BUS KARO

A GUIDEBOOK ON
BUS PLANNING &
OPERATIONS
TABLE OF CONTENTS

4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

5 CHAPTER 1: KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

5 1.1 Lessons Learned From International Reforms

8 1.2 Key Factors For Implementing Successful Bus System Reforms
13 1.3 Policies & Financing Of Bus Transport In India
17 1.4 Examining Restructuring Efforts In Indian Cities

28 CHAPTER 2: ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

28 2.1 Identifying Public Transport Corridors

29 2.2 Collection Of Mobility Data
31 2.3 Analysis Of Mobility Data
35 2.4 Tutorial Exercises
36 2.5 Service Plan Optimization

39 CHAPTER 3: INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT

40 3.1 Segregated Roadways

41 3.2 Segregated Road Infrastructure - International Examples
43 3.3 Bus Station Improvements
45 3.4 Catalog Of Bus Stops From Around The World
47 3.5 Terminals And Depots

48 CHAPTER 4: BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

48 4.1 Vehicle Size & Capacity

50 4.2 Doorways
50 4.3 Floor Height
52 4.4 Bus Fuel Type
53 4.5 Buses In The Indian Market

57 CHAPTER 5: TECHNOLOGY

57 5.1 Traffic Signal Priority

59 5.2 Electronic Fare Collection
60 5.3 GPS-based Bus Management

62 CHAPTER 6: CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

63 6.1 Types Of Contracts

68 6.2 International Contracting Strategies
70 6.3 Indore Contracting
 CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

72 CHAPTER 7: FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

72 7.1 Capital Costs

73 7.2 Operating Costs
76 7.3 Acceptable Subsidy Use
77 7.4 London Subsidies

80 CHAPTER 8: MONITORING SYSTEMS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
80 8.1 Performance Monitoring – India Examples
85 8.2 Performance Monitoring – London Example I would like to begin by thanking the team at the Foreign & Commonwealth Office, Saba Kalam
and Anurag Mishra. The funding for this work comes from the Strategic Programme Fund (SPF) -
87 APPENDIX A: CITY CASE STUDY REPORTS Low Carbon High Growth Programme of the Foreign & Commonwealth Office.

88 Case Study 1 – London I would like to thank Dario Hidalgo for his assistance in creating the framework for the
105 Case Study 2 – Sao Paulo guidebook, Ashwin Prabhu, Prajna Rao, Vamsee Modugola and Jeremy Cogan for assisting in
research, writing and editing the contents of the guidebook, Tahira Thekaekara and Amit Bhatt
119 Case Study 3 – Seoul
for coordinating and managing all the administrative efforts and David Cooper, Ethan Arpi and
132 Case Study 4 – Mumbai Kavita Ramakrishnan for coordinating and managing the design and layout of the guide.
148 Case Study 5 – Indore
I would like to also thank John Barry, Nick Bromley, Nigel Hardy and Stefan Trinder at Transport
157 Case Study 6 – Ahmedabad
for London (TfL) for reviewing the London case study, Karl Fjellstorm at Institute for Transportation
170 Case Study 7 – Bangalore & Development Policy (ITDP) China for reviewing the Seoul case study, Dr. Eduardo Vasconcellos
at Associação Nacional dos Transportes Públicos (ANTP) Brasil, Dr. Luis Antonio Lindau at CTS
185 APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
Brasil and German Freiberg at CTS Mexico for reviewing the Sao Paulo case study.
191 APPENDIX C: INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS The India case studies are based on interviews with Mr. P K Garg at Bangalore Metropolitan
Transport Corporation (BMTC), Mr. Victor Nagaonkar at Bombay Electric Supply and Transport
202 APPENDIX D: USER SURVEYS
(BEST), Prof. Shivanand Swamy at Centre for Environment Planning and Technology (CEPT) and
Mr. Chandramauli Shukla, Mr. S C Garg and Mr. Vivek Shrotriya at Atal Indore City Transport
202 Example 1: Passenger User Survey Questions
Services Limited (AICTSL). I thank them for the time and information they provided.
202 Example 2: Transantiago User Perception Survey (Santiago, Chile)
I would like to thank Dr. Robin Chase and Ms. Sujaya Rathi at Center for Study of Science,
206 APPENDIX E: GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS Technology & Policy (CSTEP), Dr. Ashish Verma at Center for Infrastructure, Sustainable Transport
and Urban Planning (CiSTUP), Santosh Kodukula at GTZ and Chris Kost at Institute for
207 APPENDIX F: REFERENCES Transportation & Development Policy (ITDP) for peer reviewing this guidebook and providing
valuable comments and suggestions.
214 LIST OF FIGURES
A special thanks to Mr. Sanjeev Kumar Lohia at the Ministry of Urban Development for showing
216 LIST OF TABLES faith in the abilities of our team and providing continuous support through this endeavour.

2 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 3
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
BUS TRANSPORT

EXECUTIVE CHAPTER 1: passengers travel on more than 6,800 scheduled buses,

over more than 700 routes [1]. Bus services in London are
provided by private companies which compete for route
SUMMARY KEY FACTORS tenders and operate under contract to London Bus Services
Limited, a division of the public transport authority Transport
for London (TfL). Gross cost contracts with performance
In the last decade more than a dozen world cities have
transformed their mobility through bus based public
innovations in technology that are raising the efficiency and
capability of bus transport systems. Chapter 6 examines
FOR GOOD BUS based financial incentives are used [2]. Since 2000,
increased usage of the bus system and public transport in
general has been a major goal of the municipal
transport solutions. Three advancements have made this
transformation possible -
innovations in contracts and tendering that can improve
operational efficiency within city bus agencies. Chapter 7
explores the role of financial analysis and acceptable subsidy
TRANSPORT government in London [3]. In order to achieve this, bus
service levels have been increased dramatically, with the
1. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) in its modern avatar. number of bus-kilometres operated having gone up by over
use. Finally, Chapter 8 discusses performance monitoring
a third between 2000-01 and 2007-08 [4]. Additionally, a
techniques that can incentivize quality improvements and
2. Increased affordability of technology such as GPS devices large number of initiatives have been employed to improve
respond to user feedback. Planners and decision makers can gain considerable
and centralized control equipment along with fare collection the quality of bus services. These measures include curbside
insight by observing city-wide bus system reforms in bus-only lanes, signal priority for buses, and a contact-less
devices, making close monitoring of system operations and The development of this guidebook parallels efforts of the major world cities. We start by synthesizing information smart card system for fare collection. As a result, bus
continuous improvement possible. Government of India's Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban learned from case studies of London (Europe), Sao Paulo patronage has significantly increased over the past decade,
Renewal Mission (JnNURM) to become a source of financing (Latin America) and Seoul (Asia). All reviewed systems
3. Belief by local leadership that bus based solutions can for the procurement of new buses nationwide. Cities across an outcome unique amongst cities in the developed world.
address the mobility needs of a city. improved system wide ridership, significantly improved In the period between 2000-01 and 2007-08, annual bus-
the country that have received these buses are beginning to conditions for commuters and produced other positive
incorporate them into their existing fleets or are starting passenger-kilometres increased by 59% [4]. In the same
Case studies and planning guides for bus rapid transit externalities such as reduced air pollution and improved period, the number of annual passenger boardings
entirely new public bus companies to operate them. We traffic safety. The reforms were undertaken amidst varying
systems have been widely published and used in the last few increased by 46% [4]. This increase in bus ridership
hope our case studies, recommendations, and coverage of political, economic and social contexts. The main focus of
years. However, not much has been done to document city contributed to a net 7% shift in journey-stages from private
specific methodologies will serve as a helpful reference to the reviews was to identify the common elements
wide bus systems reforms attempted in the last decade. to public modes of transport during the same period [5].
these cities and states as they set up new agencies, operate responsible for the success of these city-wide reforms.
Chapter 1 of our guide begins with an introduction to and an the buses, monitor their performance and develop Ultimately, seven aspects or commonalties stood out as the Sao Paulo
overview of three international locations where citywide frameworks for continuous system improvement. key factors for implementing successful bus system reforms
reforms have been implemented with notable praise: across the three cities. The Sao Paulo bus system, run by SPTrans, recorded a daily
EMBARQ's production of this guidebook continues our
London, Sao Paulo, and Seoul. A common theme appears average of over 7.4 million boardings in 2007 [6]. The
commitment to supporting the development of This chapter is divided into four sections. The first section
and seven aspects stand out as the key factors for implementation of the city-wide bus system reform, initiated
environmentally and financially sustainable transport introduces each of the three international case study cities
implementing successful reforms across the three cities. in 2001 under the leadership of Mayor Marta Suplicy,
solutions in Indian cities. Like the leaders in London, Sao and compares the performance of their bus systems. The
These are strong political leadership, local technical consisted of a very large planning and implementation effort
Paulo, and Seoul, we believe investing in bus based public second section examines the seven common strengths of
planning, implementing bus priority, use of new involving 39 private bus providers, 6,000 co-operatives of
transport can solve the mobility needs of a city in addition to these three systems. The third section provides background
technologies, innovations in contracting and tendering, self-employed van operators, and 13,700 vehicles [7]. A
creating profound quality of life improvements, reducing information on the policies and financing of Indian bus
managed financial subsidies to improve service quality, and large portion of the planned reform work was completed by
pollution and increasing accessibility for all. We are eager to transport. The final section examines the experience of four
the use of performance monitoring techniques. May 2004 [7]. The main aspects of the system reform were
assist cities in applying bus innovations (along with Indian cities using the framework of the seven key aspects.
In the past decade, Indian cities have attempted various the introduction of an integrated fare system using electronic
improvements in walking, cycling, and vehicle sharing) so
restructuring efforts. We also examine the restructuring smart cards (‘Bilhete Unico’) and the reorganization of bus
that the highest and best use of local mobility options is 1.1 LESSONS LEARNED FROM INTERNATIONAL
efforts in four Indian cities - Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Indore routes into segmented local and structural services. Terminal
achieved. This guidebook is funded by the British High REFORMS
and Mumbai - with respect to the seven aspects. facilities were improved and now include prepaid boarding
Commission under the Strategic Programme Fund (SPF) -
areas and additional auxiliary services. Bus priority schemes
The remainder of the report provides recommendations for Low Carbon High Growth Programme. The objective of the Three world cities, each on a different continent, stand out
in the Sao Paulo bus system include median busways and
maximizing the efficacy of bus based public transport in programme is to promote a low carbon, high growth global as success stories in bus transport reform. This section
bus stations (‘Passa-Rápido’), fully segregated lanes
Indian cities. Each chapter covers a range of technical advice economy. summarizes the city-wide bus systems in these cities -
(‘Expresso Tiradentes/Paulistão’), and curbside bus lanes
and reader activities that detail best practices within each of London (Europe), Sao Paulo (Latin America) and Seoul
(‘Via Livre’) [7]. Annual passenger boardings in the bus
the key factors. Chapter 2 reviews route planning and (Asia). Individual case studies have been prepared for each
EMBARQ – The WRI Centre for Sustainable Transport system more than doubled between 2003 and 2007,
provides a tutorial on easy demand assessments that can be city and are presented in Appendix A.
although this was in large part due to the rationalization of
performed by transportation planners. Chapter 3 cites best Mumbai, India routes and the introduction of Bilhete Unico which permitted
London
practices in providing bus priority infrastructure, while the free transfers [6]. Operational improvements in the Passa-
most significant vehicle types and their characteristics are London has one of the most extensive networks of public bus Rápido were well received by users – the Perituba-Lapa-
discussed in Chapter 4. In Chapter 5 we highlight transport in the world. On any given weekday, over 6 million Centro bus corridor, for example, achieved 85% approval

4 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 5
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

rates in the first year of operation [8]. However, the rating of the public bus system as a whole remained low - only 48% of Figure 1.2 Fleet Size (2007)
transit users indicated that services were excellent or good in 2006 [8]. The main complaints were high levels of pollution, long
Fleet Size
waiting and travel times, and congestion.
Seoul 7190
Seoul
Sao Paulo 14911
In 2008, the Seoul bus system carried over 5 million people on nearly 400 routes on an average weekday [9]. The bus route
London 8000
network includes 294 kms of curbside lanes and 73.5 kms of median lanes [10], [11]. Starting in 2002, Seoul underwent a
comprehensive reform of its bus system under the leadership of Mayor Lee Myung-Bak. The reform process was unique in its
use of a ‘bottom-up’ approach, wherein extensive input was sought from civil society and bus user groups [12]. The Seoul 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
Development Institute (SDI) led the technical planning effort. Routes were rationalized into a trunk-and-feeder system, and Sources: [9], [17], [19]
were integrated with other transport modes, like the metro rail system. A unified fare structure was introduced, with free
transfers within a specified time period and a switch from a flat fare to a distance based fare. A contact-less smart card system
was also introduced, which made fare collection from users and revenue distribution amongst operators easier [13]. A
Figure 1.3 Capital Productivity: Passengers per Bus per Day (2007)
significant aspect of the reforms was the widespread use of technology. GPS units were installed on all buses, allowing for
dynamic control of the bus system through a centralized command centre and the deployment of real time passenger Passenger per Bus per Day
information systems. The reforms have had a significant impact on bus usage. From 2004 to 2008, the average daily
ridership on the bus system has increased by 15.2% [9]. Bus speeds have increased within the median bus corridors [14]. The Seoul 779
revenue generated by the bus system has increased, with average daily revenues per bus growing from $358 in 2004 to $510 Sao Paulo 502
in 2008 (current prices) [9]. User satisfaction with the bus system has also improved compared to the pre-reform period [9].
London 745
Comparison of Indicators of Performance
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
The main indicators of bus system performance for each city are summarized in Table 1.1 and Figures 1.1-1.5 below.
Sources: [4], [6], [20]
Table 1.1 Performance Indicators, 2007

Figure 1.4 Operational Productivity: Boardings per Bus-Kilometre (2007)

Indicator Seoul Sao Paulo London
Boardings per Bus-Kilometer
Population (millions) 10.4 11 7.5 Bus mode share is percentage of
motorized trips
Area (sq. Kms) 605 900 1,572 Seoul 3.03
Boardings per Day (millions) 5.6 7.5 6.0 Seoul Bus mode share is 2006 Sao Paulo
figure
Fleet Size 7,190 14,911 8,000 London 4.65
Bus mode share (%) 27.6 36.8 25 Sources: [4], [6], [7], [9], [15],
[16], [17], [18], [19], [20] 0 1 2 3 4 5
Passengers per Bus per Day 779 502 745
Sources: [4], [20]
Boardings per Bus-Kilometre 3.03 n/a 4.65

Figure 1.1 Boardings per day (2007) Figure 1.5 Bus Mode Shares (% of Motorized Trips, 2007)
Bus Mode Share
Boardings per Day (millions)
Seoul 27.6%
Seoul 5.6
Sao Paulo 36.8%
Sao Paulo 7.5 London 25%
London 6.0
0 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 Seoul figure is from 2006
Sources: [5], [9], [18]
Sources: [4], [6], [9]

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 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

1.2 KEY FACTORS FOR IMPLEMENTING SUCCESSFUL BUS SYSTEM REFORMS 1. Strong Political Leadership in the Decision Making cities, the political leadership took on a major and active role
Process in bus reform. In Seoul, Mayor Lee Myung Bak was especially
An analysis of the three international case studies revealed seven common aspects that stood out as the key factors active in promoting and securing support for the reform of
for successful bus system reform. Table 1.2 summarizes these seven key aspects as they apply to the cities studied – All three cities - London, Seoul, and Sao Paulo – undertook the bus system [12]. In London, though the reform process
London, Sao Paulo and Seoul. Following the table, each of these aspects is discussed in detail. extensive reforms to improve the quality of their city-wide bus took place over many years, it was only with the creation of
system. However, each city approached the reform process in the Greater London Authority in 1999 and the election of
Table 1.2 The Seven Key Factors to Success a different way. In terms of the speed with which the reforms Mayor Ken Livingstone in 2000 that improving the bus system
were pushed through, the three cities can be said to fall on a advanced to the forefront of the public agenda [26]. Similarly
spectrum running from a ‘Big Bang’ method, where extensive in Sao Paulo, Mayor Marta Suplicy was highly influential in
London Sao Paulo Seoul and comprehensive reforms are undertaken in a very short actualizing the reform of the bus system [7].
period of time, to a ‘Gradualist’ method in which reforms are
1. Strong Political Leadership in the Decision Making process introduced in a piecemeal fashion over many years. The existence of political support is a prerequisite for
successful bus system reforms. Strong political leadership is
Reform Approach: Gradual Reform Approach: Gradual + Big Bang Reform Approach: Big Bang In Seoul, the reforms were of the Big Bang variety. By 2002, necessary for several reasons. Since public transport reform
Leadership: Initially National Govt, Mayor Leadership: Mayor driven Leadership: Mayor driven
the quality and performance of bus transport in Seoul was affects a large number of potentially antagonistic
driven big push in 2000 Implementing Agency: SPTrans Implementing Agency: Seoul Metropolitan
Implementing Agency: Transport for Government (SMG) very poor. Lee Myung Bak was elected mayor in that year in stakeholders, strong leadership is useful in bringing these
London (TfL) part based on his campaign promise to fix the worsening various stakeholders to the negotiating table and in enabling
public transport situation in the city [12]. Once the political will compromises and agreements to be reached. Furthermore,
2. Local institution leads technical planning for route reorganization and popular support for reforms was in place, the strong political leadership enables the execution of reforms
Planning Agency: Transport for London (TfL) Planning Agency: SPTrans Planning agency: Seoul Development overhauling of the bus system went from planning to that may be unpopular but are essential to ensuring long term
Service planning based on demand data Service planning based on demand data Institute (SDI) implementation in a matter of 2 years. Within this short period sustainability.
Service planning based on demand data a large number of improvements were made to the Seoul bus
system – the introduction of median bus lanes, rationalizing
3. Implementing Bus Priority
routes into a trunk and feeder system, and a smart card 2. Local Institution leads Technical Planning for Route
280 kms of Curbside bus lanes 204 kms of Curbside bus lanes 294 kms of Curbside bus lanes ticketing system among others. Reorganization
Signal Priority for buses 353 kms of Median bus lanes (no hard 74 kms of Median bus lanes (no hard
Whole Route planning approach to segregation, except for 31.8 km elevated segregation) By contrast, reforms in London were of the Gradualist, All three cities took a proactive approach to route planning
eliminate bottlenecks corridor) piecemeal variety. This process began in 1985, with the and route rationalization. The changes in route networks
introduction of competitive tendering for routes between the were planned on the basis of demand assessment.
4. Use of Technology existing public bus company and private bus companies,
GPS based signal priority GPS based vehicle tracking GPS based vehicle tracking which were now allowed to enter the market [25]. The most extensive changes were made in Sao Paulo and
Smart card automatic fare collection Smart card automatic fare collection Smart card automatic fare collection Subsequently, over the course of a decade, other changes Seoul [7], [10]. In both these cities the existing network of bus
('Oyster') ('Bilhete Unico') ('T-money') routes was completely overhauled. Prior to the reforms, the
Camera system for bus lane enforcement Camera system for bus lane enforcement Central Control Centre
were gradually introduced such as splitting up the publicly
owned bus company into independent subsidiaries which route network in both cities lacked any overall organization.
Central Control Centre Central Control Centre Real Time Passenger Information System
Real time Passenger Information System were eventually privatized [25]. In the following years other Routes often overlapped due to the largely deregulated
reforms and innovations such as gross cost contracts, nature of the bus services market. In both cities routes were
5. Innovations in contracting and tendering electronic ticketing using smart cards and an expanded bus reorganized into a trunk-and-feeder system [7], [10]. The bus
lane system were introduced [22]. The process by which bus route network was also integrated with other travel modes,
Gross cost contracts with quality incentives Hybrid Approach Gross cost contracts
services in London were transformed from a completely such as the metro and inter-city bus services. In Seoul, there is
6. Need for managed subsidies to improve quality of service public monopoly into the system as it stands today took a continual process of analyzing travel data to evaluate
approximately two decades. demand and usage on bus routes and subsequently
1.018 Billion USD (2006-2007) 17.5 Million USD (2006) 163 Million USD (2007) cancelling and adding routes as needed [27].
7. System performance monitoring and user feedback The reform process in Sao Paulo falls somewhere in between
the ‘Big Bang’ and ‘Gradualist’ ends of the spectrum. In this Although London did not undergo such a large-scale
GPS based performance monitoring GPS based performance monitoring GPS based performance monitoring case, the reforms, which included the introduction of unified reorganization of its bus route network, it has used extensive
User satisfaction surveys User satisfaction surveys User satisfaction surveys ticketing, reorganization of bus routes and a change in the monitoring systems to adjust bus frequencies and capacities
Roadside audits as needed [26]. Routes are added or removed based on
Mystery Traveller surveys bus business model, were introduced over a period of 5-6
Mechanical and technical inspections years beginning in 2001 [7]. demand analysis. These changes are introduced through the
tendering process, wherein the fact that individual routes are
One common thread running through the reform process in re-tendered every 5 years allows the specifications of service
Subsidy figures are current prices. each of these cities is the existence of strong political supply to be altered to meet current levels of demand [2].
Sources: [5], [7], [9], [10], [11], [21], [22], [23], [24] leadership to push through planned reforms. In all three

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 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

In sum, route rationalization was recognized as an important buses or roadside beacons detect when a bus is nearing a Furthermore, smart cards enable easier distribution of revenues to private bus companies. Another big advantage of smart
factor in bus reform in all three cities. It must be noted, traffic signal, and the system can then perform a variety of cards is the ability to perform in-depth analysis of travel patterns and other travel characteristics of system users.
however, that in each case the successful implementation of actions to provide the bus with a clear way through junctions
route rationalization was possible in large part due to the [28]. These actions include, for example, extending the green London and Sao Paulo use camera technology to enforce bus lane segregation. Since bus lanes in these cities do not employ
availability of considerable technical expertise from strong cycle in the direction of bus travel or reducing the green cycle hard segregation, preventing the encroachment of bus lanes by other motor vehicles is a major concern. In London, cameras in
local planning agencies. In London, Transport for London for contra-flowing traffic. bus lanes and on-board buses, in combination with automatic number plate recognition software, allows authorities to levy
(TfL) is the main agency tasked with providing public fines on private vehicles that enter bus-only lanes . A similar camera-based system for bus lane enforcement exists in Sao Paolo .
transport. TfL was able to draw upon its expertise in transport None of the three cities, however, have adopted hard The table below summarizes the technology features adopted in each city.
planning in order to recommend needed changes in the segregation for bus lanes. This has prevented them from
route network and service supply levels. In Seoul, the Seoul achieving the high performance levels displayed by systems Table 1.4 Technology features adopted by each city
Development Institute (SDI) led the way in producing the in cities like Bogota, Mexico City and a few others. In Indian
technical plans for the reform. SPTrans played a similar role in cities, high demand levels and traffic conditions mean that London Sao Paulo Seoul
Sao Paulo. In all three cases, strong local planning agencies curbside bus lanes are unlikely to result in a good quality of
service. Full BRT systems with all its components, especially Control Systems Centralized Command Centre Centralized Command Centre Centralized Command Centre
were able to combine technical expertise in transport
planning and a familiarity with the unique characteristics of hard segregation, are needed.
GPS based Signal Priority for GPS based bus Tracking GPS based bus Tracking
transport patterns in each city to develop comprehensive Buses
programs for demand assessment and route planning. 4. Use of Technology
Fare Collection Smart card system ('Oyster') Smart Card system and Smart Card system and
3. Implementing Bus Priority Seoul, Sao Paolo and London have all made extensive use of Unified Ticketing (‘Bilhete Unified Ticketing (‘T-Money’)
technology in their bus systems. The most common use of Unico’)
The biggest hurdle in providing high quality bus based public technology has been the installation of GPS devices on buses
Enforcement Bus Lane enforcement using Bus Lane enforcement using
transport is to deliver the required capacity and service when in all three cities. The GPS devices have several uses. First and n/a
Cameras and Number Plate Cameras and Number Plate
it is most needed, such as at the peak section, peak hour, and foremost it enables a central command centre to monitor bus Recognition software Recognition software
peak direction of demand. Transport authorities in each of the system performance in real time. The benefits of this vary
three cities recognized that this was only possible through the from the ability to dynamically alter bus supply in response to User Information Real-time Passenger Real-time Passenger Real-time Passenger
traffic conditions, performance monitoring which enhances Information and Next Bus Information and Next Bus Information and Next Bus
use of bus priority strategies such as signal priority for buses at
the ability to make appropriate changes to the system as Arrival Countdown Arrival Countdown Arrival Countdown
intersections and building segregated bus lanes. These cities
have used a variety of techniques to introduce bus priority and needed, and also ensuring that private bus companies fulfil
Sources: [7], [10], [28], [29], [30], [31]
improve the performance of the bus system. The main tool in contractual obligations to provide specified levels and quality
this regard has been the introduction of bus lanes. Bus lanes of service. In Seoul, for instance, bus companies are
5. Innovations in Contracting and Tendering
can come in two distinct varieties – curbside bus lanes and compensated based on Bus-Kilometres operated, which is
median bus lanes. automatically calculated based on data from the on-board In all three cities private bus companies are responsible for the delivery of bus services under contract with the municipal
GPS devices [29]. Similarly the London GPS system iBUS, government or the relevant transport authority. Competitive tendering is used to allocate routes or service areas. London and
Seoul and Sao Paulo have large networks of both curbside recently installed throughout the fleet in 2008, will allow the Seoul employ route based tendering, whereas Sao Paolo uses an area based system in which a bus company is responsible for
and median bus lanes. Median bus lanes are especially monitoring of various aspects of the bus service such as the services in a particular area of the city [2],[7],[32].
effective in increasing speeds and throughputs. London also fraction of on time arrivals and average waiting times for bus
has an extensive network of curbside lanes, although it lacks users [2]. All three cities have also made use of bus based The type of contract used varies in each city. London and Seoul use variations of gross-cost contracting, wherein the companies
any median bus-only corridors. Table 1.3 summarizes the GPS systems to develop real time passenger information are paid a set amount, which includes a profit margin, to provide a specified amount of service (i.e. bus-kilometres) [2],[32].
extent of segregated road infrastructure built in each city. systems, such as displays at bus stops and terminals showing The transport authority receives all the fare revenue. The transport authorities thus face all the revenue risk.
the arrival time of the next bus.
Table 1.3 Segregated Bus Infrastructure (London, Seoul, Sao In London, the gross cost contracts are subject to financial incentives based on the quality of service.[2] . Consider, for example,
Paulo) Another technological innovation common to all three cities is the reliability incentive. Every contract specifies a 'Minimum Performance Standard' which sets targets for service levels and
the use of smart card technology for integrated ticketing percentage of on-time arrivals and departures. Bus companies are then eligible for a bonus equivalent to 1.5% of the contract
Segregated Bus London Seoul Sao Paulo systems and fare collection - 'T-money' in Seoul, 'Bilhete Unico' price for every 2% improvement in on-time percentage. Similarly, they may face a 1% deduction for every 2% reduction in on-
Infrastructure
in Sao Paulo, and 'Oyster' in London [7], [10], [30]. In each of time performance below the Minimum Performance Standard. Similar incentives exist for percentage of scheduled bus-
Curbside lanes (kms) 280 294 204 these cases, users can add money (or monthly passes) to their kilometres operated, vehicle condition, driver performance, and customer service.
Median lanes (kms) 0 74 353 smart cards, and then use them to pay fares. Smart card
technology allows for seamless fare collection, and also In Sao Paulo, contracts are a hybrid between gross-contracts, where revenue risk lies with the authorities, and net-cost contracts,
reduces dwell times at bus stops by eliminating the time where all the revenue risk is borne by the bus companies. The compensation mechanism in Sao Paulo is governed by a formula
Sources: [7], [10], [22]
consuming process of collecting cash fares from users. which guarantees an 18% annual return [7]. This formula is made up of several components and also has a readjustment
In addition to the installation of bus lanes, London also has a Initiatives such as free transfers, or transfers between different provision that allows the mechanism to be changed frequently depending on variations in cost and inflation.
system of signal priority for buses. Onboard GPS devices on modes are also easier to operate with smart cards.

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 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

6. Need for managed subsidies to improve quality of kilometres as per their contract, as well as ensuring that buses cities therefore implemented priority schemes for buses accident rates. To improve quality of life in cities, the
service meet both 'average waiting time' (for high frequency routes) through the building of segregated rights of way or creating Government of India introduced the Jawaharlal Nehru
and 'percentage on-time' (for low frequency routes) bus priority at junctions. National Urban Renewal Mission (JnNURM) and the National
Despite large increases in ridership numbers over the past standards. Up until 2008, when the onboard GPS based iBus Urban Transport Policy (NUTP). The following is a list of
decade, and the resultant increase in both fare-box and other system was rolled out, these statistics were gathered using Each city made extensive use of technology to monitor system policies and grants that were launched in the last five years to
revenues, all three bus systems require subsidies. The London road side surveys of 3-5% of the service on a given route [2]. performance and deliver quality of service improvements. improve planning and implementation of transport projects:
bus system required a subsidy of 625 million GBP in 2007 Static audits at bus stops and garages and mystery traveller Electronic fare collection systems made it possible to
and the Seoul bus system required an estimated subsidy of surveys are used to gauge quality of service standards such introduce integrated fares and seamless fare collection. Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
US$ 190 million in 2008 [9], [21]. as cleanliness of buses, driver quality and customer service. Central control centres enabled dynamic monitoring and (JnNURM)
London also conducts a large number of direct user surveys evaluation of system performance. Data from these
The reasons for these subsidies are wide ranging. In London, to track satisfaction with the bus system. In addition to technological systems allowed the cities to introduce The JnNURM is a nationwide urban renewal mission
bus fares were frozen during the years 2000 to 2004 in order these three main types of service monitoring, London also appropriate changes in practice. launched by the central government in December 2005 to
to encourage bus usage [26]. Capital and operational costs conducts additional surveys and audits to judge contract modernize 63 selected Indian cities with heavy investments in
for the bus system also increased due to large expansions in compliance, the mechanical state of buses and the technical Each city used innovations in contracting and tendering to infrastructure and governance. It involves a total investment
bus service, road infrastructure improvements and the skills of drivers. provide high quality bus services. Private bus operating of over $20 billion over a period of 7 years during which the
introduction of quality incentive contracts which lead to an companies were hired through competitive tendering and mission seeks to ensure the sustainable development of the
increase in contract payouts. In Seoul, the bus-based GPS system is used to great contracted through gross cost contracts with some form of selected cities. This includes planned urban frameworks for a
advantage for system monitoring. In particular, the system is performance incentives. Another aspect that stood out for all period of 25 years with 5 annual updates on projects,
In Seoul, bus ridership numbers and revenues per bus per used to determine bus-kilometres operated by each bus three cities was the size and nature of subsidies for the bus programmes and strategies for sustainable urban
day have been steadily increasing since the 2004 reforms [9]. company, which is the basis of revenue distribution and system. As quality of service was improved there was a development.
However, the reforms required large amounts of spending on contract payments [33]. This same system is also used to substantial increase in subsidies. However, in each case
capital improvements such as new road infrastructure monitor the performance of buses with respect to factors such subsidies were accepted as a necessary cost of improving bus As stated, the aim of the mission is “to encourage reforms and
(median lanes), new buses, the smart card system, and as reliability, headways, average speeds, and so on. Multiple service quality, and were justified based on the positive fast track planned development of identified cities. The focus
improved technology systems [10]. The continued cost of user surveys are carried out both by government transport externalities of an expanded bus system and the costs of of the mission is on efficiency in urban infrastructure and
developing and maintaining these systems has lead to an authorities and a variety of civil society groups [33]. alternative solutions to improving public transport patronage. service delivery mechanisms, community participation, and
increase in subsidies from pre-2004 levels, although Once all the reforms were in place all cities employed wide- accountability of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)/parastatal
subsidies have been dropping after reaching an all time high In Sao Paulo, a large user satisfaction survey is carried out by ranging performance monitoring systems to ensure agencies towards citizens.” The funds disbursed under this
of US$ 265 million in 2006 [9]. the ANTP, the national association of transport professionals continuous system performance improvement. User national scheme are guided under various national policies
in Brazil . feedback through user surveys has been an important tool to for coherent urbanization of the country.
Although subsidies for bus services in all three cities have ensure high quality of service.
increased post-reforms, this fact must be viewed in the context Conclusions National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP)
of the available alternatives to improving public transport All cities aspiring to reform their city-wide bus system
usage and the positive externalities engendered by improved All reviewed systems improved system wide ridership, operations need to create an environment that facilitates the The National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) was formulated
bus services. In all three cities, the need for subsidies has significantly improved conditions for commuters and seven keys to success as illustrated in this analysis. in April 2006 as a response to the growing concern with
arisen expressly because of the recognized need to vastly produced other positive externalities including reduced air increasing urbanization and the ensuing difficulties of public
improve the quality of existing bus systems. Achieving the pollution and improved traffic safety. The reforms were accessibility and mobility, along with escalating health and
resultant levels of increase in public transport usage through undertaken amidst varying political, economic and social 1.3 POLICIES & FINANCING OF BUS TRANSPORT IN safety risks due excessive pollution and traffic accidents. Its
other means, such as expansions to rail-based systems, contexts. However, in all three cities a common pattern of the INDIA main objectives are:
would be substantially more expensive. Furthermore, the progression of the reform process can be deduced.
positive externalities of improving public bus ridership, such Public transport is the predominant mode of motorized local • Incorporating urban transportation at the planning stage
as reduced traffic congestion (and the resultant reduced cost The process started at the top with strong political backing travel in Indian cities. Four metropolitan areas - Delhi, rather than it being a subsequent need
to the economy of productivity losses) and improved air and leadership. Hard decisions were required to change the Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai have commuter rail, while • Encouraging integrated land use and transport planning
quality provide ample justification for subsidizing public bus status quo and this necessitated strong leadership. Once seventeen cities have organized bus transport and many focussing on accessibility along with mobility
services. these decisions were made reform plans were formulated on others have unregulated private bus transport. Buses provide
the vast majority of public transport services in India and • Equitably allocating investments for people based
the basis of demand assessment backed by extensive field
provide a cheap and convenient mode of transport for all transportation rather than motor vehicles
7. System Performance Monitoring and User Feedback data. These plans were developed by technically adept local
planning institutions in each city. In urban environments classes of society. Buses are mostly run by state transport • Improving networks between spaces for production,
London has a wide range of system monitoring where cars outnumber buses and there is stiff competition for corporations, which have been slow in implementing labour and their corresponding markets
methodologies in place. These can be divided into three main limited road space, it becomes difficult to provide high quality technological and procedural innovations. Public transport
categories: performance monitoring, service quality and user bus based public transport without intensive bus priority mode share is remaining constant or decreasing because of The policy encourages each city with a population of more
satisfaction [2]. Performance monitoring involves ensuring schemes. This fact was highlighted by the planning agency growth in personal vehicle ownership. This is leading to than 4 million to plan infrastructure projects for a mass transit
that bus companies ply the specified number of bus- and accepted by the political leadership in each city. All three higher traffic congestion and increased air pollution and system best suited to its requirements. It proposes the creation

12 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 13
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

of a knowledge centre to provide the information required for • Nominating a single state-level department to address all
vehicular registrations, congestion tax, green tax, and so on. The revenues generated through such means should be used not
taking the right technological decisions for a specific city. urban transport issues
only to fund new infrastructure projects in urban transportation, but also to replace assets of public transport companies and to
• Setting up a regulatory mechanism to periodically revise bear the costs of various concessions extended by the State Government to encourage public transport usage.
Grants for Transportation Studies
fares
In pursuit of the NUTP objectives, the Central Government • Reimbursement/ Waiver of taxes on city bus and BRT At the city level, it recommends initiatives such a levy on land benefiting from investment in urban transport projects,
announced a funding scheme in August 2008 to provide investments by state governments and ULBs rationalization of parking fees, property development taxes, advertisement revenue on transit corridors, and so on. This fund at
financial assistance totalling up to 80% for traffic and the city level could be used on a contingency basis to bear the costs of user subsidies and to provide the ULB's share for funding
transportation studies and up to 50% for Detailed Project The city level reforms include: urban transport projects.
Reports (DPR). The traffic and transportation studies include • Drafting an advertisement policy for additional revenues Financing
integrated land use and transport planning practices,
Comprehensive Mobility Plans (CMPs), Clean Development • Formulating a parking policy reflecting true value of urban
land The funds available under JnNURM for procuring buses are meant exclusively for urban transport i.e. city bus services and/or
Mechanism (CDM) studies, Intelligent Transport System (ITS)
BRT systems. Based on city size, the ministry supports a portion of the needed funding, while the rest is to be generated by local
studies and public awareness campaign launches in line with • Multimodal integration for inter-network connectivity and bodies. The financial contributions towards the purchase of new buses under the bus procurement scheme are summarised in
the NUTP guidelines. As part of the scheme, the government seamless public travel the following table
agency or urban local body is required to prepare a DPR
• Automated Vehicle Tracking and Monitoring with
providing details of the city bus service, potential BRT systems, Table 1.5 Financial contributions for urban bus procurement under JnNURM
Passenger Information Systems
financing arrangements, user charges, and so on. It is also
required that the State governments and the responsible • Setting up a Traffic management and Operations Control
transport agency should enter into a Memorandum of centre Category Centre State ULB/Parastatal
Grant Grant Share
Understanding for executing urban transport reforms to • Setting up a Unified Metropolitan Transport Authority
obtain the funding. (UMTA) Cities/UAs with 4 million plus population as per 2001 census 35% 15% 50%

Grants for Bus Procurement Cities/UAs with million plus but less than 4 million population as per 2001 census 50% 20% 30%
One of the most important reforms stated above is the setting
up of Unified Metropolitan Transport Authorities (UMTA) for Cities/ towns/ UAs in North Eastern states and Jammu & Kashmir 90% 10% -
In January 2009, the Central Government announced a cities with more than one million in population. The purpose
funding package for states to receive a one-time assistance Cities/ UAs not mentioned above 80% 10% 10%
of the UMTA is to be a singular regulatory body that facilitates
grant for the fleet expansion of their public bus service co-ordinated planning, implementation and management of *UA = Urban Agglomeration
systems. Prior to the launch of this program, the central public transport services across diverse modes of urban
government only funded infrastructure projects for urban transportation. Currently, cities with more than a million Figure 1.6 Funding stream for Bus procurement under JnNURM
transport while the cost of augmenting rolling stock had to be people usually have more than 3-4 departments involved in
borne by state governments or state road transport public transport – urban development, transport, public
corporations. works, police, and so on. Their roles often overlap, calling Central
Reforms
for a re-examination and restructuring of the system at the Government
top. The UMTA would allow for the optimal integration of
As the objective of the JnNURM is to have sustainable roles, functions and finances pertinent to urban mass
developmental outcomes, the financing for procurement of transport systems. State Urban State Level
Infrastructure Nodal Agency
buses is tied to the implementation of certain state-level and Fund
Urban Transport Fund
city-level reforms for urban transport. The State Government
and parastatal agencies are thus required to enter into a The Ministry of Urban Development recommends the
Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) for the implementation of establishment of a self-sustaining Urban Transport Fund Revolving
these reforms. dedicated to the development and maintenance of public Fund
transport in urban areas. It encourages the use of innovative
At the state level, the reforms include: GRANT
financing mechanisms and a greater use of private capital SOFT
+ GRANT
through well structured contracts for the competitive delivery LOAN
LOAN
• Setting up a city-level Unified Metropolitan Transport of urban transport services.
Authority (UMTA) for all million-plus cities
• Setting up a dedicated Urban Transport Fund At the State level, it suggests ideas such as additional state
taxes on petrol, additional registration fees on four wheelers
• Changing bye-laws and master plans of cities to integrate and two wheelers, high registration fees for personal vehicles ULB/para-statal agency
land-use and transport planning and incorporate Transit- running on diesel, annual renewal fees on driving license and
Oriented Development (TOD)

