DAY 3 : Exercises on overview questions

Passage 1
Choose the most suitable heading for each section from the list of headings (A-I) below.
Write the appropriate letters (A-I) in the space provided after question 1-6.
N.B. There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings
A Species protected by tracking
B Rescarchers go deeper with innovation
C Unravel the dwindling of species
D Mapping ocean highway
E Functions of satellites in tracking
F Tagging for tracking
G New technique facilitating fishery
H Black box of marine biology
I Stratified ocean highway

1. Section 1 __________________
2. Section 2 __________________
3. Section 3 __________________
4. Section 4 __________________
5. Section 5 __________________
6. Section 6 __________________

From Black Box to Blue Box

Section 1
The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) has just held its
annual meeting. One highlight was a session on new techniques for tracking marine
animals.
Making a living as a fisherman has never been easy. With the continual decline in fish
stocks currently under way, it is becoming an even harder way to grind out a living. And
it is not only fish that are disappearing, but marine fauna generally. In the past 20 years,
for example, 90% of leatherback turtles and large predatory fish, such as sharks, have
disappeared.

Section 2
Where and how this is happening has been difficult to say, since the ocean is something
of a black box. Things go in, and things come out, but what happens in between is hard
to unravel. According to researchers presenting their work at the AAAS meeting in
Seattle, Washington, this is now changing. Today, when many marine biologists swig
their morning coffee and download their messages, they receive special e-mails from
their research subjects. These messages, relayed by a satellite, tell them exactly where
their animals have been. This has been made possible thanks to advances in underwater
electronic tagging, and it is causing a revolution in marine biology.
One of the leading researchers in oceanic tagging is Barbara Block of Hopkins Marine
Station in Pacific Grove, California. She tags bluefin tuna, which are commercially
valuable animals that can reach 680kg (1.500lb) in weight, and swim at speeds of up to
80kph (50mph). So far, her group has tagged around 700 bluefin. Many of the tags are
surgically implanted, a tricky thing to do while on board a moving hoat. These tags
archive their data in memory chips, and are eventually recovered when a fish is caught
and butchered. (The tags carry a healthy reward.) Other tags, though, are fastened to the
outside of a fish, and pop off at a pre-programmed time and date. They then broadcast
their results to a satellite. Dr. Block's work has shown that blue- fin can migrate
thousands of kilometres across the Atlantic, ignoring boundaries that have been set to
protect stocks in the western Atlantic.

Section 3
Tagging is also helping David Welch, head of the Canadian government's salmon
programme, to find out where and why large numbers of the fish are vanishing. He uses
small acoustic tags (the size of a large multivitamin capsule) that are sewn into the body
cavities of salmon. These tags broadcast their signals to microphones on the seabed.
Dr. Welch can now track where an individual salmon spends its life and watch trends in
an entire population. He was surprised to find that most salmon do not die as they leave
the river and enter the sea, as previously believed. And he is finding that climatic
fluctuations play an important role in determining population.
Dr. Welch and his colleagues are planning to install a system of microphones stretching
from the coast of Washington State to southeastern Alaska. This could follow the
movements of some 250,000 fish - collecting data on their direction of travel, speed,
depth and position. If that works, the plan is to extend the system from Baja California in
Mexico to the Bering Sea-a project that would involve about 1,000 underwater tracking
stations.

Section 4
Meanwhile, Andrew Read a marine biologist at Duke University in North Carolina, is
following 45 tagged logsechead turtles. These animals must come to the surfare to
breathe. When they do so, the tags (which are glued to their shells) talk to the nearest
convenient satellite.
Dr. Read told me the meeting that the tracking data he collects are now availabe online,
to allow fishermen to follow the movements fo turtles and, if they wish, to modify the
deployment of their net accordingly. Bill Foster, a fisherman from Hatteras, North
Carolina, and Dr. Read, proposed the project because the Pamlico Sound near Hatteras
was closed to large-mesh gill nets (which are dragged behind a boat like a curtain) for
four months a year because too many turtles were being caught by accident. Now, the
fishermen are helping the researchers, and attaching tags to healthy turtles that are
accidentally caught in their nets.

Section 5
Together, all this work is beginning to fill in the map of marine 'highways' used by
particular species, and their preferred habitats. It is also showing where particular
animals prefer to stay close to the surface, and where they prefer deeper waters. As in the
case of Dr. Read's turtles, this is helping scientists to devise ways of protecting rare
species in an efficient manner, without interfering too much with the exploitation of
common ones.
Larry Crowder, also at Duke University, has overlaid maps of marine highways for
loggerhead and leatherback turtles in the Pacific onto those of 'longline' fisheries, in
which people catch prey on fishing lines that are several kilometres long. Turtles often
take the bait on the hooks that these lines carry. Dr. Crowder wants to identify the places
of greatest danger to these turtles, in the hope that such places will be considered for
protection. This need not, he says, mean a ban on fishing, but rather the use of different
hooks, and other sorts of gear that are less damaging to turtles. It also turns out that
turtles spend 90% of their time within 40 metres of the surface, so setting hooks deeper
than this would reduce the chance of catching them accidentally.

Section 6
Conservationists are now pushing the notion of 'ocean zoning'. Like the land, parts\ of
the sea - such as turtle highways- would be defined as sensitive, and subject to
restrictions on how extractive industries operate. If this idea is ever to work, tagging data
will be crucial. And because tagging data come in continually, this could mean that
sensitive areas in the ocean could be flexible, changing in both time and space.
Enforcing such zones might be difficult. But it would help fish, and other marine fauna,
breathe a bit easier. And careful management might leave the fishermen on top as well.

