Child and Adolescent Development

Havigurst’s Developmental Task Theory

– Infancy and Early Childhood

 About 0 to 6 years old
 Infants and preschoolers
 Tasks
– Learning to walk.
– Learning to take solid foods.
– Learning to talk.
– Learning to control the elimination of body wastes
– Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
– Forming concepts and learning language to describe social and physical reality
– Getting ready to read
– Middle and Late Childhood
 About 6 to 12 years old
 Grade schoolers
 Tasks
– Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
– Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism
– Learning to get along with age-mates
– Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
– Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
– Developing concepts necessary for everyday living
– Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values
– Achieving personal independence
– Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
– Adolescence
 About 12 to 18 or 20 years old
 High schoolers
 Tasks
– Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates of both sexes
– Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
– Accepting one’s physique and using the body effectively
– Achieving emotional independence of parents and other adults
– Preparing for marriage and family life
– Preparing for an economic career
– Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior;
developing an ideology
– Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior
– Early Adulthood
 About 20 to 40 years old
 Tasks
– Selecting a mate
– Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
– Learning to live with a marriage partner
 – Starting a family
– Rearing children
– Managing a home
– Getting started in an occupation
– Taking on civic responsibility
– Finding a congenial social group
– Middle Age
 About 40 to 60 years old
 Tasks
– Achieving adult civic and social responsibility
– Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living
– Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
– Developing adult leisure-time activities
– Relating oneself to one’s spouse as a person
– Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age
– Adjusting to aging parents.
– Late Adulthood
 About 60 years old to death
 Tasks
– Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and death
– Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
– Adjusting to death of a spouse
– Establishing an explicit affiliation with one’s age group
– Meeting social and civil obligations
– Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangement

Source:

 https://www.peoi.org/Courses/Coursesen/nursepractice/ch/ch6a.html
 http://faculty.mdc.edu

Further readings:

 Developmental tasks and education, R. J. Havighurst, 1948

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Theorist: Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939)

The Topographical Model of the Mind

Conscious mind

– Consists of all mental processes of which we are aware (Freud, 1915).

– Example: being thirsty at this moment and decide to get a drink.

Preconscious mind

– Contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently aware of, but which can easily be
brought to consciousness (Freud, 1924).
– Example: presently not thinking about mobile telephone number, but now it is mentioned one
can recall it with ease.

Unconscious mind

– Comprises mental processes that are inaccessible to consciousness but that influence
judgments, feelings or behavior (Wilson, 2002).
– Primary source of human behavior (Freud, 1915).

Source:
  https://www.simplypsychology.org/unconscious-mind.html#:~:text=The%20preconscious
%20contains%20thoughts%20and,consciousness%2C%20before%20the%20unconscious
%20mind.&text=According%20to%20Freud%20(1915)%2C,primary%20source%20of%20human
%20behavior.

Further readings:

 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sigmund-Freud/Psychoanalytic-theory
 https://www.verywellmind.com/the-conscious-and-unconscious-mind-2795946
 http://journalpsyche.org/understanding-the-human-mind/

Components of Human Personality

Id

– Most primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most basic urges.
– This part of the personality is entirely unconscious and serves as the source of all libidinal
energy.
– Comprises of two kinds of biological instincts
o Eros - life instinct
o Thanatos – death instinct

Ego

– The component of personality that is charged with dealing with reality and helps ensure that the
demands of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable.

Superego

– The part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and standards that we
acquire from our parents, family, and society at large.

Sources:

 https://www.simplypsychology.org/Sigmund-Freud.html
 https://www.verywellmind.com/freudian-theory-2795845

Further readings

 https://www.simplypsychology.org/psyche.html
 https://www.verywellmind.com/the-id-ego-and-superego-2795951

Psychosexual Stages

1. Oral
– Age: birth to 1 year
– Erogenous Zone: Mouth
2. Anal
 – Age: 1 to 3 years
– Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
3. Phallic
– Age: 3 to 6 years
– Erogenous Zone: Genitals
4. Latency
– Age: 6 to Puberty
– Libido inactive
5. Genital
– Age: Puberty to Death
– Maturing sexual interests

Sources:

 https://www.simplypsychology.org/psychosexual.html
 https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1936)

Theorist: Jean Piaget (1896 – 1980)

Three Components

 Schemas
– Building blocks of knowledge
– Includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge
 Adaptation Processes
o Assimilation
– Using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation
– Taking in new information or experiences and incorporate them into existing
ideas
o Accommodation
– Changing existing schema to deal with a new object or situation
o Equilibration
– The driving force that moves all development forward
 Stages
1. Sensorimotor (Birth to 2 years)
2. Preoperational (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years)
4. Formal Operational (12 years and above)

https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html

https://www.healthline.com/health/piaget-stages-of-development#other-terms

https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-2795457

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 yrs)