14 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 15
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

Release of Funds Fleet Size projects in India in the last 5 years. Most cities have replaced their old rickety buses with swanky new ones that are safer and
more comfortable. Buses have the JnNURM logo which sends the message that the government is keen on improving bus
Funds will be released as Additional Central Assistance In calculating the number of buses to be procured, it is transport. BRT projects with partial central government funding are underway in a few cities. Many cities are developing
(100% Central Grant in respect of central share) to the State recommended that buses that are older than 9 years or that comprehensive mobility plans. Efforts are underway to build capacity in government and academic institutions to provide urban
Government or its designated State Level Nodal Agency. The have travelled for more than 9.5 lakh kms should be planning and transport planning expertise.
nodal agency will disburse the central assistance to ULBs or considered for scrapping. In the absence of detailed data, 50
parastatal agencies, as the case may be, as a soft loan, grant- buses per lakh of population for cities with a population of 4 All these are preliminary steps and much more work is needed to set up strong planning groups to improve bus transport in
cum-loan or grant. However, a grant-cum-loan may be million-plus, and 40 buses per lakh of population for cities India. Below are case studies from a few cities in India.
sanctioned in such a manner that 25% of the central and state with a population of 0.5 million to 4 million should be
grant put together is recovered and ploughed into a considered the rule of thumb. There will be no variation in the 1.4 EXAMINING RESTRUCTURING EFFORTS IN INDIAN CITIES
Revolving Fund in order to leverage market funds for the number of buses for each category sanctioned. However, if a
financing of further investment in infrastructure projects. At particular city or parastatal agency wants to invest in a higher Four Indian cities were reviewed using the same approach as in the preceding international city reforms. This section includes
the end of the Mission period, the Revolving Fund may be category bus, it would have to bear the additional costs summaries of bus services in each city, a comparison of performance indicators, and an analysis for each of the seven key
graduated to a State Urban Infrastructure Fund. entirely on its own. factors identified as important for establishing successful bus services. Figure 1.7 shows the location of the cities within India
and Figure 1.8 shows the administrative evolution of their transit agencies over time.
The first instalment of 25% will be released on the signing Specifications
of a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) by the State Figure 1.7 Map of India Case Studies Figure 1.8 Administrative Evolution of Transit Agencies
Government / ULB / Parastatal responsible for the The scheme requires the buses to satisfy the minimum
implementation of JnNURM projects. The balance amount of recommended specifications issued by the Ministry of Urban BEST KSRTC AMTS MPSRTC
Development that allude to sleek and ergonomic designs, Created 1947 Created 1961 Created 1947
assistance shall be released, as far as possible, in three Closed 2004

instalments upon receipt of Utilisation Certificates to the level boarding and alighting provisions, comfortable seating
extent of 70% of the grants (Central & State) and subject to the and suspension systems, advanced passenger information BMTC ICTSL
achievement of agreed upon milestones and the systems, vehicle information tracking systems, passenger and Created 1997 Created 2006

implementation of mandatory and optional reforms at the disabled friendly interiors, electronic fare collections, and so
State and ULB/Parastatal level as envisaged in the on. The urban bus specifications thus lay out details for Janmarg
technical, ambience, safety and ITS-related elements of the Created 2008
Memorandum of Agreement. It is required that the ownership
of the buses remains with the ULB/ Parastatal agency in buses and comply with the Bus Body code framed by the
charge of the city bus service. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. In addition, the Buses: 4580 Buses: 5840 Buses: 760 Buses: 23 Buses: 110
buses procured are required to comply with the Auto Fuel Pax: 4,500,000 Pax: 4,000,000 Pax: 750,000 Pax: 35,000 Pax: 100,000
Mode Share: 21% Mode Share: 36% Mode Share: 15% Mode Share: 1% Mode Share: 5%
In order to support manufacturing enterprises in India, the Policy (approved by the Central Government, 2002) which
funding is directed towards the purchase of locally produced lays down a roadmap for tighter emission norms up to 2010. Sources: [34], [35], [36], [37]
modern buses, of which the design and customization are to These specifications were drafted in consultation with the
adhere to guidelines from the Ministry. Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), IIT Delhi,
the Automotive Research Association of India (ARAI), M/s
Modern Buses: Fleet Size and Bus Specifications Urban Mass Transit Company and companies/corporations
associated with bus operations such as ICTSL-Indore, DIMTS- Ahmedabad
The NUTP guidelines clearly specify that buses being Delhi, BMTC-Bangalore, Departments of Road Transport and
procured for million-plus cities should be as per the Urban Highways and Heavy Industries and all bus manufacturers in Ahmedabad has the clear distinction of being the first city in India to plan and implement a high-end Bus Rapid Transit System
Bus Specifications issued by the MoUD, while cities with a India. It is expected that common standard specifications for (BRTS). Ahmedabad is the main city of the north-western state of Gujarat, with a population of 4.5 million [38]. A special
population less than one million can procure standard buses. urban buses will help in bringing down the cost of modern purpose vehicle (SPV) named ‘Janmarg’ was created to plan, operate and maintain the bus system. Janmarg began operations
As per these specifications, at least 20 per cent of the buses buses, thus enabling the provision of high quality public on October 14, 2009 on the first 12.5 km corridor from RTO to Chandranagar [39]. They subsequently opened a 6 km
procured under JnNURM for million-plus cities should be low- transport at affordable costs. extension and connection to Kankaria Lake. The BRT bus lanes are fully segregated. Non-BRT buses cannot enter these lanes
floor buses while all the buses funded by JnNURM should whereas BRT buses can operate outside of these lanes when needed. Construction continues along all corridors and a total of
carry a distinct JnNURM logo on both sides. A total of 15,260 Support Infrastructure for the bus systems 58 kms in the first phase is anticipated for completion by the end of 2011 [36]. Ultimately, the planned build-out of Janmarg
modern buses have been approved for the 61 mission cities will create an 88 km BRT network. All vehicles are tracked using GPS devices and are monitored through a central control
that chose to participate in the program. Since the scheme is only for financing fleet procurement, State system. Bus operations and fare collection tasks have been outsourced to independent private businesses. Alongside the BRTS
Governments and ULBs are required to set up the support projects, Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services (AMTS) is also being reorganized. Buses are being upgraded while
The aim of the urban bus specifications is to replicate the infrastructure for the bus systems, namely stations, depots, technologies for fare collection and vehicle tracking are being introduced.
Metro experience in city bus services and improve the service stops, terminals, and so on.
to a level that is not only efficient but also competitive and Bangalore
attractive to its users. All the above policies and funding initiatives have been
helpful in planning and implementing public transport Bangalore has one of the most extensive networks of public bus transport in India. Bus services are operated by Bangalore
Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC), an agency created from the bifurcation of Karnataka State Road Transport

16 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 17
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

Corporation (KSRTC), the state run public transport is planned as an 88 km network of segregated busways The following figures, 1.9-1.12, graphically illustrate the performance indicators discussed above.
corporation. With a mixed fleet of 5,593 buses of various including exclusive lanes along the river. The project will be
makes and capacities operated by BMTC, about 4 million implemented in two phases: 47 kms in phase one and the Figure 1.9 Population in Cities
passengers a day are carried on 2,307 routes [40]. With remaining 41 kms in phase two. The segregated lanes are to
27,000 employees, they have one of the lowest employee- be used exclusively by ICTSL buses. Mumbai
per-bus (4-5 employees per bus) ratios in the country. BMTC is
one of the few profit making road transport agencies in India. Mumbai Indore
Since their inception in 1997, they have consistently added Bangalore
new routes and vehicles. In the last 5 years, they have Mumbai, the commercial capital of India, is built around a
increased the number of scheduled services by 140%, thereby strong suburban rail and bus system. At 88%, Mumbai's public Ahmedabad
doubling daily revenue [41]. Ridership has increased at a transport mode share is the highest in India [44]. The suburban
rail system is the main mode of transport with buses providing 0 5 10 15 20
steady 10% per year [41]. BMTC also boasts of being the Source: [38]
feeder services. The Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Population (Millions)
safest bus transport system in India with an average of 267
accidents per year. In an effort to attract private vehicle users, Transport (BEST) undertaking runs the city bus operations,
BMTC purchased an initial set of 50 Volvo buses and added providing trunk services, east-west, inter-city and feeder Figure 1.10 Boardings per Day
premium AC routes in the IT corridor in January 2006 [42]. services. More than 50% of their routes are feeder services and
They currently own about 200 Volvo buses. Overall, the account for the highest ridership in the system, which as a
whole serves 4.5 million passengers daily [45]. BEST maintains Mumbai
ridership in the AC buses has been far from satisfactory [37].
Their operating costs are higher than their earnings. about 4,580 buses and employs over 30,905 workers in the Indore
Transport Division as of August 1, 2008 [35]. The bus
Bangalore
In an effort to simplify bus routes and improve coverage, operations receive cross subsidy from BEST’s electricity
BMTC started direction based services marketed as Big10 in distribution business. Over the last few years, BEST has added Ahmedabad
February 2010 [43]. The high frequency, green and blue about 500 new buses including ultra low floor, double deck
colour Big10 buses run on 12 major radial roads in and out and air conditioned buses. BEST is in the process of converting 0 1 2 3 4 5 Sources: [34], [35], [36], [37]
of the city. Kendra Sarige buses were introduced to operate in a majority of their fleet to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) Boardings per day (millions)
a circular route on the ring roads around the city. In [35]. A contactless smart card, GO MUMBAI, was introduced
conjunction with citizens groups, BMTC recently conducted a recently that can be used as a travel card on the suburban
railway network as well as BEST buses. It is the first system of its Figure 1.11 Fleet Size
'Bus Day' on February 4, 2010 to promote public transport
usage. The event was mildly successful prompting BMTC to kind in India, providing a common contactless smart card as
declare the 4th of every month as a 'Bus Day.' the ticketing medium across multiple transport providers. There
Mumbai
are no other major plans to reform the bus system. Studies have
Indore been conducted to look at the feasibility of BRT, but MMRDA, Indore
the local regional development authority, is currently focusing
The Indore bus system is run by Indore City Transport Services Bangalore
on Metrorail, Monorail and road infrastructure projects [35].
Ltd (ICTSL), a special purpose vehicle created to plan, operate Ahmedabad
and maintain the bus service. ICTSL was created in December Comparison of Indicators of Performance
2005. The district collector's office led the effort in creating the 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Sources: [34], [35], [36], [37]
SPV. ICTSL operates as a public-private partnership (PPP) by The main indicators of bus system performance for each city
Fleet Size
way of granting route permits to private bus operators to run are summarized in Table 1.6.
their buses in the city. The PPP model provides a workable Table 1.6 Performance Indicators
solution for agencies with limited staff capacity. This Figure 1.12 Passengers per Bus per Day
framework in Indore is seen as a model to be replicated in Indicator Ahmedabad Bangalore Indore Mumbai
cities that have no formal public transport and limited staff Population (millions) 4.5 5.6 2.72 16.3
capacity. ICTSL currently runs 110 buses on 24 routes and Area (sq.kms) 205 709.5 165 437 Mumbai
has a ridership of 100,000 to 120,000 passengers per day Average Trip 5.8 11.5 6.9 6.8
Indore
Length (km)
[34]. All buses are fitted with GPS devices and procedures to
Boardings per day 0.785 4.0 0.10 4.5 Bangalore
monitor performance were developed. However, with an (millions)
increasing number of buses and a limited technical staff, they Fleet size 783 5840 110 4580 Ahmedabad
are unable to monitor and use the data on a regular basis. Bus mode share (%) 16% 36% 5% 21%
ICTSL is currently building a pilot BRT corridor on a 12 km Passengers per 1003 685 909 983 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Source: [34], [35], [36], [37]
stretch of A B Road. Outside the segregated road Bus per Day
Passengers per Bus per Day
infrastructure, buses are to ply in mixed traffic. The BRT system Sources: [34], [35], [36], [37], [38], [46]

18 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 19
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

Table 1.7 Analysis of Seven Keys to Success within Indian Cities 1. Strong Leadership in the Decision Making Process

The analysis of the international case studies showed that

Ahmedabad Bangalore Indore Mumbai
strong political leadership is a key driver in the fast
1. Strong Political Leadership in the Decision Making process implementation of bus reforms. Nowhere is this more
Strong political
Reform Approach - Gradual Reform Approach: Gradual Reform Approach: Big Bang Reform Approach: Gradual
applicable than India where the multitude of agencies leadership committed
Strong Political Leadership: Planning Agency: BMTC Strong Administration Leadership Planning Agency: BEST
involved in urban transport can make it difficult to implement
projects.
to bus transport is
At the State level and - District Collector
Municipality level Planning Agency: New SPV crucial in order to
Planning Agency: AMC created - ICTSL Two cities in our case study sample, Ahmedabad and Indore,
prove this hypothesis. With a strong leadership that was
bring a large variety
2. Local institution leads technical planning for route reorganization committed to public transport, they were able to setup new of potentially
Yes. CEPT Ahmedabad
provides technical assistance
BMTC, BDA and BBMP
created a new department at
No local institution. EMBARQ
provides technical assistance on
No local partner. systems and improve existing bus transport. The spotlight in
Mumbai and Bangalore is on high profile Metrorail and road
antagonistic
on all aspects of bus planning. IISC called CiSTUP in 2009. operations management. infrastructure projects, with less focus on bus transport. stakeholders to the
Idea for BIG10 routes
generated by ABIDe, a city In 2001, Ahmedabad was rated as one of the most polluted
negotiating table so
visioning task force cities in India by the Central Pollution Control Board. Seeing that compromises
3. Implementing Bus Priority and building segregated infrastructure for buses this as a wakeup call, the state and local government decided and agreements can
to take the following transport related actions in order to
Janmarg BRTS opened in 2009 Implemented Big10 Bus 12 kms of BRT under No imminent plans for
segregated lanes. Focus is on
curtail pollution: be reached.
with 12.5kms of segregated routes. No imminent plans construction.
busways. Total of 88 kms to be for segregated lanes. Metro Rail, Monorail and road
infrastructure projects. • Auto rickshaws and buses were gradually converted into
implemented by 2014.
CNG and bus fleet size was almost doubled from 560 to Political leadership
4. Use of Technology 1100. Of these, 650 are CNG and diesel buses meeting enables the
Euro III standards [36]. Technologies for fare collection
Smart cards for BRT.
Central command centre and
GPS available on Big10 and
Airport buses.
GPS on buses used to monitor
bus speeds and locations.
Smart Cards available. GPS on
new buses, but not used. and vehicle tracking are being introduced. execution of reforms
Real-time passenger information
system for BRT route only.
Real-time passenger information
available only for airport buses.
that may be
• In 2004, a Metrorail feasibility study was conducted on a
Regular city buses do not use small 6km stretch. This proposal was reconsidered after a unpopular but
any technology
visit by the former mayor of Bogotá, Colombia, are essential to
5. Innovations in contracting and tendering Mr. Enrique Peñalosa. He presented the success story of the
TransMilenio BRT system in that city to the local authorities,
ensuring long term
Gross cost contracts for No contracting. BMTC runs all Net cost contracts awarded to 6 No contracting. BEST runs all
Janmarg BRT. Regular city operations contractors operations providing a boost to the concept of Bus Rapid Transit sustainability.
buses run by AMTS. in the city.
6. Need for managed subsidies to improve quality of service • In 2005, the Centre for Environmental Planning and
who has been instrumental in spearheading the project. A
Janmarg receives small No, BMTC has been generating No, ICTSL, in its short life span, BEST subsidizes the bus service Technology (CEPT) was awarded a contract to develop the
subsidies from AMC. It is too profits for every year. has not required any subsidies. using its non-fare revenue from consensus in support of BRT was developed between the
BRT proposal. From conception to implementation, CEPT
early to tell if it will need It has been running a profitable its electricity supply division. municipal commissioner, the Mayor and even the Chief
worked in partnership with the Ahmedabad Municipal
subsidies in future. operation. Minister of the state. Together, they have worked to promote
Corporation (AMC) to finish the project within budget and
the BRT system by inviting delegates from various political,
7. System performance monitoring and user feedback on schedule [36].
social and religious groups to ride the new bus and by rallying
User Surveys on the BRT BMTC monitors fare collections System has the capability to BEST monitors fare collections. public support through a marketing campaign that seeks to
• On 14 October 2009, the Ahmedabad Municipal
route only. Central command and uses them as indicators of monitor performance based on Increases or decreases in fare instill a sense of pride among the citizens of Gujarat. Janmarg
centre monitors bus speed, performance. data received from electronic collection are used as indicators Corporation inaugurated the first 12.5 kms of the city’s
on-time performance and devices, but they have limited of performance. first BRT corridor. The corridor was later extended and is was awarded the 'Best Mass Transit Project under JnNURM' for
bus location. technical staff to analyze and now 18.5 km long. Ridership has increased to 35,000 2008-2009 by the Government of India and the
use this information. No user "International Sustainable Transport Award -2010" by the
passengers per day on weekdays and 40,000 passengers
feedback surveys are conducted. Institute for Transport and Development Policy (ITDP). The
per day on weekends [36].
sense of ownership and pride in having the India’s first true
Source: [34], [35], [36], [37] Numerous hurdles during the design and planning of the BRT BRT in Ahmedabad should help mobilise the political support
project were overcome by effective leadership from the needed to complete the total of 58 kms of BRT corridors by the
municipal commissioner of Ahmedabad, Mr. I.P. Gautam, end of 2011 and 88 kms by 2014 as planned.

20 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 21
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

In Indore, Mr. Vivek Aggarwal, the Collector and District 2. Local Institution leads Technical Planning for Route projections from this study were used to select the routes. In Ahmedabad, Janmarg BRT is a system with full
Magistrate, led the efforts to create a Special Purpose Vehicle Reorganization While there were no local planning institutions, EMBARQ's segregation. Currently, 18.5 Km of segregated lanes are in
(SPV) in the form of a public limited company, Indore City Centre for Sustainable Transport in Mumbai provided operation. Eventually they will have 88Km of segregated
Transport Services Ltd. (ICTSL), to act as the agency in charge None of the cities reviewed here use demand modelling for technical assistance in formulating bus reforms. They infrastructure. A team of ex-servicemen have been hired as
of city bus transit operations. ICTSL was established in route planning. Quality data is not collected and models prepared methodologies to monitor bus operations and track 'BRT Policemen' to assist the traffic police in ensuring that no
December 2005. The Collector established a financial model developed with unreliable data have produced questionable the performance of operators. Currently 6 operators run a other vehicle enters the bus lane. During a site visit some
for the bus system using the Public Private Partnership (PPP) results. Even so, there is very little focus on improving the total of 24 routes. Some of the routes overlap creating pedestrians and bikers were seen crossing the BRT bus lanes
framework, where public agencies would be in charge of quality of data. competition between operators. EMBARQ prepared a matrix but the rules were generally followed.
road infrastructure provision, service regulation, tracking, of overlapping routes and created a proposal for distributing
supervision and performance monitoring while bus Ahmedabad and Indore used land use and road network routes with minimum overlap. This is being considered for
operations, Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), issuance data to plan routes. Ahmedabad focused on creating a future bidding.
of seasonal passes and fare collection are contracted to network of routes for its BRT system that connects key origins
private vendors based on an open bidding process. and destinations. They used existing travel patterns to select Mumbai and Bangalore do not use any data driven
routes. Some routes were planned to pass through low techniques for route planning. They use demand response
In contrast to these cities, Mumbai and Bangalore are not income and low accessibility zones to revitalize these areas by methods to add new routes. Residents of new or existing Despite user feedback
increasing mobility. It is recommended that bus planning be
actively pursuing major reforms in bus transport. These big
cities are burdened with a multitude of agencies and do not based on field demand assessments, however limited. The
developments submit requests for new bus routes which are
examined and added based on merit.
that ranked
have strong advocates of bus transport in the administration data required for these analyses can be collected with low "Reliability" and
or the political system. Although there are no major reforms cost and time requirements. This process is described in more
detail in Chapter 2.
The government of Karnataka, with support from BMTC,
KSRTC, Bangalore Development Authority (BDA) and North
"Punctuality" as the
planned, both these cities have taken advantage of JnNURM
funding to purchase modern buses which have given a new Eastern Karnataka Road Transport Corporation (NEKRTC) most important
and improved look to bus transport. However, premium Local technical institutions are instrumental in steering the
way to developing technically sound projects. In the case of
helped form the Centre for infrastructure, Sustainable
Transport and Urban Planning (CiSTUP) at IISC, Bangalore.
factors in improving
services, such as the AC buses in the IT corridor in Bangalore,
are not generating enough ridership. Over the last few years, Ahmedabad, the Centre for Environmental Planning and In the coming years, this institute hopes to undertake technical Public Transport,
bus mode share in these cities has been decreasing due to the Technology performed detailed analyses of every aspect of
BRT planning such as the type of system (open/closed), bus
planning and research in sustainable transport and urban Mumbai and
planning.
rapid motorization of the middle class. Additional bus routes
are being provided, but the lack of punctuality and reliability specifications, station design, signal priorities, bus Bangalore are instead
is causing travellers to shift to private vehicles. Both Bangalore frequencies, and so on and presented the results to the In summary, agencies that have taken help from technical focused on "Comfort.”
and Mumbai are plagued by the issue of slow bus speeds due administrators. The Municipal Commissioner, Mr. I.P. institutions have progressed at a much faster rate than others.
Gautam, supported their recommendations and took the Ahmedabad took advantage of the technical expertise of
to traffic congestion, but are not making any attempts
to implement bus priority measures. Administrations in both tough decisions needed to ensure the long-term success of CEPT, ITDP and EMBARQ and implemented a BRT system in 4 Bus Priority and
these cities are more focussed on high profile mega projects the project. Interviews with CEPT staff revealed that they years. Indore is well on its way to implementing its own pilot Segregation are the
encountered many unexpected issues during the construction BRT route. Mumbai and Bangalore are focussed on Metrorail
such as the Metrorail, Monorail and highway road
of the project and at every step the Municipal Corporation and road construction while ignoring buses which have more most effective ways
infrastructure projects.
worked with them and other stakeholders to resolve issues than 30% mode share in these cities. to improve the speed
As can be seen from the Indian case studies, strong political
leadership committed to bus transport is crucial in order to
amicably [36]. The Institute for Transportation & Development
Policy (ITDP) was also heavily involved in the initial planning. 3. Bus Priority and Segregation and reliability of bus
bring about change. Ahmedabad and Indore have To promote the concept of BRT, they sponsored a visit by
Interviews with bus operators in all 4 cities revealed that slow
services.
successfully implemented BRT pilot projects while many other Enrique Peñalosa, the former mayor of Bogota, Colombia, in
the winter of 2004. bus speeds and congestion contribute to incomplete trips and
cities have not moved beyond the planning phase. In both
thereby loss of revenue. The other common thread that
these cases, strong leaders were inspired by the successes of Indore is building a 12 km segregated bus lane for BRT.
In Indore, ICTSL started out with eighteen routes with permits evolved from the studies was the importance of punctuality
BRT systems in South America and saw the potential for this Indore has plans to implement 88 km of closed BRT corridors.
from the Regional Transport Authority. These routes were in and reliability of the bus service. User surveys conducted in
concept in India. Mr. I.P. Gautam of Ahmedabad and Mr. Mumbai and Bangalore have plans to develop several new
turn offered in an open bid system to private bus operators Bangalore revealed that 74% of passengers rated reliability
Vivek Agarwal of Indore visited Bogota to study the systems multiple lane highways. They also need to think about
who are to pay the route premium as per the mutual and accessibility as the key factors while comfort received 8%
there before modifying and implementing it in their city. They developing BRT systems with all its components – segregated
agreement. ICTSL now runs 22 intra-city routes and 2 inter- [47]. Despite this user feedback, Bangalore and Mumbai are
helped reduce bureaucratic hurdles and worked closely with running ways, stations, operations, ITS and branding. Half-
city routes. A spatial analysis was performed to ensure that all focusing on adding new, comfortable and air conditioned
local technical institutions to create a successful system. Their baked approaches to segregation will not work in these cities
high density areas and major roads were served by buses. In buses while doing nothing with respect to bus priority. Both
leadership has provided the residents of their cities with an given the high public transport usage and high peak hour
December 2006, a BRTS project was approved for JnNURM Mumbai and Bangalore reported lower than expected
affordable and reliable bus transport service. In contrast, the loads on major arterials.
funding. No elaborate data collection and system study has ridership on AC buses [35], [37]. Operating costs on these
lack of such leaders and advocates has caused Mumbai and
been done for the BRT project. A comprehensive traffic and buses far exceeded fare revenue.
Bangalore to continue their regular operations without
significant changes. transportation plan was generated for Indore in 2000. The

22 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 23
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

4. Use of Technology 5. Contracting & Tendering Innovations bus operators are paid Rs.36 per kilometre. Rolling stock
assets are owned by the operator. In this setup, the operator is
The use of technology in bus systems is a relatively new concept in Two of the cities, Mumbai and Bangalore, run their own bus paid per kilometre and the authority takes the revenue risk
India. Most of the new buses come equipped with GPS devices operations. Indore and Ahmedabad use private operators thereby lowering the cost per kilometre. Janmarg contracts
which have become very affordable in recent years. GPS Technology has and competitive tendering is used to allocate routes, do not assign routes exclusively to particular operators. This
devices enable a central command centre to monitor bus kilometres, or service areas. allows Janmarg the flexibility to assign more or fewer buses to
system performance in real time. Ahmedabad and Indore have become very any given part of the system, depending on the demand.
both established command centres to monitor their buses. At affordable and can Mumbai's BEST suffers from high operating costs of Rs. 45-46
per km [36]. The company has been providing tram and bus
There is a need to monitor and supervise operators to ensure
the moment, Ahmedabad only tracks their Janmarg BRT buses.
The Janmarg command centre tracks bus location and bus
be used to monitor services since 1863 and has a staff of 38,000 employees. Of
a good quality of service. Although current contracts include a
list of violations and associated penalties, contracts for new
speed. In case of an incident, the driver uses his cell phone to bus performance, these, 22,000 are bus conductors and drivers, yielding an routes tendered by Janmarg should include performance
average of 11.2 employees per bus. This exceptionally high
call the command centre who in turn alert the closest police
station based on the location of the vehicle. The system is still
simplify fare employee per bus ratio has resulted in staff costs reaching
related criteria to better share risks and incentives between
the authority and the operators.
new and procedures are still being developed to convert GPS collection and 55% of the total operating costs. Efforts to cut costs have
data into performance indicators that can be used to monitor
the performance. The BRT stations in Ahmedabad have
provide traveller included the hiring of new junior conductors / drivers on a
contract basis [36]. Yet the system still requires a subsidy from
Indore employs a net-cost contracting system. The advantage
of this system is that the revenue risk is assigned to the
electronic boards to display traveller information including the information. the electricity supply division of BEST to cover operational operator, so it is in their best interest to provide good service
arrival time of the next bus. Inside the bus, there are automatic costs. BEST has a host of employee unions and their and attract passengers. This kind of contracting works best in
announcements of station names in English and Gujarati. participation would be required to make any radical changes systems with limited staff to oversee operations. However,
A contactless smartcard system for fare collection has been proposed but is not yet operational. to the system. there is the risk of operators increasing bus frequencies on
high demand routes to maximize ridership and neglecting
Indore has created procedures to use GPS data to identify system weaknesses and areas of improvement. Data is especially BMTC runs its own operations as well, but does not have the routes with low usage. As of October 2009, there are 6
important in cities like Indore where private operators run bus services. A study of the data showed that buses are not operated on overhead of BEST thanks to its recent separation from KSRTC. private operators running the bus service under public-private
fixed schedules and fixed routes. Because of this, GPS devices end up on separate routes every day which makes the data harder BMTC started as a new organization in 1997 and has been partnership contracts with ICTSL. The current contracts are
to collate. Lack of technical staff also makes it harder to monitor performance on a constant basis. able to keep costs low. They have a 4-5 employees per bus valid for a period of five years up to 2011 and are renewable
ratio. The deficit in operations cost is offset by their non-fare for a further period of two years at the discretion of ICTSL. The
In Bangalore, passenger information and next bus arrival time is displayed at bus stops for the airport buses only. The Bangalore box revenue. operators own the bus fleet and pay for the upkeep of the
Transport Information System (accessible at http://www.btis.in) provides real time location of Big10 buses. However the system buses themselves; ownership varies from 2 to 50 buses.
often experiences operational issues. Many buses in Bangalore and Mumbai are fitted with GPS devices, but the data is not Ahmedabad uses gross-cost contracting for their Janmarg
Indore's experience has shown that larger operations (>30
being collected. BRT system. The contract is for 7 years and 50 buses and the
buses) are much more stable and are able to sustain
themselves better.
Table 1.8 Technology features adopted by each city
6. Financial Analysis, Shortfall and the Need for Subsidy
Ahmedabad Bangalore Indore Mumbai
Centralized command Most bus systems around the world require subsidies. While
Centralized command centre None None
Control Systems
for Janmarg BRT buses only. centre.
Indore's experience public transport subsidies are acceptable in the name of
public service, they should be well managed. An organization
GPS based bus tracking GPS based bus tracking
has shown that larger should have a financial plan and calculate the amount of
Fare Collection Smart Card System for BRT
proposed. Plan to integrate it
None None Go Mumbai Card for
use on suburban rail
operators (>30 subsidy required at the beginning of each financial year and,
unforeseen circumstances aside, should work within that
with AMTS buses and BEST buses. buses) are much amount. Also, subsidies should be focused on improving the
Enforcement Ex-servicemen hired as BRT Limited enforcement by Limited enforcement by Limited enforcement by more stable and are overall quality of service. It should not be used to cover the
inefficiencies of the system operator such as a high employee
Police to ensure no other
vehicles enter the bus lanes
traffic police traffic police traffic police
able to sustain to bus ratio, poor scheduling, and so on.
User Information Real-time Passenger Next Bus Arrival time for None None
themselves better.
None of the 4 Indian case study cities calculate the amount of
Information with Next Bus
Arrival time
airport buses only. Net cost contracts subsidy at the beginning of the year. Mumbai is able to
BTIS website has bus
location information for
work best in systems subsidize the bus services through revenues from other
undertakings. Mumbai's bus operator, BEST, is an electric and
Big10 buses with limited staff to transport company and has thus far been able to subsidize
Source: [34], [35], [36], [37] oversee operations. losses from the transport sector through earnings from its
electricity business, but the executive we interviewed indicated

24 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 25
 KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT KEY FACTORS FOR GOOD BUS TRANSPORT

that this might become increasingly difficult [35]. become clearer in the next year or two. have made Bus Rapid Transit an effective, reliable and affordable mobility solution for millions of urban transit users. As this
technology has become cheaper it has become increasingly possible to outsource bus operations and fare collection to private
Bangalore has been focussing on non-fare box revenue to The system in Indore has not required subsidies yet. Some entrepreneurs without losing control of core operations. Implementation of reforms relies on multi-stakeholder decision making
offset financial shortfalls in operations. This is acceptable as routes are not profitable but overall the operations are doing and strong political leadership. It is supremely necessary that political leaders believe in the ability of bus based transport to
long as it does not compromise the main objective of fine. The bus companies have been making small profits. solve the mobility needs of the city. Table 1.10 summarizes the extent to which the key factors of successful bus system reforms
providing high quality public transport. Apart from fare However, the system is small and the organization is under have been achieved in each case study city.
collections, BMTC earns revenue from advertisements on staffed. As the system grows and the organization is staffed
buses and commercial space rentals. BMTC is one of the few with professionals, a small amount of subsidy will be required Table 1.10 Achievement of Key Factors of Successful Reform in Indian Cities
bus transport institutions in the country that has been able to to ensure a high quality of service.
perform fare revisions without interference from the City Ahmedabad Bangalore Bombay Indore
government. This at least ensures that fares keep up with Subsidizing public transport is a necessity in most cities, yet Agency AMTS + AJL BMTC BEST ICTSL
inflation. Table 1.9 shows the costs and earnings of different typically public transport receives substantially less in subsidy
than the funding allocated towards road infrastructure. It 1. Strong political leadership in the decision making process
types of buses. Regular buses are earning enough to cover
costs whereas the AC buses are earning substantially less could be argued that this inconsistency justifies spending a 2. Strong local technical institution developing demand based route planning
than operating costs. If this scenario continues, it might be few crores to ensure the availability of good public transport 3. Implementing bus priority and/or building segregated infrastructure for buses
wise to modify the AC bus routes to better serve the origins for an improved quality of life through increased mobility and
4. Use of technology
and destinations of people in the mid-high income range that improved air quality. Subsidies should be given, but should be
managed to make sure that the benefits of it are passed on to 5. Innovations in contracting and tendering processes
prefer the comforts of an AC bus.
the public and rather than inefficient bus operators. 6. Need for managed subsidies to improve quality of service
Table 1.9 Costs and Earnings by City and Type of Bus
7. System performance monitoring and user feedback
7. System Performance Monitoring and User Feedback
City and Type of Bus Cost / KM Earnings / KM
Bangalore None of the four cities reviewed are conducting
Regular, Non-AC 24 Rs 24 Rs comprehensive monitoring of their bus systems. Ahmedabad Systems in Bangalore (4 million passengers per day) and
Suvarna, AC 36 Rs 20 Rs and Indore are the only two cities that have started the Mumbai (4.5 million passengers per day) have done an
Volvo AC 48 Rs 38 Rs process, but are still months or years away from actively using incredible job over the last few decades in providing mobility to
Mumbai the data to improve services. System Performance monitoring a significant portion of each city's populations. However, these
All Buses (average) 46 Rs 38 Rs
is especially important in these two cities where buses are systems have been very slow in adopting reforms and It is necessary that
Ahmedabad
AMTS (average) 24 Rs 22 Rs
operated by contractors. In Indore, where the operators are
paid by number of passengers, they tend to forego off-peak
innovations. Interviews conducted with the operators revealed
that slow bus speed and reliability were two of the biggest
political leaders
Janmarg* 36 Rs 34 Rs
services and run reduced length trips because there is little factors that need to be improved [35], [36]. Despite this believe in the ability
Indore
All Buses average 22 Rs 26 Rs
incentive for them to run these trips due to low ridership. feedback, Bangalore and Mumbai are instead focusing on of bus based
Agencies should also monitor bus condition, cleanliness and adding new, comfortable and air conditioned buses while
*Janmarg figure reflects the amount paid to bus operators. bus speeds. doing nothing with respect to bus priority. Achieving further
transport to solve
Source: [34], [35], [36], [37] reform requires political support between various the mobility needs
Both Indore and Ahmedabad's Janmarg have setup
Ahmedabad's AMTS suffered huge losses in 2005. command centres to monitor bus operations. From the
departmental stakeholders, a fact that staff at many agencies
understand. The necessary technical knowledge exists within
of the city.
Operational inefficiencies coupled with slow economic control room, agents are able to track bus location, bus most agencies, but the understanding that bus based transport
conditions required these losses to be covered by the speeds, dwell times at bus stops, and so on. Raw outputs from can solve the mobility needs of the city has not reached the
Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC). AMC loaned the GPS data need to be processed further to create political leaders yet.
over Rs. 100 crores to AMTS to restructure the organization, performance indicator tables. CEPT, Ahmedabad is in the
which was suffering from huge pension commitments as a process of creating these procedures for Janmarg. Systems in Ahmedabad (Janmarg) and Indore have been developed based on the new concept of public-private partnerships.
result of staff ratios of 10-11 employees per bus. Voluntary These systems are still in their infancy, but are headed in the right direction. Only time will tell if they will become successful
retirement schemes were used to reduce the employee base. Bangalore and Mumbai do not do any performance systems that provide mobility to the majority of the population in their cities.
The small fleet of 450 buses, mostly older diesel models, were monitoring. They review bus driver reports on completion of
retired and replaced with the purchase of new CNG buses, trips, fare collections, and so on, but do not have a systems
each of which was subsidised to the tune of Rs. 5 lakhs. An approach. Performance data gets used at the depot level to
additional 500 CNG buses were added to the fleet to alter schedules, crew allocations, and so on.
improve services. In 2009, AMTS needed a subsidy of Rs. 70
crores[36]. For the Janmarg BRT system, deficit and subsidy Conclusions
figures are not available at present as the system is new and
In the past decade, considerable innovations in technology
stabilizing. The subsidy requirements for the system should

26 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 27
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS
DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

CHAPTER 2: model can be expensive and time consuming. Quick

assessment techniques can produce acceptable accuracy fast
and at a low cost.
Figure 2.1 Google Map of Indore, Madhya Pradesh
S urvey bus passenger loads. Hourly counts of boardings,
alightings and through passengers (BAT) should be
recorded while riding the bus for at least one entire trip of the

ROUTE PLANNING This chapter describes three simple steps to help cities
calculate the total number of buses required and allocate
route. If the bus has two doors, care should be taken to count
passengers getting off and on both doors. In a heavily used
bus, it might be necessary to use two surveyors.

BASED ON these buses to routes:

1. First, identify strategic public transport corridors in the city T ime the length of the route from start to finish. This is your
Travel Time (TT).