Passage 2
Choose the most suitable heading for each section from the list of headings (A-L) below
Write the appropriate letters (A-L) in the space provided after questions 1-6 in your
booklet
N.B. There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them.
List of Headings
A Hands off the obesity
B Fat issues due to the changing diet
C Corporate affairs of healthy food
D Taxation plus ad prohibition
E More active people
F Reduced consumption
G Supply and demand of fresh produce
H Less rich following suit
I Social awareness declining government intervention
J Shoppers oppose fat food
K Government worry about obesity
L Class distinctions as to fatty food

1. Section 1
2. Section 2
3. Section 3
4. Section 4
Example : Section 5 E
5. Section 6
6. Section 7

Fat of the Land

Section 1
The government worries that it should do something to change the way people eat. But
diets are already changing.
Given mankind's need to fret, it is not surprising that the diseases of prosperity - stress,
depression and, increasingly, obesity - get a lot of play in Britain these days.
On March 3rd, John Reid, the health secretary, announced a three-month public
consultation about the nation’s health: in the current mood, that is likely to focus on
obesity. Last week, a report on public health commissioned by the government citied
obesity among its main worries; last month, Tony Blair’s strategy unit floated the idea of
a “fat tax” on foods that fuel obesity; and last year, thr Food Standards Agency, the
industry regulator, advocated a ban on advertising junk food to children.

Section 2
Yet the government swiftly swatted away the idea of a fat tax, and Tessa Jowell, the
culture secretary, has said that she is sceptical about an advertising ban. Mr. Reid save
the government wants to be neither a 'nanny state' nor a 'Pontius Pilate state which
washes its hands of its citizens' health'.
Why this ambivalence? Not because of doubts that obesity is a serious problem. It
increases the risk of diabetes, heart disease and cancer. Rather, because it is not clear that
the government can do much about it. There's no evidence that making fatty foods more
expensive would put people off them; and in Sweden, where advertising to minors is
already banned, children are as porky as they are in any comparable country.

Section 3
What's more, it is not obvious that the problem will worsen. Shoppers’ behaviour
suggests the opposite. It is not just the flight from carbohydrates prompted by the Atkins
diet; there is a broader shift going on. Britain, the world's biggest chocolate-eater, seems
to be going off the stuff. In the four years to 2002, sales of chocolate in Britain fell every
year: 2% by volume and 7% by value over the period. Last month, the new boss of
Nestle Rowntree, Chris White, described it as 'a business in crisis'.
(The company says his remarks were 'taken out of context' and denies there is a crisis,
but admits that sales of KitKat, its biggest brand, fell by 2% in 2003.)
Companies are edging away from fattening foods. Todd Stitzer, chief executive of
Cadbury Schweppes, Britain's biggest producer of fattening stuff, says that five years
ago, chocolate made 80% of sales. That's down to a half. Five years ago 85% of ago,
drinks sales were sweet, fizzy stuff. That's down to 56%. The rest is mostly juice. Diet
drinks – which make up a third of the sales of fizzy drinks – are growing while sales of
the fattening stuff are static.

Section 4
Supermarkets say that people are buying healthier food. According to Lucy Neville-
Rolfe, Tesco's director of corporate affairs, its Healthy Living (lower calorie) range grew
by 12% in 2003, twice the growth in overall sales. Sales of fruit and vegetables are
growing faster than overall sales, too. That may be partly because fresh produce is
getting more various, more is available all year round and better supply boosts demand.
Five years ago Tesco stocked six or seven varieties of tomato. Now it stocks 15.
The spread of big supermarkets, which offer better produce than the mouldy stuff at the
corner shop, may improve diets. A study carried out by the University of Southampton
on a big new supermarket in a poor part of Leeds concluded that after it opened, two
thirds of those with the worst diets ate more fruit and vegetables.
Cafes and restaurants report an increase in healthy eating, too. Pret A Manger, a
sandwich chain, says that sales of salads grew by 63% last year, compared with 6%
overall sales growth. McDonald's, which introduced fruit salad a year ago, has sold 10m
portions since.

Section 5
But it isn't just eating too much fatty stuff that makes people fat. It's indolence, too. That
may be changing. Gym membership figures suggest that more Britons at least intend to
get off their sofas. According to Mintel, a market research company, there were 3.8m
members of private gyms last year, up from 2.2m in 1998.
So why isn't all this virtue showing up in the figures! Maybe it is starting to. The average
man got thinner in 2002, the most recent available year, for the first time since body
mass-index records began, women's BMI was static. One year, of course, does not make
a trend, but a fall in Americans weight last year, also for the fiest time, upports the idea
that something is changing in the rich world's fattest countries.

Section 6
So does the fact that fat is a class isue. Where the rich lead, the poor tend to follow -
partly because the poor get richer over time, and partly because health messages tend to
reach the better educated fint and the worse educated later. That's what has been
happening with smoking, a habit the rich gave up yeans ago and the poor are now
stubbing out too.

Section 7
Campaigners for the fat tac point out that, without hefty government intervention,
through taxes and public information campaigns, it is unlikely that smoking would have
gone into such a decline. But that may not be the case with food. Consumers are assailed
every day by messages from companies telling them to get thin. Peer pressure is likely to
have more impact on teenagers than any amount of finger-wagging from ministers.
Maybe the government’s interest itself suggests that a corner has been turned. As Ms
Neville-Rolfe, a former civil sevant, says, “The government often gets on to issures at
the point at which they’re being solved.”

Passage 3
Choose the most suitable heading for each section from the list of headings (A-I) below.
Write the appropriate letters (A-I) in the space provided after question 1-6.
N.B. There are more headings than sections, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings
A Significant efforts
B Top expertise for top questions
C Priorities in comparison
D Result expected of the panel
E Panel composition and panel issues
 F Budget versus priority
G Assembly of the experts
H Impossible mission for leading thinkers
I Sceptical pitfalls
J Impossible to reach consensus
K Undaunted policymakers
L Doubtful effect on society

1. Section 1
2. Section 2
3. Section 3
Example : Section 4 B
4. Section 5
5. Section 6
6. Section 7

A Modest Undertaking
Governments have limited resources for addressing the world's
economic challenges. What should come first?
Section 1
This week, Denmark's Environmental Assessment Institute, together with The
Economist, announced plans to ask some of the world's leading economic thinkers a very
awkward question. Policymakers face enormous demands on their aid budgets and on
their intellectual and political capital as well- when they try to confront the many
daunting challenges of economic development and underdevelopment. Climate change,
war, disease, financial instability and more all clamour for attention, and for remedies or
palliatives that cost money, Given that resources are limited, the question is this What
should come first? Where, among all the projects that governments might undertake to
make the world a better place, are the net returns to their efforts likely to be greatest?