– So called because it is through the senses and motor abilities that infants gain a basic understanding
of the world around them.
– Substages
– Reflexes
– Birth to 1 month
– On this substage, the child understands the environment through inborn reflexes
(automatic response) such as sucking and looking
– Primary Circular Reactions
– 1 to 4 months
– On this substage, the child has coordinating sensation and new schemas.
– Secondary Circular Reactions
– 4 to 8 months
 – On this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to
intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment
– Coordination of Reactions
– 8 to 12 months
– On this substage, the child starts to show clear intentional actions
– Tertiary Circular Reactions
– 12 to 18 months
– Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentations
– Early Representational Thought
– 18 to 24 months
– Child begins to move towards understanding the world through mental operations
rather than purely through actions
– Object Permanence – the ability to know that an object exists eve if it is hidden

https://www.verywellmind.com/sensorimotor-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795462

https://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Object-Permanence.html

https://www.healthline.com/health/baby/sensorimotor-stage#substages

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bJrr-7K0bPM

Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 yrs)

– Children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed
egocentrism
– Key features
– Centration
– Ability to focus on only one aspect of a situation at a time
– Egocentrism
– Inability to see a situation from another person’s point of view
– Play (Parallel Play)
– Children play in the same room as other children but do not play next to each
other
– Speech is egocentric and they do not attain the social function of language or
rules
– Symbolic Representation
– The ability to make one thing – a word or an object – stand for something other
than itself
– Pretend or Symbolic Play
– Children pretend to be people they are not
– Animism
 – Children view inanimate objects, such as toys and teddy bears, to have human
feelings and intentions
– Artificialism
– Children believes that certain aspects of the environment are manufactured by
people
– Irreversibility
– Inability to reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point

https://www.simplypsychology.org/preoperational.html

https://www.verywellmind.com/preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795461

https://www.healthline.com/health/preoperational-stage#characteristics

Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 yrs)

– This stage marks the beginning of logical or operational thought

– Key features
 Conservation
– The understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though the
appearance changes
 Classification
– The ability to identify the properties of categories, to relate categories to one
another, and to use categorical information to solve problems.
 Seriation
– The ability to mentally arrange items along a quantifiable dimension, such as
height or weight
 Reversibility
 Decentration
 Sociocentricity

https://www.verywellmind.com/concrete-operational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795458

https://www.simplypsychology.org/concrete-operational.html

https://www.healthline.com/health/childrens-health/concrete-operational-stage#takeaway

Formal Operational Stage (12 yrs and above)

– Adolescents gain the ability to think in an abstract manner by manipulating ideas in their head,
without any dependence on concrete manipulation (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958).
– Key features
 Hypothetico Deductive Reasoning
– The ability to think scientifically through generating predictions, or hypotheses,
about the world to answer questions.
 Abstract Thought
  Problem Solving

https://www.verywellmind.com/formal-operational-stage-of-cognitive-development-2795459

https://www.simplypsychology.org/formal-operational.html
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

Theorist: Erik Erikson (1902 – 1994)

Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

– Personality is developed in a series of stages

– Describes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan
– In each stage, people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. The
conflicts or crises are psychosocial because these involve psychological needs conflicting with
the needs of society

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Age: Birth to 1 or 1.5 year (Infancy)

 The child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers.
 If infants are given with the basic needs by the adults, they will develop a sense of trust. Thus,
they will be feeling safe and secure. Otherwise, they will begin to mistrust the people around
him and in turn will make them feel fear about the world.
 Virtue: Hope

Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

 Age: 1.5/2 to 3 years (Early Childhood)

 The child is developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence.
 If the child is supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and
secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If the child is criticized, overly controlled, or
not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to
survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense
of shame or doubt in their abilities.
 Virtue: Will

Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt

 Age: 3 to 5 years (Preschool)

 The child asserts himself/herself more frequently and is regularly interacting with other children
at school. The child also begins to ask more questions.
 If the child is given the opportunity in planning activities, make up games and initiate activities
with others, they develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and
make decisions. Otherwise, they develop a sense of guilt and too much of it make them to be
less interactive with others.
 Some guilt is necessary to develop self-control and conscience.
 Virtue: Purpose

Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority

 Age: 5 to 12 years (School age)

  If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and
confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged or restricted, they
begin to feel inferior, doubting own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
 Virtue: Competence/Confidence

Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion

 Age: 12 to 18 years (High school)

 Adolescents is in the stage of search for self and personal identity through intense exploration
 According to Erikson, two identities are involved: sexual and occupational
 Virtue: Fidelity

Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation

 Age: 18 to 40 years (Young Adulthood)

 Young adults who have successfully completed this stage can result in happy relationships and a
sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. If they avoid intimacy, commitment
and relationships, they can lead to isolation and loneliness.
 Virtue: Love

Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation

 Age: 40 to 65 years (Middle Adulthood)

 During this stage, adults experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them or
create positive changes that will benefit other people
 Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
 Virtue: Care