DEMAND (described in Section 2.1)

2. Next, collect mobility data (described in Section 2.2) A rticulate the Peak Load Point along the route

ASSESSMENTS 3. Finally, analyse the data to pick routes and develop a

service plan (described in Section 2.3) R eview on board volume over a 12-16 hour period at
peak locations and loads on Intermediate Public
Transport (IPT) to determine where the highest passenger
A city's public transportation system should be planned The most important of these steps is identifying potential volume occurs
based on existing demographic, economic, social and public transport corridors. In most cases, professional
political conditions. The system should be built to serve the
maximum number of passengers in the best possible way. It
should also have enough capacity to accommodate
knowledge and judgement can be used to identify these
locations, but for a thorough picture it is recommended to
follow the procedures described in Sections 2.1-2.3 and
T abulate mobility volume to determine what time of the
day has the highest overall mobility volume including
traffic + pedestrian + bicyclists + IPT (if present as different
emulate the example provided for Colombo, Sri Lanka. A As can be seen from Figure 2.1, two national highways, modes – shared auto rickshaw, minivans, minibuses – classify
projected future demand [48].
tutorial exercise in Section 2.4 provides an opportunity for Agra-Mumbai Road (NH-3), Ahmedabad Road (NH-59) them while counting) based on 12-16 hour counts.
Analysis of a city’s potential passenger demand forms the readers to practice making demand estimates using simple and two state highways, Ujjain Road (SH-27), Khandwa
technical foundation for further work designing the system, spreadsheet tools. Road (SH-27) pass through the city of Indore. Cities without existing Public Transport
planning operations and predicting the financial viability of
2.1 IDENTIFYING PUBLIC TRANSPORT CORRIDORS • Sketch the exiting public transport routes on the map to Data collection for cities without public transport follows a
the system. Knowing where and when customers require
see the coverage. similar process. While there are no pre-existing routes upon
transport services will help design a system based first on
Cities with existing Public Transport which to ride and measure passengers, you can study
customer needs. Cities without existing Public Transport strategic locations selected in Section 2.1 and follow this
Identifying potential public transport corridors is relatively “SMART” procedure for predicting formal transport demand:
When developing demand assessments, there is a trade-off The task requires more work if the city does not have any
easy if the city already has a network of private buses /
between cost, accuracy, and speed. A detailed travel demand existing bus/minibus routes. The best way to determine
S
minibuses or shared taxis with fixed routes. The goal for cities urvey strategic locations to count number of informal
model will provide more accurate results, but developing the potential bus transport demand is to calculate total informal
with existing routes is to provide a more reliable, comfortable transport vehicles and occupancy by hour. Pedestrians
and safer bus service. The following procedure should be transport users (shared autos, shared taxis, and so on). In and bicycle riders are usually the first people to shift to bus if
followed: these cases, it is harder to find out the origin and destination the service is reliable and good, therefore it is important to
patterns. count them also.
• Gather existing data. This data should be available with
Analysis of a city's
M
the city planners and includes: population, major arterials A good starting point would be to pick a list of strategic easure occupancy of vehicles by observing passenger
potential passenger and roadways in the city, location of the Central Business
District or key areas for commercial establishments,
locations in the city to perform surveys. These locations should
be places with high densities of informal transport supply and
levels in broad terms such as: Empty, ¼ Full, ½ Full, ¾
Full, and Full. This will give an idea of total vehicles and
demand forms the educational centres, business parks, industrial areas, demand like railway stations, bus stations, commercial people using the corridor.
technical foundation shopping centres, and recreational areas. centres, industrial areas, colleges, schools, shopping areas,

for further work

designing the system,
• Pick existing or historic bus routes in the city for analysis. In
most cases (but not all), routes with existing services are the
and so on. These survey locations should allow most of the
trips to be captured with minimum resources and time. A sk the informal transport drivers about the most
frequently travelled routes. Some cities have done
surveys where the surveyor drives in the shared auto/taxi for
ones with the highest demand of public transport 2.2 COLLECTION OF MOBILITY DATA
planning operations passengers. It is crucial to collect current data on
an entire day recording travel patterns.

and predicting the

R
frequencies, occupancy and transfer locations for these Cities with existing Public Transport eview roadside conditions at each location over a 12-16
routes. hour period to determine where the highest passenger
financial viability of Once you have identified public transport routes in your city
volume on IPT occurs.
the system. • Study the road network of the city. Drawings should be for further analysis, you can “START” your quick assessment of

T
available with the city planners. If not, Google and Yahoo key data by gathering the following information: abulate your counts of pedestrians, bicycle riders, and
maps have a reasonable coverage of most cities in India. informal transit vehicles to allow for fleet size and bus

28 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 29
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

frequency calculations as in the next section. 2.3 ANALYSIS OF MOBILITY DATA Figure 2.3 Hourly Bus Frequency Formula

Table 2.1 shows a sample of a roadside survey. In this survey, the total number of minivans, minibuses and city buses were Once transit corridors are identified and basic data is
counted. An average occupancy factor was used to calculate total passengers in the corridor. A minivan was assumed to have collected, cities with and without existing public transit can Passengers
Hourly
per hour peak Bus
10 passengers, a minibus 25 passengers, and 50 passengers in a City bus. Assumptions were based on field observations. perform simple calculations to analyze routes and develop a Bus
direction Capacity
Frequency
service plan that effectively responds to customer needs. This (pphpd)
The time period 10:00-11:00 AM has the highest number of passengers in the day. Figure 2.2 shows the spread of demand section introduces formulas for calculating bus frequency, bus
during the day. The morning peak period ranges from 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM and the evening peak stretches from 2:00 PM to travel time, and fleet size. Each concept is followed by an
7:00 PM. These load profiles help in planning peak and off-peak bus frequencies. Load Profile of a Route
example analysis for Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka. We
will use data from a BRT pre-feasibility study conducted by Data collected from field surveys should be organized into
Table 2.1 Sample Roadside Survey EMBARQ for the National Transport Commission. tables that allow for easy comparison between segments of a
Assumed Occupancy* 10 25 50 transit route. In Colombo, surveyors collected information on
Calculating Hourly Bus Frequency
arrival time at a bus stop, the number of boardings, alightings
# of each vehicle type: and through passengers, and the departure time. Table 2.2
The following formula determines the total number of buses
Time Mini Van Mini Bus City Bus Total Passengers needed to ply a route per hour. Peak or off-peak ridership shows a sample survey table, from which we observe that this
measurements can be determined through an analysis of bus took 70 minutes to travel the entire route (or 73 minutes
6:00 - 7:00 am 11 8 8 710
load profiles. Bus occupancy will vary depending on the from the time of arrival at the first station) and carried a total
7:00 - 8:00 am 27 16 2 770
maximum passenger capacity of buses plying the route. of 129 passengers. The first and last stations had the highest
8:00 - 9:00 am 19 19 7 1015 number of boardings and alightings and the middle stops
9:00 - 10:00 am 48 28 13 2090 had the highest through passengers.
10:00 - 11:00 am 91 41 9 2565
11:00 - 12:00 pm 89 25 9 2145 Table 2.2 Observed Bus Ridership in Colombo, Sri Lanka
12:00 - 1:00 pm 48 45 8 2165
National Transport Commission – Front Door
1:00 - 2:00 pm 52 19 7 1485
2:00 - 3:00 pm 79 14 14 2120
Date: 2009/09/11 Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun
3:00 - 4:00 pm 35 21 8 1435
Bus No. GT-1652 42 Officer's Name :
4:00 - 5:00 pm 31 20 7 1300 Arrival Time Route Kadawatha-Colombo Departure
5:00 - 6:00 pm 52 33 17 2535 138 Service: Normal a.m. p.m.
6:00 - 7:00 pm 52 22 8 1630 Stop Arrival Time Board Alight Through Departure Time
7:00 - 8:00 pm 42 18 5 1120
1 Kadawatha 7.10 44 0 44 7.13
8:00 - 9:00 pm 46 10 8 1110 2 Mahara Junction 7.33 1 1 44 7.33
9:00 - 10:00 pm 33 14 10 1180 3 Mahara 7.35 1 2 43 7.35
4 Kiribathgoda (YMBA) 7.38 4 10 37 7.39
*Only one occupancy value was used for each vehicle type throughout the day due to limited data collection. Ideally this should
5 Kiribathgoda (Makola Road) 7.41 12 9 40 7.42
be calculated separately for peak and off peak periods.
6 Dalugama 7.43 14 2 52 7.44
Figure 2.2 Demand by Hour 7 Kelaniya Campus 7.46 14 8 58 7.47
8 Tyre Junction 7.48 0 4 54 7.48
3000
9 Torama Junction 7.54 4 3 55 7.54
2500 10 Pattiya Junction 7.57 9 3 61 7.57
11 4th mile post 7.59 1 3 59 7.59
Passengers

2000
12 Peliyagoda 8.00 1 3 57 8.00
1500
13 Orugodawatta 8.05 3 3 57 8.06
1000 14 Armour Street 8.10 11 7 61 8.11
500 15 Panchikawatta 8.13 8 11 58 8.13
16 Maradana (Technical) 8.20 0 6 52 8.20
0
17 Pettah (BM) 8.21 2 25 29 8.21
am

9: - 9: m

0: m

pm

- 7 pm

pm

pm

0: m
pm
a

p
0

00 00

00

00

00

00

00 00

00 00

00 00

00 00

00

00
:0

:0

:0

:0

:0

18 Fort (Railway Station) 8.23 0 29 0 8.23

:

1:

12 12:

:
-7

-8

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-8

9: - 9
-1

-1

-1
-
00

00

00

00

00

00
00

:0

00

Total Passengers 73 mins 129 129 70 mins

6:

7:

8:

:0

:0

1:

2:

3:

4:

5:

6:

7:

8:
10

11

Hour Of Operation

30 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 31
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

Figure 2.4 provides an easier way to visualize the load profile along this route. At 14 of the 18 stations serviced by this bus the Bus Frequency in Colombo
number of passengers exceeds the seating capacity of 42 passengers. Our formula for bus frequency (Figure 2.3) demonstrates
that routes with smaller capacity buses require more trips per hour than those routes plied by vehicles with larger capacity. With surveys collected, data organized, and peak ridership determined, bus frequency can now be calculated using the
Newer buses accommodate roughly 60 passengers and the next chapter will cover the appropriate bus types based on previously explained formula.
passengers per hour (see Table 3.3).
Figure 2.5 Calculation of Peak Frequency in Colombo
Figure 2.4 Load Profile on a Colombo Bus Route
# of Passengers on Kandy Road Bus Route 60 5 buses
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 300 riders 12 min
passengers needed
at Peak headway
per bus per hour
Kadawatha 44
Mahara Junction 44
Mahara 43
Kiribathgoda (YMBA) 37 Figure 2.6 Calculation of Off-peak Frequency in Colombo
Kiribathgoda 40
Dalugama 52
Kelaniya Campus 58 60 3 buses
180 riders 20 minute
Tyre Junction 54 passengers needed
Off-peak headway
Torama Junction 55 per bus per hour
Pattiya Junction 61
4th mile post 59
Peliyagoda 57 Calculating Total Bus Travel Time
Orugodawatta 57
Armour Street 61 The following formula determines the total time needed per bus to ply a route from the starting point to the end point and back.
Panchikawatta 58 It includes bus travel time, dwell times at bus stops and a turn-around terminal time at the depot.
Maradana (Technical) 52
Pettah (BM) 29 • Bus run time reflects the time elapsed between departing the first station and arriving at the final station. This should take
Fort (Railway Station) 0 into account traffic delays and variability in the corridor.
= Passenger Capacity (42)
• Terminal time varies depending on the length of the route. Routes shorter than an hour in total duration may require about
10 minutes of terminal time, while those greater than an hour may require 20 miutes. It should be noted that these times are
Table 2.3 Number of Bus Trips merely a suggestion and actual times depend on the efficiency of the system.

Load Profile – Peak Points Figure 2.7 Total Bus Travel Time Formula
No of Hour of Passengers Bus Trips*
Hours Operation Planners should conduct load profiles throughout the
1 6 am 180 3 entire day to determine the hour of peak and off peak
2 7 am 300 5 ridership on the line. Table 2.3 shows the results of a Bus Run Terminal Cycle
3 8 am 300 5 station survey that counted the number of passengers per Time x 2 Time Time
4 9 am 300 5 hour of operation for a bus route. At its peak, the route
5 10 am 300 5 served 300 passengers. Off peak hours served a
6 11 am 180 3 minimum of 180 passengers.
Surveyors in Colombo recorded a bus run time of 70 minutes from start to finish (Table 2.2). As this route is greater than one
7 12 pm 180 3
hour in duration, the suggested terminal time of 20 minutes can be used to calculate total travel time. Figure 2.8 below shows
8 1 pm 180 3
the result of this calculation for Colombo: a total cycle time of 160 minutes for the entire route.
9 2 pm 180 3
10 3 pm 180 3
Figure 2.8 Calculation of Total Travel Time in Colombo
11 4 pm 300 5
12 5 pm 300 5
13 6 pm 300 5
14 7 pm 300 5 70 x 2 = 20 Min 160 Min
140 Min Terminal Total Cycle
15 8 pm 180 3
Run Time Time Time
Total 15 hrs 3660 61
passengers bus trips * assumes 60 passengers per bus

32 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 33
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

Fleet Size Calculation 2.4 TUTORIAL EXERCISES

The following formula determines the total fleet size needed to ply a given transit route. Fleet size is based on the number of Calculate Frequency and Fleet Size for the example case
buses that are required to run services at a set frequency.
This chapter's preceding sections have reviewed the basic calculations for bus frequency and fleet size. Readers of this guide are
Figure 2.9 Fleet Size Formula now invited to practice these skills with an example case in the city of Colombo, Sri Lanka. For this exercise, readers are
provided with a map of the district (Figure 2.12), diagram of the city's three planned bus corridors (Figure 2.13), city
demographics (Table 2.4), and expected passenger counts for each corridor (Table 2.5). Use this information to calculate the
buses per hour, interval and fleet size according to data provided.
Total Cycle Bus
Time Headway Fleet Size
The symbol “ “ indicates a figure the reader is expected to calculate to practice the aforementioned concepts. Answers are
provided in Appendix B.

Figure 2.12 Map of Colombo Municipal District

Surveyors in Colombo calculated a bus headway at peak hours of 12 minutes (Figure 2.5) and a total cycle time of 160 minutes
(Figure 2.8). These inputs result in a calculation showing that Colombo should assemble a fleet of at least 14 buses to
accommodate peak hour demand (Figure 2.10, below).

Figure 2.10 Calculation of Fleet Size in Colombo

160 Min 13.33 buses

12 Min
Total (rounded
Headway
Travel Time to 14)

The size of a bus fleet on a given route may need to be adjusted to accommodate differences in passenger demand at certain
times of the day or at different locations along the route. The results of another daily load profile are shown in Figure 2.11. The
chart illustrates that hours of peak passenger loads are not consistently aligned with peak bus services. Information on service
plan optimization is covered in Section 2.5.

Figure 2.11 Daily Load Profiles

Figure 2.13 Bus Corridors

1600 45
40

1200 35
# of Passengers

30
# of Buses

25
800
20
15
400 10
5
0 0
m

am

pm

m
0a

0a

0a

0a

0a

0p

0p

0p

0p

0p

0p
:00

:00
6:0

7:0

8:0

9:0

:0

1:0

2:0

3:0

4:0

5:0

6:0
10

11

12

Hour of Operation
Buses Passengers

34 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 35
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS

Table 2.4 Colombo Demographics Figure 2.15 Load Profile along a BRT Route in Mexico

9000
Demographics Municipal Corporation Colombo District Western Province Island-wide Buenavista Peak Section
8000
Area (sq km) 37 699 3684 65610

Number of Passengers
7000
Area (% island-wide) 0.1% 1.1% 5.6% 100%
Chipancingo
6000
Road Density (km/sq km) 3.48 5.4 3.64 1.61 Poliforum
5000
Road Density (kms/1000 inhab.) 0.2 1.8 2.8 5.53
Insurgentes
4000
Population – 2001 637,865 1,699,241 3,919,808 18,797,257
3000 Cd. de los Desportes
Population – 2001 (% island-wide) 3% 9% 21% 100% Galvez
2000
Population Density – 2001 (persons/ha) 171 24 11 3
1000

0
Table 2.5 Calculate Operational Statistics 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

Travel Time (minutes)

Corridor 1 Corridor 2 Corridor 3 Total
Source: [49]
Kilometres 15.4 10.8 935.2
The passengers-per-hour-peak-direction (pphpd) experienced on this corridor is 8640. With a bus capacity of 160, this means
Description Fort-Kadawatta Fort-Battaramula Dematagoda-Battaramula
the agency needs to run 54 buses per hour, with a headway of 1.1 minutes. The time to complete a one-way journey is 84
PPHPD 4000 3000 700 7,700 minutes, giving a total cycle time, including 20 minutes of terminal time, of 188 minutes. In order to provide a service frequency
Daily Passengers 80,000 60,000 14,000 154,000 of 54 buses an hour, a fleet of 171 buses running 51,000 kilometres a day is needed.
Total Cycle Time 102.4 min 74.8 min 64 min
Figure 2.15 shows that ridership is significantly higher near Buena Vista. Any congestion or incident related delays after the bus
Buses Per Hour leaves Buena Vista area will create reliability issues for passengers in that region as well.
Interval
If the agency were to run two routes, one from start to finish and another from start to Insurgentes, which is 26 minutes from the
Fleet starting point (giving a total cycle time of 62 minutes), as shown in Figure 2.16, frequencies can be recalculated based on
*Corridor 3 refers to the 'Network Integration Link' in Figure 2.13 demand. This scenario allocates 17 buses per hour for the shorter route and 37 buses per hour for the longer route. Passengers
in this high density corridor will be served by 2 routes with an effective frequency of 1.1 minute. This scenario does not change
their service, but vastly improves their reliability. The long route from start to finish has 37 buses per hour which translates to a
2.5 SERVICE PLAN OPTIMIZATION bus every 1.6 minutes.
Figure 2.14 Metrobus, Mexico City
Bus service plans should be constantly monitored to Figure 2.16 New Service Plan with Two Routes
evaluate their effectiveness. Chapter 8 talks about
performance monitoring in detail, but this section 9000
Buenavista
highlights the importance of data collection in 8000
optimizing service.

Number of Passengers
7000

The following example uses operations on the Chipancingo

6000
Avenue Insurgentes BRT corridor in Mexico City to Poliforum
5000
explain the concept of short loops and demonstrate
Insurgentes
how optimizing service plans can result in cost 4000
savings for transport agencies. Figure 2.14 shows 3000 Cd. de los Desportes
the Metrobus in Mexico. Figure 2.15 shows the Galvez
2000
load profile of the Avenue Insurgentes BRT route.
1000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85

Travel Time (minutes)

Photo Credit: EMBARQ

36 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 37
 ROUTE PLANNING BASED ON DEMAND ASSESSMENTS INFRASTRUCTURE AND
BUS TRANSPORT

The reduction in service for the longer route (1.1 to 1.6 minutes) is minor and will result in minimal loss of ridership. The biggest
advantage of this bifurcation is the reduced fleet size, which comes down to 134 buses and a total of 40,200 kilometres per day.
Figure 2.17 takes this concept further and splits the service into 3 routes as shown. In this scenario, the agency operates 17
CHAPTER 3:
buses each on the two shorter routes and 20 buses on the long routes. The fleet size for this plan drops to 112 buses and total
bus kilometres per day drops to 33,600. INFRASTRUCTURE AND
Figure 2.17 Alternate Service Plan: Three Routes
BUS TRANSPORT
9000
Buenavista
8000 A good bus system is one that provides a reliable, safe, comfortable, fast and affordable means of transport. In the
last couple of decades, there has been a vast improvement in bus services brought about by infrastructural changes in bus
Number of Passengers

7000
facilities such as improved roadways, segregated bus lanes, geometric adjustments, convenient bus shelters and bus terminals.
Chipancingo
6000 While each of these measures improved passenger comfort and the perception of public transport they also resulted in tangible
Poliforum
5000 benefits in terms of increased bus speeds and reliability. Table 3.1 shows a complete list of priority treatments and Table 3.2
Insurgentes shows the benefits of these measures to the operator and user.
4000

3000 Cd. de los Desportes

Galvez Table 3.1 Full Scale Priority Treatment for a Good Bus System
2000

1000
Road infrastructure Good Roadway and durable surface
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 Traffic Engineering Geometric Adjustments
Travel Time (minutes) Modern Traffic Signal Technology

Bus Stops Convenient bus shelters

User Information
Table 2.6 shows the decrease in fleet size and bus kilometres per day in both these scenarios. In both these scenarios, services
have not been drastically reduced for the corridors with lower density. Reduction in fleet size translates to lower bus purchase Vehicles Level Boarding/Alighting
costs, operational costs and the ability to use existing buses to serve potential new routes. It should be noted, however, that Low Emissions
these kinds of operational changes can only be made if there are provisions for the bus to turn around and service the reverse
route at the intermediate points. Services Design according to the service needs

Table 2.6 Benefits of Service Plan Optimization ITS Automatic Vehicle Location / Centralized Control
Electronic Fare Collection

Routes Buses Km-day

1 171 51000
Table 3.2 Operator and User Benefits of Priority Treatments
2 134 40,200
(-22%) (-21%) Type of Priority Benefits to the Operator Benefits to the User
3 112 33,600 Good Roadway Higher speeds, Reduced wear & tear, low Higher Speeds, Smooth and Comfortable ride
(-35%) (-34%) maintenance costs, low fuel consumption

Segregated Busway Higher Speeds and Increased Reliability Higher Speeds, Perception that public transport
leading to lower fleet size is more convenient than private vehicle transport.

Geometric Adjustments Higher Speeds, Increased Safety Higher Speeds, Increased Safety

Convenient bus shelters Increased usage because of comfortable Increase in comfort and safety.
buses and stops Attracts users of all income classes

Bus Terminals Reduced turn-around time, Reliability, Convenience and ease of

reduction in fleet transfers with other modes

38 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 39
 INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT

3.1 SEGREGATED ROADWAYS Table 3.4 Types of Segregation in case study cities

In most cities, buses share roadways with other vehicles. This contributes to delays in service and decreases the reliability of the City Bus Lanes Bus Lane Enforcement Benefits Post-reform
system. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is a “high quality bus-based transit system that delivers fast, comfortable and cost-effective urban ridership
Increase?
mobility through the provision of segregated right-of-way road infrastructure, rapid and frequent operations and excellence in
marketing and customer service” . London Has over 1000 curbside and partially Enforcement using 12.6% faster bus speeds,
segregated lanes. Lane demarcation and both technological and human 7% shift from private to
colouring to distinguish bus lanes means public transport
A city should design its bus rapid transit system depending on the passenger demand. The objectives of a BRT system are to meet
current and existing passenger demand, achieve high vehicle speeds of 25kph or higher and minimize travel times for Seoul 294 km of curbside bus lanes. 74 km of Enforcement using Faster bus speeds and
customers [48]. A high demand corridor in a big city will have different design requirements than those required in smaller cities. high quality segregated bus lanes for BRT. both technological improved Reliability
Adding 55.3 km in 2010 and human means
For example, a BRT system that needs to handle a demand of 3000 pphpd (passengers per hour per direction) will be
significantly different than a system handling 30,000 pphpd. London is able to provide efficient service for its low capacity Sao Paulo Median Bus lanes demarcated with Enforcement using both Faster bus speeds and
road markings. technological and human improved Reliability
(<3000 pphpd) by simple bus lanes demarcated by lines on the road whereas Bogota's TransMilenio has physically segregated means, but high violations
roads, large capacity articulated buses and many stations with level platforms, passing lanes and multiple bus bays. Table 3.3
Ahmedabad Opened a 12.5 km physically segregated Enforcement using human Faster bus speeds and
shows the type of road infrastructure required based on passenger demand. median bus lane. Complete BRT network means improved Reliability
of 88 km to be operational in 2014
Table 3.3 Types of Segregation and Facilities needed based on Passenger Demand Bangalore None in place now. No imminent plans n/a Very low peak bus speeds
to add bus lanes 10-12 kmph
Indore Building a 12 km pilot BRT with physically n/a Very low peak bus speeds
Expected Example City Type of Segregation Vehicle Types Bus Station Intersection segregated lanes. Complete BRT network 10-12 kmph
Demand of 88.5 km to be operational in 2012
(pphd) Mumbai None in place now. No imminent plans n/a Very low peak bus speeds
to add bus lanes 10-12 kmph
<1000 Bus Lanes Standard Vehicles No Prepayment, No No Changes
(60 passengers) Level Boarding, Low
Entry, Single Platform Sources: [5], [7], [10], [34], [35], [36], [37]

1000-3000 London Bus lanes Standard Vehicles - Prepayment, No Level Signal

Double Decker Boarding, Low Entry, priority 3.2 SEGREGATED ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE - INTERNATIONAL EXAMPLES
(60-120 passengers) Single Platform for buses at
junctions LONDON

3000-6000 Guadalajara, Physically segregated Standard Vehicles - Prepayment, Level No Changes London has a long history of bus lanes. Indeed, the very first “bus only” street in the world was introduced in London in 1972,
Mexico right of way with one Articulated Buses Boarding, Single when the Oxford Street thoroughfare was converted into a bus and taxi only street [48]. Since then London has continued to
lane (60-170 passengers) Platform introduce a large number of bus lanes in many different configurations. Currently, there are over 1,000 bus lanes, although the
vast majority of these are open to some combinations of taxis and other vehicular traffic during certain times of the day [5]. In
6000-10,000 Quito, Ecuador Physically segregated Articulated Buses Prepayment, Level Ban Turning
(140-170 terms of bus only lanes, London has 101 lanes that cover a distance of a little over 280 km [22].
or Mexico City right of way with one Boarding, Single Movements
lane passengers) Platform
Bus lanes in London are curbside, partially segregated lanes. Lane demarcation and colouring help to distinguish bus lanes from
10,000- Curitiba, Brazil Physically segregated Bi-Articulated Buses Prepayment, Level Ban Turning other lanes. These bus lanes, therefore, cannot be considered to
15,000 right of way with more or Convoy (240-270 Boarding, Multiple Movements be of the ‘full Bus Rapid Transit’ standard, which demands fully
than one lane passengers) Platforms physically segregated median bus carriageways [48]. However,
London has managed to utilize its bus lanes efficiently through
>15,000 Bogota Physically segregated Bi-Articulated Buses Prepayment, Level Ban Turning
the rigorous use of bus lane enforcement.
right of way with more or Convoy Boarding, Multiple Movements
than one lane (at least (240-270 Platforms, Passing
Bus lane enforcement takes place using both technological and
one for overtaking) passengers) Lane, Express Lane
human means. Bus lanes and buses themselves are fitted with
cameras which,using Automatic Number Plate Recognition
(ANPR) technology, can effectively identify bus lane offenders
[31]. This system of camera-based enforcement is backed by a
dedicated police force-funded by the public transport authority -
in charge of, among other things, strict enforcement of bus lanes
and parking restrictions.
A bus lane in London

40 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 41
 INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT

The enforcement and continuous expansion of bus lanes has is not a very busy corridor. Road expansions were made along accommodate stopped buses efficiently.
had an overall positive impact on bus system performance, with the construction of the BRT to ensure that there was no
with a 2005 study showing that bus speeds in bus lanes were reduced space for private vehicles. While it is optimum to Level Boarding:
12.6% faster than those in ordinary lanes [51]. However, the provide segregated bus lanes in a busy corridor, Ahmedabad
adopted this strategy for political reasons and to ensure public The biggest argument for constructing a good bus station
issue remains that bus lanes such as those in London will not
acceptance of the concept. With the current project being with level boarding is to reduce dwell times at the station. Level
be able to match the efficiencies of a full-fledged BRT system,
hailed as a huge success, they are in the process of boarding and wide bus doors enable passengers to board
and enforcement may become lax over time, as government
constructing the rest of the 88 km BRT network. and alight very quickly thereby reducing travel time. Quick
and political priorities change. A case in point is the decision
turnaround also means that a bus is able to make more
by the current Mayor Boris Johnson to allow motorcycles to use
Figure 3.1 Janmarg, Ahmedabad trips which in turn reduces fleet size. In most high-end
bus lanes from January 2009 on an 18-month trial basis [52].
BRT systems, sliding doors are also provided to enable access
SEOUL to vehicles. These doors are automated and open upon the
arrival of the bus. Figure 3.3 shows level boarding at Janmarg
A major challenge in promoting the use of Seoul’s bus system Ahmedabad BRT.
was to improve the speed and reliability of bus services. In
order to do this, significant bus priority measures were The Novo de Julho/Santo Amaro Busway
Figure 3.3 Level Boarding, Janmarg, Ahmedabad
necessary. In addition to expanding the already existing
The Novo de Julho/Santo Amaro Busway was initiated in
network of curbside bus lanes from 214km to 294km [10],
1977 [53]. It consists of 11 kilometres of physically segregated
a true Bus Rapid Transit system was introduced. This consisted,
bus lanes. Two bus lanes, one in each direction, are located
in early 2005, of a network of 36km of median bus lanes
along the median of the road, and buses are boarded, at
along 4 corridors [32]. By 2009, this was expanded to 74km
most stops, through the use of mid-block, raised platforms.
along 8 corridors, with further additions of 55.3km in 5
The corridor also has passing lanes at bus stops, which
corridors planned for 2010 [11]. Accompanying the
reduces congestion and prevents the occurrence of bus
segregated bus lanes are high quality bus stations along the
convoys in the corridor. Along the corridor, bus stops are Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad
median, many of which also boast of passing lanes.
placed about 600 meters apart. The Novo de Julho corridor
The BRT scheme also included better integration between
was a success in terms of operational performance. The
various travel modes. Bus routes and stations were relocated Figure 3.2 Janmarg, Ahmedabad
corridor witnessed very high bus flows (around 220+ buses
when necessary to facilitate easier bus-to-bus and
per hour during peak periods), high passenger throughputs
bus-to-metro transfers.
(18,000 – 20,000 passengers per hour) and relatively high
SAO PAULO operating speeds of around 20 km/h ([53]).
Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad

Sao Paulo has a long history of introducing innovative Another positive experience in the use of high capacity bus
Improved Aesthetics and Public Perception of Bus
schemes to improve the service quality of its public bus corridors came in the form of the Sao Mateus - Jabaquara
Transport:
transport system, albeit on a generally small scale. These have Busway, which began operations in 1993 ([53]). This busway
mainly been in the form of busways and segregated bus is 33 km long, of which 31 km is completely segregated from In previous decades, a simple shelter was sufficed for a bus
lanes. The first such busway was the Paes de Barns corridor, road traffic. Similar to the Novo de Julho busway, buses travel station. In the new age of BRT, however, a bus station also
which began operations in 1975 [53]. This was followed in in the lanes closest to the median and passengers board via represents the brand of public transport. Modern stations help
1985 by the Santo Arnavo corridor. For both of these busways, raised mid block platforms. position BRT as a new class of public transport that is modern,
the stops were offset islands located to the right of the bus flow comfortable and efficient. Designs should take into account
AHMEDABAD
[53]. In 1991, the Vila Nova Cachuerinha corridor became local architectural style and the climate of the region. Figure
operational. This differed from the earlier two schemes in that The first city in India to implement a high end BRT system, Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad 3.4 shows an image of an Ahmedabad BRT station. The
buses ran in the lanes closest to the median [53]. Passengers Ahmedabad opened a 12.5 km pilot corridor in October design, inspired by the Bogota system, is simple and clean
boarded the bus through the use of raised platforms which 2009. Only BRT buses operate in the pilot corridor. AMTS and uses a lot of natural light and air. The open bars provide
provided level access to the bus. 3.3 BUS STATION IMPROVEMENTS cross-ventilation to keep the station cool and airy. This is a
buses or other buses are not allowed to ply in the segregated
corridor. Busways are segregated using physical railings on more affordable alternative to providing air conditioned
In terms of informing future reform plans, however, perhaps Innovations in bus station design over the last couple of decades stations. The entrance to the station clearly depicts the logo of
the entire corridor except intersections where buses run along have improved not only the aesthetics of public transport but
the two most important and influential busway corridors in Janmarg BRT. Station identification signage, as seen in Figure
with mixed traffic. A group of ex-army men were employed as their performance as well. This section examines methods by
Sao Paulo are the Avenida Novo de Julho (also known as 3.5, is useful in marketing the system and attracting riders.
BRT Police. They monitor intersections and manually make which good bus station design can allow passengers to board
Santo Amaro) Busway and the Sao Mateus - Jabaquara
sure that the bus is given priority at the signals [36]. They also and alight from vehicles quickly, improve public perception of
Busway.
ensure that other vehicles or pedestrians do not enter the bus the bus system, accommodate all passengers comfortably, and
lane. The corridor that Ahmedabad picked for its pilot project

42 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 43
 INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT

Figure 3.4 Ahmedabad BRT Station Station Size: are no vehicles waiting in queue at a stopping bay. Figure 3.7 3.4 CATALOG OF BUS STOPS FROM AROUND THE WORLD
shows the level of saturation at a BRT station in Delhi. The ITDP
Stations should be wide enough to comfortably accommodate Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide has excellent material on The following photographs provide examples of bus station
all projected waiting passengers and should provide enough calculating station size and stopping bays using passenger designs from BRT systems in cities around the world.
space for passengers to enter and exit the area. The size will demand [48].
have a direct impact on passenger movement, comfort and Figure 3.9 Metrovía, 2006 (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
experience. Sizing depends on the number of boardings and Figure 3.7 Saturation at Delhi BRT station
alightings. There should be ample seats for elderly and
disabled passengers and standing space for the rest of the
users. For BRT stations, where the bus is being branded as a
comfortable mode of transport, it is necessary to size bus
stations to ensure enough personal space for the rider. Figure
3.6 illustrates the concept of personal space in 1 meter square
of land. 4 persons can stand in this area comfortably, while 7-
12 people create a crowded atmosphere. If public transport
has to compete with private vehicles, then passengers need to
be comfortable both at the stations and inside buses. In most
Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad
Western societies, even 4 people per meter square is
Figure 3.5 Ahmedabad BRT Station Identification Signage considered crowded, but it is quite acceptable in Asia.

Figure 3.6 Illustration of Crowding

Photo Credit: Madhav Pai, EMBARQ Photo Credit: Dario Hidalgo, EMBARQ

Figure 3.8 Basic Components of a well-designed BRT station

Source: [54]

Stopping Bays:

Most of the smaller BRT systems can accommodate their

passengers with a single stopping bay at their stations. This
however causes inefficiencies in high demand corridors where
multiple stopping bays are essential. Delhi BRT stations have 5
stopping bays but can only accommodate a peak hour
capacity of 6500 pphpd due the lack of passing lanes and the
proximity of the stations to junctions. It is essential that the
station and stopping bays have a low level of saturation. A low
Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad level of saturation results in a high level of service where there Photo Credit: Dario Hidalgo, EMBARQ

44 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 45
 INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT INFRASTRUCTURE AND BUS TRANSPORT

Figure 3.10 Transjakarta, 2004 (Jakarta, Indonesia) Figure 3.13 Megabús, 2006 (Pereira, Colombia) 3.5 TERMINALS AND DEPOTS Care must also be taken to ensure that the design of terminals
is made with the efficiency of the bus system as the foremost
A ‘terminal’ usually refers to the large stations that are the priority. Oftentimes terminals, especially those located in
major points of interchange between different bus routes - central city areas, are considered landmarks and issues of
such as trunk, feeder and intercity routes - or different modes prestige may therefore drive the design process as opposed
of transport. Bus routes also often begin or end at terminals. to issues of practicality [55].
They are larger than other bus stations in a system, and often
also provide auxiliary services to passengers such as food, Depots:
ticketing, and so on.
An operator may have one depot or several, depending on its
A ‘depot’ is a transport system’s operating base. It provides fleet size or geographic coverage. Most transport operators
parking accommodation, servicing and maintenance have their head offices at one of their depots. Operators with
Photo Credit: C.A. Diaz, Megabus S.A. / Dario Hidalgo, facilities for vehicles, an administrative function, and fleets of more than two or three vehicles should have the use
EMBARQ facilities for staff. A fully enclosed depot is sometimes referred of off-street depot facilities [55]. A small operator will
to as a garage. normally have facilities for only very basic servicing. The
Figure 3.14 Metrovía, 2006 (Guayaquil, Ecuador) larger the operator, the greater is the scope for carrying out
Photo Credit: ITDP Terminals: maintenance work in-house at the depot.

Figure 3.11 Metrobús, 2005 (Mexico City, Mexico) The location of terminals is determined by the size and The location of a depot should be chosen for its accessibility
organization of the bus network and also by the travel and and to minimize dead mileage, although there are other
demand requirements of users. Terminals are most logically considerations, particularly the availability and cost of
located at points where many routes converge or meet [55]. suitable land.
They should also be conveniently located for passengers
entering and exiting the system. Location decisions may also If an urban undertaking has only one depot, a central
be driven by the desire to integrate bus services with other location is normally desirable, unless the cost of land makes
modes of transport. Terminals do, however, generally have a this impossible, in which case a location close to one of the
negative effect on traffic conditions in the surrounding areas busier routes is preferable [55]. If it has several depots, it’s
due to the number of bus movements in and out of the usually better for them to be located in the suburbs, since this
terminal [55]. This is an especially important consideration for will be where most buses start and finish their days’ work, and
terminals located in central city areas. dead mileage will be minimized. If traffic congestion in a city
is severe, a number of small depots, each conveniently
A single terminal may suffice for a bus system in a small city, located near the starting point of a route, may be preferable,
whereas a bus system in a medium or large city will inevitably in order to minimize the time lost by buses in traffic congestion
require multiple terminals. In large cities requiring multiple between their depots and route starting points [55]. In
terminals, these may be located on the periphery of the many cases, however, buses start work long before
Photo Credit: Dario Hidalgo, EMBARQ
central area. In such cases, each terminal should be allocated commencement of the normal working day, so that
Figure 3.12 BRT Line 1, 2005 (Beijing, China) to a group of routes that share a similar corridor or congestion is less of a problem at times when buses are
geographical coverage [55]. This has the advantage of travelling to and from their routes.
minimizing bus movements through the central city area and
therefore reducing congestion. However, this will require
users to complete a portion of their journey on foot and
passengers wishing to travel through the city centre may be
required to walk significant distances between terminals to
interchange routes. Alternatively, bus routes can be designed
to pass through the city centre while beginning and
terminating outside the city centre. In this setup terminals can
be located in the suburbs, reducing both the impact of
Photo Credit: Dario Hidalgo, EMBARQ
terminals on traffic congestion and the cost of their
construction [55]. While this will improve passenger
connectivity in the central city area, it may contribute to
increased congestion due to the large number of buses that
Photo Credit: Karl Fjellstorm, ITDP need to pass through the city centre.

46 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 47
 BETTER VEHICLES BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT
FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

CHAPTER 4: • Identify Available Technology: There are a limited number

of manufacturers of high quality, new technology buses in
India. Research should be conducted to look at service,
of atmospheric pollution, and easier management and
control, particularly for scheduling purposes. The number of
times at stops will also be low.

BETTER VEHICLES personnel required to transport a given number of When operated at very high frequencies, small buses
operational and maintenance issues for buses of varying
passengers will also normally be lower. invariably cause more congestion at stops by making more
sizes, floor heights, interiors, fuel, and engine types.
wasteful use of road space. A 10-seat minibus occupies

FOR PUBLIC • Evaluation and Selection process: An evaluation process

should be conducted to select the vehicle technology that
meets the complete needs of the system
Smaller vehicles are necessary on routes where road
conditions inhibit the use of larger vehicles. This often applies
when routes operate in high-density residential areas with
nearly three times as much road space per passenger as a
full-sized bus.