Section 2
It is casy to see why this question has rarely, if ever, been confronted head-on.
Calculating the costs and benefits of acting on any one of the very many proposals for
international action that are mooted from time to time is difficult enough. Attempting to
impose a common cost-benefit framework on many such possibilities so that they can be
meaningfully compared one with another is an ambitious exercise, to put it mildly. But
that is what the institute, headed by Bjorn Lomborg (familiar to readers of this page as
the author of "The Sceptical Environmentalist'), and abetted by this newspaper, has
resolved to attempt - in a project dubbed, in an access of optimism, the Copenhagen
Consensus.

Section 3
First, the institute assembled a panel of nine of the world's most distinguished
economists. Four of them are Nobel laureates: Robert Fogel and James Heckman, both
of the University of Chicago; Douglas North of Washington University, St. Louis, and
Vernon Smith of George Mason University, The other five can expect to pick up a few
more Nobels between them in due course: Jagdish Bhagwati of Columbia University;
Bruno Frey of the University of Zurich; Justin Yifu Lin of Beijing University; Thomas
Schelling of the University of Maryland; and Nancy Stokey of the University of
Chicago. This panel will meet in Copenhagen in May to estabish priorities for action on
ten issues.
The panel chose these issues from a much longer list drafted by the institute, drawn in
turn from aims identified in various contexts by the United Nations and other
international bodies. Then a series of distinguished experts in each field was
commissioned to write a review paper on each issue and on actions that might feasiblt be
taken in response, with due emphasis on costs and benefits.

Section 4
The topics and principal authors are:
Climate Change, by William Cline of the Centre for Global Development,
Communicable Diseases, by Anne Mills of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical
Medicine.
Armed Conflicts, by Paul Collier of Oxford University.
Education, by Lant Pritchett of the Kennedy School.
Financial Instability, by Barry Eichengreen of the University of California, Berkeley.
Governance and Corruption, by Susan Rose-Ackerman of Yale University.
Malnutrition and Hunger, by Jere Behrman of the University of Pennsylvania.
Population and Migration, by Philip Martin of the University of California, Davis.
Sanitation and Water, by Michael Hanemann of the University of California, Berkeley.
Subsidies and Trade Barriers, by Kym Anderson of the University of Adelaide.

Section 5
Each paper will next be subject to critique by two further experts. In May, the papers and
commentaries will be submitted to the nine, who will argue about it all for five days and
then pronounce. As the meeting draws nearer, and the papers are published, we will run
articles about them (some in this space; others on our website). And in due course we
will, of course, report on the outcome of the top panel's deliberations.

Section 6
Can such an exercise ever hope to yield useful results – let alone the hoped-for
‘consensus’ ? It is entirely reasonable to be sceptical, such are the pitfalls of cost-benefit
analysis. Aside from the technicar difficulties entailed in valuing extremely distant and
uncertain benefits (as in the case of action to mitigate climate change, for instance), not
to mention the problems surrounding the choice of discount rate (so that costs and
benefits extending over time can be expressed on a consistent present-value basis), there
are also ethical puzzles involving the valuation of years of extra life or better health. It is
little wonder that governments prefer to let such provoking questions lie quiet and
unnoticed. And if the Copenhagen panel of experts does manage, despite these
difficulties, to reach some kind of substantive agreement, there is little reason to suppose
that politicians or the wider public will go along with a consensus reached among a
group of economists, a tribe renowned in the wider world for its desiccated view of
human welfare.

Section 7
Yet the fact remains that governments already have very large aid budgets, which they
apportion somchow among competing demands - doubtless paying more attention to the
fluctuating pressures of press and television than any consistent or coherent method of
analysis. Implicitly, their decisions already reflect underlying estimates of costs and
benefits, but the process is arbitrary and closed to inspection. Even if the Copenhagen
Consensus project does no more than force that fact to be acknowledged, it will have
been worth the trouble.

Passage 4
Leisure time
A. A raft of forecasts has been made in the recent decade, predicting the decline in the
number of working hours coupled with a consequent increase in leisure time. It was
estimated that the leisure revolution would take place by the turn of the last cent my with
hours devoted to work railing to 25-30 per week, This reduction hits failed to materialise,
but the revolution has, nonetheless, arrived.

B. Over the past 30 to 41 years, spending on leisure has witnessed a strong increase,
According to the annual family expenditure survey published in 1935 by the Office for
National Statistics, the average household in the United Kingdom spent more on leisure
than food, housing and transport for the very first time, and the trend is also set to
continue upwards well into the present century.

C. The survey, based on a sample of 6,500 households showed, that the days are long
gone when the average family struggled to buy basic foods. As recently as 1969, family
spending on food was approximately one third compared to 17% now. Twelve years
later, there was a noticeable shift towards leisure with the percentage of household
spending on leisure increasing to 9%, and that on food declining to 26%.

D. The average household income in the UK in 1999 was £460 per week before tax, and
average spending was £352.20. Of the latter sum, £59.70 was spent on leisure and
£58.90 on food. On holidays alone, family expenditure was 6%, while in 1969 the
proportion spent on holidays was just 2%. And whereas the richest 10% lashed out 20%
of their income in 1999 on leisure, the poorest spent 12%.

