadcast Listeners’ Licence, which covers other receivers in the same house, also covers any set with which you may wish to experiment. COIL WINDING DATA TUNED WINDING eee een TLON Turns WINDING Diam. Length* — Turns_per tap Turns win 2.75in 130 10 21 2in 1.9in 90 7 15 2hin ——‘1.6in 75 6 12 Of the figures quoted we used those given for the 2%inch former. *Based on 24 SWG gauge wire. PARTS LIST 1 Tuning capacitor about 400pF max. 1 Coil former, from 1% to 2%in dia. (see text) Enamelled winding wire 24 SWG approx. (see text) 1 Transistor OC44, 2N218, SFT 108, etc. (see text) 1 Potentiometer 10,000 ohms 1 Pair headphones, perferably high impedance 14.5 volt battery 1 ON/ON switch if required (see text) 2.0015 mfd capacitors 1 Low voltage electrolytic capacitor, 4 to 25 mfd. ot