TRANSPORT • Procurement Process: Bids should be put out to lease or

very narrow streets. Other constraints on the operation of
larger vehicles may include low or weak bridges, or terminals
and depots with restricted access, as well as legislation
Table 4.2 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of
a minibus. Table 4.3 provides an overview of the economics
of operating a minibus compared to a standard bus. The
purchase vehicles
restricting vehicle dimensions. Smaller buses can provide a operating cost per kilometre is lower for a minibus, but so is
The focus of this chapter is about better vehicles as it
This vehicle selection methodology ensures that vehicles are higher frequency of service for a given passenger flow, which the revenue per kilometre. Small vehicles are mass produced
relates to improving public transport service and
picked according to the needs of the bus system. can improve the convenience of the service. Passengers also in greater volume than large buses, and therefore capital
operations and reducing pollution. For general
often prefer small buses because they are faster and take less costs per seat or passenger-place can be significantly lower.
information about buses, refer to the PPIAF/World Bank
Example of Bus Design Standards in Indore time to load. Small vehicles also make it possible to offer a Maintenance costs, principally the cost of spare parts, are
Urban Bus toolkit. Road vehicles used for mass public
greater number of route variations without adversely affecting also often lower for the same reason. The life of a smaller
transport range from small vehicles carrying about ten Appendix C of this guide lists the standards adopted by ICTSL
service frequency. A small vehicle usually has better vehicle is usually shorter than that of a larger vehicle,
passengers, to bi-articulated buses built to maximum in Indore for their diesel fuelled semi-low floor buses.
acceleration and manoeuvrability in traffic than a larger however, so depreciation costs per passenger may be
permitted dimensions and weight, which may carry over 270 According to the detailed technical specifications table, buses
vehicle. Smaller size also means a smaller number of relatively high.
passengers. Each type of vehicle has a role to play and to should be designed to handle 16-20 hours of continuous
some extent all types may be complementary to one another passengers boarding and alighting at each stop, so dwell
daily operation, peak period overload of up to 150% of
as part of the overall public transport system. Table 4.1, normal capacity (with each passenger weighing 68 kgs on Table 4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Minibus
adapted from ITDP's Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide, average), an average journey speed of about 18 kmph (with
displays a recommended methodology for vehicle selection. frequent starts and stops), and a maximum attainable speed Advantages of Minibus Disadvantages of Minibus
This methodology is as follows: of the bus of 70-80 kmph. Further, the buses should be
provided with handicap accessibility features that allow Can be used if there is legislation restricting vehicles dimensions Cannot provide adequate service if loads are high enough for
• Define System Needs: Vehicle characteristics should be standard buses
wheelchair entry, as well as eco-friendly and energy efficiency
defined to provide the most aesthetic bus that provides Can overcome constraints on operation like low or weak bridges Lower comfort than conventional buses
measures that meet specified exhaust emissions norms
optimal system performance while meeting political and
(Bharat Stage III or Euro-III or the latest as amended up to the More buses can provide a higher frequency High service frequency may mean that there are often several
financial constraints. vehicles running in convoy. This can create significant congestion
date of supply).
compared with a single large vehicle carrying the same number
of passengers
Table 4.1 Recommended Methodology for Vehicle Selection
Better fuel efficiency Higher levels of pollution; Higher speeds can cause accidents

Define Needs Available Technology Evaluation and Selection Procurement Small vehicles offer a greater number of route variations, without Harder to manage and control
adversely affecting service frequency
Source: [56]
Vehicle Size Chassis and Body Financial Aspects Risk Assignment

Operations Propulsion Technology Operational Aspects Purchase Options Table 4.3 Standard Vs Minibus Costs (Route 16, ICTSL)

Environment Fuel Types Environmental Aspects Direct Bidding Bus Type Standard Mini Bus Type Standard Mini
Legal Restrictions Environmental Performance Strategic Issues Leasing Mileage (kmpl) 3.75 6 Operating cost per km (Rs.) 18.49 15.09
Cost (rspl) 34 34 Passengers per bus per day 1,000 600
Fleet Size Strategic Issues AMC (per km) 3.00 3.00 Average trip length 5 5
Bus km per day 220 220 Collection per day 5,000 3,000
Bus km per month 5,720 5,720
Fare Revenue per km (Rs.) 22.73 13.64
4.1 VEHICLE SIZE & CAPACITY Standard buses can carry a high number of standing Monthly Expenses
passengers in greater comfort than small buses, which have Premium (Route Concession) 5,000 5,000 Source: [56]
There is no single perfect size vehicle. In the current market, very limited headroom. Larger buses require less road space Insurance + Accident comp. 4,750 4,750
there are many types of buses - minibuses, standard buses, Diesel 51,861 32,413
per passenger, and this can be particularly significant where
Salaries 18,000 18,000
double-deck buses, articulated and bi-articulated buses. road space is limited, as well as in depots, at bus stops and Other expenses 1,000 1,000
Careful planning needs to be done to choose a vehicle size stations. Fewer large buses are required to carry the same Annual Maintenance Contract 17,160 17,160
that will maximize convenience and service. number of passengers. This will normally result in lower levels Tires 8,000 8,000
Total Expenses per Month 105,771 86,323

48 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 49
 BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Optimal vehicle size for a system should be determined system has level boarding and a bus size of 80 passengers, Table 4.4 High Floor Vs Low Floor Buses
based on the following criteria: but only a single door for each bus, creating a bottleneck.
Factor High Floor Buses Low-Floor Buses
• The volume of traffic: When a large numbers of 4.3 FLOOR HEIGHT
passengers are to be carried, the most efficient and Purchase Cost Lower costs (Rs. 20-30 Lakhs) 20-30% higher costs due to complexity in
economic vehicle is the largest that can be operated Buses have historically been developed using a truck chassis design (Rs. 50-90 Lakhs)
legally, safely and practically within the constraints of the which has high floors. In the last decade, research on
Maintenance costs Low High if run on bad roads
prevailing road conditions. providing fast and efficient bus service has resulted in the
production of low floor buses. Currently, there are three Convenience Very convenient and efficient with platform Very convenient and efficient with platform
• The characteristics of the road system: Ultra low floor options for bus floor height. These include low floor, semi-low level boarding and inconvenient otherwise level boarding and 1 step boarding otherwise
buses are not suitable in places with bad roads. Similarly, floor and high floor vehicles. Low floor buses eliminate steps, Can be towed by a conventional tow truck in May require special type of towing vehicle
Vehicle Towing
long bi-articulated buses will not work in places with which results in lower dwell times and easier access for the case of breakdown
smaller stopping bays and limited space for turnaround. physically disabled. Time savings could be as much as two
Therefore, buses should be selected based on the quality seconds per passenger, which could add up to a high number Fare Evasion Less common with pre-board fare system. More susceptible to fare evasion
of the road and geometric considerations for stopping on heavily used bus routes. In most developing countries, Vibrations and Comfort Higher suspension reduces roadway bumps More susceptible to roadway bumps and
and turning. including India, there is a dearth of low floor bus and vibrations vibrations
manufacturers. Ashok Leyland, Tata Motors, Volvo and other Seating Impact on height and number of seats
• The type of services that passengers are prepared to pay Less impact on number of seats from
companies are constructing low floor buses, but they have due to placement of wheel well
for: Swanky new buses are being marketed as the new wheel-wells
minimal production capacity and are unable to meet the ever
face of premium bus transport is India and the rest of the increasing demand for this bus type in India.
world. To compete with private vehicles, buses have to be Figures 4.1 and 4.2 show dwell times based on floor height, door width/number, prepayment and bus type. These figures are
comfortable and of a standard acceptable to all sections based on data from Latin American cities. The figures show there is a maximum savings of 4 seconds per passenger. For
of society. A 400mm (floor height) Volvo bus costs Rs. 80 example, if a bus route with 15 stops has 20 boardings and 10 alightings at each stop, it will save almost 30 minutes if it
Lakhs while a 650mm Tata Star bus costs Rs. 20-25 implements all the features to reduce dwell time. These time savings translate into having more frequent buses and/or reduced
Lakhs. Both have almost similar capacity, so it is hard to fleet size.
justify the higher cost, unless it can be recovered from
higher fares. A number of air conditioned buses are being
Level boarding Figure 4.1 Dwell Time Based on Bus Features

operated in the high income corridors to promote modal

shift to buses.
is the key to
reducing dwell Dwell Time
Seconds per Passenger
4.2 DOORWAYS
times and 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50
Vehicle size, doorway width and platform height are three key
issues that determine the dwell time at a station. While it is providing easy
important to use the correct vehicle size based on demand, it Normal (1 narrow door, stairs,
is equally essential to design the number and width of the access for on-board payment) 2.50
4.20

doorways. The number, size and location of the doorways

play an important role in facilitating efficient boarding and
passengers. Prepayment 2.50 Boarding
2.50
alighting. The combination of level boarding with multiple Alighting
wide doorways can reduce boarding and alighting times per
Level Access 2.00
passenger by 0.25-0.5 seconds (See figures 4.1 and 4.2 on 2.00
Dwell Times). Level boarding is the key to reducing dwell times and
Multiple Doors (3 wide doors) 0.60
providing easy access for passengers. An opposing school of 0.60
Provision of several doorways dispersed along the length of
thought argues that it is better to have high floor buses with
the vehicle increases the capacity of the vehicle. When there
level boarding because of the higher costs and lower seating 0.30
is only one door, passengers travelling short distances will Articulated Bus (4 wide doors)
capacity (due to the placement of wheel well) associated with 0.30
bunch together near the door giving the impression of a
low floor buses. Table 4.4 shows the comparison between
crowded bus even when there is space in the middle of the
high-floor and low-floor vehicles.
bus. When the bus stops, this creates conflicts between
entering and exiting passengers increasing the boarding and
alighting time. This exact phenomenon was noticed during a
site visit to the Janmarg BRT system in Ahmedabad. The

50 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 51
 BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

Figure 4.2 Contribution of bus features to reduce dwell time One fuel may emit less of one type of pollutant and more of Figure 4.3 charts grams per kilometre of PM-10 for different types of fuel. All forms of diesel have the highest emissions of PM-
another. Pollutants emitted by fuels include: 10. PM-10 emission is much lower for ultra low sulphur diesel with particulate filters compared to conventional diesel. CNG
Multiple Doors Articulated Bus and hybrid vehicles have the lowest PM-10 emissions. Increased levels of fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards
(3 wide doors), (4 wide doors), • PM-10 (Particulate matter 10 micrometers or less) such as heart disease, altered lung function and lung cancer.
35.9% 7.7% • NOx (Nitrogen Oxides)
Figure 4.4 shows grams per kilometre of GHG for different types of fuel. The main greenhouse gases emitted by fuels are
• NMHC (Non-Methane Hydrocarbons)
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. As can be seen from the table and charts, diesel and hybrid vehicles have the least
• CO (Carbon Monoxide) emissions of GHG.
• GHG (Greenhouse Gases including carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and so on) Figure 4.3 PM10 emissions by Fuel Type Figure 4.4 GHG emissions by Fuel Type

The decision to select a particular fuel will depend on the

availability of said fuel and the local conditions in a region. In
Level Access, Prepayment, Delhi, pollution was at its all time high in the late 1990's
12.8% 43.6% because of the use of high sulphur and adulterated diesel. In
2002, the Supreme Court ordered all buses to be converted
Low floor buses work well in conventional bus systems that do to CNG. While CNG does well in reducing particulate
not have closed stations, level boarding and pre-boarding emissions, its greenhouse gas emissions are not very different
fare collection systems. In these scenarios, the 'one-step entry' from diesel technology. It is also worth noting that CNG buses
afforded by low floor buses reduces dwell times and can have higher capital and maintenance costs than conventional
improve system performance. In the Indian context, however, buses. Some fuels produce less local emissions but more at
the very high cost of these low floor buses compared to the point of production. Table 4.5 shows the emission of
conventional buses must be taken into account. Given the pollutants for 6 different types of fuel.
high demand levels in Indian cities, it might be more
advantageous to use cheaper high floor buses and applying As can be seen from the table, CNG has very low emissions of
the financial savings towards providing a higher frequency of PM-10, but high emissions of all other pollutants like NOx,
service, rather than procuring expensive low floor buses and NMHC, CO and GHG. Adding an oxidation catalyst to CNG
as a result only being able to provide a low frequency service. will reduce NOx, CO and GHG emissions. Conventional
Diesel releases a high amount of PM-10 and NOx, but low
4.4 BUS FUEL TYPE amounts of CO, GHG and other pollutants. Using Ultra Low
Sulphur Diesel (ULSD) reduces NOx and other pollutants.
Public Transport plays an important role in improving the Source: [57] Source: [57]
As of 2006, almost all of the petroleum-based diesel fuels
environment by reducing the number of vehicles on the road.
available in Europe and North America are of the ULSD
This role can be further strengthened by the use of modern 4.5 BUSES IN THE INDIAN MARKET
type. The move to lower sulphur content allows the
buses that produce low emissions. Given the number of fuel
application of newer emissions control technologies that
options in the market, there is no clear winner in terms of low Until the early 21st century, all Indian city bus bodies were built on truck chassis. Passengers had to get on and off through
should substantially lower emissions of particulate matter
emissions. Each fuel carries different trade-offs in costs, narrow doors while climbing two or three steps. Buses were built with only function in mind and were often noisy, uncomfortable
from diesel engines.
emissions, road infrastructure and operating constraints. and slow. Most buses operated on diesel and had high emissions. With the launch of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Renewal Mission (JnNURM) in December 2005 and the National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) in April 2006, bus transport
Table 4.5 Pollutants by Fuel Type got a fresh lease of life. JnNURM and NUTP encouraged modernizing public transport and partially funded the purchase of
CNG CNG + Oxidation Conventional Ultra Low Ultra Low Hybrid Diesel new buses. The Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) prepared 'Urban Bus Specification Guidelines' which clearly stated the
Diesel Catalyst Sulphur Diesel Sulphur Diesel + Electric type of vehicles that should be procured for cities based on population size. As per these specifications, at least 20 percent of the
+ Particulate Filters buses procured under JnNURM for million-plus cities should be low-floor buses. Cities with less than one million in population
PM-10 Low Very Low Very High High Low Very Low could procure standard buses. All the buses funded by JnNURM should carry a distinct JnNURM logo on both sides. A total of
NOx Very High Very Low High Medium High Very Low 15,260 modern buses have been approved for 61 mission cities that chose to participate in this scheme. The aim of the urban
NMHC Very High Medium Medium Low Very Low bus specifications is to replicate the Metro experience in city buses and improve the service to a level that is not only efficient but
CO Very High Very Low Medium Medium Very Low Very Low also competitive and attractive to its users.
GHG High Medium Low Low Very High Very Low
Formaldehydes Very High Low Low Low Very Low Bangalore rolled out its first set of premium buses in 2006. Seventy Volvo buses were purchased at approximately Rs. 62 lakhs
Acetaldehydes Very High Medium Medium Very High Very Low each, which is almost 3 times the cost of a standard vehicle . The reason for the slow introduction of premium buses in Indian
Cost Medium Medium Very Low Low Low High cities is the high import duties on foreign vehicles and parts. In most cases, excise duties are as high as 100% of the bus cost
which results in a doubling of the cost. Reducing excise duties will increase competition and will eventually increase production.
Source: [57]

52 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 53
 BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT

In the last 5-10 years, many Indian and foreign companies Figure 4.6 Starbus: Low Floor Bus building capabilities in India, especially in light of the high Figure 4.10 Ashok Leyland: Low Floor iBus
such as Tata Motors, Ashok Leyland, Swaraj Mazda, King costs of importing foreign vehicles and parts [61].
Long and Volvo have set up manufacturing units for premium
CNG, low floor and semi-low floor buses in Indian cities. The
capacity of these facilities is still too low to meet the ever Figure 4.8 Ashok Leyland Range of Buses
increasing demand for high quality buses. There are many
private companies that assemble buses using truck chassis
and these companies have yet to enter into the low floor bus
market. Furthermore, public transport operators have to
compete with airports and intercity private operators for Viking BS - II Viking BS - III Viking BS - II

premium buses and hence it takes a considerable amount of

time from order to delivery. With most of these companies
expanding facilities and setting up automated assembly lines,
this issue might get resolved in the coming years. There also Viking SLF BS - III Viking CNG BS - III 12 M Bus - BS II
appears to be a perception in India that floor height is
Source: [59]
connected to quality; low-floor buses are perceived to be
more “modern” and of a better quality than conventional Figure 4.7 Starbus: Ultra Low Floor Bus
buses. Given the price premium for low floor buses and the
bottlenecks in their production and procurement, Indian bus Cheetah BS - II 12 M Bus - BS II Cheetah BS - III Source: [60]
operators and BRT systems should also consider using high
quality conventional buses. Figure 4.11 Ashok Leyland: Low Floor Buses

The following section presents details of some of the bus

Rear Engine SLF (CNG) - BS III
manufacturers in India. This is not a comprehensive list and Cheetah BS - II Panther BS - II Lynx BS - II
details only the most commonly available models.
Information and images in this section have been taken
directly from the websites and press releases of these bus
manufacturers.
Vestibule Bus - BS III Double Decker Airport Tarmac Coach
Source: [59]
Tata Motors:

'Starbus' is Tata Motors' city bus series. They are available in a

Ashok Leyland Source: [60] Tarmac Coach ULE (CNG) - BS III
number of variants, with seating capacities ranging from 16
to 67 seats. The Starbus product line includes standard, Ashok Leyland is one of the oldest bus and truck
deluxe, Low Floor and Ultra Low Floor bus options, each with manufacturers in India and currently has more than 40% of Figure 4.9 Ashok Leyland: Ultra Low Floor Buses
a customised set of features . Additional technical details for the market share for buses in India. Their "Viking" and
Starbus can be found on the Tata Motors Website. "Cheetah" lines of buses are of various sizes, interiors, comfort
Figure 4.5 Starbus: Standard Bus levels, fuel and engine types. They make standard buses,
deluxe, double-decker and articulated (vestibule) buses [60].
Figure 4.7 shows their range of buses. In the last decade,
Ashok Leyland has expanded their bus manufacturing range Source: [60]
to include CNG buses, semi-low floor, and ultra-low floor
models. They have supplied Delhi Transport Corporation with At the Auto Expo 2010, Ashok Leyland unveiled India's first
hundreds of CNG buses and are now under contract to plug-in CNG hybrid bus. The HYBUS combines a
supply 875 ultra low floor buses in 2010. These new buses conventional CNG engine with an electric propulsion system.
are manufactured in their 20,000 square metre facility at The engine is operated at an optimal efficiency to drive the
Alwar, which has spearheaded the introduction of CNG generator for charging the on-board battery. The Lithium-Ion
technology in India, with over 3,500 CNG bus chassis built to battery that powers the electrical drive system provides the
date. This bus manufacturing facility is equipped with modern propulsion. The HYBUS intelligently selects the most efficient
machinery that has been globally benchmarked as the best in operating mode to ensure maximum fuel efficiency without
Source: [60]
class. It is very important to have such state-of-the-art bus compromising performance, comfort or passenger safety.
Source: [59]

54 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 55
 BETTER VEHICLES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY

Figure 4.12 Ashok Leyland: HYBUS (Hybrid Technology Bus)

CHAPTER 5:
TECHNOLOGY
Technological innovations over the last few decades
have continued to advance the state-of-art in public
transport. Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) such as
synchronized traffic signals, real time traveller information,
automatic fare collection and advanced traffic management
Technology
systems have given a facelift to the traditional bus system. Not should be used
only are these systems widely available in India, they are also
very affordable. Use of sophisticated technology in bus
to improve
transport helps dispel the perception that the bus is a poor operational
cousin of rail. Customers are drawn to transport that is efficiency and
efficient, reliable and modern.
customer
ITS systems have been in place for many years in developed satisfaction.
countries. The good news for developing countries is that
these technologies are now widely available and very
affordable. The city of Indore has GPS units in each of its buses
Source: [60]
and is able to track vehicles. Janmarg in Ahmedabad also has an advanced traffic management centre where buses are
constantly monitored. Both these cities have taken advantage of affordable technology to improve system reliability and
VOLVO BUS
provide passenger information. Technology should be used to improve operational efficiency and customer satisfaction.
The Volvo 9400 was the first bus to be introduced with a true bus chassis in India and is now a well recognized brand known for Table 5.1 shows the benefits of different types of technologies.
its high vehicle performance and ride comfort. Bangalore was the first city in India to introduce Volvo buses for public transport.
Table 5.1 Benefits of Technology
The high end air conditioned buses provide a comfortable alternative to driving private vehicles in peak traffic. These buses
were helpful in changing the image of public transport from old and rickety to sleek and sophisticated.
Type of Technology Benefits to the Operator Benefits to the User
To reduce costs, Volvo started a new state of the art bus body building facility just outside Bangalore [58].
Electronic Fare Collection Reduces overhead in terms of ticket collector Increased convenience
Figure 4.13 Volvo: 8400 Automatic Vehicle Eliminates leakage of fare collections
Reduces dwell times
Location / Centralized System monitoring leads to improved Increased perception of reliability and safety
Control performance
Modern Traffic Signal Higher speeds and increased reliability Higher speeds and increased reliability
Technology
Perception that bus transport is a priority for
the government
User Information Increased usage because of public Increases confidence and reliability
information and awareness

5.1 TRAFFIC SIGNAL PRIORITY

Traffic signal priority is a technique to speed up bus public transport services at intersections (or junctions) with traffic signals.
Buses normally signal their impending arrival (via radio systems, for example) and on their arrival at the intersection receive
a green light. Table 5.2 shows signal priority measures adopted by the studied cities.
Source: [62]

56 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 57
 TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY

Table 5.2 Signal priority measures adopted by studied cities 5.2 ELECTRONIC FARE COLLECTION

City Traffic Signal Priority Benefits A good fare collection system should improve bus operational efficiency, integrate with other transport modes and have
minimal leakage and fare evasion. Many systems are emulating the off-board payment system that has been a part of metro
London GPS based technologies – ‘iBUS’ system Enhanced development of Real Time Passenger
and subway systems for years. In this system, the fare is paid before entering the bus stop, thus reducing delays associated with
uses ‘virtual detectors’ for signal priority Information (RTPI) capabilities, such as displays at bus
on-board payments. Also, by removing the need for drivers and conductors to handle cash, incidents of onboard robbery are
stops and stations indicating when the next bus is due.
reduced. Off-board ticketing also reduces dwell times at bus stops which is a serious consideration in high density corridors.
Seoul Traffic Signal gives priority to buses at Reduced wait times at signals and facilitating turns Tickets are usually in the form of contactless smart cards which reduces the burden of carrying cash. It is highly beneficial to the
intersections user if the fare card can be used across multiple transport modes. Table 5.3 shows the use of smart cards in 7 cities.
Sao Paulo None None
Table 5.3 Fare collection Systems
Ahmedabad BRT Police manually ensure priority Faster bus speeds and improved Reliability
Bangalore None None City Fare Collection Systems Benefits
Indore None None London Electronic smart card system (‘Oyster’) in Reduces costs for smart card users,
Mumbai None None addition to manual fare collection. Must pay improves bus system performance as dwell
before boarding in central London area. times at bus stops are reduced due to the
Sources: [7], [9], [34], [35], [36], [37], [50] elimination of cash transactions.
London Ahmedabad Seoul Contactless smart card fare collection Reduces costs for smart card users,
system (‘T-money’) in addition to manual improves bus system performance as dwell
London has gone through several iterations of a traffic signal Ahmedabad uses a very simple manual process to ensure bus fare collection. times at bus stops are reduced due to the
priority system. Implementation in London has relied upon priority at intersections. A group of ex-army men were hired as elimination of cash transactions. Provides
various methods collectively known as Selective Vehicle ‘BRT Police’. They monitor intersections and manually make seamless integration of all modes of public
Detection (SVD) or Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) [28]. sure that the bus is given priority at the signals [36]. The police transport for smart card users.
start clearing away the intersection as soon as the bus leaves
In the older version of this technology, the bus lane or road Sao Paulo Electronic smart card system (‘Bilhete Unico’) Reduces costs for smart card users,
the stop. By the time the bus enters the intersection, the
was embedded with an inducting loop or equipped with a in addition to manual fare collection. improves bus system performance as dwell
roadway is clear for them to move forward. This kind of
roadside beacon [50]. The bus itself was equipped with a times at bus stops are reduced due to the
manual process will work in areas with manageable traffic,
transponder. When the bus passed over the loop (or moved elimination of cash transactions. Free
but is very hard to control in crowded places. Also, the
past a roadside beacon), the system recognized the vehicle as transfers within a given time period for
Janmarg BRT is a new system and it is normal for the public to
one requiring signal priority. This triggers communication with smart card users encourages uptake
be in awe of new systems and follow the rules. It is more
the signal box which initiates the signal priority process, which efficient to use an electronic traffic signal priority in the long Ahmedabad Contactless smart card fare collection will be Reduces costs for smart card users,
can range from extending the green cycle, shortening the run. Ahmedabad built innovative signalized “squareabouts” underway soon for Janmarg. Also working improves bus system performance as dwell
green cycle for other traffic or skipping a signal stage. at Anjali Junction, Ambedkar Nagar and Nehru Nagar [36]. on integrating it with regular AMTS bus times at bus stops are reduced due to the
The squareabout allows all movements at the junction in two routes elimination of cash transactions
In 2003, TfL started exploring the use of GPS based signal phases and hence allows shorter signal cycles. Shorter Bangalore Manual Fare collection None
technologies to implement signal priority. This resulted in the signal cycles translate to lower delays at the junction.
initiation of the GBP 117 million iBUS program [50]. In this Indore Manual Fare collection None
program, each bus in the fleet is fitted with a GPS device. Figure 5.1 Squareabout at Anjali Junction Mumbai GoMumbai Smart Cards can be used at Reduces costs for smart card users,
As the locations of the erstwhile roadside beacons and suburban rail and BEST buses improves bus system performance as dwell
induction loops can now be hard coded into the system as times at bus stops are reduced due to the
GPS co-ordinates, the iBus is said to use ‘virtual detectors’ for elimination of cash transactions
signal priority. When the bus reaches a pre-designated
location, the unit on the bus communicates via radio signals Sources: [7], [9], [26], [34], [35], [36], [37]
with the traffic signal to indicate the need for signal priority.
This new system thus does away with a majority of the Seoul Example
roadside equipment needed in the previous system. The GPS
based technology of iBUS will also enhance the development A good example of electronic fare collection from the case studies is Seoul’s introduction of a contactless smart card system
of Real Time Passenger Information (RTPI) capabilities, such as called ‘T-money’. This smart card can be used on all bus and metro services. The card makes using public transport more
displays at bus stops and stations indicating when the next bus convenient for passengers, who no longer need to pay fares using cash. This also improves bus system performance as dwell
is due [28]. times at bus stops are reduced due to the elimination of time-consuming cash transactions between users and drivers. Users
Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad who decide to forgo use of the T-money card face a monetary penalty in that cash fares are KRW 50-100 more expensive than

58 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 59
 TECHNOLOGY TECHNOLOGY

T-money fares [13]. Also, users who pay cash fares cannot Additionally, the large amount of transaction data generated of the service levels (i.e. bus-kilometres operated) provided by destination and scheduling changes. Users can access this
avail of free transfers. This pricing scheme thus encourages by the T-money system allows for detailed transport demand, each bus company, which is the basis for compensation [29]. information either at the stations themselves, through the
public transport users to adopt the T-money system. origin-destination, loading and travel pattern analysis. This Furthermore, the collection of this data also allows for the internet or via mobile phones [29]. Finally the data generated
data is of critical importance for route planning, scheduling monitoring and evaluation of bus company performance by by the bus management system is used to optimize schedules,
The greatest benefit for T-money cardholders is that is allows and system management purposes. looking at such bits of information as punctuality, speeds on fleet sizes and manpower allocation across different bus lines.
them to treat the entire public transport network of Seoul, particular routes, and so on. Perhaps most importantly from a
including the different bus types and the metro, as one 5.3 GPS-BASED BUS MANAGEMENT user perspective, this system also allows passengers to obtain
seamless system. When a trip involves multiple bus types or real time information on next bus arrivals, anticipated time to
mode types, the T-money system automatically determines The ability to track buses in real time has many advantages in
the correct total fare to be charged to the user. This total fare is the management of a bus system. It allows the public agency
based on a combination of the highest applicable base fare in charge of management to analyse the overall system
across the different segments of the trip and the total distance performance in a detailed and accurate manner. It allows the
travelled [13]. In all cases, the amount charged by the T- identification of problem routes or areas of the system and
money system is lower than if the user had paid for each thus contributes to a process of continual system
journey stage individually. improvement. For bus systems that have contracted services
out to private companies, such tracking allows the transport
Equally as important as the benefits provided to the user, the authority to ensure that the private companies are fulfilling
T-money system greatly simplifies the settlement of accounts their contractual obligations in terms of the amount and
with the various private transport operating companies [13]. quality of service provided. Tracking buses also enables the
When a trip involves multiple journey stages using different development of Real Time Passenger Information (RTPI)
types of buses or modes, the T-money system automatically services. Bus tracking is mainly carried out through the
determines the appropriate distribution of fares based on the installation of GPS devices in each bus, which then transmit
ratio of base fares for each segment of the trip and the location information to a central control centre.
proportion of the total trip length that each different transport
operator carried the user [13]. The automated nature of this Table 5.4 summarises the status of GPS based bus
system adds to the transparency of revenue management. management in the case study cities.

Table 5.4 GPS-based Bus Management Systems in Cities

City Bus Management System Benefits

London, Seoul, GPS units in every bus and a central Monitor the performance of the system in
Ahmedabad and Indore command and control centre for citywide real time, evaluation of bus company
bus operations. Location and speed of every performance, dynamic management of the Seoul's central command and control center for bus operations
bus transmitted continuously to the central bus system, real time information to users
command centre
Sao Paulo None None
Bangalore None None
Mumbai None None

Sources: [5], [7], [29], [34], [35], [36], [37]

Seoul Example
The wealth of information provided by this system provides
A major focus of the bus system reforms in Seoul has been the many benefits. The central command centre for bus
use of Intelligent Transport Systems strategies and pervasive operations can monitor the performance of the system in real
technology to improve bus service quality. The Bus time. This allows for the dynamic management of the bus
Management Control system consists of GPS units in every system through such actions as assigning more or fewer
bus and the establishment of a central command and control buses to a particular route as needed and direct
centre for citywide bus operations [29]. The GPS devices communications with bus drivers about specific traffic
continuously track the location and speed of each bus and problems and emergencies [29]. In terms of revenue
send this data to the central command centre. distribution the system enables a transparent determination

60 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 61
 CONTRACTS AND TENDERS
CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

CHAPTER 6: companies through the use of contracting mechanisms. The degree of public authority involvement can vary. In some cases the
authority is actively involved in all aspects of planning and regulation and uses highly specified contracts to procure bus services.
CONTRACTS AND TENDERS In other instances, the authority might only take a passive role through the awarding of franchises and puts minimal effort into
system planning or enforcement of service standards.
Around the world, urban bus systems display a wide variety of business models. These business models can be said to
Figure 6.1 provides a useful typology of the various business models for bus services discussed above.
fall on a spectrum, with public monopolies at one end and complete deregulation at the other end. A public monopoly
describes the situation in which all the bus services in a city or urban area are provided by a single publicly owned company. All recent success stories in bus based public transport have used the hybrid models described above, wherein bus operations
Deregulation, on the other hand, describes a situation in which a public authority (assuming one exists) allows any private have been contracted out by a public transport authority to private companies. The use of these models has the advantage of
company free entry into the public transport market with or without any requirements that the vehicles used meet any standards allowing the public transport authorities to focus entirely on system planning, management and service regulation. At the same
other than normal vehicle registration and approval. Both of these models exhibit some intrinsic disadvantages, which are time, commercial pressures and the profit incentive have meant that the private companies (i.e. bus operators) have managed
summarised in Table 6.1. Nevertheless, there are certain, very limited, situations in which these business models for bus to reduce costs and introduce efficiencies in operations.
transport may be used. A public monopoly should only be considered if no private companies are interested in investing in the
bus transport industry, franchises or rights to operate services in a given area or on a given route cannot be enforced and The goal in contracting operations is to create an environment for equal sharing of risks and incentives between the system
previous attempts to involve private companies have failed for reasons beyond the transport authority’s control. Deregulation planner (the public transport agency) and the system operator (the private bus companies). Table 6.2 shows the roles of both
should rarely be considered unless the city or urban area has no framework or capacity to set up a more orderly system. these entities. Private companies and Public agencies have different incentives. Private companies want to maximize profit
whereas public agencies want adequate system coverage and user satisfaction. Well written contracts help in balancing the
Table 6.1 Disadvantages of Public Monopoly and Deregulation models interests of both these actors.
Public Monopoly Deregulation
Table 6.2 Role of System Planner and Operator
Absence of competition often results in poor service Service is concentrated on major route corridors causing severe
congestion, and poor services on less busy routes System Planner System Operator
Conforming to government guidelines for staff terms and This system is usually accompanied by dangerous driving by Develops Road infrastructure Acquires and Maintains Buses
conditions often results in over - staffing with high salary costs drivers attempting to maximize passenger loads
Manages Planning of Bus Routes Operates Buses
As a government agency the operator cannot voice opposition to Members of the public without other means of transport have no
political edicts even where these are detrimental to bus assurance that service will be provided where and when they Manages and Contracts Public Transport Services Furnishes and operates fare collection systems
operations need it
Oversees and Controls the system Administers system funds (trust fund)
Public monopoly operators are often unable to secure adequate
fare increases, or to secure funds for investment in new buses
6.1 TYPES OF CONTRACTS
There is a tendency for the operator to become more powerful
than the regulatory authority
There are several types of contracts that a public authority can use to procure bus services from private companies. These types
are generally differentiated based on two aspects [55]:
Between the two extremes of public monopoly and deregulation lie a variety of hybrid models which can be described as
utilising a ‘Competition for the Market’ approach [63]. These models are generally defined as those in which the public • The ‘unit’ of the system which is contracted out
authority regulates the bus transport market and is involved in system planning but procures bus services from private
Figure 6.1 Typology of Business Models for Bus Systems This refers to the part of the system to which a contract gives the private operator the exclusive rights to operate buses on.
These are generally of two types: ‘Area Contracts’, in which a private operator has the right to provide services on all bus
No potential Hybrid Models:
Hybrid Models: Competition in routes in a given area of the city or urban agglomeration, and ‘Route Contracts’, in which the private operator has the right
for competition Compatible with
Compatible with ‘Competition
‘Competition for
for the
the Market’
Market’ the Market to provide all services on a specified route.
Public Proactive Franchises Passive Deregulation
• The manner in which the private operator is paid
monopolies planning with (well regulated) franchises
service contracts
This refers to the method for determining the compensation given to the private operators. These are again of two main
Public sector Detailed service Operators given Rights issued to Vehicle licenses; types: ‘Gross Cost Contracts’, in which the private operator is given a fixed annual sum to provide services and all fare
entities plan, planning by state right to serve serve routes. no service revenue is collected by the public authority, and ‘Net Cost Contracts’, in which the private operators have the right to collect
own and entity, procured routes or area. Service obligations; and keep all fares paid by the users it serves but receives no compensation from the public authority.
operate from operator State responsibility obligations not possible
businesses via enforcing well-enforced. quantity limits. The rest of the section discusses in detail the difference between Area and Route Contracts on the one hand, and Gross Cost
service obligations Little public sector Any route or and Net Cost Contracts on the other. In terms of the second aspect discussed above, the manner in which private operators are
effort to plan area franchises paid, some bus systems around the world have adopted a mixed approach that incorporates the most useful characteristics of
system lack exclusivity Source: [63] both Gross Cost and Net Cost contracts while attempting to minimize the disadvantages inherent in each. An example of this

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 CONTRACTS AND TENDERS CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

mixed approach is discussed towards the end of this section. Readers seeking additional information about these contracting [55]. In this case, all of the fare revenue goes to the authority. • The authority wishes to provide free or discounted
methods may refer to the PPIAF/World Bank Urban Bus Toolkit [55]. Under a net cost contract the operator provides a specified interchange between all routes in all areas in order to
service for a specified period and retains all revenue [55]. The minimize route duplication
Area Contracts vs. Route Contracts profits of the operator are determined by their ability to
manage and reduce costs. The authority may decide to pay a • A high percentage of revenue is collected off-bus
Table 6.3 summarises the key differences between Area and Route contracts. subsidy to the operator if the bus services in an area are
unprofitable, in order to ensure that residents in that area can A net cost contract will be appropriate if:
Table 6.3 Area Contracts vs. Route Contracts
continue to access public transportation. Under a net-cost
• The authority wishes to give an incentive to the operator to
contract the operator has to forecast both his costs and his
Area Contract Route Contract increase ridership and revenue
revenues.
Exclusive right to operate bus services in an entire area Exclusive right to operate bus services on specified route or group
• A small percentage of revenue is collected off-bus
within a city of routes within a city A gross cost contract will be appropriate if:
Suitable for cities that have a number of relatively self-contained Suitable where the authority wants to distribute routes within the • Sharing of off-bus revenue is not seen as a problem
areas same area to more than one operator • The authority wishes to avoid on-street competition for
passengers • The authority wishes to fix the absolute amount of subsidy
Route Planning is done by the contractor. Might result in cases Route Planning is done by the transportation authority whose
where high density corridors might be over-served and low goals are to provide safe and efficient public transport. Profit is not
density corridors ignored. the only goal. Authority determines routes and frequency. Table 6.4 Pros and Cons of Gross and Net Cost Contracts
One Operator is less confusing to users. The operator is viewed More than one operator, but the planning agency is one, so Gross Cost Net Cost
as the service planning authority. routes and frequencies can be obtained from one agency.