E. Among the professional and managerial classes, working hours have increased and,
overall in the economy, record numbers of people are in employment. As people work
more, the appetite for leisure activities has grown to compensate for the greater stress in
life. The past 5 years alone have seen the leisure business expand by 25% with a change
in emphasis to short domestic weekend breaks and long-haul short breaks to exotic
destinations in place of long holidays. In the future, it is expected that people will jump
from one leisure activity to another in complexes catering for everyone’s needs with
gyms, cinemas, cafes, restaurants, bars and internet facilities all under one roof. The
leisure complexes of today will expand to house all the leisure facilities required for the
leisure age.

F. Other factors fueling demand for leisure activities are rising prosperity, increasing
longevity and a more active elderly population. Hence, at the forefront of leisure
spending are not just young or professional classes. The 1999 family expenditure survey
showed that the 64 to 75-year-old group spend a higher proportion of their income on
leisure than any other age group. The strength of the “grey pound” now means that
elderly people are able to command more respect and, thus, attention in the leisure
market.

G. And the future? It is anticipated that, in the years to come, leisure spending will
account for between a third to a half of all household spending. Whilst it is difficult to
give exact figures, the leisure industry will certainly experience a long period of
sustained growth. Working hours are not expected to decrease, partly because the 24-
hour society will need to be serviced; and secondly, because more people will be needed
to keep the service/leisure industries running.

H. In the coming decades, the pace of change will accelerate, generating greater wealth
at a faster rate than ever before. Surveys show that this is already happening in many
parts of Europe. The south-east of England, for example, is now supposedly the richest
area in the EEC. The “leisure pound” is one of the driving forces behind this surge. But,
sadly, it does not look as if we will have the long leisure hours that we had all been
promised.

Question 1-7
This passage has 8 paragraphs (A-H). Choose the most suitable heading for each
paragraph from the list of headings below. Write the propriate number (i-xiv) beside
question 1-7. One of the headings has been done for you as an example. You may use
any headings more than once
N.B. There are more headings thanparagraphs, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings
i Leisure spending goes up strongly
ii Decreasing unemployment
iii False forecasts
iv Spending trends – leisure v food
v More affordable food
vi Leisure as an answer to stress
vii Looking forward
viii The leisure revolution – working hours reduced to 25
ix The “grey pound” soars
x Rising expenditure
xi The elderly leisure market
xii National Statisticians
xiii Work, stress, and leisure all on the up
xiv Money yes, leisure time no

1. Paragraph A
2. Paragraph B
3. Paragraph C
Example : Paragraph D x
4. Paragraph E
5. Paragraph F
6. Paragraph G
7. Paragraph H

Question 8-12
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in the reading passage? In
questions 8-12 in your booklet, write:

YES if the statement agrees with the writer's view;

NO if the statement contradicts the writer's view;
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this.

Example
In recent decades, an increase in working hours was predicted.
Answer NO
8. At the turn of the last century, weekly working hours dropped to 25.
9. Spending on leisure has gone up over the past three decades.
10. Long holidays have taken the place of long-haul short breaks.
11. In future, people will pay less for the leisure facilities they use than they do today.
12. The 24-hour society will have a negative effect on people's attitudes to work.

Passage 5
The History of Writing
1 The earliest stage of writing is called pre-writing or proto-literary, and depends on
direct representation of objects, rather than representing them with letters or other
symbols. Evidence for this stage, in the form of rock and cave paintings, dates back to
about 15,000 years ago, although the exact dates are debatable. This kind of proto-
literate cave painting has been found in Europe, with the best known examples m South-
Western France, but also in Africa and on parts of the American continent. These
petrographs (pictures on rock) show typical scenes of the period, and include
representations of people, animals and activities. Most are astonishingly beautiful, with a
vibrancy and immediacy that we still recognise today. They are painted with pigments
made from natural materials including crushed stones and minerals, animal products
such as blood, ashes, plant materials of all kinds, and they produce a wide range of
colours and hues.

2 Why did ancient people put such effort into making them? Various theories have been
put forward, but the most compelling include the idea that the pictures were records of
heroic deeds or important events, that they were part of magical ceremonies, or that they
were a form of primitive calendar, recording the changes in the seasons as they
happened. These, then, are all explanations as to why man started to write.
3 A related theory suggests that the need for writing arose thereafter from the
transactions and bartering that went on. In parts of what is now Iraq and Iran, small
pieces of fired earth - pottery - have been found which appear to have been used as
tokens to represent bartered objects, much as we use tokens in a casino, or money, today.
Eventually, when the tokens themselves became too numerous to handle easily,
representations of the tokens were inscribed on day tablets.

4 An early form of writing is the use of pictograms, which are pictures used to
communicate. Pictograms have been found from almost every part of the world and
every era of development, and are still in use in primitive communities nowadays. They
represent objects, ideas or concepts more or less directly. They tend to be simple in the
sense that they are not a complex or full picture, although they are impressively difficult
to interpret to an outsider unfamiliar with their iconography, which lends to be localised,
and to differ widely form society to society. They were never intended to be a detailed
testimony which could be interpreted by outsiders, but to serve instead as aide- memoires
to the author, rather as we might keep a diary in a personal shorthand. However, some
modem pictograms are more or less universally recognised, such as the signs which
indicate men's and women's toilets, or road signs, which tend to be very similar
throughout the world.

5 The first pictograms that we know of are Sumerian in origin, and date to about 8000
BC. They show how images used to represent concrete objects could be expanded to
include abstractions by adding symbols together, or using associated symbols. One
Sumerian pictogram, for example, indicates 'death' by combining the symbols for 'man'
and winter'; another shows 'power' with the symbol for a man with the hands enlarged.