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs Despair

 Age: 65 until death (Late Adulthood)

 Ego integrity
o acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be
o sense of coherence and wholesomeness
 Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will experience feelings
of bitterness and despair.
 Virtue: Wisdom

https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-development-2795740

https://www.healthline.com/health/parenting/erikson-stages#7-contribution
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Theorist: Lawrence Kohlberg (1927 – 1987)

1. Pre-Conventional
– In this level, individuals have no personal code of morality. Moral code is shaped by the
standard of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.
– Reasoning is based on consequences of actions
1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation
– A person’s morality is based on punishment. He/she will commit or prevent from
doing an action because he/she is afraid of being punished.
2. Individualism, (Instrumentalism) and Exchange
– A person’s morality is based on his own interest. He/she also recognizes that
different individuals have different viewpoints. As this is recognized, the person
2. Conventional
– Reasoning is based on norms of the group or society
3. Good Interpersonal Relationship (Good boy/girl)
– A person’s morality is based on what good and right is perceived by others.
4. Maintaining Social Order (Law and Order)
– A person’s morality is based on following societal rules as well as doing own’s duty
for the society.
3. Post-Conventional
– Reasoning is based on individual rights and justice
– According to Kohlberg, only few are capable of thinking obtained from this stage
5. Social Contract and Individual Rights
– A person’s morality is based on the greater good rather than the law
6. Universal Principles
– A person’s morality is based on the universally accepted ethical principles

Some criticisms

– Kohlberg’s research in which the theory is based has biased sampling (e.g. predominantly male)
and the dilemma used in the research was criticized to be unfamiliar to aged 10 to 16.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-development-2795071

https://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~rwest/wikispeedia/wpcd/wp/k/Kohlberg
%2527s_stages_of_moral_development.htm

https://www.qcc.cuny.edu/SocialSciences/ppecorino/MEDICAL_ETHICS_TEXT/Chapter_2_Ethical_Traditi
ons/Reading-Barger-on-Kohlberg.htm

https://explorable.com/theory-of-moral-development
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory (1934)

Theorist: Lev Vygotsky (1896 – 1934)

More Knowledgeable Other

- Someone or something who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept

Zone of Proximal Development

- The area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given developing higher
mental functions

Language

- The main means by which adults transmit information to children

- It becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html

https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-sociocultural-theory-2795088#:~:text=Sociocultural%20theory
%20grew%20from%20the,in%20interacting%20with%20other%20people.

http://www.ceebl.manchester.ac.uk/events/archive/aligningcollaborativelearning/Vygotsky.pdf

https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/social-development/
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

Theorist: Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 – 2005)

Microsystem

- Made up of groups that have a direct contact with the child

- Ex: family, school, church

Mesosystem

- Made up of interactions within the microsystem groups that affect the child development
- Ex: parent-teacher relationship, parent-church relationship, school-church relationship

Exosystem

- Made up of interactions between the microsystem groups and the groups that do not have a
direct interaction with the child which affect the child development
- Ex: parent-workplace relationship, school-certain business relationship, extended family
members

Macrosystem

- Made up of cultural and societal beliefs that influence an individual’s development

- Ex: gender norms, religious influence, laws, cultural values, wars, economy

Chronosystem

- The effect of the interaction between the various systems to the individual’s development
through time
- Lately added in the model.

https://exploringyourmind.com/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-theory/

https://dropoutprevention.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/paquetteryanwebquest_20091110.pdf

https://www.learning-theories.com/bronfenbrenners-bioecological-model-bronfenbrenner.html

https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-theory

https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/

https://www.gulfbend.org/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=7930
 PRC Reviewer

Part I

Link:

https://www.prcboard.com/2016/07/LET-Teachers-Reviewer-Prof-Ed-Child-and-Adolescent-
Development-Part-1.html

Answer CA Notes

1. B /
Development
- The pattern of biological, cognitive and socioemotional changes that
begins at continues throughout the lifespan.
Learning
- Acquiring knowledge
- Process in which the experience brings permanent relatively changes in
thoughts, feelings or behavior
Growth
- Physical changes occurring from conception to maturity
Maturation
- The biological unfolding of an individual according to a plan contained in
the genes
2. A /
3. D C
4. A D
5. D /
6. A /
7. B C
8. A /
9. B /
10. C B
11. C /
12. D /
13. A /
14. B /
15. B /
16. B /
17. D C
18. C /
19. A /
20. C /
21. B D
22. B A
23. D C
24. A B
25. B /

Part II

Answer CA Notes

1. D /
2. B /
3. D C
4. A /
5. A /
6. C /
7. C /
8. A /
9. C /
10. A /
11. C /
12. B /
13. B /
14. A /
15. B /
16. D C
17. C /
18. B /
19. C /
20. D /
21. B C
22. B D
23. D /
24. B /
25. C D