Without competition, there is no clear incentive for the operator to Healthy competition leads to better performance of bus Lower cost per unit of service Revenue risk is assigned to the operators
over perform operations. Tenders are for a limited number of years after which
they can be re-issued. Flexible operation (move buses from one route to Operators tend to maximize quality of service to
Pros another without harm to the operator) increase ridership (probably in the form of oversupply of
buses, then increasing the fares)
Source: [55]
Easy to introduce – Simple proposition to operators Allows public agencies with limited staff and technical
Following are some key issues to keep in mind while issuing Area or Route contracts: capacity to provide high quality bus services

• In a small city the smallest package would be three operators with about 150 buses each. In a large city it’s unlikely that Authority bears all the revenue risk Lack of flexibility - buses are not moved among routes
more than 10 areas can be identified, and in fact there would be benefits in permitting some operators to contract for two or
Needs a strong Authority and very good supervision Overlapping routes compete the passengers (in the
three areas.
Cons extreme buses even of the same operator compete for
the passengers as the drivers are given incentives)
• There must usually be a central common zone served by all operators.
Quality of service is secondary to maximizing net
• It is not usually possible to divide an urban region into absolutely distinct areas between operators because this inhibits cross- revenues
city travel. In such cases overlapping of operations takes place. This is not necessarily a disadvantage. There will be a certain
amount of competition between operators for traffic that is wholly within the common zone. This will give passengers a Source: [34]
chance to compare the service standards of different operators. Mixed Approach (Gross Cost and Net Cost) - Bogota,
Colombia
• Different contracts can be used for different types of service such as regular or premium service, local or express bus, regular
or air-conditioned buses. The goal in contracting operations is to create an

• The cost and complexity of administering the system will increase with the number of separate franchises. Ease of
environment for equal sharing of risks and incentives Mixed Approach
administration and enforcement must be considered.
between the system planner and the system operator. As can
be inferred from the above discussion on gross and net costs,
contracts create an
• Bus transport road infrastructure such as bus stops, depots, terminals, and so on, may be owned by the Transportation there are situations where operators can take advantage of equal sharing of
authority or the operator. They may be managed by their owners, or under contract or franchise to independent companies the contracting system to maximize profits and deliver poor risks and incentives
service. A gross cost contractor can run empty kilometres in
or associations of transport operators. For example, bus terminals may be owned by a city council, but managed by a bus
owners’ association. off-peak hours to meet his mileage goals while a net cost between the system
contractor can undersupply buses in low ridership corridors. planner and the
Gross Cost Contracts vs. Net Cost Contracts
Some city bus systems have utilised a mixed approach in system operator.
A gross cost contract is where the operator is paid a specific sum of money to provide a specified service for a specified period order to minimize these negative outcomes inherent in gross
and net cost contracts. An example of a mixed approach is

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 CONTRACTS AND TENDERS CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

one in which an operator is paid based on both the kilometres thus incentivised to provide additional service when there Figure 6.3 Revenue Distribution, TransMilenio, Bogota
run and revenue generated. This approach has been is demand and not run empty kilometres during off-peak
successfully implemented by the TransMilenio bus system in hours.
Bogota, Colombia. Their contracting arrangement provides
an adequate distribution of responsibilities, incentives and • Penalties and bonuses are built into the contracts for
risks in operations. The public sector remains in charge of the service quality.
infrastructure, planning, and supervision, whereas the private 71.90%
sector is responsible for buses, fare collection, and TransMilenio consists of five private groups that operate a
operations. Regulation and control are instrumented through total of seven concessions for trunk operations and six 13.90%
binding contracts awarded through a competitive bidding concessions for feeder services. An additional two
process. Some highlights of the contracts are: concessionaires operate the fare collection system. Multiple 13.90%
outsourcing contracts are awarded for safety, maintenance, 9.10%
• Total revenues are distributed according to kilometres run. station cleaning, user information systems, advertisements,
and so on. Revenues from all operations are deposited into a 9.10%
• No fixed rate per km. trust fund, and then distributed among the system agents
according to contract rules. Figure 6.2 shows the flow of funds
• A fixed share of the total pot of revenue goes to the to system agents and figure 6.3 shows the revenue 0.04%
operator. If the pot grows, the operators get more money. distribution. 5.00%
If the pot is small the operators get less. The operators are

Trunk -line operators Feeder operators Fare collection company

Figure 6.2 Flow of funds to system agents, TransMilenio, Bogota

Public company Trust fund manager

• Watches out for

fulfillment of norms Source: [48]
TransMilenio
established for
income distribution Following are the advantages and disadvantages of a mixed or net cost contracts. However it requires a formulation based
approach: on both the number of buses and the number of kilometres,
Trunk line instead of just kilometres. This will require the operator to
operators Advantages: bring in an additional bus when the load factor (IPK) goes
Feeder over a certain threshold.
Pay • Operator has no incentive to run empty kilometres in the
operators
passengers off-peak hours. Contracting and Integration Comparison in Various
Main Collecting
Collector Trustee Fund
Cities
operators • Operator must maintain a specified load factor (“Index
Passenger Kilometre” or IPK, of 4.75 passengers per km in This section has introduced various forms of contracting, from
User’s Fee TransMilenio
the case of TransMilenio) as per the contract complete public monopoly on one end of the spectrum, to
unregulated entry in which there is little government control,
Trustee • Operator takes demand risks ownership, or planning in providing transport services.
• Collects • Pays parties
Between these are the various contracting mechanisms that
money from based on Contingency Disadvantages:
control system
exist which allow for service contracts or franchises to be
individuals Fund
• Deposits data and • Formulation is complex; the proposition to the operators is established.
money in contractual not straightforward.
Figure 6.4 illustrates the transition of the three international
trustee formulas
• Distributes • Payments are based on kilometres. The cost is not a case study cities and four Indian case study cities between
collection function directly of the bus-kilometres. As a result the various forms of regulation. It also shows changes in the level
among funds operator has no incentive to bring in additional buses in of service integration, starting from cities that have very little
the peak hour, causing overcrowding problems. coordination between transit routes and transport services, to
Source: [48] those cities that have aggressive coordination and integration
The above considerations demonstrate that the mixed throughout the public transport network.
approach offers several improvements over standard gross

66 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 67
 CONTRACTS AND TENDERS CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

Figure 6.4 Contracting mechanism across several cities in the world were based solely on the number of passengers carried [10]. • The timetable and frequency of services on various days of
This often led to perverse behaviours on the part of the week
No potential for Hybrid' Models: Compatible with Competition for the Market Competition in the
bus companies which sought only to maximize the number
competition Market
of passengers, and thus revenue, often with little regard • The type and capacity of bus vehicles to be used
Public monopolies Proactive planning Franchises Passive franchises Deregulation for passenger safety and service quality. Dangerous practices
with service (well regulated) • A set of Minimum Performance Standards
contracts
were commonplace, such as overcrowding buses and
racing to bus stops in order to pick up passengers that
Public sector Detailed service Operators given Rights issued to Vehicle licenses; no Based on this information, bus operators are required to
would otherwise have been lost to buses from competing
entities plan, planning by state right to serve routes serve routes. service obligations; submit bids that deliver a schedule of services meeting the
own and operate entity, procured or area. State Service obligations - possible quantity companies [10].
minimum requirements and also specifying the total costs,
from operator responsibility via not well enforced. limits. Any route or including profit margins. All companies interested in securing
businesses enforcing service Little public sector area franchises As part of the bus system reforms, this compensation structure
obligations effort to plan system lack exclusivity for bus companies was changed. Bus companies now enter the contract must submit a 'compliant' bid that satisfies all the
into gross cost contracts with the SMG and are compensated specifications listed in the tender document. However,
Aggressive network on the basis of bus-kilometres operated on a particular route, companies may additionally submit bids that seek major or
integration not the number of passengers transported [27]. The contracts minor changes in the required specifications such as a
include a guaranteed profit margin for the bus companies. modified bus route or alternate schedule [2]. Operators may
Contracts are awarded on the basis of a competitive submit such alternate bids if they believe it will provide greater
Strong integration benefits to passengers and/or London Buses. For instance,
tendering process which promotes competition between the
private bus companies and helps keep costs low. This new some bus companies may, based on previous experience,
system changed the incentives faced by bus companies and have a better understanding of the needs and desires of
Moderate
encouraged the improvement of service quality. It helped customers in the relevant area served by the route. All tenders
integration
eliminate many of the bad practices prevalent under the old are made on a sealed bid basis [2].
compensation model. The new compensation model also
Coordination mainly London Buses operates a pre-qualification process for bus
allows the SMG to ensure that adequate bus services are
within each route companies interested in bidding for routes. This process
provided along routes and in areas that would be
includes an evaluation of factors such as financial stability,
commercially unviable in a deregulated market. However,
Little or no previous experience in the transport market, health and safety
performance parameters are not included in the contracts.
coordination policies, and so on. Companies may even submit a dummy
Performance incentives, like the ones added in the contracts in
bid as part of their pre-qualification process. Once a
Bogota, would have led to an even higher quality of service.
company is added to the pre-approved contractors list, it is
Quality Incentive Contracts in London: notified of any upcoming tendering opportunities.
Legend: Seoul Sao Paulo London Indore Ahmedabad Mumbai Bangalore

Source: Framework from [63] Tendering Process Tender evaluation is based on several factors, including price,
previous performance in carrying out contracts, safety
6.2 INTERNATIONAL CONTRACTING STRATEGIES The major change in this regard was to switch from a mostly Currently in London, all routes are tendered through the use concerns, financial stability, staffing, vehicle maintenance
deregulated market to a 'semi-public' or 'quasi-public' system. of 5-year Quality Incentive Contracts. The tendering process is policies, and so on [2]. While the bid price may be one of the
Reforms in Seoul: Under this new approach, private bus operators continue in a continual one, with 15-20% of routes tendered every year most important factors, it is clearly not the sole determining
their role as service providers, but all decisions regarding [2]. Within each year the tendering process is also continual, factor of the winning bid. Contracts may be awarded to
Prior to the 2004 reforms, the bus system in Seoul was mostly route planning, schedules, fare levels and overall system with 'Invitation to Tender (ITT)' documents for different routes companies that do not make the lowest price bid. In such
deregulated [32]. Private bus companies were allowed to design are now under the control of the SMG [27]. The private being issued roughly every 3-4 weeks. scenarios however, London Buses is obligated to provide an
provide services on any routes they deemed commercially bus companies have to participate in a competitive tendering explanation for not selecting the lowest bid [2]. Bid evaluation
viable, subject to obtaining an easily available license from process in order to win the right to ply specific routes. Bus London Buses, the division of Transport for London (TfL) is undertaken by a team of commercial and technical experts.
the public authority. The Seoul Metropolitan Government companies that succeed in winning tenders provide services responsible for managing bus services, thoroughly reviews Award recommendations are discussed and award decisions
(SMG) had very little control over the system aside from setting according to strict contractual specifications stipulated by the each route prior to offering it for tender. These reviews also made by the Tender Evaluation Committee, which consists of
fare levels [11]. Most significantly, the SMG played no role in SMG [27]. take into account views solicited from transport user advocacy the directors of London Buses.
route or system planning. Since there was no overarching groups such as London TravelWatch and other concerned
organization of the bus network, this resulted in a highly In Figure 6.4, we see that the Seoul bus system transitioned stakeholders. Based on this review, London Buses issues Contracts
inefficient and disorganized system with many overlapping from a 'passive franchise' model to a 'proactive planning with an 'Invitation to Tender' that specifies the following for
and circuitous routes, low service levels in some areas and each route [2] : Quality Incentive Contracts have been the sole contracting
service contracts' model.
excessive supply in others, and poor integration between the scheme in use by London Buses since 2000 [2]. This
various bus routes and other transport modes [32]. Prior to the reforms, revenues for the private bus companies • The specific routing of the bus, including terminal contracting scheme is a variant of Gross Cost contracts.
arrangements Operators make bids based on the total cost of operating a

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 CONTRACTS AND TENDERS CONTRACTS AND TENDERS

route, including profit margins. London Buses retains all fare The other incentive for bus operators is an automatic 2-year
revenues. In addition, however, there exist direct financial extension of the contract for exceeding the ‘Extension Figure 6.5 Indore Organization Chart
incentives for operators based on performance. These Threshold’ criteria detailed in the tender documents. These
incentives are of two kinds, criteria are related to, but higher than, the MPS. The contract
Private Operators Pvt. agency
extension is offered at the current contract price, adjusting for
• Bonus payments and deductions based on the quality of inflation. Operators can choose to accept or reject the • Issuing bus passes
• Buses
service extension offer. If accepted, the route is withdrawn from the list • Operations • collection of fees
of routes to be tendered that year and is offered for tender at • Fare Collection
the end of the extension. If the extension offer is rejected, then
the route is tendered in the regular manner.

Based on the success of these financial incentives, two further

incentive schemes have been introduced. In 2008 an
London's Quality incentive based on driver quality and customer service was
introduced, and an incentive based on vehicle cleanliness was
Incentive Program introduced in 2009 [2]. Assessments for these incentives are
• Bus Terminals
• Parking Infrastructure
• Road Infrastructure
• Bus Stops
• Land Acquisition &
Development
• Route Permits
• Fare Setting
made by a combination of Mystery Traveller surveys and
has played a big vehicle inspections at terminals. Payments and deductions will ICTSL IMC
• Implementation of
Road Infrastructure
• Tracking, Monitoring
& Inspection

role in improving be made depending on whether operators exceed or fall

below network wide standards. IDA ICTSL
• Information
Technology systems
the quality of bus • Traffic patrol
Pvt. agency
While Quality Incentive Contracts have played a major role in • Traffic safety
service. significantly improving the quality of bus services, the financial
incentives have resulted in large subsidies for the London Bus Indore Traffic • Vehicular permits
system as a whole. Police • Tax collection

6.3 INDORE CONTRACTING

RTO
• Automatic contract extensions
Indore uses a Public-Private Partnership model, in which
Performance related payments are based on a comparison of public agencies are in charge of road infrastructure provision,
service regulation, tracking, supervision and performance The successful public private partnership framework of ICTSL requires almost no investment from the state and is a model that
the operator’s annual performance with the Minimum
monitoring. Bus operations, ITS, issuance of seasonal passes can be used in cities which have no formal public transport and very limited local capacity to implement it.
Performance Standards (MPS) specified in the service contract.
and fare collection are contracted to private vendors based on
• For High Frequency routes, payments are made on a an open bidding process. Indore City Transport Services Ltd.
graduated scale based on every 0.10 minute change in (ICTSL), the public transport authority, procures bus services
the Excess Wait Time (EWT, defined as time above the using a Net Cost Route contract [34]. ICTSL is the regulator
expected wait based on service frequencies) for and enforcer of contracts and also addresses issues of
passengers. implementation. As ICTSL has a small staff with limited
technical capacity, the Net Cost contracting method is an
• For Low Frequency routes, the relevant statistic is a 2% appropriate choice (see table 6.4).
change in the On-Time arrival percentage.
Indore City Transport Services Ltd. (ICTSL) has made
• For every step above the MPS (i.e. 0.10 min reduction in provisions of office space for each of the private operators
EWT or 2% higher On-Time), the bus company receives a within their own city premises [34]. This allows for a regular
bonus payment of 1.5% of the contract price. communication of information and concerns between both
groups. Conflicts are identified and resolved in lesser time due
• For every step below the MPS, a 1% deduction is made to the healthy rapport between agencies. ICTSL also includes
from the contract prices. suggestions from bus operators on planning decisions. For
instance, suggestions from operators were incorporated in the
• Bonuses and deductions are capped at 15% and 10% of
scheduling of new fleet introduction.
the total value of the contract respectively.

70 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 71
 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

CHAPTER 7: articulated bus based on calculations done for Indore.

Calculations were done using the following assumptions:
From the above figures, it is clear that an articulated bus costs Table 7.3 Operating costs in Rupees

FINANCIAL 1. Down payment – 30%

2. Interest Rate – 12 %
a lot more than a standard bus. However, it is very important
to remember that costs should be reviewed at a system level. Cost per bus
per month
Percent of Total
Certain alternatives might have higher bus costs, but lower
ANALYSIS
3. Loan Guarantee – 70%
fleet size thereby reducing the total system cost. Automatic Tire 5,000 5%
4. Term of Payment – 7 years for a Standard bus, 12 years for
fare collection boxes are more expensive in the short term Diesel 63,000 64%
Sound financial planning is vital for the long term an articulated bus
than manual fare collection, but this technology pays for itself Insurance 3,750 4%
viability of any business and the same is true for public after a few years as a result of reduced money leakage. A Variable Cost 13,100 13%
transport agencies. Operational plans should be Table 7.1 Capital Costs of a Standard Bus good business plan for a bus system should consider all the
Office 5,000 5%
developed in such a way that the system is as financially alternatives at hand before designing the system.
Cost of Bus 2,500,000 Rupees Accident / Compensation 1,000 1%
independent as possible and requires little or no subsidy from
Subsidy on purchase – Rupees AMC 3,900 4%
the government. This makes it much easier for the agency to 7.2 OPERATING COSTS
take important decisions with less influence from political Initial Loan Amount 2,500,000 Rupees Body Maintenance 1,000 1%
parties. Profits can be used to improve the transport system Equity % 30% ‘Operating costs’ refer to the recurring expenses that Premium 1,000 1%
resulting in benefits for the end user. Equity $ 750,000 Rupees occur while running a bus service. These include, but are not
Machine Rolls 1,200 1%
Loan amount 1,750,000 Rupees
limited to :
Total 97,950 74%
A public transport company has two slightly conflicting goals:
Interest rate 12% Instalments 35,000 26%
one is to provide outstanding transport service for the public Fuel
è
Term of payment 7 Years Grand Total 132,950 100%
and the other is to maintain financial viability. The agency has
No of EMI 84 Months Fleet Maintenance
è
to perform a balancing act of providing adequate public
Source: [34]
service while keeping in mind the financial implications. EMI Loan (30,892) Rupees Fleet Fire and Accident Insurance
è
Ignoring one or the other will have serious consequences. Table 7.4 provides some thumb rules for standard bus
Tires / Other Bus Parts
è
Investment 750,000 Rupees operating costs in India, based on information provided by
A good example of public transport that provides good
Return Rate 10% Staff uniforms, salaries and other employee related costs
è bus operators in various parts of the country.
service without showing deficits is the Bangalore Metropolitan
Term of payment 7 Years
Transport Corporation. They have used innovative programs Fleet Depreciation
è Table 7.4 Estimates for Standard Bus Operating Costs
No of EMI 84 Months
to generate revenue that subsidizes their transport services.
They are also one of the few Indian transport agencies able to EMI Investment (12,451) Rupees Station and Road Maintenance
è Cost per Km (Rs.) Cost per Month (Rs.)
increase fares without interference from the government. Source: [34] Fuel 13.33 72,782
Public transport agencies must consider two types of cost: The goal of an agency should be to recover at least the
Tires 0.70 3,822
operating costs by fare box earnings. Fares should ideally be
Table 7.2 Capital Costs of an Articulated Bus Maintenance 2.00 10,920
• Capital Costs calculated using operational costs as reference, but in reality
Cost of Bus 12,000,000 Rupees fares are politically decided. Most places in India charge Rs Oil 0.50 2,730
• Operating Costs
Subsidy on purchase – Rupees 1-2 per km, a low amount designed to maintain accessibility
Both these costs go hand in hand. The cost of maintenance for people of all income levels. A number of transport Sources: [34], [35], [36], [37]
Initial Loan Amount 12,000,000 Rupees
(operating cost) depends on the type of vehicle (capital cost) agencies earn revenue using sources other than the fare box.
Equity % 30% Example: How to compare operating costs of different
and the quality of the road infrastructure (capital cost). The A substantial portion of revenue for BMTC comes from
Equity $ 3,600,000 Rupees service scenarios
following section will discuss these costs in detail. renting out vacant properties [37]. Advertising on buses
Loan amount 8,400,000 Rupees
generates 1-2% of total revenue depending on the market.
Interest rate 12% The following example shows how public transport authorities
7.1 CAPITAL COSTS
Calculating operating costs is very useful if a system contracts can compare the costs of running different service
Term of payment 12 Years
Capital costs for a regular bus system includes the cost of bus services to a private operator. Most contractors are paid for combinations for a given corridor. This analysis was done for
No of EMI 144 Months
procurement, devices to operate and monitor buses such as every kilometre or passenger and these amounts can the city of Indore [64]. Existing bus operations cost was
EMI Loan (1,10,327) Rupees compared to the operating costs of four different service
GPS, automatic fare collection boxes, construction and be calculated based on operating costs. Table 7.3 shows
equipment for a control centre, and so on. For a BRT system, operating costs as documented by ICTSL for bus services scenarios using the BRT corridor. Each of the scenarios
capital costs also include right-of-way acquisition, Investment 3,600,000 Rupees
in Indore. satisfies the entire public transport demand on the corridor.
construction of new bus-only lanes and/or material to Return Rate 10% The scenarios are described below.
segregate bus lanes, bus stations, ITS, and depots. Term of payment 12 Years
Business-As-Usual (BAU):
No of EMI 144 Months
Capital costs vary from system to system depending on the EMI Investment (43,023) Rupees This is the existing condition, left unchanged. The cost of this
type of facilities being purchased or constructed. Figures 7.1
option should be included in any comparison of costs for
and 7.2 show the capital costs of purchasing a standard and Source: [34]

72 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 73
 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

different service scenarios. BRT – Scenario 3:

BRT – Scenario 1 (S1): In this scenario, 12 km of segregated road infrastructure is completed. Run a base operation using articulated buses and run
short loops using standard buses serve the additional demand in the peak sections (Naulakha to Vijay Nagar). Figure 7.3 shows
In this scenario, 12 km of segregated road infrastructure is completed. Run an operation similar to the current operations to the routing and the fleet size calculations
serve the entire public transport demand. Figure 7.1 shows the routing and the fleet size calculations.
Figure 7.3 Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S3
Figure 7.1 Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S1
Scenario: Route Route Route Route Combined #Buses Additional
Scenario: Route Route Route Route Combined #Buses Additional BRT – S3 1 2 6 A1 Frequency Buses
BRT – S1 1 2 6 A1 Frequency Buses
Buses per Hour 3 3 2 13
Buses per Hour 12 13 2
Fleet Size 8 8 5 14 7.50 35 19
Fleet Size 29 40 5 2.07 74 58

CAT/IPS
CAT/IPS Naulakha Vijay Nagar
Panchawati

Panchawati

Rajeev
Rajeev Gandhi Niranjanpur
Gandhi Niranjanpur Chauraha
Chauraha
Tejali Nagar
Tejali Nagar

Source: [64]
Source: [64]
BRT – Scenario 4 (S4):
BRT – Scenario 2 (S2):
In this scenario, 12 km of segregated road infrastructure is completed. Run 3 routes, one with standard buses and 2 A and 2B
In this scenario, 12 km of segregated road infrastructure is completed. Run a base operation similar to the current operations with articulated buses. Run 1 from Panchawati to Tejaji Nagar. Run 2A from Panchawati to Naulakha and 2B from Vijay Nagar
and run short loops to serve the additional demand in the peak sections (Naulakha to Vijay Nagar). Figure 7.2 shows the to CAT/IPS. This scenario will require only 10-15% of the passengers to make transfers vs. the 70-75% transfers required for
routing and the fleet size calculations. Scenario 2. Figure 7.4 shows the routing and the fleet size calculations

Figure 7.2 Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S2 Figure 7.4 Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S4

Scenario: Route Route Route Route Combined #Buses Additional Scenario: Route Route Route Combined #Buses Additional
BRT – S2 1 2 6 A1 Frequency Buses BRT – S4 1 2A 2B Frequency Buses
Buses per Hour 5 5 2 15 Buses per Hour 8 8 9
Fleet Size 12 14 5 14 5.00 45 29 Fleet Size 21 12 19 3 57 38

CAT/IPS CAT/IPS
Naulakha & Vijay Nagar, intermediate turn around points
Naulakha Vijay Nagar
Panchawati Panchawati

Rajeev
Gandhi Niranjanpur
Chauraha
Tejali Nagar Rajeev Gandhi Niranjanpur
Tejali Nagar Chauraha

Source: [64] Source: [64]

74 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 75
 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

Table 7.5 shows the operating costs for each of the scenarios described above. Subsidies to Improve Quality of Bus Transport

Table 7.5 Monthly Expenses per bus For Public Transport to compete with private vehicles, it needs to be safe, inexpensive, reliable and comfortable. Subsidies
should aim at improving these qualities in public transport. Figure 7.5 illustrates crowding in a 1 meter square area. Four
Monthly Expenses BAU S1 S2 S3 S4
people can stand in a 1 meter square comfortably while 7-12 people create a crowded atmosphere. Subsidies can be provided
Premium (Route Concession) 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 to bus agencies that are operating buses at 7 to 12 people per meter square to increase operating frequency and thereby
Insurance + Accident comp. 4,750 4,750 4,750 4,750 4,750 reduce crowding to more tolerable levels. Such a subsidy improves passenger comfort while conveying that satisfactory service
Diesel 70,560 44,899 44,824 41,738 39,567
is just as important as revenue.
Salaries 20,200 20,200 20,200 20,200 20,200
Office 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 Subsidies may also be provided to replace an older fleet with more energy efficient and safer vehicles.
Annual Maintenance Contract 16,773 10,673 10,418 9,922 9,406
Tires, Machine rolls, body maintenance 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 7,200 Figure 7.5 Illustration of Crowding
Total Expenses per month 125,483 93,722 92,392 89,809 87,122
Operating Cost per km 15.56 18.26 18.45 18.83 19.27

Source: [64]

7.3 ACCEPTABLE SUBSIDY USE

The difference between total costs and total revenues is the amount of subsidy that is required by the transport agency. Public
Transport is a form of public service and it is perfectly acceptable that government subsidizes a portion of costs.

However, for subsidies to be acceptable and effective, they should be used to improve the quality of public transport service and Source: [54]
not to cover the inefficiencies of operations. It is prudent for an agency to develop a business plan and calculate operating costs
and required subsidy at the beginning of every financial year. The agency should run operations within that budget barring 7.4 LONDON SUBSIDIES
unforeseen circumstances. Most of the Indian agencies we interviewed did not have planned subsidies. At the end of financial
terms, total costs and revenues were calculated and any shortfalls were covered using income from other profitable ventures. Between 2000/01 and 2007/08, the bus transport system in London witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of users.
For example, Mumbai's BEST subsidizes its transport services using income from its electricity distribution business [35]. During this period, the number of boardings increased by 46% and total bus-passenger-kilometres increased by 58% [4].
Although the London Bus system has succeeded in attracting a significantly higher number of users compared to a decade ago,
Table 7.6 shows revenues, costs and subsidies required for the four BRT scenarios for Indore discussed in the previous section. this has come at the cost of substantial public subsidies. In current prices, London Buses went from nearly breaking even in
As can be seen, Scenario 1 shows a deficit of 23.7 crores whereas scenario 2 shows a profit of 17 crores. However, scenario 1997/98, requiring a GBP 1 million subsidy, to requiring GBP 625 million in 2006/07 [21]. This increase in subsidies comes
2 will require 70% of the passengers to transfer. Scenario 4 reduces the transfers to 15% and eliminates the deficit and despite the fact that London Buses’ revenues from ticket sales have been steadily increasing over the years. In current prices, fare
hence becomes the preferred scenario. Exercises such as these should be conducted to calculate costs and revenues for various box revenues, including concessionary fare reimbursements, increased from GBP 599 million in 1997/98 to GBP 1,003 in
service scenarios to review the impact on ridership and revenue. The best alternative can then be picked based on the goals 2006/07 [21]. However, a comparison of total bus system costs with total fare revenue over the past 6 years shows that costs
of the agency. have increased in lock step with revenues, necessitating continued public subsidies for the bus system. The fare box recovery
ratio for the bus system as a whole has hovered around 60.4% for the period from 2003/04 to 2007/08 [65].
Table 7.6 Profit and Subsidy for Indore BRT Scenarios
Figure 7.6 Bus System Subsidy
BAU BRT – S1 BRT – S2 BRT – S3 BRT – S4
Bus System Subsidy (million GBP, Current prioes) 1997/98 - 2006/07
Revenues per km 19.14 21.04 35.19 42.23 29.83
700
Operating cost per km 15.56 18.26 18.04 24.93 18.77
600
Operating Profit per km 3.58 2.78 17.15 17.30 11.06
Capital cost per km 5.70 8.95 8.68 16.36 9.57 500

Operating Profit including bus cost -2.12 -6.18 8.47 0.94 1.49 400
SPV Management Cost per Kms 0.50 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
300
Collec. & Enfor. & Sec. Cost per Kms 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
200
Deficit per Kms -2.62 -8.68 5.97 -1.56 -1.01
100
Total Deficit (2,194,072) (31,958,169) 13,144,732 (3,428,420) (2,224,687)
Advertisement Revenue 2,400,000 8,250,000 3,900,000 6,000,000 5,700,000 0
1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07
Annual Subsidy 205,928 (23,708,169) 17,044,732 3,471,580 3,475,313
Source: [21]
Source: [64]

76 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 77
 FINANCIAL ANALYSIS FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

The reasons for growing subsidies are: Average Waiting Times have reduced from 6.8 minutes to 5.5 minutes, a 19% improvement
è
Excess Waiting Times (beyond scheduled frequency) have reduced from 2.2 minutes to 1.1 minutes, a 50% improvement
è
Expansions in service levels
è
On Time percentages for low-frequency bus routes have improved from 67.7% to 79.1%
è
Introduction of financial incentives for bus companies to improve service quality
è
Fare freezes to promote bus usage
è Table 7.7 Bus System Reliability Statistics
Increased investment in bus priority programs and infrastructure.
è
% of Scheduled KM’s operated High Frequency Bus Routes Low Frequency Bus Routes
Figure 7.7 Bus System Total Cost vs. Fare Revenue Avg. Wait Time Excess Wait Time % On Time
2000/01 95.3 6.8 2.2 67.7 %
Bus System Total Cost vs. Fare Revenue
2001/02 96.4 6.6 2.0 69.4%
(million GBP, current prices) 2003/04 – 2008/09
2002/03 96.1 6.4 1.8 70.5 %
2000
2003/04 97.2 5.8 1.4 74.6 %
1800
2004/05 97.7 5.6 1.1 77.1 %
1600
2005/06 97.7 5.6 1.1 77.2 %
1400
1200 2006/07 97.5 5.5 1.1 78.1 %
1000 2007/08 97.5 5.5 1.1 79.1 %
800
600
Source: [5]
400
Part of the reason for the increasing number of passengers on London’s bus system is the falling real costs of bus travel. Bucking
200
the wider UK trend of a 10% increase in bus fares since 1999/00, bus fares in London have fallen in that same period [5]. In
0
2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 large part this has been due to a four year fare-freeze instituted by then Mayor Ken Livingstone in 2000, which was part of a
Bus System Total Cost Bus System Fare Revenue wider strategy to promote bus usage [26]. Although nominal fares on the bus system have been increasing at above inflation
rates since the end of the fare-freeze, they are still lower than historical prices. The average fare paid on London buses in 2008,
Source: [65]
in terms of real prices, is the same as it was in 1971 and 60% lower in relative terms when the increase in average income of
This dramatic increase in bus patronage over the past decade is in large part due to a significant expansion in service Londoners is taken into account [5].
levels. Bus-vehicle-kilometres operated have increased by 31% from 2000-01 to 2007-08, and by 57% when compared to
Figure 7.9 Average, Headline and Deflated Bus Fare Indices
1991-92 [4], [5].
Average, Headline and Deflated Bus Fare Indices
Figure 7.8 Bus-Kilometres Operated per Year (Inflation adjusted, Index 1971=100)
1971 - 2007
Bus-Kilometers Operated per Year (million) 1991/92 - 2007/08
160
500
140
450
120
400
100
350
80
300

60
250

200
40

71

81
73

83

2
79

8
6

6
4

4
75

77
1
3

3
2

2
8

8
6

6
4

4
5

5
19 7

20 7

/9

/9

/0

/0
/8

/9
/8

/9

/0
/9

/0
/0
/9

/0
/9

/0

/0
/9

/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0

19

19
19

19
19
19

19

89

91

99

01
87

97
85

95

05
93

03
00
92

02
91

99

01
97

98

07
95

05
93

03
94

04
96

06
20

19

19

19

20
19

19
19

20

19

19

20
19

19

20
19
19

20

19

20
19

20
19

20
19

20

Average fare paid Headline fares index Average fare paid deflated by real London earnings
Source: [4]
Source: [21]
Service quality has also improved in the years since 2000 as follows [5]:
The London example is the most appropriate one to showcase the fact that subsidies should be used to improve bus service
Percentage of scheduled bus-kilometres operated increased from 95.3% in 2000/01 to 97.5% in 2007/08
è
levels and thereby bus patronage.

78 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 79
 MONITORING SYSTEMS
MONITORING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 8: Table 8.1 shows a detailed report of a particular route in a month. It lists the planned number of, buses plying on the route, trip

MONITORING SYSTEMS length, scheduled frequency, bus capacity and scheduled kilometres, and compares it to actual field values. The table shows
that the operator was able to run only 724 trips in the month as against the scheduled 960. The buses also had a number of
A practical mechanism to ensure successful public transport service is to establish a quality improvement program speed violations and missed stops. This table gives a good picture of the performance of the bus. Reasons for not meeting
in which the performance is measured periodically and specific actions are taken to address the identified concerns. targets can then be investigated and resolved.
It is important both for agencies that run their own operations (BEST, BMTC) and those that contract operations to private
Table 8.1 Route 1 Monthly Report
companies (ICTSL, Janmarg) to monitor performance.
Route Length 18.3
A monitoring program should include collection of the following data:
No. buses in operation 5
1. System characteristics or system-wide performance measures will allow assessment of the overall health of the entity. No of scheduled trips/day 48
Bus capacity 70
2. Indicators to measure performance of routes. Scheduled kms/day 878

3. Surveys to understand user perception. All passengers on the bus systems should be treated as customers. The system should
be designed to achieve the operational characteristics desired by the customer. Fare Pax Kms Travelled Trips Operated Missed stops Speed Violations
Wednesday Day 1 20,237 4,517 985 48 581 39
System performance data that needs to be collected includes:
Thursday Day 2 21,860 4,693 1,002 46 551 40
• Fleet • Average User Fare Friday Day 3 18,325 3,552 498 22 283 36
• Vehicle-Kms • Annual Costs Saturday Day 4 20,017 4,105 212 16 686 36
• Fleet/Route • Annual Revenues Sunday Day 5 18,325 3,841 738 35 611 72

• Trips/Route/Day • Fatalities Monday Day 6 23,865 4,846 924 44 625 34

• Bus Stops • Fuel Consumption Tuesday Day 7 18,290 4,267 980 47 581 31

• Total Passengers • Passenger satisfaction Wednesday Day 8 20,975 4,664 969 48 570 33
Thursday Day 9 23,075 4,842 994 48 589 50
8.1 PERFORMANCE MONITORING – INDIA EXAMPLES Friday Day 10 19,887 4,200 798 40 459 30
The following example utilizes data from a performance evaluation prepared by EMBARQ for Indore City Transport Services Saturday Day 11 21,759 4,718 636 35 517 48
Limited (ICTSL) [34]. First, we examine changes in passengers per month over a four year period and explain rises and falls in Sunday Day 12 19,527 4,232 718 38 454 23
passenger levels. This data is charted graphically in Figure 8.1, which shows various dips and increases in ridership over the
Monday Day 13 22,090 4,730 956 45 614 105
survey period. It is encouraging to note that ridership has been going up considerably every year, but it is also necessary to
research the reasons for drops in some months and resolve the issues. Tuesday Day 14 19,660 4,450 994 49 575 62

Figure 8.1 Bus Passengers per month Wednesday Day 15 21,445 4,789 948 34 527 39
Thursday Day 16 22,470 4.686 859 32 590 121
Back to being over Curfew month: Officer Transfers, AMC with
80,000 tickets No Service for manufacturers expired. Friday Day 17 20,721 4,489 824 35 491 30
sold per day 7 days Ridership dipped below
80,000 tickets sold per day Saturday Day 18 21,350 4,646 784 23 545 30
100,000
Sunday Day 19 18,755 4,120 442 16 859 16
80,000 Monday Day 20 20,331 4,380 518 23 715 38
Total 412,964 84,086 15,779 724 11,423 913
60,000 2006

2007 Source: [34]

40,000 2008
Table 8.2 shows the performance indicators for Janmarg BRT for the first few months after it opened. Note the 80% increase in
2009
20,000 ridership that occurred after the BRT line was extended to Kankaria Lake.
Ap

Au

O
Ja

Ju

Ju

Se t
M

M
Fe

D
N
ct

ec
ar

ay

ne

ly

ov
nu

pt
gu
ri l
br

ob

em
ch

em

em
ar

ua

er
y

ry

be
be

be

r
r

Source: [34]

80 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 81
 MONITORING SYSTEMS MONITORING SYSTEMS

Table 8.2 Performance Indicators for Janmarg BRT, Ahmedabad down. Routes 14 and 15 have a high frequency of breakdowns, particularly with Route 15 in the month of May. If this route is
managed by a single operator, it is possible that there are issues with their operation or other issues isolated to that corridor.
1st Month 2nd Month 3rd Month 4th Month
(15 Oct– 14Nov ’09) (15 Nov – 15 Dec ’09) (16 Dec ’ 09 – 15 Jan ’10) (16 Jan ‘10 – 15 Feb ’10) Figure 8.2 Percent of Operational Days with Bus Breakdowns (by Route)
Route R.T.O.- Chandranagar R.T.O.- Chandranagar R.T.O.-Kankaria R.T.O.-Kankaria February
60%

Percent of Bus Days with Breakdown

Operation Timings 7:00 AM-10:30 PM 7:00 AM-10:30 PM 6:00 AM-11:30 PM 6:00 AM-11:30 PM March
Total Expenditures/Day at Rs 34/km Rs 123760 / day Rs 123760 / day Rs 176970 / day Rs 176970 / day 50% April
Total buses operated/day 18 18 18-23 23 May
40%
Avg. Total Kms/day 3640 km 3640 km 5205 km 5205 km
Avg. Total Kms/bus /day 207 km 207 km 226 km 226 km 30%
Total Passengers 536749 715653(33.3%) 971138 (80.9%) 1105814 (106%)
Total fare collection Rs 2511888 Rs 3333705 (32.7%) Rs 4649050 (85.1%) Rs 5545853 (121%) 20%

Avg. pax/day 17315 23086 (33.3%) 31327 (80.9%) 35672 (106%)

10%
Avg. collection/day Rs 81029 Rs 107539 (32.7%) Rs 149969 (85.1%) Rs 178898.5 (121%)
Avg pax./bus/day 962 1283 (33%) 1528 (58.9%) 1740 (80.9%) 0%
Avg. collection /bus/day Rs 4502 Rs 5974 (32.7%) Rs 7315 (62.5%) Rs 8726 (93.9%) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 24
Routes
Source: [66]
Source: [34]
Table 8.3 shows a list of operational indicator data by route that could be easily collected. Speed data can be computed by
processing data from GPS devices on board the buses or by a person physically riding on the bus from origin to destination. To For a given station on a given route, the arrival of buses should follow a consistent pattern from day to day. Figure 8.3 plots the
compute operational indicators 6 and 7 it is first necessary to identify the peak section, peak period and peak direction for each arrival times of consecutive buses plying Route 2 at the Palasia Chauraha station of the Indore BRT system for three days. In an
route. This is done through an on-board survey and observing the load profile for the route (See Chapter 2). Once the peak ideal scenario, the plotted lines for each day would be superimposed on each other, indicating that on all three days the buses
location has been established, peak load information should be collected for the whole hour. Reliability should be measured by stuck to a predictable schedule. As the figure shows, this is not the case. For example, bus arrival times were particularly erratic
noting the difference between scheduled arrival and actual arrivals of buses for the whole hour. If part of the route or the entire on March 24, with some buses (11 and 12, 14 and 15) arriving at the station at nearly the same time. Passengers are best
route is on segregated road infrastructure, then higher thresholds for BRT operations are recommended. served when the time between each bus arrival on a given route is consistent and predictable every day.