6 By about 5,000 years ago, Sumerian pictograms had spread to other areas, and the
Sumerians had made a major advance towards modern writing with the development of
the rebus principle, which meant that symbols could be used to indicate sounds. This was
done try using a particular symbol not only for the thing it originally represented, but
also for anything which was pronounced in a similar way. So the pictogram for na
(meaning 'animal') could also be used to mean 'old' (which was also pronounced na). The
specific meaning of the pictogram (whether na meant 'old' or animal ) could only be
decided through its context.

7 It is a short step from this to the development of syllabic writing using pictograms, and
this next development took about another half a century. Now the Sumerians would add
pictograms to each other, so that each, representing an individual sound - or syllable -
formed part of a larger word. Thus pictograms representing the syllables he, na and mi
('mother', 'old', my') could be put together to form henami or 'grandmother'.

Questions 1-7
Reading Passage 3 has seven paragraphs 1- 7. Choose the most suitable headings for
paragraphs 1-7 from the list of headings below. Write the appropriate letters A - H in
boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will
not use them all.
 List of Headings
A Magic and Heroes
B Doing Business
C Early Developments
D Sounds and Symbols
E Images on Stone
F Stories and Seasons
G From Visual to Sound
H A Personal Record

1. Paragraph 1___________ 5. Paragraph 5___________

2. Paragraph 2___________ 6. Paragraph 6___________
3. Paragraph 3___________ 7. Paragraph 7___________
4. Paragraph 4___________

Question 8-12
Complete the following notes by using ONE or TWO WORDS from the reading passage
for each answer
Notes on the Development of Writing
First stage of writing - pre-writing or proto-literacy - very old - 15,000 years. Evidence:
cave and rock paintings. Famous example - (8)_______________. Reasons for
development of writing: primitive ceremonies, recording events, seasons, used on pottery
to represent (9)_______________. Next stage: simple pictograms - pictures used to
represent articles and (10)_______________. Very simple drawings (but very difficult to
understand). Then - 8000 BC - combined (11)_______________ to create new concepts
(eg. man + winter = death). After this - started using same pictogram for different words
with same (12)_______________ ,very important step.

Question 13-15
Choose the appropriate letters (A-D) and write them in question 13-15
13. The earliest stages of writing
A were discovered 15,000 years ago and are found all over the world.
B are pictures which show the natural life of the time.
C are called petrographs and were painted with natural materials.
D could not describe concepts.

14. The earliest pictograms

A represent complex objects and are difficult to understand.
B represent comparatively simple objects and are easy to understand.
C are a record of events for outsiders.
D are fairly simple but may not be easy to interpret.
15. About 5.000 years ago
A Sumerians were developing sounds.
B Sumerians were writing in a modern style.
C pictograms were used over a wide area.
D pictogram symbols could only have one meaning.

Passage 6
The passage has seven sections. You are supposed to read each section as quickly as you
can and then use NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS in the section to sum up its main
focus.
Historical Thermometers
Section A
If someone asked you to find out if the carth's climate had changed over the past century, your
first instinct would be to reach for the meteorological records, just as climate change researcher
have done for decades. But boreholes drilled in the ground in search of resources such as oil and
water might give you a better answer.
Already, analyses of temperature readings from boreholes are producing provocative findings.
They suggest that at least part of the global warming (also known as the 'greenhouse effect')
seen in the meteorological records of the past century can be explained by natural fluctuations in
the earth's underground temperature.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section B
Geophysicists have known for a long time that the crust becomes progressively warmer as you
drill into it, edging closer to the carth's hot interior. Mostly, this temperature gradient is smooth,
increasing by between 10°C and 50°C with every kilometre from the surface. The exact amount
depends on how effectively the rock carries heat through the crust towards the surface. But
within 200 to 300 metres or so of the surface, things become less predictable.
Previously geophysicists were interested only in mcasuring heat flow from the carth's centre, so
they threw away these unreliable top sections of their borehole temperature data. As
climatologists now realise, however, this temperature variation is a powerful source of
information about past climactic fluctuations. In particular, it can tell you about daily and
seasonal variations in surface temperature.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section C
The temperature a metre down from the ground surface is an accurate average the ground
temperature the previous day. Similarly, the temperature at 20 metres is an accurate measure of
the average ground temperature over the previous annual cycle. But the real value of the thermal
waves is not in revealing yesterday's so slowly, the first 500 metres of crust offers a record of
the earth's ground temperature for the whole of the past millennium. For most rocks, a
measurable change in surface temperature takes a year to travel 16 metres, 100 years to travel
160 metres and 1,000 years to travel 500 metres.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section D
Many climatologists now believe that underground temperature data will provide a valuable
check on recently developed models of climate change, such as the complex computer models
used to predicthow climate might change as a result of the green- house effect. These computer
models, called general circulation models, or GCMS, are complicated simulations of the earth's
response to changes caused by human activities such as burning fossil fuels. They are built up
from known patterns of climate change over the past century or so, based on the meteorological
records. According to these records, the average air temperature at the earth's surface has
increased by about 0.5°C in the past 100 years. This warming is uneven: Arctic regions show
most warming, regions close to the equator show little or none, and some regions in Africa show
slight cooling.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section E
However, predictions based on GCMS differ widely. It is difficult to establish a clear picture of
historical climate trends because there is little reliable meteorological data extending beyond the
past century, while widespread records exist only for the past half century. In addition, the
longest records are usually from urban areas and these cannot be accepted without question
because they take into account heat from human activities. Many of the early weather stations
were abandoned or moved elsewhere when people moved, with any corresponding adjustment
of the records. Measurement methods have also varied from place to place. It is hoped that
borehole data might fill some of the gaps in current knowledge.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section F
Hence the excitement about boreholes. Edward Bullard of University of Cambridge made the
first borchole measurements in 1939 in South Africa. But he was interested in heat flow in the
earth, not climate. Research aimed at investigating climate change only took off in earnest in
1986, after rescarchers published the first detailed analyses of temperatures from boreholes in
Alaska and eastern Canada. To date, geophysicists have measured heat flow at 10,000 boreholes
on continents worldwide. New measurements are being added at about 200 sites per year. A
global network of these 'historical thermometers' is fast developing.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Section G
Not all the data will be suitable for studying climate change. Boreholes less than 150 metres
deep are too shallow to extend the climate record back beyond what is known from
meteorological data. At some of the older boreholes, researchers chose not to measure
temperatures in the first 100 metres below the surface because they thought the data would be
unreliable. But an estimated one in ten boreholes are considered to be suitable for climate
studies. Analysing data from these sites should take between three and five years.
 Main focus: ___________________________________________________