Table 8.3 Operational Indicators by Route Figure 8.3 Bus Arrivals - Route 2 - Palasia Chauraha

Sr. No Indicator
22:01
1. Passengers per bus per day 21:01
BRT 20:01
2. Frequency (Buses per hour) 19:01
BRT 18:01
3. Commercial Speed Peak Period 17:00

Time of day
BRT 16:00
15:00
4. Operational Productivity
14:00
BRT
13:00
5. Fleet Utilization
12:00 March 23rd
(actual trips/planned trips) 11:00
March 24th
6. Peak Load – Passengers Peak/Capacity Peak 10:00
peak Section, peak hour, peak direction 9:00 March 25th
7. Reliability (0.9 I < # Trips < 1.1I)/Total Trips 8:00
Where I is the planned interval (frequency/60) 7:00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Progression of bus arrivals at station
Data on the number of bus breakdowns for each route can help isolate particular routes where problems are repeatedly
encountered. Figure 8.2, using data from Indore, shows several different bus routes, and examines how frequently they break Source: [34]

82 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 83
 MONITORING SYSTEMS MONITORING SYSTEMS

Figures 8.2 and 8.3 are good examples of how electronically gathered data is useful for analysing the performance of a bus Figure 8.5 shows the rating of attributes from a user survey of BMTC in Bangalore. The bus survey was done for the entire
transport system. In addition to the examples discussed above, a variety of indicators can be developed to monitor system Bangalore urban area. The survey had a sample size of more than 6,000 passengers over a period of 75 days. Punctuality and
performance. reliability are the two most important concerns followed by accessibility and travel cost.

Bus systems should be designed to achieve operational characteristics desired by the customer. It is recommended to conduct at Figure 8.5 User Survey of BMTC in Bangalore
least one user perception survey per year. The survey can be used to collect socioeconomic data of the passengers as well as
their satisfaction with the bus system. Figure 8.5 shows data collected from a user survey of Janmarg BRTS, Ahmedabad.
What is your greatest concern as a BMTC passenger?
Figure 8.4 Data from Janmarg User Survey
4% 8% Punctuality/Reliability
Monthly income? 14%
Gender? Accessibility(walking distance)
46%
19% Travel Cost
29% 28%
19%
10% 42% Safety
9% 14% 58%
Comfort

< 2,500 2,500 - 5,500

5,500 - 10,000 10,000 - 15,000 Source: [47]
> 15,000 No response Male Female
For more information on developing user perception surveys, see the sample questionnaire in Appendix D – Example 1 or see
Appendix D – Example 2 to observe the results from user perception surveys after major citywide bus reorganization in Santiago
de Chile.

Ever traveled in AMTS bus? Age Profile It is recommended to hire a third party consultant to collect the data necessary for monitoring. They can collect and summarize
data in an impartial way.

17% 16% 20% 8.2 PERFORMANCE MONITORING – LONDON EXAMPLE

20%
In order to ensure that contracted private bus companies maintain desirable levels and quality of service, TfL undertakes a wide
83% 44%
array of monitoring programs. The results of these monitoring programs are also used to determine the bonus payments and
deductions based on the Quality Incentive Contracts [2]. In all cases results are shared with operators. To assess reliability, TfL
undertakes roadside surveys using human monitors. As of
2009, approximately 3-5% of the service of each route is
Yes No 10 - 20 20 - 30 30 - 50 > 50 evaluated [2]. However, the introduction and fleet-wide
installation of bus-based GPS devices will eventually lead to the
replacement of human monitors with automated systems. For
Previous mode of transport? Ready to opt for BRTS instead of vehicle as regular high-frequency bus routes, reliability is determined by Average
mode of transport? Wait Times (AWT) and Excess Wait Times (EWT), as compared
7% 6%
4% to the advertised frequency. For low-frequency bus routes, On-
18%
18% Time percentage is used, as passengers are more likely to rely
on published schedules for these routes.
8%
82% Driver and Vehicle Quality surveys are conducted on behalf of
57% TfL by an independent contractor. These take the form of static
audits at bus stops to determine vehicle condition, and mystery
Car AMTS traveller surveys to assess driver and staff interactions with
Two wheelers Auto Rickshaw passengers [2]. Another type of Driver Quality survey is also
Yes No
Bicycle Shared Auto Rickshaw performed, in this case focusing on the driver’s technical
In London, a display at a bus stop tells passengers
abilities as opposed to the customer service aspect. when the next bus is due.
Source: [66]

84 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 85
 MONITORING SYSTEMS
APPENDIX A

Engineering evaluations of bus operator fleets are also conducted in order to assess the mechanical conditions of buses on the
roads. TfL further gathers data on operator performance through customer surveys. Finally, TfL also carries out contract
compliance audits, in order to ensure that bus operators have robust systems to account for on-board fare collection, reporting
APPENDIX A:
of lost mileage and other aspects.

Based on the results of the monitoring systems in place, the overall performance of bus companies is regularly reviewed.
CITY CASE STUDY REPORTS
Trouble areas are discussed with operators, who may be required to generate strategies detailing how they will deal with the
areas of concern to TfL [2]. Performance in past years is also taken into account. As a final precaution, TfL reserves the right to This section expands on information provided elsewhere in the guidebook with full case study
terminate any contract at any time. reports on each of the seven cities referenced. The following cases are presented in this appendix:

Table 8.4 TfL Bus Monitoring Systems 1. London Begins on page 88

Service Aspect Monitoring Metric Data Collection Method Scope 2. Sao Paulo Begins on page 105
Reliability (High Frequency Routes) Average Wait Time, Excess Wait Time Road side monitoring 3-5% of operations
3. Seoul Begins on page 119
Reliability (Low Frequency Routes On-Time Percentage Road side monitoring 3-5% of operations
Vehicle Quality Vehicle condition (aesthetic) Static Audits at Bus stops ~ 17,000 annually 4. Mumbai Begins on page 132
Driver Quality (Customer Service) Customer experience Mystery Traveller Surveys ~ 33,000 annually
5. Indore Begins on page 148
Driver Quality (Technical) Driver ability and performance Technical assessment ~ 6,500 annually
Engineering and Mechanical Quality Vehicle condition (mechanical) Technical assessment ~ 25% of fleet 6. Ahmedabad Begins on page 157
Customer Satisfaction Customer Satisfaction Passenger surveys n/a
7. Bangalore Begins on page 170
Contract Compliance Administrative and Reporting Systems n/a n/a

Source: [2]

86 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 87
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON
CASE STUDY 1 – LONDON

CASE STUDY 1 global hub for aviation.

On any given weekday, the London Bus System carries more

government. The management of public transport in London responsible for initiating the competitive route tendering
was once again re-organized as London Regional Transport process. LBL was now required to compete against privately
LONDON than 6 million passengers on 6,800 scheduled buses and
more than 700 routes – a greater number of passengers than
the London Underground [1]. This case study will attempt to
(LRT). The main significance of this act, however, was its
impact on the business model of public transport in London.
owned bus companies for the provision of bus services. Some
40% of the initial tendered contracts were awarded to
First, the act required that LRT create subsidiary companies private companies [2]. One noticeable effect of this was
pinpoint the factors and practices that have enabled London
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: responsible for the operation of the Underground and the bus the appearance of buses that were not in the traditional red
to develop such a successful public bus system.
August 2009 service [25]. Subsequently, in 1985, LRT set up London Buses livery of LRT.
2. History of Bus Services in London Limited (LBL) to run bus services in Greater London. Second,
1. Introduction: City Context and more significantly, the act required the introduction of In 1988, in a move designed to facilitate the privatization of
London’s various public transport modes were first brought competitively tendered contracts for transport services, with the bus services, LBL was divided into 13 separate bus operating
London is the capital and primary city of England and the companies, each with its own geographical area of service
together under one organization in 1933, with the formation goal of improving the financial performance of LRT and
United Kingdom. It is a major world city, and a global centre coverage [25]. Each of these companies behaved like an
of the London Passenger Transportation Board (LPTB) [69]. At ensuring that public transport in London would be less of a
of industry, finance and culture. It is also one of the largest independent entity; they maintained their own fleets,
this time, bus services were not limited to what is now the burden on public coffers.
cities in Europe. In 2007 the population of the London, as conducted their own labour negotiations, made independent
Greater London region. The bus network covered a much
defined by the administrative boundary, was 7.56 million, In a related step, bus services in the rest of the UK outside of financial decisions, and so on. These 13 companies became
wider area, including many adjacent counties and some
while the population of the Greater London urban London were completely deregulated through the passage of increasingly successful at winning bus service contracts. By
regions more than 50 kilometres from the city centre [2].
agglomeration stood at 8.6 million [67]. In 2007, London the Transport Act of 1985 (with deregulation coming into effect 1995, 11 of these companies were privatized through a
During this period bus services in London were also
had a density of 4,807 persons/sq. km., amongst the highest in 1986) [25]. This meant that any private company could combination of management buyouts and sales to private
supplemented by limited tram and trolleybus systems. These
in Europe [67]. provide bus services on any road, regardless of whether that sector companies [25]. Of the remaining two companies,
systems were gradually phased out in the 1950s and 60s,
when they were replaced with additional bus services [25]. road was already being serviced by another bus operator. one was disbanded and the other remained publicly owned,
London is also one of the largest city economies in the world.
London, however, was exempt from this deregulation. It was though this company too was eventually privatized in
The Gross Value Added (GVA) of London, a measure of
felt that bus services in London were too dependent on public 2009 [70].
economic output analogous to GDP, was approximately
funds, and that complete deregulation would lead to a drastic
217.5 Billion GBP in 2007 [68]. This amounts to roughly The next major evolution of public transport services in London
reduction in service levels.
22% of the total GVA for England, and 19% of the total for the took place in the late 1990s. The newly elected central
entire UK. The primacy of London in the UK economy is The special exemption for London from the 1985 round of government in the UK was committed to developing a new
exemplified by the fact that the city contributes about a fifth of deregulations was intended to be a short term measure. strategic governing authority for London. The Greater London
all public finance revenues for the UK as a whole [68]. London bus services too would be deregulated, but only once Authority (GLA) was duly formed in 1999. As a part of this
authorities felt confident that full competition between bus process, in 2000 London Regional Transport was replaced by
Local government in London consists of two tiers. On the one
operators would be capable of providing adequate service Transport for London (TfL), an organization responsible for all
hand, the Mayor and 25 members of the Greater London
levels without excessive reliance on subsidies [25]. To this end transport services in London, and now under the control of the
Authority are elected in city wide elections. The Greater
LRT set up the Tendered Bus Division in 1985, a unit newly constituted GLA [69].
London Authority is in charge of developing city wide
strategies for management of public services, including Figure 1 Timeline of Bus Services in London
Using a bus lane to bypass traffic congestion
transportation, and economic growth. At the same time, the
local councils of the 33 boroughs into which London is Over the years the LPTB went through several organizational, - Greater London Authority (GLA)
- London Regional Transport established as governing body for
geographically divided have significant powers in local jurisdictional and also name changes. It was known as the Act passes London
matters. Public governance in London is characterized by London Transport Executive from 1948-63, and the London - London Passenger Transport - London Transport now under - Transport for London (TfL) created as
- LBL sets up 13
these two tiers of political power. Board (LPTB) established Central Government body under GLA responsible for
Transport Board from 1963-70. During the period from subsidiary
London Transport Services
- All modes of Transport in - Act stipulates competitive companies,
1970-84 the organization, once again named the London London under one authority tendering of transport in preparation - 100% of bus routes tendered
Public Transport in London has been marked by a resurgence services - Quality Incentive Contracts introduced
Transport Executive, was under the direct control of the for first time for privatization
in the past two decades. Mode shares of private vehicles have
Greater London Council (GLC), which was the administrative
been decreasing, and that of public transport increasing
body in charge of governance in London. This period also 1933 1970 1984 1985 1988 1994 2000 2003
thanks to a confluence of factors such as increasing
saw the re-definition of the London Transport Executive
congestion on roads, major investments in public transport
mandate to providing transport services for Greater London
services and decreasing real costs of using public - London Transport under - London Buses Limited (LBL) set up - LBL subsidiary bus - LBL subsidiary bus
only, an area measuring 1580 sq. km [69]. authority of Greater as subsidiary to London Transport operating companies operating companies
transportation [5]. London has one of the most extensive London Council privatized by year end privatized by year end
- LBL is in charge of operating bus
public transport systems in the world – consisting of London A defining moment in the history of public transportation - Area of bus services services in London - By end of the year, 50% - By end of the year,
Bus Services, the London Underground, Docklands Light services in London was the passage of the London Regional
confined to 1, 580 sq.km. - Tendering process for London bus of bus network routes 50% of bus network
of Greater London services begins tendered routes tendered
Railway and other relatively smaller operations like the Transportation Act in 1984. This act brought the London - Bus Services outside London
Croydon Tramlink and river services. London is also a major public transport system under the control of the central UK deregulated under Transport Act

Sources: [2], [25], [69]

88 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 89
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

3. London Bus System Characteristics Transport Directorate of TfL, which is responsible for all above 3.2 Regulatory and Legislative Framework London Buses requires a uniform livery scheme throughout
ground transport services (excepting rail networks). In terms the bus network in order to assist with marketing and
3.1 Institutional Setup of legal and corporate structure, London Buses is a subsidiary The regulation detailing the authority and responsibilities of promotion.
of Transport Trading Limited, which in turn is a subsidiary of TfL is the Greater London Authority Act of 1999 [2]. This is the
Transport for London (TfL) is the body responsible for all TfL and is the sole holding company for all operating Act that led to the formation of the GLA as the municipal Currently, there are 23 companies (i.e., different operating
transport services in the Greater London area. TfL is a transport companies owned by TfL [71]. London Buses is in authority for the Greater London Area. This Act was also names) providing bus services in Greater London [72].
functional body of the GLA [25]. TfL’s main responsibilities are charge of route planning, determining service levels, and responsible for the creation of TfL as a body under the GLA. However, through mergers and acquisitions, 17 of these
managing transport in the London area and implementing monitoring bus services. It is also responsible for the provision companies have been consolidated into 5 bus operating
the Mayor of London’s Transport Strategy and the transport and maintenance of infrastructure related to bus services such Under section 141.(1) of the Act, the Mayor of London and groups. In other words, 5 groups contain more than one bus
related portions of the Mayor’s London Plan, a long term as bus stations and stops. Bus services themselves are GLA are required to develop and implement policies that will service operator. For example, the Transdev bus group
planning document. TfL is responsible for all modes of public conducted by private operators who are under contract to “promote and encourage safe, efficient, economic and consists of buses operated under the ‘London United’ and
transport in London (London buses, London Underground London Buses. London Buses is also responsible for integrated transport services to, from and within London” ‘London Sovereign’ brands. The remaining 6 are single
and Docklands Light Rail, and other smaller services), as well implementing any portions of the Mayor’s Transport Strategy [25]. Section 154.(3) of the Act says that TfL has a duty to company groups. Thus, in essence, there are 11 different
as other programs such as the Congestion Charge program, that relates specifically to bus services. facilitate the successful discharge of the Mayor and GLA’s entities providing bus services in London.
the Red Route network of priority London roads, and others transport-related responsibilities. The specific powers of TfL to
[71]. It is also responsible for promoting the use of active London Buses Limited (LBL), previously in charge of the 13 procure transport services for London are enumerated in Viewing the market at the level of the 23 different companies,
transport modes such as cycling and walking. TfL is managed bus operating companies that were privatized in 1994/95, Section 173 of the Act. market shares, as a percentage of total network bus-
by a board appointed by the Mayor of London. The Mayor continues to exist as a subsidiary of TfL, via the Transport kilometres, range from 12.78% for the biggest bus company
also chairs this board. Trading Limited holding company. LBL was, until recently, in As a subsidiary of TfL, London Buses is empowered by section to as low as 0.01% for the smallest company [72]. At the level
charge of the only publicly owned bus operating company in 169.(2) of the Act to enter into contracts with any person or of the consolidated bus groups, however, the market appears
London Bus Services Limited (‘London Buses’) is the unit within London. It now provides other services to London residents company in order to provide public transport services. fairly concentrated. The two largest groups, Arriva and Go-
TfL responsible for managing bus services in London. From such as the Dial-A-Ride program for disabled persons [71]. Ahead, enjoy more than 20% of market share each. Together,
an administrative stand point it is a part of the Surface London Buses and TfL must also comply with various other UK the top 5 groups account for over 83% of the bus services
and EU regulations, such as those relating to access for market in London.
disabled persons and fair competition laws.
Figure 2 London Bus System Organizational Chart
3.4 Routes
3.3 Service Provision
Mayor & Greater London Authority The London Bus network consists of over 700 different routes
• Decides overall London Transport Strategy London Buses is the unit within TfL responsible for procuring
• Sets Fare Levels with a total network road length of approximately 3,730 km
• Sanctions TfL budget bus services for the Greater London Area. London Buses is [25]. These routes are of many varying types, from extremely
• Arranges TfL financing responsible for planning routes, setting service levels and high frequency (buses every 2-3 minutes), to very low
targets and monitoring bus system performance. The actual frequency (one round trip per day) [2].
Transport for London (TfL) provision of bus services is contracted to private bus High frequency routes are those routes which have 5 or more
• Manages all transport modes • Integrates transport services companies based on a competitive tendering system. buses an hour. Low frequency routes are those which have 4
• Provides common services e.g. ticketing
Although bus services are provided by private companies, or fewer buses an hour. Most bus routes operate from
• Manages subsidiary companies like LBL and London Underground
4.30AM to just after midnight. Several bus routes run 24
hours a day, and there are also ‘night buses’ which run only
Transport Trading Limited
between the hours of 12.00AM and 4.30AM.

3.5 Buses
London Bus Services Limited
London Buses Limited
• Planning for all aspects of bus service
• Monitors service quality
• Until mid- 2009 operated East There are a large variety of bus types plying the roads of
Thames Buses
• Maintains bus infrastructure
• Currently operates other services such
London. These range from minibuses to high capacity
• Research and Development
as Dial-A-Ride for disabled travelers articulated and double decker buses. As of 2007, the London
• Also manages Croydon Tramlink
bus fleet numbered about 8000 vehicles. Of these, 63% were
double-decker buses, 32% single-deckers and 5% articulated
Private Bus Companies
• Provide bus services
buses [17].
• Maintain assets, including buses
and garages All London buses are now low-floor and wheel chair
• Operate under contract to London Bus
accessible, and the vast majority of them have CCTV cameras
Services Limited
to record violations against staff and passengers. TfL also
actively encourages the adoption of the strict ‘Euro’ emissions
Sources: [25], [71] An articulated bus on London’s streets

90 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 91
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

Figure 3 Bus Fleet Composition (% of total fleet), 2007 about the Oyster system. There are no free transfers, so each Figure 5 Journey Stages by Bus per Year (millions), 1991/92 – 2007/08
bus boarding incurs an additional charge. In lieu of free
Journey Stages by Bus per Year (millions), 1991/92 – 2007/08
Bus Fleet Composition (% of total fleet) 2007 transfers, however, a daily price capping system is used. If
using the Oyster card system, the maximum daily charge for 2100
Double Decker Single Decker Articulated using the bus system is GBP 3.30, which thus provides savings 1900
for anyone undertaking more than 3 bus journeys in a given
1700
day. The Oyster daily price cap is cheaper that the One Day
1500
32% 5%
Bus pass, which allows unlimited travel by bus for a price of
GBP 3.80. Weekly (GBP 13.80), monthly (GBP 53) and 1300
annual (GBP 552) bus passes are also available. Additionally, 1100
63%
there are concessional passes for certain groups, such as
900
those under 18 years of age and full time students, among
others. 700

500
4. London Bus System Performance

1
3

3
2

2
9
8

8
6

6
4

4
5

5
19 7

20 7
/0
/9

/0
/9

/0

/0
/9
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
00
92

02
91

99

01
98
97

07
95

05
93

03
94

04
96

06
20
19

20
19

19

20
19
19

20
19

20
19

20
19

20
4.1 Operational statistics

Source: [17] Bus services in London have seen a significant rise in Source: [4]
patronage in recent years. The total amount of bus-
standards for its bus fleet. By 2007, all buses were at least passenger-kms in London has increased by 59% in the period When looking at trip-based mode shares, the increase in bus patronage has contributed to a net 5% shift from private to public
Euro II compliant, and 3% of buses were compliant up to Euro from 2000/01 to 2007/08 [5]. Going back further to transport in the period from 2000/01 to 2007/08 [5]. This net change increases to 7% when looking at journey-stage based
IV standards [17]. Every new bus entering the fleet after 2006 1991/92, bus-passenger-kms have increased by 88% to the mode shares for the same period.
is of at least Euro IV standard. year 2007/08. Similar increases are seen in the number of
Given the large increase in the number of bus passengers, it is not surprising that the vehicle utilization statistics have risen in a
journey stages undertaken on the bus. The total number of
3.6 Fares similar manner. Based on figures of bus-passenger-km and bus-vehicle-km, there are an average of 15.9 persons on any bus
journey-stages undertaken on London buses per year has
at any given time, compared to 13.2 in 2000-01, an increase of 20.5% [5], [4].
The London bus system operates on a flat-fare system, with a increased from 1.354 Billion in 2000/01 to 1.978 Billion in
set fare regardless of distance travelled. The current price for 2007/08, representing a 46% increase (calculation is on a Figure 6 Average number of Passengers per Bus (at any given time), 2000/01 – 2007/08
each journey on London buses is GBP 1 if using the Oyster consistent basis, adjusting for methodology change in
smart card fare payment system, and GBP 2 if paying by cash 2007/08) [5], [4]. Average number of Passengers per Bus (at any given time), 2000/01 – 2007/08
[30]. Section 5.3 of this case study provides more information
18
Figure 4 Bus-Passenger Kilometres per Year (millions), 1991/92 – 2007/08
16

Bus-Passenger Kilometres per Year (millions), 1991/92 – 2007/08 14

8000 12

7000 10

8
6000
6
5000
4
4000
2
3000 0
2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08
2000
1
3

3
2

2
8

8
6

6
4

4
5

Source: [4]
19 7

20 7
/0
/9

/0
/9

/0

/0
/9
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
00
92

02
91

99

01
98
97

07
95

05
93

03
94

04
96

06
20
19

20
19

19

20
19
19

20
19

20
19

20
19

20

4.2 Financial statistics

Source: [4]
Although the London Bus system has succeeded in attracting a significantly higher number of users compared to a decade ago,

92 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 93
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

this has come at the cost of substantial public subsidies. In current prices, London Buses went from nearly breaking even in pence in 1997/98 to 52 pence in 2006/07 [73]. During the same period, the operating cost per passenger journey has
1997/98, requiring a GBP 1 million subsidy, to requiring GBP 625 million in 2006/07 [21]. increased from 55pence to 60 pence. Also during this period, as per the same source, passenger journey stages by bus
increased by almost 56%.
Figure 7 Bus System Subsidy (million, GBP, current prices), 1997/98 – 2006/07
Figure 9 Revenue vs. Operating Cost per Passenger Journey (pence, 2007/08 prices), 1997/98 – 2007/08
Bus system Subsidy (million GBP, Current prioes) 1997/98 - 2006/07
700 Revenue vs. Operating Cost per Passenger Journey
(pence, 2007/08 prices), 1997/98 – 2007/08
600 70

500 65

400 60

300 55

200 50

100 45

0 40
1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07

Source: [21] Revenue Per Passanger Boarding Operating Cost per Passanger Boarding

This increase in subsidies comes despite the fact that London Buses’ revenues from ticket sales have been steadily increasing Source: [73]
over the years. In current prices, fare box revenues, including concessionary fare reimbursements, increased from GBP 599
million in 1997/98 to GBP 1,003 in 2006/07 [21]. However, a comparison of total bus system costs with total fare revenue over 5. London Bus System: Key Success Factors
the past 6 years shows that costs have increased in lock step with revenues, necessitating continued public subsidies for the bus
system. The fare box recovery ratio for the bus system as a whole has hovered around 60.4% for the period from 2003/04 to 5.1 Improvements in Service Levels and Quality
2007/08 [65]. There are many reasons for the increasing costs of running the bus system, including expansions in service
This dramatic increase in bus patronage over the past decade is in large part due to a significant expansion in service
levels, the introduction of financial incentives for bus companies to improve service quality, fare freezes to promote bus usage
levels. Bus-vehicle-kilometres operated have increased by 31% from 2000-01 to 2007-08, and by 57% when compared
and increased investment in bus priority programs and infrastructure.
to 1991-92 [5], [4].
Figure 8 Bus System Total Cost vs. Fare Revenue (million GBP, current prices), 2003/04 - 2007/08
Figure 10 Bus-Kilometres Operated peer Year (millions), 1991/92 – 2007/08
Bus System Total Cost vs. Fare Revenue
Bus-Kilometers Operated per Year (million) 1991/92 - 2007/08
(million GBP, current prices) 2003/04 – 2008/09
500
2000
1800 450

1600 400
1400
1200 350
1000
300
800
600 250
400
200
200

1
3

3
2

2
8

8
6

6
4

4
5

5
19 7

20 7
/0
/9

/0
/9

/0

/0
/9

/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
/9

/0
00
92

02
91

99

01
97

98

07
95

05
93

03
94

04
96

06
0

20
19

20
19

19

20
19
19

20
19

20
19

20
19

20
2003/04 2004/05 2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09
Bus System Total Cost Bus System Fare Revenue Source: [4]
Source: [65]
Service quality has also improved in the years since 2000. In this time, the percentage of scheduled bus-kilometres that are
The continual increase in cost levels for operating bus services in London is also reflected in a comparison of revenues and operated has increased from 95.3% to 97.5% in 2007/08 [5]. Greater improvements are seen in the Average Waiting Time
operating costs per passenger boarding. In constant 2007/08 prices, the revenue per passenger boarding has fallen from 60 and Excess Waiting Time statistics for high-frequency bus routes in this period. Average Waiting Times have reduced from 6.8

94 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 95
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

minutes to 5.5 minutes, a 19% improvement [5]. Excess Waiting Times have reduced from 2.2 minutes to 1.1 minutes, a 50% 5.3.1 Quality Incentive Contracts extension. If the extension offer is rejected, then the route is
improvement [5]. On Time percentages for low-frequency bus routes have improved from 67.7% to 79.1% [5]. tendered in the regular manner.
Quality Incentive Contracts have been the sole contracting
Table 1 Bus System Reliability Statistics, 2000/01 – 2007/08 scheme in use by London Buses since 2000. This contracting Based on the success of these financial incentives, two further
scheme is a variant of Gross Cost contracts. Operators make incentive schemes have been introduced. In 2008 an
% of Scheduled KM’s operated High Frequency Bus Routes Low Frequency Bus Routes bids based on the total cost of operating a route, including incentive based on driver quality and customer service was
Avg. Wait Time Excess Wait Time % On Time profit margins. London Buses retains all fare revenues. In introduced, and an incentive based on vehicle cleanliness will
2000/01 95.3 6.8 2.2 67.7 % addition, however, there exist direct financial incentives for be introduced in 2009. Assessments for these incentives will
2001/02 96.4 6.6 2.0 69.4% operators based on performance. These incentives are of two be made by a combination of Mystery Traveller surveys and
2002/03 96.1 6.4 1.8 70.5 % kinds: vehicle inspections at terminals. Payments and deductions will
2003/04 97.2 5.8 1.4 74.6 % be made depending on whether operators exceed or fall
2004/05 97.7 5.6 1.1 77.1 % 1. Bonus payments and deductions based on the quality of below network wide standards.
service
2005/06 97.7 5.6 1.1 77.2 %
2. Automatic contract extensions While Quality Incentive Contracts have played a major role in
2006/07 97.5 5.5 1.1 78.1 %
significantly improving the quality of bus services, the
2007/08 97.5 5.5 1.1 79.1 %
Reliability performance payments are based on a financial incentives have resulted in large subsidies for the
Source: [5] comparison of the operator’s annual performance with the London Bus system as a whole.

5.2 Fare Policy 5.3.2 Tendering Process

Part of the reason for the increasing number of passengers on London’s bus system is the falling real costs of bus travel. Bucking Currently, all routes are tendered through the use of 5-year
the wider UK trend of a 10% increase in bus fares since 1999/00, bus fares in London have fallen in that same period [5]. In Quality Incentive Contracts. The tendering process is a
large part this has been due to a four year fare-freeze instituted by then Mayor Ken Livingstone in 2000, which was part of a continual one, with 15-20% of routes tendered every year.
wider strategy to promote bus usage [26]. Although nominal fares on the bus system have been increasing at above inflation The figure varies depending on the number of performance
rates since the end of the fare-freeze, they are still lower than historical prices. The average fare paid on London buses in 2008, related contract extensions. Within each year the tendering
in terms of real prices, is the same as it was in 1971 and 60% lower in relative terms when the increase in average income of process is also continual, with ‘Invitation to Tender (ITT)’
Londoners is taken into account [5]. documents for different routes being issued roughly every 3-4
weeks.
Figure 11 Average, Headline and Deflated Bus Fare Indices (Inflation adjusted, Index 1971=100), 1971 - 2007
Each route is thoroughly reviewed by London Buses prior to its
Average, Headline and Deflated Bus Fare Indices
(Inflation adjusted, Index 1971=100) Bus lanes are clearly marked using lane colouring being offered to tender. These reviews also take into account
1971 - 2007 views solicited from transport user advocacy groups such as
160 Minimum Performance Standards (MPS) specified in the London TravelWatch and other concerned stakeholders.
service contract. For High Frequency routes, payments are Based on this review, London Buses issues an ‘Invitation to
140
made on a graduated scale based on every 0.10 minute Tender’ that specifies the following for each route
120 change in the Excess Wait Time (EWT) for passengers. For Low
Frequency routes, the relevant statistic is a 2% change in the • The specific routing of the bus, including terminal
100
On-Time percentage. For every step above the MPS (i.e. 0.10 arrangements
80 min reduction in EWT or 2% higher On-Time), the bus
• The timetable and frequency of services on various days of
company receives a bonus payment of 1.5% of the contract
the week
60 price. For every step below the MPS, a 1% deduction is made
from the contract prices. Bonuses and deductions are capped • The type and capacity of bus vehicles to be used
40
at 15% and 10% of the total value of the contract respectively. • A set of Minimum Performance Standards
71

81
73

83

2
79

8
6

6
4

4
75

77

/9

/9

/0

/0
/8

/9
/8

/9

/0
/9

/0
19

19
19

19
19
19

19

89

91

99

01
87

97
85

95

05
93

03

The other incentive for bus operators is an automatic 2-year

19

19

19

20
19

19
19

19

20
19

20

Based on this information, bus operators are required to

Average fare paid Headline fares index Average fare paid deflated by real London earnings extension of contract for exceeding the ‘Extension Threshold’ submit bids that deliver a schedule of services meeting the
criteria detailed in the tender documents. These criteria are minimum requirements and also specifying the total costs,
Source: [5] related to but higher than the MPS. The contract extension is including profit margins. All companies interested in securing
offered at the current contract price, adjusting for inflation. the contract must submit a ‘compliant’ bid that satisfies all the
5.3. Innovations in Contracting and Tendering Operators can choose to accept or reject the extension offer. If specifications listed in the tender document. However,
accepted, the route is withdrawn from the list of routes to be companies may additionally submit bids that seek major or
(All information in section 5.3 is obtained from source [2]) tendered that year and is offered for tender at the end of the minor changes in the required specifications such as a

96 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 97
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

modified bus route or alternate schedule. Operators may passengers are more likely to rely on published schedules for Table 2 TfL Bus Monitoring Systems
submit such alternate bids if they believe it will provide greater these routes.
benefits to passengers and/or London Buses. For instance, Service Aspect Monitoring Metric Data Collection Method Scope
some bus companies may, based on previous experience, Driver and Vehicle Quality surveys are conducted on behalf of
Reliability (High Frequency Routes) Average Wait Time, Excess Wait Time Road side monitoring 3-5% of operations
have a better understanding of the needs and desires of TfL by an independent contractor. These take the form of static
audits at bus stops to determine vehicle condition, and Reliability (Low Frequency Routes On-Time Percentage Road side monitoring 3-5% of operations
customers in the relevant area served by the route. All tenders
are made on a sealed bid basis. mystery traveller surveys to assess driver and staff interactions Vehicle Quality Vehicle condition (aesthetic) Static Audits at Bus stops ~ 17,000 annually
with passengers. Another type of Driver Quality survey is also Driver Quality (Customer Service) Customer experience Mystery Traveller Surveys ~ 33,000 annually
London Buses operates a pre-qualification process for bus performed, in this case focusing on the driver’s technical Driver Quality (Technical) Driver ability and performance Technical assessment ~ 6,500 annually
companies interested in bidding for routes. This process abilities as opposed to the customer service aspect.
Engineering and Mechanical Quality Vehicle condition (mechanical) Technical assessment ~ 25% of fleet
includes an evaluation of factors such as financial stability,
previous experience in the transport market, health and safety Engineering evaluations of bus operator fleets are also Customer Satisfaction Customer Satisfaction Passenger surveys n/a
policies, and so on. Companies may even submit a dummy conducted in order to assess the mechanical conditions of Contract Compliance Administrative and Reporting Systems n/a n/a
bid as part of their pre-qualification process. Once a buses on the roads. TfL further gathers data on operator
company is added to the pre-approved contractors list, it is performance through customer surveys. Finally, TfL also Source: [2]
notified of any upcoming tendering opportunities. carries out contract compliance audits, in order to ensure that
bus operators have robust systems to account for on-board 5.5 Bus Priority measures emphasis on traffic management. Some of the major bus
Tender evaluation is based on several factors, including price, fare collection, reporting of lost mileage and other aspects. priority schemes initiated included pre-signals to allow buses
previous performance in carrying out contracts, safety One of the main reasons behind the increased number of unhindered progress through junctions, with-flow and
concerns, financial stability, staffing and vehicle maintenance Based on the results of the monitoring systems in place, the users of bus services in London has been the widespread use contra-flow bus lanes, bus detection at signals, and queue
policies, and so on. In other words, while the bid price may be overall performance of bus companies is regularly reviewed. of Bus Priority measures to improve the quality of London bus relocations [74]. However, for most of the network, the
one of the most important factors, it is not the sole services. This final section of the case study will expand on majority of work consisted of better siting of bus stops, bus
determining factor of the winning bid. Contracts may be some of the significant bus priority measures undertaken in stop clearways, minor traffic management interventions,
awarded to companies that do not make the lowest price bid. London over the past two decades. junction improvements and improved parking control
In such scenarios however, London Buses is obligated to and enforcement. Care was also paid to the bus stop
5.5.1 London Bus Priority Network (LBPN) environment. By March 2004, this program had resulted
provide an explanation for not selecting the lowest bid. Bid
evaluation is undertaken by a team of commercial and in the implementation of over 3,500 such bus priority
The LBPN is a partnership initiated in 1993 between the 33
technical experts. Award recommendations are discussed schemes [75].
London Boroughs and TfL (then London Transport), through
and award decisions made by the Tender Evaluation
the London Technical Assistance Group (an association of In order to manage the LBPN and to ensure effective co-
Committee, which consists of the directors of London Buses.
borough engineers) and in association with the UK ordination between the various boroughs, the Greater
Department for Transport and the Traffic Director for London. London Area was divided into 5 geographical sectors, with
5.4. Extensive System Monitoring
The initial aim of the partnership was to develop bus priority one borough designated as the ‘leader’ for each sector [76].
(All information in section 5.4 is obtained from source [2]) measures along 865 km of bus routes on borough-managed The borough of Bromley was selected as the ‘leader’ for the
roads in Greater London by 2003/04, at a total cost of GBP LBPN as a whole, for ease of management. The role of the
In order to ensure that contracted private bus companies 110 million [74]. LBPN refers both to the partnership and the sector leaders and LBPN leader (Bromley) is to co-ordinate
maintain desirable levels and quality of service, TfL network of chosen roads. The roads chosen to be part of this work amongst the various sectors and boroughs, and also
undertakes a wide array of monitoring programs. The results scheme were either major bus routes with high frequency bus contract consultancy support. The LBPN is funded entirely by
of these monitoring programs are also used to determine the services, or roads which had low frequency services but TfL through its Borough Spending Program (BSP) and Local
bonus payments and deductions based on the Quality served an important linking function within the wider bus Implementation Program (LIP) [76]. Boroughs are funded
A display at a bus stop tells passengers when the next
Incentive Contracts. In all cases results are shared with network. Within Central London, the network covered almost directly for specific bus priority schemes. The structure of the
bus is due
operators. all bus routes. At the end of the initial planned program in LBPN allows boroughs to retain their independence and
Trouble areas are discussed with operators, who may be 2004, the LBPN partnership was continued and its scope was decide which specific schemes to develop, but at the same
To assess reliability, TfL undertakes roadside surveys using widened to all borough roads that carry buses,
required to generate strategies detailing how they will deal time provides a coordinated approach to bus priority and
human monitors. As of 2009, approximately 3-5% of the and since then additional funding totalling over GBP 55.5
with the areas of concern to TfL. Performance in past years is facilitates the generation of a London-wide strategy.
service of each route is evaluated. However, the introduction million (through the end of 2005/06) has been allocated to
also taken into account. As a final precaution, TfL reserves the
and fleet-wide installation of bus-based GPS devices will the program [75]. 5.5.2 London Bus Initiative (LBI)
right to terminate any contract at any time.
eventually lead to the replacement of human monitors with
automated systems. For high-frequency bus routes, reliability In deciding what type of bus priority measures were to be The London Bus Initiative Phase I was a scheme that ran from
is determined by Average Wait Times (AWT) and Excess Wait used, no particular type of bus priority scheme was preferred 2000-2005 with the support of a grant from the UK central
Times (EWT), as compared to the advertised frequency. For over any others. Instead, a combination of various bus priority government. The aim of the LBI1 was to provide “a step
low-frequency bus routes, On-Time percentage is used, as methods would be used on a location specific basis, with an change enhancement of the actual and perceived quality of

98 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 99
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

London’s bus services” [50]. The LBI1 was a partnership Under the LBI1, 27 routes, now known as ‘BusPlus’ routes, The 27 routes were divided into three categories: walking and safety benefits, along the identified corridors.
were selected for intensive bus priority treatment [50]. These The following types of projects are indicative of the scope of
high frequency routes were chosen as it was felt that they 1. 3 Quality Whole Routes+ (QWR+) work involved:
could provide a competitive alternative to cars in the areas 2. 5 Quality Whole Routes (QWR)
they served. Some of these routes travelled along highly • Revised junction operation, design and layout, and where
3. 19 Whole routes
congested roads, while other served areas of London junctions cannot be improved, optimisation of signal times
targeted for regeneration. These particular routes were The QWR+ routes received the highest degree of bus priority
also chosen with the aim of serving the greatest number of measures. In all 400 km of bus routes received bus priority • Pedestrian crossing improvements and review of bus stop
bus users. measures . Over 100 new bus lanes, 50 pedestrian crossings, locations.
300 signals equipped with bus priority, and 140 junction • Provision of advanced cycle stop lines.
The main feature of the BusPlus routes was the ‘whole route’ improvements were developed on the 27 routes. These
• Reduction of pinch points through increased carriageway
approach to bus priority. In other words, the improvements measures helped not only the 27 Bus Plus routes, but also
width and / or stringent frontage and curbside controls
would target every aspect of the journey along the route for other routes that used the same roads.
(including loading restrictions at critical points).
improvement. The 10 aspects of the whole route approach
were bus priority (physical and signal detection); route traffic Passenger numbers on the 27 LBI1 routes showed a • Increasing the length of existing bus lanes, provision of
management control; new buses; bus stop improvements; significant up tick. Bus journeys on the LBI1 routes increased new bus lanes (including contra-flow bus facilities), and
A bus using a contra-flow bus lane enforcement; passenger shelters; pedestrian traffic and from 165 million annually to 201 million annually over the extension of the operational duration of bus lanes.
junction management; driver training; bus lane enforcement course of the project, a 21.9% improvement . This compared • Adoption of effective enforcement measures.
approach to delivering bus priority in London and as such
cameras; and a countdown system for arriving buses [50]. with a network wide improvement of 18% in the same
drew upon the existing LBPN partnership and also the • Implementation of bus gates, stage skipping measures,
time period.
expertise of the Bus Priority Team at TfL and London Buses. and bus-only areas
The LBI1 project was funded through the provision of a GBP The effect on journey times, however, was not quite as
60 million grant from the UK government [50]. unambiguous. On one of the QWR+ routes, journey times 5.5.4 Bus Lanes and bus lane enforcement
decreased . However, journey times on one other QWR+ London has a long history of bus lanes. Indeed, the very first
route remained unchanged, and actually worsened on the “bus only” street in the world was introduced in London in
Figure 12 London Bus Initiative’s Whole Route Approach to Bus Priority
third route. This should be taken in context of the worsening 1972, when the Oxford Street thoroughfare was converted
general congestion situation on those particular routes. into a bus and taxi only street [48]. Since then London has
continued to introduce a large number of and many different
Bus priority: Overall the LBI1 project was considered a success by the configurations of bus lanes. Currently, there are over 1,000
Physical and SVD implementing parties, and plans were made to launch the LBI bus lanes, although the vast majority of these are open to
Route traffic Phase 2 project, which would extend the whole route bus some combinations of taxis and other vehicular traffic
Bus stop
management control priority approach to a further 43 routes. during certain times of the day [5]. In terms of bus only lanes,
improvements
strategy London has 101 lanes that cover a distance of a little
5.5.3 Third Generation (3G) Corridor Improvement
over 280 km [22].
Programme
Passenger
New buses The 3G Corridor Improvement Programme is a London-wide
shelters
Programme comprising 36 bus route corridors developed in
Whole Route partnership with Boroughs through the London Bus Priority
Implementation Network (LBPN) .
Plan
Traffic management Enforcement The programme focuses on some of the highest patronage
(pedestrian & junction bus routes in London to reduce journey time and improve
facilities) reliability by lowering Excess Wait Time (EWT), a key TfL
performance indicator. In meeting its objectives, the 3G
Programme takes a holistic view, treating the bus route as a
Bus lane movement corridor and thus incorporating improvements to
enforcement Countdown other modes, namely; walking, cycling, safety and
cameras accessibility as well as improvements to the urban realm.
Driver training
The primary scope of the programme is to deliver targeted A passenger using the ticket machine at a bus stop in the ‘Pay
projects which provide bus journey time, reliability, cycling Before You Board’ zone
Source: [50]

100 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 101
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON

Bus lanes in London are curbside, partially segregated lanes. As the locations of the erstwhile roadside beacons and the Oyster card system [78].
Lane demarcation and colouring help to distinguish bus lanes induction loops can now be hard coded into the system as
from other lanes. These bus lanes, therefore, cannot be GPS co-ordinates, the iBus is said to use ‘virtual detectors’ for The introduction and widespread use of Oyster is beneficial, from the bus system perspective, by increasing the ease of bus
considered to be of the ‘full Bus Rapid Transit’ standard, signal priority. When the bus reaches a pre-designated travel and, most importantly, improving bus system performance by eliminating time-consuming ticket purchase transactions
which demands fully physically segregated median bus location, the unit on the bus communicates via radio signals between bus drivers and passengers
carriageways [48]. However, London has managed to utilize with the traffic signal to indicate the need for signal priority.
its bus lanes efficiently through the rigorous use of bus lane This new system thus does away with a majority of the Figure 13 Type of ticket used for Bus journeys (% of total tickets), 2003 - 2007
enforcement. roadside equipment needed in the previous system. The GPS Type of ticket used for Bus journeys (% of total tickets), 2003 - 2007
based technology of iBUS will also enhance the development
100%
Bus lane enforcement takes place using both technological of Real Time Passenger Information (RTPI) capabilities, such 90%
and human means. Bus lanes and buses themselves are fitted as displays at bus stops and stations indicating when the next 80%
with cameras which, using Automatic Number Plate bus is due. 70%
Recognition (ANPR) technology, can effectively identify bus
60%
lane offenders [31]. This system of camera-based 5.5.6 ‘Cashless Bus’ strategies – Oyster smartcard and
50%
enforcement is backed by a dedicated TfL-funded police force ‘Pay Before You Board’ zone
40%
devoted to, among other things, strict enforcement of bus
30%
lanes and parking restrictions. In 2003, London introduced the Oyster Smartcard. Oyster is
20%
a contactless smartcard payment system [26]. It can be used
10%
The enforcement and continuous expansion of bus lanes has to store seasonal passes (annual, monthly or weekly) and can
0%
had an overall positive impact on bus system performance, also be pre-filled with money to take advantage of the ‘Pay- 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
with a 2005 study showing that bus speeds in bus lanes have as-you-go’ (PAYG) facility. The PAYG facility is thus an
Oyster Cash Other non-Oyster
been 12.6% faster than those in ordinary lanes [51]. alternative to paying cash fares. To promote the use of the
However, the issue remains that bus lanes such as those in Oyster system, PAYG fares have been cheaper than the Partial year data for 2003 and 2007
London will not be able to match the efficiencies of a full- equivalent cash fares since January 2006 [77]. Source: [78]
fledged BRT system, and enforcement may become lax over
time, as government and political priorities change. A case in Also in 2003, TfL introduced the ‘Pay Before You Board’ Scheme [3]. In this program, covering most of central London,
point is the decision by the current Mayor Boris Johnson to passengers will be required to possess tickets before boarding the bus. In other words, passengers will not be able to purchase
allow motorcycles to use bus lanes from January 2009 on an tickets from the bus drivers. For most people, this requirement will be fulfilled if they are paying for their bus journey using the
18-month trial basis [52]. Oyster card. For the remaining passengers, bus stops and stations in this zone are equipped with ticket machines from which
they can buy tickets before the arrival of the bus. This program aims to reduce the dwell times of buses at stops, since passengers
5.5.5 Traffic signal priority and iBus who purchase cash tickets take twice as long to board buses compared to those who have prepaid or use the Oyster smart card.
This time savings due to this scheme are especially crucial for the performance of bus services in central London, which has a
London has gone through several iterations of traffic signal
high density of bus routes and also higher than average levels of traffic congestion.
priority system. Traffic signal priority has been implemented
in London using various methods collectively known as 5.6 Green House Gas Reduction
Selective Vehicle Detection (SVD) or Automatic Vehicle
Location (AVL) [28]. Since 2001 bus service kms operated in London have increased over 30% and patronage levels have risen around 60%.
Increased bus patronage has been the main factor for an increase in public transport mode share (based on journey stages) [3].
In the older version of this technology, the bus lane or road is It has increased from 34 to 40% since 2001. Unfortunately London Buses does not have any assessment of the impact of
embedded with an inducting loop, or is equipped with a enhanced bus services on CO2 emissions in comparison to a Business-As-Usual (BAU) scenario. This is due to many policy
roadside beacon [50]. The bus itself is equipped with a changes, specifically, an expansion in the eligibility criteria for discount fares for buses. The discount fares have induced a large
transponder. When the bus passes over the loop (or past the number of bus trips, some of which may not have otherwise been undertaken.
beacon), the system recognizes the vehicle as one requiring
signal priority, and communicates with the signal box which From 2012 London Buses intends to use low-emissions technology for all buses entering the London fleet. These reductions in
A passenger using the Oyster card to pay for the bus
initiates the signal priority process, which can range from GHG emissions will be straight-forward to assess. Initially these will be diesel-electric hybrids. Ongoing large scale trials have
extending the green cycle, shortening the green cycle for These benefits of using Oyster, added to the ease of use and shown that diesel-electric hybrid buses reduce CO2 emissions by between 30% and 40% in the London operating environment
other traffic or skipping a signal stage. refilling, which can be done at a large number of ticket kiosks [17]. Therefore, in comparison to BAU the roll-out of diesel electric hybrid buses will reduce CO2 emissions in the range of 30%
on the underground and bus system as well as many to 40%. The rate of roll out is anticipated at between 500 and 600 buses a year [17]. With a total fleet of around 8,500 this
In 2003, TfL started exploring the use of GPS based implies a time period of around 15 years for all London buses to be “low-emissions”.
convenience stores, has led to the Oyster card being adopted
technologies to implement signal priority [28]. This resulted in
by a large fraction of public transport users. By March 2007,
the initiation of the GBP 117 million iBUS program [51]. In
slightly more than 85% of all bus journeys were paid for using
this program, each bus in the fleet is fitted with a GPS device.

102 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 103
 CASE STUDY 1 - LONDON CASE STUDY 2 – SAO PAULO

few decades. In 2007, there were approximately 8 million

6. Conclusion CASE STUDY 2 private vehicles registered in the Sao Paulo Metropolitan
region [81]. This equated to a vehicle ownership rate of 359
vehicles per 1,000 people (314 cars, 45 motorcycles).
London is perhaps a unique example of a developed world city achieving a large increase in bus patronage in the past decade.
This increase in bus patronage has also contributed to a net shift from private to public transport. London has achieved this
through a variety of means – expanding service supply, improving service quality, improving bus performance through the
SAO PAULO Sao Paulo has an extensive public transportation network
consisting of several modes – an urban bus system
extensive use of bus priority measures and fare policies to encourage ridership. London has also greatly benefited from the EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India:
(‘SPTrans’), a regional bus system (‘EMTU’), a regional
existence of a political leadership that has always acknowledged the importance of a robust and well performing public October 2009
commuter rail system (‘CPTM’) and a mass rapid transport
transport system, and a technically excellent transport planning authority in Transport for London. In terms of lesson drawing, it
1. Introduction: City Context rail system (‘Metro’). SPTrans is run by the Sao Paulo city
is interesting to note that London has overhauled its bus system in a piecemeal fashion, with several initiatives over many years.
municipal government, whereas the other three systems
This is unlike the examples of other cities, like Seoul and Sao Paulo, where improvements to the bus system have taken the form
Sao Paulo is the largest city in Brazil and South America. In (EMTU, CPTM and Metro) are overseen by the Sao Paulo
of intensive and comprehensive reforms instituted in a very short period of time by one political leader. London shows how once
2009, the city of Sao Paulo had an estimated population of State government [7]. In spite of the extensive public
a vision has been established a combination of various relatively small, when viewed independently, reforms and initiatives over
a little over 11 million, and the wider Sao Paulo transport network in Sao Paulo, car use is high, leading to a
a period of time, great efficiencies can be wrung out of existing bus systems.
Metropolitan Region (SPMR) had an estimated population of high degree to congestion. Sao Paulo faces some of the
19.5 million people [79], [80]. The SPMR consists of worst traffic jams in the world, with gridlock stretching for
39 different municipalities, with the city of Sao Paulo at more than 200 kms during rush hour [81]. Traffic
its centre. The SPMR covers about 8,000 square kilometres, congestion is so bad that the city’s mayor and its richest
while Sao Paulo city covers roughly 1,500 square residents have taken to commuting by means of helicopter -
kilometres [81]. the size of Sao Paulo’s private helicopter fleet is second
only to that of New York City [81]. According to Sao
Sao Paulo is also Brazil’s main financial, commercial and Paulo State’s transportation secretariat, congestion in the
industrial centre. In 2002, the SPMR generated 26.3% of city results in productivity losses estimated at US$ 2.4 Billion
Brazil’s total GDP, with Sao Paulo city itself accounting for per year [81].
13.7% [7]. There is, however, a high degree of income
inequality. Close to 60% of the population of the In 2007, there were 37.6 million trips a day in the SPMR.
metropolitan region earns less than half of the overall 66.5% of these trips were motorized [18]. Of the motorized
regional GDP-per-capita amount [81]. As per Brazilian trips, 55% were by public transportation, and 45% by private
standards, roughly 14% of the population is considered to vehicles. In 2007, the main public transport system, terms of
be under the poverty line, compared to 33% for the rest of passenger boardings (note: not trips), was the urban bus
the country (2000 figures) [81]. system SPTrans which accounted for 57.5% of average daily
boardings, followed by the Metro system (20% of daily
In an experience similar to many cities around the world, car boardings), the regional rail network CPTM (11.25% of
ownership in Sao Paulo has expanded rapidly over the past daily boardings) and the regional bus system EMTU
(11.25% of daily boardings) [18].

2. History of Bus Services in Sao Paulo

The history of organized public bus transport in Sao Paulo

begins in 1946, with the establishment of the government
owned Companhia Municipal de Transportes Coletivos
(CMTC) [82]. At the time, there were many privately run bus
services, with 37 companies running 90 lines throughout
the city, in addition to a privately owned tramway system
[82]. Recognizing the benefits of having a well organized
and efficient public transport service, and believing that a
government monopoly was the best way to achieve this,
CMTC took over the operations of the private bus fleet and
tramway [82]. In 1949, CMTC began operating its own
diesel and electric trolley buses [82].

An example of Sao Paulo's notorious traffic jams By 1954, CMTC operated 90% of all public transport
services in Sao Paulo [82]. It was, by this time, one of the

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largest municipal bus companies in the world. However, Transporte SA, more commonly referred to as SPTrans [82]. speeds dropped from 27-28 km/h in the early 1980’s to less transport system, albeit on a generally small scale. These
CMTC services were soon stretched to capacity by the rapid than 20 km/h by the late 1990’s [84]. Average speeds for have mainly been in the form of busways and segregated
growth of the city. In 1957, private buses, often operating 3. Sao Paulo bus system reform: The Interligado Project buses were even slower – in 1998, average speeds for buses bus lanes. The first such busway was the Paes de Barns
illegally, once again began servicing the transport needs of during the peak afternoon rush hour was only 12 km/h. A corridor, which began operations in 1975 [53]. This was
the city’s population [83]. Under increased pressure and In 2001, Sao Paulo initiated a municipal government led further compounding factor was the general increase in bus followed in 1985 by the Santo Arnavo corridor. For both of
competition from these private bus companies, CMTC’s city-wide reform of its bus system, known as the Interligado fares. Bus fares doubled between 1977 and 1997, without these busways, the stops were offset islands located to the
share of bus transport fell dramatically over the next two project. Although the project is now known as the Sao Paulo taking inflation into account, as a result of which a large right of the bus flow [53]. In 1991, the Vila Nova
decades. By 1977, it operated only 14% of the city’s urban Integrated System, it will be referred to as the Interligado fraction of Sao Paulo’s low income residents were excluded Cachuerinha corridor became operational. This differed
buses [83]. By now the city government had come to project for the rest of this case study. The Interligado project from using the bus system [84]. In sum, these factors from the earlier two schemes in that buses ran in the lanes
recognize the important role played by private bus consisted of a series of extensive reforms to the public bus resulted in a poor bus system, with high fares, low speeds closest to the median [53]. Passengers boarded the bus
companies, and instituted a new framework, whereby system in Sao Paulo. The main reforms were [7]: and unreliable services. Problems also plagued other public through the use of raised platforms which provided level
CMTC could also contract private companies to provide bus • Rationalizing the bus route network into a trunk-and- transport modes. Conditions on the suburban commuter access to the bus.
services. This effectively transformed the market for bus feeder style system railway became increasingly worse, and the Metro system,
transport in Sao Paulo, and also began the process of although providing a high quality service, could not expand In terms of informing future reform plans, however, perhaps
• Introducing 3 major bus priority measures: Passa-
changing the role of CMTC from that of operating bus at a fast enough rate and was eventually overwhelmed [84]. the two most important and influential busway corridors in
Rapido (median bus lanes), Operacion Via Livre
services to that of managing and regulating them as well. Public transport also suffered from a lack of integration Sao Paulo are the Avenida Novo de Julho (also known as
(curbside bus lanes) and Expresso-Tiradentes (a fully
between all these modes. Ultimately these issues led to a Santo Amaro) Busway and the Sao Mateus – Jabaquara
segregated, elevated busway)
That process of changing the role of CMTC from a bus decline in demand for public transport and an increase in Busway.
operator to a purely regulatory and management body • Developing an integrated fare system using electronic demand for private motor transport, feeding the vicious
continued in 1990/91 under the leadership of Mayor Luiza fare cards and readers cycle that resulted in poor quality public transport and a The Novo de Julho/Santo Amaro Busway was initiated in
Erundina de Sousa, who was elected on a platform of continuous drop in public transport’s share of total trips in 1977 [53]. It consists of 11 kilometres of physically
• Upgrading other bus infrastructure such as bus stops,
significantly increasing the quality of bus transport in Sao the SPMR. segregated bus lane. Two bus lanes, one in each direction,
terminals, and so on
Paulo [83]. One of the major changes instituted by Mayor de are located along the median of the road, and buses are
Sousa was the ‘municipalisation’ of fares, wherein CMTC Some of the other reforms included changes to the bidding In order to improve the situation, the State of Sao Paulo boarded, at most stops, through the use of mid-block,
collected all fare revenues and distributed them to bus and contracting process, the creation of a central command developed the Integrated Urban Transportation Plan for raised platforms. The corridor also has passing lanes at bus
operators based on the amount of service provided. centre and greater integration with other modes of public 2020, known as ‘PITU 2020’ (subsequently updated as stops, which reduces congestion and prevents the
Additionally, private bus companies, even those that lacked transport. ‘PITU 2025’) [7]. The PITU 2020 plan was bold and occurrence of bus convoys in the corridor. Along the
proper permits, were now openly encouraged to increase ambitious, envisioning major changes to the public corridor, bus stops are placed about 600 meters apart. The
the number of buses on the road. One effect of this was a This section will describe the background context of the transport network in Sao Paulo. The plan envisioned an Novo de Julho corridor was a success in terms of
dramatic increase in the number of private, unlicensed reforms, Sao Paulo’s prior experiences with innovations in ‘ideal’ Sao Paulo in 2025, wherein 60% of trips will be made operational performance. The corridor witnessed very high
buses in Sao Paulo. public bus systems, the process through which the reforms by public transportation, low-income residents will double bus flows (around 220+ buses per hour during peak
were implemented, the timeline of implementation and the number of trips they currently take and average traffic periods), high passenger throughputs (18,000 – 20,000
By the early 1990s, CMTC was in a precarious financial finally some of the problems associated with implementing speeds will increase by 20% [81]. The planned investments passengers per hour) and relatively high operating speeds
position. A major investment program had increased the the reforms. The following section will describe the technical focused mainly on rail infrastructure, including the of around 20 km/h [53]. There were also some negative
size of the licensed fleet from 8,500 to 10,000 and reduced details of the reforms such as the nature of the bus priority construction of 284 km of Metro lines, upgrading 265km of effects associated with the corridor, mainly poor air quality
the average age of the fleet, but an economic recession saw measures, details of the fare system, and soon. the regional rail network, and connecting the city’s two near the bus corridor due to the heavy use of diesel buses
bus patronage numbers and fare revenue stagnate [83]. In airports with a rail link, in addition to improvements to the and the fact that the busway acted as a barrier to cross
1993, the newly installed city government faced an 3.1 Background: Need for reform and initiation of the bus system [7]. corridor movement [53]. However, from a lesson learning
impending crisis in the public bus system, as exploding costs Interligado Project standpoint, the Novo de Julho Busway showed that not only
meant the bus system would be bankrupt within 6 months The PITU 2020 plan, however, was highly capital intensive, could design innovations enable the establishment of a high
[83]. The city government faced two difficult choices – either By the late 1990’s the public transportation situation in Sao requiring significant investments of up to US$ 20 Billion quality public transport corridor in an existing right of way,
significantly increase fares, or privatize the public bus Paulo, especially for bus services, had become critical. As [81]. Difficulties in funding the project arose [7]. In light of but also that it could be done at the fraction of the cost of rail
network. The government chose the latter option. Within 12 bus services failed to expand at the same rate as population the need to improve the deteriorating public transport based systems such as light rail or the Metro [53].
months, the bus system was entirely privatized, a process growth and sprawl in Sao Paulo, travel times and travel network, and increasing political differences between the
that involved the sale of municipality owned buses and distances, especially for those living on the periphery of Sao State of Sao Paulo and the Municipality of Sao Paulo, the Another positive experience in the use of high capacity bus
associated garages, and a reduction in the staff size of Paulo, became very high [84]. Inflation and tight fare Interligado project, focusing entirely on improvements to corridors came in the form of the Sao Mateus - Jabaquara
CMTC from 27,000 to 800 [83]. controls meant that private suppliers of bus services the bus system, was proposed in 2001. Busway, which began operations in 1993 [53]. This busway
continuously adapted service levels to maintain profitability; is 33 km long, of which 31 km is completely segregated
CMTC was now responsible solely for planning, managing this often took the form of reducing service frequency and 3.2 Prior Experience with Bus System Innovation from road traffic. Similar to the Novo de Julho busway,
and regulating bus services in Sao Paulo, with the actual pulling out altogether from low-density areas [84]. Due to buses travel in the lanes closest to the median and
service being provided by private operators under contract an increase in car ownership, bus users also faced Sao Paulo has a long history of introducing innovative passengers board via raised mid block platforms. The
to CMTC. In 1995, CMTC was renamed Sao Paulo increasingly poor traffic conditions. Average vehicular schemes to improve the service quality of its public bus primary innovation in this instance was the business model

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3.4 The Reform process: Drivers and Barriers Another major barrier was the technical implementation of 2002, followed by a gradual installation across the system
the project details, in terms of how to reorganize the large starting in 2003. The first bus priority measure to come into
The main components of the Interligado project - number of routes in such an extensive and complicated effect was the network of Operacion Via Livre (curbside) bus
reorganizing the route network into structural and local system. In this task the project benefited from the expertise of lanes, with testing beginning along two corridors in 2001,
subsystems, introducing an integrated fare collection local planning agencies, in the form of SPTrans, CET and expansions in the following two years. In January 2003,
system, creating bus priority measures – had been planned (‘Companhia do Engineria do Trafego’, the road traffic buses began to use the newly designed livery, in which buses
and studied for several years during the late-1990s [7]. They division) and SMT (‘Secretaria Municipal de Transporte’, the were colour coded based on the areas they served. Later in
had been part of the reforms planned for various other municipal transport secretariat) as well as many local the same year, many new corridors of Passa-Rapido
transportation initiatives, including the PITU 2020 project. consultants [7]. (median bus lanes) bus priority measure as well as new
However, it was only during the administration of Marta terminals were completed and became operational. By May
Suplicy from 2001-2004 that these ideas were giving the 3.5 The Reforms Process: Implementation timeline 2004 most of the major planned reforms of the bus system
political backing and impetus they needed and the were in place, at least partially. However, project work such
implementation of city wide reforms of bus services was Although the reforms envisaged major changes to all as expanding the bus priority infrastructure and fleet
initiated [7]. As part of the Mayor’s election agenda to aspects of the public bus system in Sao Paulo, the individual renewal continued over the next few years. The Expresso
improve social conditions in Sao Paulo, reforming the public components of the reform were initiated in a phased Tiradentes fully segregated busway was the last major
transportation system was one of the highest priorities for manner, as infrastructure and technology allowed [7]. The infrastructure project to be completed, beginning
The Novo de Julho/Santo Amaro Busway the administration. Further backing and support was first project to be tackled was the electronic fare collection operations in 2007.
provided by the Municipal Transport Secretariat (SMT), as system, with technical studies being initiated in 2001.
of service provision. Through a competitive bidding process, Testing of the contactless fare collection system began in
well as the leaders of SPTrans and the Companhia de
the operation of services along the busway was contracted
Engenharia de Trafego (CET, the road traffic authority) [7].
to a private company through the means of a 20 year Figure 1 Details the major project implementation milestones from 2001 – 2005.
The broad and forceful institutional support for reforms to
concession [53]. The terms of the concession specifies that
the bus system was instrumental in ensuring its
the private company was responsibility not only for the
implementation. • First operational changes as
acquisition and operation of buses along the corridor, but some lines converted to trunk
also for the maintenance of physical infrastructure. Fares Despite the level of political support for the plan, the
• Technical studies on electronic (structural) lines; total number of
ticketing and command and lines reduced by 300
levels were set by the regulatory authority. Although some implementation of the Interligado project faced serious control strategies completed • Integration agreements signed
• Gradual implementation of
problems have been reported, the experience on the whole opposition from many factions. Chief among these was the • Via Livre pilot project initiated on
with Metro and CPTM trains
electronic ticketing with readers
in terms of service levels and quality has been regarded as hostility of existing formal bus service operators [7]. By this two corridors installed on some buses and • Open terminals operation begins
positive [53]. • Definition of structural and local terminals • Planned extention to Expresso
time, there existed in Sao Paulo a vast network of informal, Tiradentes segregated busway
subsystems completed • Service contracts signed with
and technically illegal, network of self employed bus winners of bidding process for announced
3.3 Legal and Regulatory framework for the • Municipal law 13.241 approved;
operators, often plying their services in small vans. These provided legal asis for new fare local and structural subsystems • Expansion of network of Via Livre
Interligado project scheme, contracting process and and Passa Rapido corridors
informal operators were competing heavily with the official • First Passa Rapido bus lane
formalizing informal operators becomes operational continues in 2005 and beyond
The Interligado project was facilitated by the passage of a bus operators, whose share of bus ridership was steadily
new law and the development of a new land use planning decreasing. In order to implement the Interligado project,
framework. In December 2001, a new transport act, ‘Ler and also to serve wider goals of a political and social nature,
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
dos Transportes 13.241’, was approved [7]. This act set up the Sao Paulo city administration sought to formalize its
the legal basis for the reforms sought under the Interligado relationship with the informal transport providers. The
project. In particular, it set up the structure of a new bidding formal bus operators, however, were deeply opposed to this • Temporary service contracts • Fleet wide installation of
idea. Instead, they wanted the city to crack down on illegal awarded for structural subsystem electronic card readers
process for transport services, developed the framework (Jan) completed
through which autonomous providers can participate in the and informal operators who were eating into their profit
• Financing contract signed with • Integrated Traffic and Transport
public transportation network and enumerated the margins. The positions of the two groups became more and BNDES control center begins operation
responsibilities and rights of the various public and private more entrenched and negotiations proved difficult and in • New Municipal Strategic • Fleet renewal of 7,400 buses in
partners involved in providing public transportation fact turned violent at one stage, with bombings carried out Directory Plan approved, giving the structural subsystem
priority to public transport completed
services. At around the same time, a new municipal against SPTrans buses and physical clashes between the
• Procurement and testing of • Several Passa Rapido corridors
planning document, ‘Plano Director Estrategico do formal and informal bus operators [7]. In order to resolve electronic fare collection added to the system
Municipio do Sao Paulo, Lei 13.430’, enshrined public this situation, the city government initiated a participatory hardware and software begins • 39% of total planned Interligado
transport as one of the pillars of the land use planning and conciliatory process of consultation with the formal and • Formal bidding process for infrastructure works completed
informal bus operators. Many concessions were made to service contracts begins (Dec) by end of the year
strategy for the city [7]. In practice, this meant that public
transport was prioritized over general traffic and methods to mitigate the conflicts that arose.
Source: [7]
fund related projects were developed.

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3.6 Implementation problems construction process by filing a law suit against the city 4. The Interligado project: Technical Aspects the city is divided in 9 regions – the central area and 8
administration . The issue was resolved after additional public surrounding areas [7]. In the structural subsystem, services
Despite the success of completing major reforms to the bus consultations resulted in some of the community suggestions 4.1 Route Organization originating within and serving each of the 8 regions
system by May 2004, several problems were encountered being incorporated into the bus corridor design. Another surrounding the central area are provided by a single
during the process. In particular, there were many teething problem was that in many of the transfer stations, the installed consortium of bus operators, whose selection is based on a
problems with the electronic fare collection system . One of infrastructure was inadequate. In particular the lack of competitive bidding process. Services in the central area
the major aims in the design of the various bus priority enclosed pre-payment facilities lead to long dwell times, as of the city are provided by the all operators of the structural
measures was to maximize the use of existing right of ways, passengers entered and paid their fares trough a single subsystem. Similarly, in the local subsystem services
and to minimize the cost of interventions. This led to some entrance . within each of the 8 areas are provided by cooperatives
problems. One issue was that, since the busways were of independent drivers, chosen through a competitive
designed to be open, that is buses can join and leave the Some of the private bus companies contracted to provide bus tendering process.
corridor at any point, there was a large degree of variability in services had complaints about the new contractual
service quality . In some instances the capacity of the corridor specification, especially regarding fleet renewal. The 4.2 Bus priority measures
was exceeded, leading to queues and bus congestion. cooperatives of self-employed van-operators that provided
Additionally, bus ways were segregated from general traffic local services were unhappy were the time constraints of the Three different types of bus priority measures were introduced
by means of lane demarcation only. This led to many compliance process. One operator, for instance, complained as part of the Interligado project – ‘Passa-Rapido’ median bus
instances of general road traffic entering bus lanes, especially that the period afforded by their contract to completely lanes, ‘Expresso Tiradentes’ segregated busway and the ‘Via-
in the Via Livre network of curbside bus lanes. Although the revamp their fleets with new vans and minibuses was too Livre’ curbside lanes.
integrity of bus lanes is enforced through the use of cameras short, especially given the difficulty and red-tape involved in
and license plate recognition software, this proved to be an obtaining loans . 4.2.1 Passa-Rapido
ineffective deterrent, especially during periods of heavy
3.7 Cost of Reforms Passa-Rapido is a network of median bus lanes. The lanes are
congestion and long traffic jams .
delineated from regular road traffic through the use road
In some regions of Sao Paulo, particularly in those areas that The Interligado project was funded primarily through markings, which consists of a wide white strip [7]. Technology
bore the brunt of the negative consequences of prior bus investment by the public sector, with significant funding is the main form of bus lane enforcement, with CCTVs and
corridor projects in the 1980s and 1990s, construction of the provided by the Brazilian Development Bank (BNDES) . Table automatic number plate recognition software used to identify
bus priority corridors faced strong opposition from local X details the costs of the various schemes that constituted the and fine motor vehicles that stray into the bus lanes. GPS
residents resulting in delays in the implementation timeline. In Interligado project. devices on-board buses help monitor performance along the
one case, community residents succeeded in halting the network. The Passa-Rapido network is an open system,
meaning that buses can enter and exit from the bus lanes at
any point.
The 8 areas into which the Sao Paulo city is divided under the
Table 1 Interligado Project Costs (US$, 2004) new bus system

Interligado Project Costs (US$, 2004) The major reform of the Interligado project was to redesign
the bus route network of Sao Paulo into a ‘trunk-and-feeder’
Project 2001 – 2004 2005-2008 (Planned) Total
style system. The Sao Paulo bus system now consists of two
Electronic Fare Collection System 62.66 - 62.66 different subsystems. The ‘Structural subsystem’ provides the
trunk-line type routes. These routes offer long-distance
Terminal Facilities 56.69 104.50 164.19 connectivity between the central part of the city and major
sub-centres. The structural lines run along the major transport
Transfer Stations 2.63 31.58 34.21
corridors and integrate various parts of the city, providing
Passa-Rapido (median bus lanes) 117.83 210.76 328.59 ‘macro-accessibility’ [7]. On the other hand, the ‘Local
subsystem’ provides services on a smaller scale within distinct
Expresso Tiradentes (fully segregated busway) 158.60 79.60 238.20 neighbourhoods. These lines serve the transport need for trips
that are internal to a given region of the city, and also provide
Via Livre (curbside bus lanes) 7.28 22.01 29.29
connections to the structural subsystem and other public
Monitoring and Control 32.28 48.24 80.52 transport modes. Thus the local subsystem serves as a feeder
to the trunk lines and provides ‘micro-accessibility’ [7]
Total 440.97 496.69 937.66
The Interligado project also introduced a new area-based
Source: [7] structure for defining bus services. Under this new structure,
A Passa Rapido corridor with median bus lanes

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As per the original plan for the Interligado system, the Passa- implementation led to ever increasing costs and poor Additionally, registered workers receive a subsidy from their subsystem: upgrading fleets, providing access to disabled
Rapido network was to consist of 31 corridors with a total of performance. The project was ultimately scrapped, but the employers in the form of transport vouchers. customers, operating buses with electronic card readers, and
321 km of median bus lanes [7]. By the end of 2004, 8 city decided to use the infrastructure that had already been The Bilhete Unico system has also made revenue distribution liaising with authorities about proposed local routes and
corridors totalling 95 km were introduced at a cost of USD built to develop the system as it is used today, as a fully amongst private operators easier to manage, as well as more route changes. Compensation for operators in the local
117 million [7]. It was estimated that an additional USD 211 segregated busway. transparent and less susceptible to fraud. By one account, the subsystem was based on the fares collected from users, with
million was to be spent on expanding this system in the years introduction of the Bilhete Unico system alone has led to a adjustments for vehicle capacity and concessionary services.
2005-2008. Expresso Tiradentes has 29 stops, 4 terminals and 8 transfer 13% increase in passenger ridership, while increasing the
stations [7]. The busway also contains two elevated sections of number of transfers almost four-fold [81]. 4.5 Other Infrastructure Upgrades
4.2.2 Expresso Tiradentes 5km and 1km. Initial operations began in 2007, and the
system is expected to carry up to 350,000 people per day [7]. 4.4 Tendering and contracting process 4.5.1 Terminals
The Expresso Tiradentes is a fully longitudinally segregated, Expresso Tiradentes is the only bus corridor in Sao Paulo that
partly elevated busway. It is 31.8 km long and runs from can be considered to operate at a true ‘Bus Rapid Transit’ Bus operators for the newly reorganized bus system were Bus Terminals provide the main interface between the local
downtown Sao Paulo to Cidade Tiradentes, which is a major standard. It currently runs at speeds of up to 30 km/h along chosen through a competitive tendering process. The entities and structural bus routes, and between different structural
sub-centre in the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Region [7]. Service permanently demarcated busways [23]. The total cost of the involved in the bidding included existing bus operators that routes. All terminals are enclosed facilities with pre-payment
along the busway is provided by diesel-electric hybrid buses system was estimated to be R$ 678 million [7]. Initial organized into consortiums, as well as a new category areas [7]. The existence of pre-paid boarding areas allows for
and articulated buses. The busway is well integrated with expenses, when the project was conceptualized as the guided of operators – cooperatives of the self-employed, previously quick boarding and reduces the dwell times of buses.
other major forms of public transport in Sao Paulo, including trolleybus system, was R$ 140 million. The balance of the cost informal, van operators known as ‘Peruveiros’ [7]. A separate Terminals are operated by private companies under contract
the Metro and the CPTM regional rail network, as well as was spent on converting the project to a busway and bidding process was developed for the structural and with the bus companies. Apart from receiving a fixed fee from
other structural and local routes of the SPTrans bus network. extending the initial 10.8 km route to Cidade Tiradentes. local subsystems. The initiation of bidding process was the bus companies for every bus served by the terminal,
In 2007, an agreement to develop integration with the EMTU fraught with difficulty, and until the process could be terminal operators earn money through the use of billboards
metropolitan bus network was signed [7]. 4.2.3 Operacao Via Livre completed as planned, services operated on the basis and other terminal advertising, and the operation of news
on temporary contracts which were in place from January and food stands [7]. In return, terminal operators are
In addition to the median bus lanes (Passa-Rapido) and the 2002 to July 2003 [7]. expected to maintain the terminal infrastructure at a high
segregated busway (Expresso Tiradentes), Sao Paulo also has standard and manage terminal operations smoothly. The
a network of curbside bus lanes, known as Via Livre. These For the structural subsystem, 8 contracts were available for Interligado plan calls for 32 terminals costing a total of USD
bus lanes are demarcated with road markings. A total of 30 bidding, one for each of defined areas surrounding the 164 million [7]. 14 of these terminals were built by 2004.
corridors adding up to 204 km were planned to be installed central city region. Existing bus operators organized
under the Via Livre program [7]. The total cost for this themselves into consortiums, which then competed for the 4.5.2 Transfer stations
program was estimated at USD 29.3 million. service contracts. The specifications of the contract included:
operating buses with electronic card readers, using vehicles In addition to terminals, which service major nodes on the bus
4.3 Fares and ‘Bilhete Unico’ smart card system that complied with specifications set by SPTrans, maintaining system, a wide network of smaller transfer stations was also
a fleet average age of 5 years (and a maximum bus age of 10 planned. These transfer stations serve connection points
One of primary reforms of the Interligado project was the yrs), improving and operating terminals (eventually sub- between different lines. They are designed to facilitate easy
introduction of a contactless smart card system for fare contracted to another private company), providing specified transfers between lines by optimizing pedestrian movements.
collection, known as ‘Bilhete Unico’ [7]. The smart cards are levels of access for wheelchair and disabled customers, and 328 transfer stations costing USD 34.2 million were planned
rechargeable. Users can add money to the smart cards using maintaining valid emission standards [7]. The contracts used [7]. By 2004, 24 of these stations were completed.
special machines installed at bus terminals and stops, were variations of gross cost contracts, wherein SPTrans
and also at any one of several hundred ‘lottery ticket’ booths 4.5.3 Bus Stops
collects all fare revenues and then provides compensation
in Sao Paulo. The minimum recharge amount is the based on the level of service provided. A compensation
price of 5 trips. formula was created with the aim of providing an 18% return
to the bus operators, with annual readjustments based on
The Sao Paulo bus system uses a flat fare system. Since
costs of operation and inflation, among other factors [7].
November 2006, the flat fare has been R$ 2.30, which is
equivalent to US$ 1.30 at current exchange rates [85]. Users For the local subsystem, similar to the process for the
paying with the Bilhete Unico smart card can avail of free structural subsystem, 8 contracts were available to provide
A bus traveling along the Expresso Tiradentes segregated transfers - up to 4 transfers within 3 hours of the first boarding local and feeder services in each of the 8 areas previously
corridor (the time period for free transfers was initially 2 hours at the defined. In this case, the bidding entities consisted of
launch of the system) [86]. Cash fare payers do not receive cooperatives of self-employed van drivers. In order to be
Expresso Tiradentes was initially known as ‘Paulistao’ and the benefit of free transfers. eligible for the contracts, the cooperatives were required to
was planned as a 10.8km guided trolleybus system, an formalize their internal structure, and procure modern fleets
intermediate form between buses and rail ([7]). However, Concessionary fares exist for several groups of bus users,
with standards acceptable to SPTrans [7]. Contract
many technical and environmental problems in including students, seniors and those with disabilities [7].
requirements were similar to those of the structural Entrance to the pre-payment area at a bus terminal