Passage 7

Parenting and Responsibility

Section A
There are still significant gaps between women and men in terms of their involvement in
family life, the tasks they perform and the responsibilities they take. Yet at least in
developed Western countries, both women and men express a desire for greater equality
in family life. It is evident that in terms of attitudes and beliefs, the problem cannot
simply be thought of in terms of women wanting men to share more equally and men
being reluctant to do so. The challenge now is to develop policies and practices based on
a presumption of shared responsibility, if there is greater gender equality in the
responsibilities and pleasures of family life. These are becoming key concerns of
researchers, policymakers, community workers and, more importantly, family members
themselves.

Section B
Despite the significant increase in the number of women with dependent children who
are in the paid workforce, Australian research studies over the last 15
years are consistent in showing that divisions of family work are very rigid indeed
(Watson 1991). In terms of time, women perform approximately 90 per cent of childcare
tasks and 70 per cent of all family work, and only 14 per cent of fathers are highly
participant in terms of time spent on family work (Russell 1983). Demo and Acock
(1993), in a recent US study, also found that women continue to perform a constant and
major proportion of household labour (68 per cent to 95 per cent) across all family types
(first marriage, divorced, stepfamily or never married), regardless of whether they are
employed or non-employed in paid work.

Section C
Divisions of labour for family work are particularly problematic in families in which
both parents are employed outside the home (dual-worker families). Employed mothers
adjust their jobs and personal lives to accommodate family commitments more than
employed fathers do. Mothers are less likely to work overtime and are more likely to
take time off work to attend to children's needs (VandenHeuvel 1993). Mothers spend
less time on personal leisure activities than their partners, a factor that often leads to
resentment (Dcmo and Acock 1993).

Section D
The parental role is central to the stress-related anxiety reported by employed mothers,
and a major contributor to such stress is their taking a greater role in childcare
(VandenHeuvel 1993). Edgar and Glezer (1992) found that dose to 90 per cent of both
husbands and wives agreed that man should share equally in childcare, yet 55 cent of
husbands and wives claimed that the men actually did this. These per claims are valid
despite the findings mentioned earlier that point to a partner to do more housework and
childcare as a better predictor of poor family daily adjustment than is actual time spent
by fathers in these tasks (Demo and Acock 1993). It is this desire, together with its lack
of fulfilment in most families, that brings about stress in the female parent.

Section E
Family therapists and social work researchers are increasingly defining family problems
in terms of a lack of involvement and support from fathers and are concerned with
difficulties involved in having fathers take responsibility for the solution of family and
child behaviour problems (Edgar and Glezer 1986). Yet, a father accepting responsibility
for behaviour problems is linked with positive outcomes.

Section F
Research studies lend strong support to the argument that shared responsibilities are
benefits for families considering a change to a fair or more equitable division of the
pleasures and pains of family life. Greater equality in the performance of family work is
associated with lower levels of family stress and higher self-esteem, better health, and
higher marital satisfaction for mothers. There is also higher marital satisfaction for
fathers, especially when they take more responsibility for the needs of their children
fathers are happier when they are more involved (Russell 1984).

Question 1-6
The passage has six sections. Point out which section deals with one of the following
topics.
1. The impact of dual employment
Answer: __________________
2. Mother’s portion in the childcare
Answer: __________________
3. Need for more equitable parenting policies
Answer: __________________
4. The benefits of balanced responsibility
Answer: __________________
5. The experts’ view of the male parent’s role
Answer: __________________
6. The effect of stress on the female parent
Answer: __________________

Question 7-15
Below is a list of research findings mentioned in the reading passage. Indicate which
researcher(s) is (are) responsible for each research finding

DA Demo and Acock

EG Edgar and Glezer
R Russell
VH VandenHeuvel
W Watson

Research Findings
Example:
Fathers spend more time than mothers on personal leisure activities DA

7. The number of hours a father spends doing childcare is not the best indicator of how
well the family is adjusted
8. The vast majority of fathers do not take part to any great extent in family work
9. Women do most of the housework whether they are married or not
10. Wih regard to the issue of equal responsibility for childcare, there is a discrepancy
between the wishesand the claims of parent couples
11. Both mothers and fathers are happier where father assumes some responsibility for
issues relating to the behaviour of the children.
12. Researchers now link family problems to the father's lack of involvement in rearing
children.
13. In terms of dealing with family issues, employed fathers make fewer sacrifices in
their jobs than working women do.
14. Anxiety results from the mother being the primary caregiver.
15. There has been little change in the housework and childcare roles of the mothers and
fathers.

Passage 8
Questions 1-7
The reading passage has 8 paragraphs (A-H). Choose the most suitable heading for each
paragraph from the list of headings on the next page. Write the appropriate numbers
(i-xii) beside questions 1-7. One of the headings has been done for you as an example.
N.B. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them.

1. Paragraph A __________
2. Paragraph B __________
3. Paragraph C __________
4. Paragraph D __________
5. Paragraph E __________
6. Paragraph F __________
7. Paragraph G __________
Example : Paragraph H x

List of Headings
i. 165 million years
ii. The body plan of archosaurs
iii. Dinosaurs - terrible lizards
iv. Classification according to pelvic anatomy
v. The suborders of Saurischia
vi. Lizards and dinosaurs - two distinct superorders
vii. Unique body plan helps identify dinosaurs from other animals
viii. Herbivore dinosaurs
ix. Lepidosaurs
x. Frills and shelves
xi. The origins of dinosaurs and lizards
xii. Bird-hipped dinosaurs
xiii. Skull bones distinguish dinosaurs from other archosaurs

What Is a Dinosaur ?
A Although the name dinosaur is derived from the Greek for "terrible lizard", dinosaurs
were not, in fact, lizards at all. Like lizards, dinosaurs are included in the class Reptilia,
or reptiles, one of the five main classes of Vertebrata, animals with backbones. However,
at the next level of classification, within reptiles, significant differences in the skeletal
anatomy of lizards and dinosaurs have led scientists to place these groups of animals into
two different superorders: Lepidosauria, or lepidosaurs, and Archosauria, or archosaurs.

B Classified as lepidosaurs are lizards and snakes and their prehistoric ancestors.
Included among the archosaurs, or "ruling reptiles", are prehistoric and modern
crocodiles, and the now extinct thecodonts, pterosaurs and dinosaurs. Palaeontologists
believe that both dinosaurs and crocodiles evolved, in the later years of the Triassic
Period (c. 248-208 million years ago), from creatures called pseudosuchian thecodonts.
Lizards, snakes and different types of thecodont are believed to have evolved earlier in
the Triassic Period from reptiles known as eosuchians.

C The most important skeletal differences between dinosaurs and other archosaurs are
in the bones of the skull, pelvis and limbs. Dinosaur skulls are found in a great range of
shapes and sizes, reflecting the different eating habits and lifestyles of a large and varied
group of animals that dominated life on Earth for an extraordinary 165 million years.
However, unlike the skulls of any other known animals, the skulls of dinosaurs had two
long bones known as vomers. These bones extended on either side of the head, from the
front of the snout to the level of the holes on the skull known as the antorbital fenestra,
situated in front of the dinosaur's orbits or eyesockets.

D All dinosaurs, whether large or small, quadrupedal or bidepal, fleet-footed or slow-

moving, shared a common body plan. Identification of this plan makes it possible to
differentiate dinosaurs from any other types of animal, even other archosaurs. Most
significantly, in dinosaurs, the pelvis and femur had evolved so that the hind limbs were
held vertically beneath the body, rather than sprawling out to the sides like the limbs of a
lizard. The femur of a dinosaur had a sharply in-turned neck and a ball-shaped head,
which slotted into a fully open acetabulum or hip socket. A supra-acetabular crest helped
prevent dislocation of the femur. The position of the knee joint, aligned below the
acetabulum, made it possible for the whole hind limb to swing backwards and forwards.
This unique combination of features gave dinosaurs what is known as a "fully improved
gait". Evolution of this highly efficient method of walking also developed in mammals,
but among reptiles it occurred only in dinosaurs.

E For the purpose of further classification, dinosaurs are divided into two orders:
Saurischia, or saurischian dinosaurs, and Ornithischia, or ornithischian dinosaurs. This
division is made on the basis of their pelvic anatomy. All dinosaurs had a pelvic girdle
with each side comprised of three bones: the pubis, ilium and ischium. However, the
orientation of these bones follows one of two patterns. In saurischian dinosaurs, also
known as lizard-hipped dinosaurs, the pubis points forwards, as is usual in most types of
reptile. By contrast, in ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs, the pubis points
backwards towards the rear of the animal, which is also true of birds.

F Of the two orders of dinosaurs, the Saurischia was the larger and the first to evolve. It
is divided into two suborders: Therapoda, or therapods, and Sauropodomorpha, or
sauropodomorphs. The therapods, or "beast feet", were bipedal, predatory carnivores.
They ranged in size from the mighty Tyrannosaurus rex, 12m long, 5.6m tall and
weighing an estimated 6.4 tonnes, to the smallest known dinosaur, Compsognathus, a
mere 1.4m long and estimated 3kg in weight when fully grown. The sauropodomorphs,
or "lizard feet forms", included both bipedal and quadrupedal dinosaurs. Some
sauropodomorphs were carnivorous or omnivorous but later species were typically
herbivorous. They included some of the largest and best-known of all dinosaurs, such as
Diplodocus, a huge quadruped with an elephant-like body, a long, thin tail and neck that
gave it a total length of 27m, and a tiny head.

G Ornithischian dinosaurs were bipedal or quadrupedalherbivores. They are now

usually divided into three suborders: Ornithipoda, Thyreophora and Marginocephalia.
The ornithopods, or "bird feet", both large and small, could walk or run on their long
hind legs, balancing their body by holding their tails stiffly off the ground behind them.
An example is Iguanodon, up to 9m long, 5m tall and weighing 4.5 tonnes. The
thyreophorans, or "shield bearers", also known as armoured dinosaurs, were quadrupeds
with rows of protective bony spikes, studs, or plates along their backs and tails. They
included Stegosaurus, 9m long and weighing 2 tonnes.

H The marginocephalians, or "margined heads", were bipedal or quadrupedal

ornithschians with a deep bony frill or narrow shelf at the back of the skull. An example
is Triceratops, a rhinoceros-like dinosaur, 9m long, weighing 5.4 tonnes and bearing a
prominent neck frill and three large horns.

Question 8-10
Complete the sentences below. Use NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the
passage for each blank space

8. Lizards and dinosaur are classified into two different superordes because of the
difference in their _________________
9. In the Triassic Period, _________________ evolved into thecodonts, for example,
lizards and snakes
10. Dinosaur skull differed from those of any other known animals because of the
presence of vomers : _________________

Question 11-14
Choose one phrase (A-H) from the List of features to match with the Dinosaurs listed
below.
Write the appropriate letters (A-H) in boxes 11-14 on your answer sheet.
The information in the completed sentences should be an accurate summary of the points
made by the writer.
NB. There are more phrases (A-H) than sentences, so you will not need to use them all.
You may use each phrase once only.

Dinosaurs
11. Dinosaurs differed from lizards, because _________________
12. Saurischian and ornithischian dinosaurs _________________
13. Unlike therapods, sauropodomorphs _________________
14. Some dinosaurs used their tails to balance, others _________________
 List of features
A are both divided into two orders.
B the former had a "fully improved gait".
C were not usually very heavy.
D could walk or run on their back legs.
E their hind limbs sprawled out to the side.
F walked or ran on four legs, rather than two.
G both had a pelvic girdle comprising six bones.
H did not always eat meat.

Passage 9
Choose the most suitable heading for each paragraph from the list of headings (A-
L) below. Write the appropriate letters (A-L) in the space provided after questions
1-8 in your booklet.
N.B. There are more headings than paragraphs, so you will not use all of them.

List of Headings
A Invalid indicators
B Reconciliation of the inconsistency
C Radiation absorbing information
D Alternative density application
E Puzzles left by radiation
F Two pitfalls
G Void centre of the black hole
H Value of the theory
I A trouble-shooting theory
J Non-existence of the universe
K Information paradox resolved
L Cosmic uniformity owing to cosmic inflation

1. Paragraph 1 ________________
2. Paragraph 2 ________________
3. Paragraph 3 ________________
4. Paragraph 4 ________________
Example: Paragraph 5 I
5. Paragraph 6 ________________
6. Paragraph 7 ________________
7. Paragraph 8 ________________
8. Paragraph 9 ________________

Hair Today
 Just what inside a black hole ?
1 Ever since John Wheeler coined the phrase "black hole', these complex astronomial
phenomena have held a peculiar fascination for physicists and laymen alike. Physicists
are interested because of the catreme conditions inside and at the edge of a black hole - a
region where gravity is so strong that nothing was thought to be able to escape. These
conditions test the intersection between the two theories that lie at the heart of modern
physice quantum mechanics and Einsteinian gravity (the latter known, rather
confusingly, as the general theory of relativity). Both theories agree perfectly with those
observations that have been made so far. But the two seem to be incomputible with cach
other, putting out of reach one grand, unified theory. Many physicists would like to
overcome this obtacle.

2 Laymen are probably more captivated by Dr. Wheeler's nomenclature than by the
details of the physics. But black holes are not really black. In the paper that catapulted
him to fame in 1974, Stepben Hawking predicted that some black holes should emit
radiation (although in a manner that is still not fully understood). And now, it seems that
another famous coinage by Dr. Wheeler- that "black holes have no hair” – is also false.

3 What Dr. Wheeler meant by the hairlessness of black holes was that they could be
characterised by just three numbers: mass, angular momentum (roughly speaking, bow
fast a hole spins) and electric charge. To describe a star, one would have, by contrast, to
say what each of the zillions of atoms inside it was doing. Once Dr. Hawking discovered
that a black hole radiates, however, the lack of hair led to a paradox. Drop something-an
encyclopedia, say- into a black hole, and it would be destroyed and eventually re-emitted
as Hawking radiation in a random wzy. The information in the cncyclopedia would be
lost. But quantum mechanics dictates, perhaps surprisingly, that information cannot be
destroyed. If the encyclopedia were to fall into a star, it would be passible (though
admittedly very hard) to reconstruct it by reversing the paths of all the atoms of which it
had been composed.

4 Before Dr.Hawking’s paper, that point was finessed because no one could prove that
the information was not somehow preserved within the black hole. But the Hawking
radiation, which is predicted by an AD HOC combination of relativity anf quantum
mechanics, trumps that fitness and leaves an apparent paradox.

5 In a paper just published in NUCLEAR PHYSICS, Samir Mathur and his colleagues at
Ohio State University seem to have solved the paradox using string theory, which is the
best available attempt to reconcile relativity and quantum mechanics. This theory, which
postulates that everything in the universe is a consequence of tiny strings oscillating in
ten dimensions, was thought to have observable consequences only at very small scales -
as much smaller than atoms as atoms are smaller than the solar system. Dr. Mathur
showed, however, that at high densities of matter, such as those within a black hole, the
effects attributable to strings can grow to large sizes.

6 According to Dr. Mathur, the interior of a black hole can be thought of as a ball of
strings. This ball modulates the Hawking radiation in a way that reflects the arrangement
of the strings inside the hole. So, in effect, it acts as a repository of the information
carried by things that have fallen into the hole. Thus, as quantum mechanics requires, no
information is destroyed.
7 Besides resolving the information paradox, this theory has the added benefit - at least
in the special cases that Dr. Mathur has been able to work out exactly – of getting rid of
the 'singularity' that had been thought to lie at the centre of every black hole. A
'singularity' is a mathematical anomaly where physical theories such as general relativity
break down because quantities that should be finite diverge to infinity. This means that
physicists are unable, even in principle, to explain what is actually happening there. It
would therefore be quite a boon if Dr. Mathur is correct, and singularities do not actually
exist.

8 His result also has a bearing on wider cosmological issues. The early universe would
have had a density similar to a black hole, and so the 'string-ball' theory would have
applied there, too. Though Dr. Mathur is cautious on the matter, his theory might supply
an alternative explanation about why - when viewed on the grandest scales - the universe
appears remarkably uniform. At the moment, this uniformity down to a phenomenon
known as cosmic inflation, in which the universe is is put supposed to have expanded
rapidly when it was very young. That expansion would have 'Jocked in' the universe's
initial uniform state by stopping local concentrations of matter from forming. Tying the
early universe together with strings might provide an alternative explanation for cosmic
uniformity.

9 String theory is often criticised because it is abstract and thus hard to compare with
reality. But although no one can yet see a black hole close up, and thus test Dr.Mathur's
ideas for real, the fact that string theory seems able, in this case, to resolve long-standing
inconsistencies between general relativity and quantum mechanics is a big point in its
favour.