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As part of the Interligado project, bus stops across the Sao Paulo bus network were also upgraded. These upgrades 4.7 System control and management 5. Sao Paulo Bus System Performance: Statistics after the
involved primarily the installations of maps and real time passenger information displays, indicating the time of arrival for Interligado reforms
the next bus [7]. A system of centralized control is used to manage operations
on the Sao Paulo bus network. This system consists of a 5.1 Operational Statistics
4.6 Vehicles hierarchy of control centres. At the top of this hierarchy is the
main integrated control centre, ‘Centrale de Controle Comparing ridership statistics before the introduction of the
The Sao Paulo bus system uses several types of vehicles. These range from minibuses used on the local subsystem to Integrado’ (CCI). The CCI is in charge of the general strategic Interligado system to those after its introduction is made
conventional buses as well as low-floor and articulated units on the structural subsystem. As of 2009, the total fleet size was control of the bus system [7]. CCI monitors the performance difficult by two factors. Firstly, there is a paucity of readily
14,892 – 8.835 buses on the structural subsystem and 6,059 on the local subsystem [19]. Buses that ply along the structural of the system as a whole, guides the system during available data before 2003, which is two years after the
routes have doors on both sides of the bus, in order to allow boarding at both median and curbside stations [7]. emergencies and maintains communication links with other initiation of the Interligado reform process. Secondly, and
transport operators such as the Metro. more significantly, the nature of the reforms precludes a direct
Figure 2 Fleet Size 2003 - 2008 ‘before-and-after’ comparison. The Interligado reforms
Fleet Size 2003-2008 fundamentally altered the nature of the travel decisions made
10000 by bus users. The data provided by SPTrans records the
number of passenger boardings (i.e. trip segments), not
9000
complete trips. The major reforms to the system - converting
8000 the bus route network from a radial structure to a ‘trunk-and-
feeder’ structure and the introduction of free transfers via the
7000 Bilhete Unico fare collection system - allowed passengers to
select the most rational route choice by minimizing distances
6000
and increasing the number of transfers. Each complete trip in
5000 the post-Interligado system consists of more trip segments
than previously and thus more recorded passenger
4000 boardings. Prior to the reforms, up to 85% of passengers
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
would make their journeys without any transfer, whereas now
Structural Local these same journeys require 2-3 transfers [88]. Therefore,
Source: [19] comparing the number of boardings from before the reforms
A command and control center
to those after the reforms will tend to exaggerate the increase
As part of the service contracts with SPTrans, the private bus companies that provide bus services are required to maintain a CCI performs its function mainly by coordinating with and in bus ridership as a large fraction of the increase in boarding
fairly low average age for their fleets, and therefore fleet renovations have been continual and extensive [7]. In particular, the managing various control sub-centres. Each of the 8 numbers is be due to the large increase in the number of
cooperatives that provide services along the local subsystem were required to replace the vans which they traditionally used with geographical areas into which the entire bus system is divided transfers. Indeed, by some accounts the introduction of
newer minibuses. In 2008, average fleet age was 4 years and 2 months on the structural subsystem and 3 years and 7 months has its own control centre to supervise system performance Bilhete Unico alone was responsible for a nearly four-fold
on the local subsystem [87]. [7]. There are additional regional control centres which have increase in the number of transfers [81].
the capacity to guide operations during emergencies and
Figure 3 Fleet Age (years), 2003 - 2008 However, a look at the ridership statistics in the period from
unexpected traffic situations. Finally, each of the main
2003 to 2008, within which the ridership statistics are more
Fleet Age (years) 2003-2008 terminals in the bus system has its own control centre, which
consistent and therefore comparable, is indicative of the
manages the arrival and departure of buses to and from the
8 effect of the reforms in attracting more patronage. And,
terminal.
indeed, these statistics show that the Sao Paulo bus system
7
Every bus is equipped with a GPS system and radio post-reforms has been remarkably successful in increasing
6
communication devices [7]. Control centres can the number of users. Between 2003 and 2008, the number of
5 annual passenger boardings on the structural sub-system
communicate with each bus driver to provide information
4 increased by almost 78%, from slightly over 975 million to
and guidance as needed. Cameras are also distributed
3
throughout the system, which enables real time traffic 1,734 million [89]. In this same period, the number of annual
2 monitoring. boardings on the local sub-system increased by a staggering
1 385%, from just under 227 million to a little over 1,101
million. The combined effect of these two subsystems has
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 been to increase the total number of annual passenger
Structural Local boardings by 136% in the six years from 2003 to 2008
inclusive [6].
Source: [87]

114 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 115
 CASE STUDY 2 – SAO PAULO CASE STUDY 2 – SAO PAULO

Figure 4 Passenger Boardings (millions), 2003 - 2008 Figure 6 Farebox Recovery Ratio – Operations, 2001 - 2008

Farebox Recovery Ratio

Passenger Boardings - Operations, 2001 - 2008
(millions) 2003-2008 100%
3000
95%
2500

2000 90%

1500
85%
1000
80%
500

0 75%
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Structural Local Total Farebox Recovery Ratio Average 2001 - 2008
Source: [91]
Source: [6]
5.3 Mode shares of public and private transport
5.2 Financial Statistics
In 1967, public transport accounted for 68.1% of all motorized trips in the metropolitan region [18]. This figure steadily fell
Despite the dramatic increase in passenger number in the 6 years since the overhaul of the Sao Paulo bus system, its financial through the following decades as a result on increasing levels of car ownership and private vehicle use. In 2002, for the first
performance has deteriorated. Operational deficits, the difference between the compensation given to bus operators and the time, private vehicle use accounted for a larger share of total number of motorized trips in the Sao Paulo metropolitan region
amount collected in passenger fares, has increased from Brazilian Reais (BR$) 48.17 million in 2001 to approximately BR$ (53%), compared to public transportation (47%) [23]. Since then, coinciding with the implementation of the Interligado reforms
695.92 million in 2008 . in 2003, the trend has been reversing. The latest figures from 2007 show that public transportation once again accounts for a
higher share of total motorized trips (55%) compared to private motor transport (45%) [18]. Some experts believe that the
Figure 5 Operational Deficit (Brazilian Reais, millions), 2001 - 2008 Interligado reforms, particularly the introduction of the Bilhete Unico integrated fare system, have been a major factor in the
reversal of this trend and the resurgence of public transportation [23].
Operational Deficit (Brazilian Reais, millions),
2001 - 2008 Figure 7 Public vs. Private Transport: Share of Total Motorized Trips, 1967 - 2007
800
Public vs. Private Transport: Share of Total Motorized Trips
700 1967 - 2007
600 80
70
500
60
400
50
300
40
200
30
100
20
0
10
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
0
1967 1977 1987 1997 2002 2007
Source: [90] Public Private

Source: [18]
However, the large nominal size of these operational deficits doesn’t tell the whole story. Despite the increasing nominal value of
deficits, the fare box recovery ratio for operational costs has been quite high. In the period from 2001 to 2008, this ratio 6. Conclusion
averaged 91.41% and never dropped below 80%, with a high of 99.8% in 2002 and a low of 83.6% in 2008 [91].
In 2001, Sao Paulo embarked on a municipal government led, city wide reform of its bus system, a project that was known as

116 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 117
 CASE STUDY 2 – SAO PAULO CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

the Interligado reforms. The reforms changed nearly every aspect of bus services in Sao Paulo – converting the radial route
network into a trunk-and-feeder style network, introducing several bus priority measures, introducing an integrated and
CASE STUDY 3 metro system consists of 8 lines with a system length of 287
km within Seoul city proper [12]. In 2006 an average of
4,594,000 daily trips were made on the metro system [9].

SEOUL
electronic fare collection system, upgrading bus infrastructure, changing the business model for bus services, and introducing a
The bus system handles even more passengers, with an
central command and control centre. These reforms dramatically increased the number of bus users, and were a major factor
average daily total of 5,609,000 trips. Public transportation
in reversing the trend of a falling share of public transport of total motorized trips in the Sao Paulo Metropolitan Region. The
accounts for 62.3% of all motorized trips made in Seoul [9].
experience of Sao Paulo furnishes several lessons for any city hoping to embark on a reform of its bus system. Perhaps the most
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: A significant portion of daily trips in Seoul are made using
important among these is the fact that strong political leadership is necessary for the successful implementation of any given
August 2009 private motor vehicles. In 2006, the modal split of
reform plan. The projects that eventually became the Interligado reforms were studied and promoted for several years by
motorized trips was as follows: Bus 27.6%; Metro 34.7%;
transport professionals in Sao Paulo. But it was only under the leadership of a mayor dedicated to improving the public transport
1. Introduction: City Context Passenger car 26.3%; Taxi 6.3% and Other 5.1% [9].
situation that these plans came to fruition. Another lesson to be learned from the increase in ridership after the implementation
of the bus system reforms in Sao Paulo is the significant improvement in bus service quality with the development of a trunk-and- In 2004, Seoul undertook a major reform of its public
Seoul is the capital of and the largest city in South Korea. In
feeder style route network, and the introduction of an integrated fare system with free transfers. Sao Paulo also shows that transportation network, focusing on the bus system. The
2007, the City of Seoul had a population of 10,481,782
significant improvements in the road space allocated to buses can be achieved through design innovations in the existing right following sections will explicate the motivations for these
and an area of 605.4 km sq, with a population density of
of way, without the need for expensive widening of existing corridors. reforms, the process through which they were conducted,
17,219 people/sq. km [16]. The greater metropolitan
region, known as the Seoul National Capital Area and the actual details of the reforms implemented and finally the
Acknowledgements
which includes the port of Incheon and satellite towns in impacts of these changes and the performance of the bus
neighbouring Gyeonggi province, has a population of more system.
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Dario Hidalgo, from whose study of the Interligado reforms in Sao Paulo this
case study borrows heavily. than 22.5 million people (2006 figure) [92]. With roughly
half of the entire population of South Korea living in the 2. Background: Need for Reform
Seoul National Capital Area, it is the country’s primary
Bus services in Seoul began in 1953 [32]. As a consequence
urban centre.
of the rapidly growing population, bus usage surged
A significant portion of South Korea’s economic activity is through the 60's and 70's. However, this period also saw a
concentrated in the city of Seoul and the National Capital dramatic rise in personal incomes. As people made more
Area. As of 2006, the regional GDP for the City of Seoul was money, private vehicles became more affordable and in the
US$ 193.7 Billion, or 22.6% of the national total [93]. If the following decades Seoul witnessed a sharp rise in
entire National Capital Area is taken into account, then the motorization rates. With the introduction of the Metro
regional GDP is US$ 408.6 Billion, or 47.7% of the national system in 1974, buses had to compete with two increasingly
total. attractive alternatives.

Seoul has undergone radical changes in the past few With increased motorization came the problems of
decades. The population of the city has quadrupled in the increased highway traffic and congestion. The combination
period from 1960 to 2002 [32]. Also during this period, of these factors led to a vicious cycle which saw the bus
Korea experienced a dramatic increase in per capita system enter a long period of decline starting in the late
incomes – from US$ 311 in 1970 to US$ 12,531 in 2002 1980's [12]. As incomes increased and more and more
(2004 dollars), an astonishing 40-fold increase in only 32 people began to use private motor vehicles, traffic
years [32]. The increase in per capita incomes has been congestion worsened and bus performance suffered.
mirrored by an increase in the motorization rate. For Korea Average bus speeds declined and buses became more
as a whole, this figure has climbed from 2 cars per 1,000 unreliable as traffic related delays and unpredictable time
people in 1970 to 215 cars per 1,000 people in 2003 [10]. variations took their toll. The decline in bus service quality
For the City of Seoul, in 2005 the motorization rate stood at led to reduced patronage by the public, who preferred to
215 passenger cars per 1,000 people, and 273 total motor use the more comfortable modes of private vehicles and the
vehicles per 1,000 people [94]. These figures are for the City metro. This in turn had the effect of reducing bus company
of Seoul only – motorization rates in the National Capital revenues. Subsequent financial difficulties led to increases
Area surrounding Seoul are even higher due to lower in fares. Combined with the continual decrease in service
densities and the car centric nature of the wider quality due to increasing traffic congestion, this led to further
metropolitan area. declines in bus users and revenue. Figure 1 illustrates the
self-perpetuating vicious cycle that resulted in declining bus
The public transport system in Seoul consists of a service quality and patronage.
combination of bus and rapid transit metro systems. The

118 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 119
 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

Figure 1 Vicious cycle of increasing car use and its effect on public transport Figure 2 Mode share (% of motorized trips), 1994 – 2004

Increase Mode share (% of motorized trips), 1994 – 2004

Income 40
Increase car
ownership 35
Car becomes
straint
even more Car re 30
attractive
25
Reduced 20
Reduce Bus More congestion
Frequency demand for and delay 15
buses
Bus 10
priority 5
Subsidies
Increase Less mileage 0
fares per bus 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Bus Subway Passenger Taxi Other
Increase bus
Operation Costs
Source: [9]

Source: [95] Some stand-alone initiatives were attempted to boost bus usage, but had little effect. For example, a network of curbside bus
lanes totalling 219km was installed by 2003 [10]. However by themselves these attempts at improving bus services had only a
Another major factor affecting bus services was the minimal impact on service quality and usage. A more complete and comprehensive overhaul was needed.
organization, or lack thereof, of the system itself. The bus
system in Seoul was for the most part deregulated. The 3. Process of Bus Reform
government played no role in planning routes, schedules,
service levels or other aspects of the systems. Only fare In July 2004, the Seoul Bus system underwent a complete overhaul. This was not a gradual or marginal process, but a
levels were under government control [96]. Due to this set comprehensive reorganization of the entire bus system. Myung Bak Lee, elected as Mayor of Seoul in 2002 in part on a platform
up, the bus system was highly inefficient and disorganized. to improve public transport in the city, played a pivotal role in pushing through the wide-ranging reforms [97]. The 2004
Private bus companies simply applied for a license in order reforms are notable not only for their scale but also for the speed and success with which they were carried out.
to run a particular route that they thought would be
profitable. There were no limitations on multiple bus A major overhaul of the bus system was long overdue. Indeed in the years prior to 2004, many attempts at reform and
companies servicing a particular area, or on bus reorganization were made. All of these attempts failed however, in part due to the top-down approach utilized by the Seoul
companies running the same routes as those operated by Prior to the reforms, buses suffered from and also government. These prior attempts at reform had used a highly centralized decision making process. This heavy handed
other companies. Therefore, routes themselves were often contributed to traffic congestion. approach failed to win over the many affected groups whose support was essential for the successful implementation of
circuitous and overlapping, and lacked any integration with reforms. For example, a recent prior attempt at reforming the bus system was made in 1996. This attempt, however, was based
other transport modes or complimentary bus routes. The bus companies sought only to maximize profits on their routes. solely on ideas and presentations by government officials and their research staff. This effort was stymied by intense opposition
Furthermore, the compensation mechanism in place allocated revenue to bus companies based on the number of passengers from various factions, such as the bus companies, unions and user groups [96]. Similarly, even relatively small-scale changes to
served, providing the bus companies with perverse incentives which often led to poor service quality and dangerous driving the system struggled to come to fruition. One prominent such failure was a 2002 plan to develop a median bus lane corridor in
practises. For example, buses from different companies approaching a given stop would race to get there first in order to pick response to the traffic concerns raised by the demolition of a major urban expressway [96].
up more passengers [32]. Other bad practices included overcrowding the buses and deliberately avoiding picking up seniors
In contrast to these previous attempts, the 2004 reforms were characterized by a bottom-up approach and a new form of urban
and disabled passengers in order to save time.
governance in which the Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) actively sought the participation and cooperation of various
The effects of all these factors are reflected in the operational and financial statistics. Passengers per bus per day fell from 1,069 stakeholders such as the private bus companies, labour unions and civil society groups [96]. The participation of and
in 1983 to 504 in 2003 [27]. The bus system share of total passenger trips fell from 38% in 1994 to 26% in 2002 [96]. The consultation with affected stakeholders was instrumental in executing a successful reform process. Decision making and conflict
resulting drop in bus company revenues also meant that operational subsidies provided by the Seoul government to keep bus resolution was dependent on co-operation and consensus building among various groups.
services running steadily increased. In 2002 this operational subsidy was US$ 65 million [10]. Combined with an additional
The reform process was initiated in mid-2002, when then Mayor Lee commissioned the Seoul Development Institute to conduct
US$ 66 million in capital expenditure subsidies for upgrading buses and garages, this amounted to a total subsidy level of US$
a series of studies. These studies provided detailed plans for reform, emphasizing the need for exclusive median bus lanes, a
131 million in 2002. Despite this financial support, many bus companies became insolvent and were forced into bankruptcies
complete reorganization of the bus business structure, modernization and coordination of the fare scheme, and integration
or mergers.
between the bus and metro systems [32]. At the same time, civic groups led the way in setting the agenda for reform. A citizens
council of 7 civic groups requested that the SMG set up a special committee to “actualize public transport reform” [96]. The

120 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 121
 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

SMG agreed and in response to this request the Bus System Most significantly, the SMG played no role in route or system 4.3 Route Planning
Reform Citizen Committee (BSRCC) was formed. This planning. Since there was no overarching organization of the
committee brought together the various stakeholders bus network, this resulted in a highly inefficient and The network of 400+ bus routes in the City of Seoul was completely redesigned. Bus routes were organized into a trunk-and-
involved in the bus reform under one umbrella organization. disorganized system with many overlapping and circuitous feeder system [9]. The new system consists of 4 types of bus routes, and buses and bus stops are accordingly colour-coded.
In its eventual form the BSRCC consisted of 20 members routes, low service levels in some areas and excessive supply These 4 types are:
drawn from the SMG, local councils, the Seoul Metropolitan in others, and poor integration between the various bus
Police, industry groups such as the Seoul Bus Transport routes and other transport modes. • Blue Express long-distance trunk lines connecting outlying suburbs with the downtown area
Association and the Seoul Community Bus Transport • Green Local Feeder lines providing connections to trunk lines and metro stops
Association, labour groups such as the Seoul Bus Transport The major change in this regard was to switch from a mostly
• Yellow Circular lines within the downtown area, serving business and leisure trips
Trade Union, various civic groups and finally professionals deregulated market to a ‘semi-public’ or ‘quasi-public’
such as Transport Engineers and Planners, Lawyers and system [32]. Under this new approach, private bus operators • Red Wide area express lines connecting satellite cities to the downtown area
Accountants [96]. Each of the participants acted as continue in their role as service providers, but all decisions
representatives for the various interest groups. The SMG drew regarding route planning, schedules, fare levels and overall
up reform plans which were scrutinized and amended by the system design are now under the control of the SMG. The
transport professionals; local council members looked at private bus companies have to participate in a competitive
subsidies and the financial implications of the reform; the tendering process in order to win the right to ply specific
Seoul Police were concerned with traffic flows after the reform; routes. Bus companies that succeed in winning tenders
civic groups looked after bus user interests and industry provide services according to strict contractual specifications
groups were concerned with the route reorganization and stipulated by the SMG.
labour issues such as pay for bus operators. Although the
BSRCC did not have any legal power and final decisions were The Seoul bus system thus transitioned from a ‘passive
delegated to the SMG, the meetings, discussions and debates franchise’ model to a ‘proactive planning with service
of the council were instrumental in smoothing various contracts’ model [63].
conflicts and in finding win-win compromises between
4.2 Revenue Model
potentially antagonistic stakeholders [96].
Prior to the reforms, private bus companies were
After various meetings of the BSRCC and final planning by the
compensated based on the number of passengers carried.
SMG, July 1 2004 was set as the date for the implementation
This often led to perverse behaviours on the part of bus
of the proposed reforms. The bus system reforms thus went
companies which sought only to maximize the number of
from planning to implementation within 2 years. Starting in
passengers, and thus revenue, often with little regard for
January 2004, a major public relations campaign was
passenger safety and service quality. Dangerous practices
initiated to inform the public about the various changes
such as overcrowding buses and racing to bus stops in order The bus numbering system was also revamped. Areas in
planned for the bus system. As a consequence of
to pick up passengers that would otherwise have been lost to Seoul were given specific numbers – 0 for downtown, and 1
deteriorating transport conditions, there was widespread
buses from competing companies were commonplace. through 7, in a roughly clockwise pattern, for areas
support for public transport reform. The media campaign
focused on building support for and awareness of the specific surrounding downtown. Bus route numbers now reflect the
As part of the bus system reforms, this compensation structure
reforms being proposed. origin and destination of that specific route, allowing
for bus companies was changed. Bus companies now enter
passengers to quickly and accurately determine the areas
into gross cost contracts with the SMG and are compensated
4. 2004 Bus System Reforms in which a bus route will run. This drastically simplified the
on the basis of bus-kilometres operated on a particular route,
previously complicated bus numbering system. For
The bus system reforms implemented in 2004 were wide- not the number of passengers transported [9]. The contracts
example, consider a blue bus numbered 101. In this case,
ranging and comprehensive, involving all aspects of the include a guaranteed profit margin for the bus companies.
the passenger can quickly determine that it is a trunk line
system. Contracts are awarded on the basis of a competitive
express bus (blue), originating in the North-East of Seoul
tendering process which promotes competition between the
(the area numbered 1) and terminating in downtown
4.1 System Organization private bus companies and helps keep costs low. This new
(numbered 0). The last 1 gives the specific trunk line
system changed the incentives faced by bus companies and
number. To give another example, consider a green bus
Prior to the 2004 reforms, the bus system in Seoul was mostly encourages the improvement of service quality, as well as the
numbered 1012. This is a feeder bus, originating in the
deregulated. Private bus companies were allowed to provide helping eliminate many of the bad practices prevalent under
North-East, terminating in Downtown, with feeder line
services on any routes they deemed commercially viable, the old compensation model. The new compensation model
number 12.
subject to obtaining an easily available license from the public also allows the SMG to ensure that adequate bus services are
authority. The Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG) had provided along routes and in areas that would be The new numbering system for bus services in
very little control over the system aside from setting fare levels. commercially unviable in a deregulated market. Seoul divides the city into 8 areas

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 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

4.4 Bus Priority productivity but for lack of demand based planning used to 4.7 GPS-based Bus Management System
develop the operations plan and physical design for the
A major challenge in promoting the use of Seoul’s bus system median stations and segregated median bus lanes. Critical A major focus of the bus system reforms has been the use of
was to improve the speed and reliability of bus services. In locations operate above capacity and affect peak hour system Intelligent Transport Systems strategies and pervasive
order to do this, significant bus priority measures were performance. These issues are not easy to fix since they technology to improve bus service quality. In addition to the T-
necessary. In addition to expanding the already existing require changes to the physical infrastructure. money smart card system detailed above, the major project in
network of curbside bus lanes from 214km to 294km [10], a this regard has been the deployment of a new Bus
true Bus Rapid Transit system was introduced. This consisted, 4.5 Fares Management System. This system consists of GPS units in
in early 2005, of a network of 36km of segregated median every bus and the establishment of a central command and
bus lanes along 4 corridors [32]. By 2009, this was expanded Prior to the reforms, bus and metro users faced separate control centre for citywide bus operations [29]. The GPS
to 73.5km along 8 corridors, with further additions of 55.3km pricing schemes. The metro used a distanced based fare devices continuously track the location and speed of each bus
in 5 corridors planned for 2010 [11]. Accompanying the system. Buses, on the other hand, had flat fares. However, T-money smart card and validator on-board a bus. and send this data to the central command centre.
segregated bus lanes are high quality bus stops along the due to the lack of integration between the various private bus
median, many of which also boast passing lanes. The BRT companies that operated bus services, there was no ability to system performance as dwell times at bus stops are reduced
scheme also included better integration between various transfer between bus lines. That is, each transfer cost an due to the elimination of time-consuming cash transactions
travel modes. Bus routes and stops were relocated when additional fare. One consequence of this was the heavier between users and drivers. Users who decide to forgo use of
necessary to facilitate easier bus-to-bus and bus-to-metro transport cost burden faced by lower-income bus users [96]. the T-money card face a monetary penalty in that cash fares
transfers. Since low-income individuals tend to live farther away from are KRW 50-100 more expensive than T-money fares (listed
employment and leisure destinations than higher-income in section 4.5 above) [99]. Also, users who pay cash fares
groups, they faced a disproportionately high cost for using cannot avail of free transfers. This pricing scheme thus
public transportation since their travel patterns necessitated encourages public transport users to adopt the T-money
multiple transfers. system.

The 2004 reforms introduced a coordinated and uniform fare The greatest benefit for T-money cardholders is that is allows
structure. The flat-fare system for buses was scrapped in them to treat the entire public transport network of Seoul,
favour of the distance based model used by the metro. In the including the different bus types and the metro, as one Seoul’s central command and control center for bus
new system, bus fares cost an initial base fare for the first seamless system. When a trip involves multiple bus types or operations
10km, and then an additional amount for every 5km beyond mode types, the T-money system automatically determines
that [99]. This initial fare ranges from Korean Won (KRW) 500 the correct total fare to be charged to the user. This total fare is The wealth of information provided by this system provides
(US$ 0.40) for the yellow bus to KRW 800 (US$ 0.63) for the based on a combination of the highest applicable base fare many benefits. The central command centre for bus
green and blue buses (see Section 4.3 for an explanation of across the different segments of the trip and the total distance operations can monitor the performance of the system in real
different bus types) [99], [100]. Regardless of the initial fare travelled [13]. For example, if a user journeys on a yellow bus time. This allows for the dynamic management of the bus
Exclusive median bus lanes in Seoul charged, travel beyond the first 10km covered by the base (initial fare KRW 500), and then transfers to a blue bus (initial system through such actions as assigning more or fewer
fare costs KRW 100 (US$ 0.08) per 5km. Concessionary fare fare KRW 800), then the base fare for the blue bus is charged. buses to a particular route as needed and direct
Additional bus priority measures include the planned rates are available for seniors and those under 18 years of In all cases, the amount charged by the T-money system is communications with bus drivers about specific traffic
introduction of Transit Signal Priority for buses in Seoul. This age. In addition, users can make up to 4 free transfers lower than if the user had paid for each journey stage problems and emergencies. In terms of revenue distribution
system will give priority to buses at intersections, thus reducing between different bus lines, or between the bus and metro, as individually. Equally as important as the benefits provided to the system enables a transparent determination of the service
wait times at signals and facilitating turns [32]. Further long as the time period between alighting and the next the user, the T-money system greatly simplifies the settlement levels (i.e. bus-kilometres operated) provided by each bus
improvements in bus performance are expected from a boarding is less than 30 minutes. The red buses, which of accounts with the various private transport operating company, which is the basis for compensation. Furthermore,
unique proposed congestion charging scheme for private connect Seoul to surrounding satellite cities, are an exception companies. When a trip involves multiple journey stages the collection of this data also allows for the monitoring and
vehicles entering Seoul’s central district [98]. The charge will to this system. They charge a flat fare of KRW 1400 (US$ using different types of buses or modes, the T-money system evaluation of bus company performance by looking at such
be levied on motorists visiting specific leisure and shopping $1.11) regardless of distance travelled, and users do not automatically determines the appropriate distribution of fares bits of information as punctuality, speeds on particular routes,
facilities known to be key contributors to vehicular congestion, enjoy the free transfer benefit [99], [100]. based on the ratio of base fares for each segment of the trip and so on. Perhaps most importantly from a user
such as major malls and department stores. The goal of this and the proportion of the total trip length that each different perspective, this system also allows passengers to obtain real
congestion charge is to divert discretionary and leisure trips to 4.6 ‘T-money’ smart card system transport operator carried the user [13]. The automated time information on next bus arrivals, anticipated time to
Seoul’s central district from private vehicles to public nature of this system adds to the transparency of revenue destination and scheduling changes. Users can access this
transport. This proposal will expand on Seoul’s existing In addition to the unified fare structure, a major initiative of information either at the stations themselves, through the
management. Additionally, the large amount of transaction
congestion pricing scheme, which currently applies only to the reforms was the introduction of a contactless smart card internet or via mobile phones. Finally, similar to the T-money
data generated by the T-money system allows for detailed
two highway tunnels that serve as the southern entry point to fare collection system called ‘T-money’. This smart card can system, the data generated by the bus management system is
transport demand, origin-destination, loading and travel
Seoul’s central business district. be used on all bus and metro services. The card makes using used to optimize schedules, fleet sizes and manpower
pattern analysis. This data is of critical importance for route
public transport more convenient for passengers, who no allocation across different bus lines.
planning, scheduling and system management purposes.
The corridors could have delivered significantly higher longer need to pay fares using cash. This also improves bus

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 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

4.8 Cost of Reforms In the years since 2004, the increase in passenger numbers has been sustained. Between 2003 and 2008, the average number
of daily passengers on the bus system has increased from 4,869,000 to 5,609,000, a 15.2% improvement [9]. During the
The 2004 Bus Reforms in Seoul were financed through a combination of public and private funds. The main projects of the same period, the number of passengers on the metro system has remained roughly constant.
reforms, in terms of costs, were the development of median bus lane infrastructure, the remodelling and upgrading of bus
stations and terminals, and the implementation of the smart card based ‘T-money’ fare collection system. Public funds, via the Mirroring the rise in daily passenger numbers, the Seoul bus system’s capital and operational productivity have both improved
Seoul Metropolitan Government (SMG), covered the entire cost of developing the median bus lane network [101]. The in the years since the reforms. The number of passengers per bus per day (i.e. capital productivity) has increased from 666 in
remodelling of the bus stations and the implementation of the T-money system, on the other hand, were financed entirely 2003 to 782 in 2008, a 14.82% increase. Boardings per bus-kilometre (i.e. operational productivity) have increased even more
through private capital. Investors who paid for upgrading the bus stations and terminals are compensated by concessionary dramatically, from 2.29 in 2003 to 3.01 in 2008 which amounts to a 31.45% jump [9].
contracts which entitle them to all of the advertising revenue generated by the stations and terminals [101]. Similarly, the private
company which developed, paid for, and manages the T-money system has entered into a long term contract with the SMG and Figure 4 Passengers per Bus per Day, 2003-2008
receives the service charges paid by users of the T-money card. Table 1 below lists the details of the costs of these aspects of the
bus reforms in Seoul.
Passengers per Bus per Day, 2003-2008
Table 1 Bus Reform Costs 800
775
Project Cost in Korean Won (KRW) (US$) Funding Source 750
Median Bus Lane Infrastructure KRW 71.375 Billion (US$ 56.41 million) Public 725
Upgrading Bus Stations and Terminals KRW 17.3 Billion (US$ 36.75 million) Private 700
Smart Card Fare System (T-Money) KRW 46.5 Billion (US$ 13.67million) Private 675
650
Source: [100], [101]
625

The table above is only a partial enumeration of the total costs involved in the bus system reforms in Seoul. Other costs included 600
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
upgrading the bus fleet, which was partially subsidized by the SMG, and other projects such as the bus management system
using GPS devices on board buses. The SMG also committed to covering any operational costs not covered by fare revenue.
Source: [9]
5. Impact of Bus System Reforms
Figure 5 Boardings per Bus-Km, 2003 - 2008
5.1 Ridership

Ridership numbers from the time period following the reform indicate that it has been a success. Aside from a dip in passenger Boardings per Bus-Km, 2003 - 2008
numbers in the month immediately following the implementation of the reforms, presumably due to user confusion about the
3.25
new system, ridership numbers have been steadily increasing. Figures for September 2004 show a 9% increase in riders
compared to September 2003 [32]. Average daily numbers for the whole year show similar increases in ridership. The increase 3.00
in the number of bus passengers is especially impressive considering that the bus system was suffering from an annualized 2.75
ridership decline of 5.4% in the years prior to the reform [27].
2.50
Figure 3 Average Daily Bus Passengers (000s), 2003 – 2008 2.25

Average Daily Bus Passengers (000s), 2003 – 2008 2.00

5800 1.75

5600 1.50
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
5400

5200
Source: [9]
5000

4800

4600 5.2 Operational Performance

Source: [9]
4400
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 The implementation of a true BRT system has lead to a dramatic increase in bus speeds. By December 2004, within 6 months of

126 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 127
 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

introducing exclusive median bus lanes, bus speeds on the Dobong-Mia BRT corridor had doubled from 11kmh to 22kmh [32]. Figure 7 Average Daily Fare-Box Revenue per Bus (US$), 2003 - 2008
Performance in other BRT corridors has also been impressive, with bus speed increases of 64% and 31% in two other BRT
corridors for which figures are available [14]. Average bus speeds are now only slightly slower than average car speeds.
Each BRT lane now carries up to 6 times more passengers than non-BRT lanes in the same corridor [27]. Punctuality has Average Daily Fare-Box Revenue per Bus (US$), 2003 - 2008
increased and time-variation has also fallen in BRT lanes. Compared to other bus lanes, BRT lanes experience 5 times less time 600
variation [27].
500
In contrast to other cities like London, where increases in passenger ridership have come on the heels of expansions in service
400
supply levels, bus-kilometres operated in Seoul have fallen compared to pre-reform years. Annual bus-kilometres operated
have dropped by 12.3%, from 777 million bus-km to 681 million bus-km between 2003 and 2008 [20]. This apparent 300
paradox is explained by noting that the fall in bus-kilometres is entirely due to the rationalization of bus routes into a trunk-and
feeder system. In other words, the route reorganization undertaken as part of the bus system reforms has eliminated a large 200
number of routes that used to ply along the same roads. Thus although service supply levels have in fact increased along the
100
many routes, this increase has been offset by reductions in unnecessary and inefficient bus runs along other routes.
0
Figure 6 Bus-Kilometres Operated (million kms), 2003 – 2008 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Bus-Kilometres Operated (million kms), 2003 – 2008 Source: [9]

800
However, although the financial performance of individual bus routes and companies has improved, the reforms have failed to
775
reduce the subsidy burden of the bus system as a whole. Subsidies for the overall bus system have, in fact, increased from US$
750 125 million in 2003 to an estimated US$ 190 million in 2008, although this has improved from the peak subsidy of US$ 255
725 million in 2006 [9]. System observations report bus-kilometres are not thoroughly monitored. Better contract design,
700 monitoring and enforcement could reduce the need for subsidies. However, these subsidies are much smaller than those
required for the metro system, which has ranged from US$ 1,310 million in 2003 to an estimated US$ 748 million in 2008 [9].
675
Considering these figures, along with the fact that the bus network carries more passengers than the metro, it is clear that
650 expanding and subsidizing the bus system rather than the metro is the more cost effective method for Seoul to increase public
625 transport usage.
600
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Figure 8 Annual Bus System Subsidy (US$), 2003 – 2008

Source: [9] Annual Bus System Subsidy (US$ millions) 2003 – 2008

300
Another major impact of the reforms has been a significant improvement in the safety record of the Seoul bus system. Due to
better driver performance and better segregation for buses, bus related accidents and personal injuries have fallen. By July of 250
2004, bus related accidents fell by 26.9% compared to the same month in 2003 [102].
200
5.3 Financials
150
The increase in bus users after the reforms has led to a strengthening of the financial performance of bus companies. Average
daily revenues per bus increased from US$ 358 in the months immediately following the reforms, to US$ 510 by 2008 (current 100
prices) [9]. In the same period average daily fare-box revenues per bus increased from US$ 305 to US$ 483. Additionally,
50
average daily deficits per bus have fallen from US$ 97 to US$ 94, although they increased in the two years immediately
following the implementation of the reforms. 0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

2008 figure is an estimate based on figures for first 6 months of that year
Source: [9]

128 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 129
 CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL CASE STUDY 3 – SEOUL

5.4 Environment strong and proactive political leadership that was able to bring various stakeholders together to ensure the passage of reform. A
technically adept local planning institution was able to identify the appropriate reforms to implement, in particular
The implementation of the reforms has led to a reduction in the amount of air pollutants emitted by the Seoul bus system. These acknowledging the importance of exclusive median bus lanes and route rationalization for improving bus system performance.
reductions are largely a result of reducing the congestion which buses have to deal with through the introduction of median A particular factor of note is Seoul’s adoption of advanced technological systems to improve bus service quality, such as the
lanes, replacing older buses with newer models, and the elimination of inefficient bus runs that was a consequence of route contactless fare collection system and GPS-based bus management system. These technological solutions serve as the
rationalization. Between 2003 and 2005, Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions decreased by 34.8%; Nitrous Oxides (NOx) by backbone for an intensive evidence-based performance monitoring and analysis system. For any city that desires a high quality
18.3%; Hydrocarbon emissions fell by 6.8% and Particulate Matter emissions were reduced by 39.5% [103]. bus based public transport service, these and many more important lessons can be drawn from Seoul’s successful experience
with bus system reform.
Figure 9 Bus System Emissions Reductions (% change), 2003 - 2005

Bus System Emissions Reductions (% change), 2003 - 2005

Carbon Monoxide (CO) Nitrous Oxide (No2) Hydrocarbons Particulate matter
0
-5
-10 -6.8%

-15
-20
-18.3%
-25
-30
-35
-34.8%
-40
-39.5%
-45

Source: [103]

By increasing the proportion of total trips made by public transport, the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system in Seoul is also expected
to decrease the levels of Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions from the transport sector in the coming decade. In all, the operation
of the BRT system is expected to result in reductions of carbon dioxide emissions totalling roughly 837,000 tonnes over the next
7 years [101].

5.5 User Satisfaction

User satisfaction with the bus system reforms, as recorded through surveys, was very low in the weeks immediately following the
implementation of the reforms. This can be attributed to the confusion regarding new bus types and routes. The newly
introduced T-money smart card system also had many teething problems. Card readers often failed to work, and wrong fares
were often charged. In July 2004, there were approximately 5,000 complaints per day from the public [96].
Once these initial problems were smoothed over, however, user satisfaction dramatically improved. In one survey, passenger
dissatisfaction rates fell from a high of 54% in July 2004, to a low of 13% in December 2004 [102]. A review of 8 different user
satisfaction surveys showed that by 3 months after the reforms were initiated, over 60% of users thought the revamped bus
system performed satisfactorily [96]. Thus within only a few months of introducing the reforms, a majority of users expressed
satisfaction with the new bus system.

6. Conclusions

Seoul, seemingly stuck in a downward spiral of ever-worsening congestion, declining public transport and generally
deteriorating city liveability, has shown how with political will and imagination a mega city can be turned around in the course of
a few years largely through transportation system and public space improvements. The 2004 bus system reforms in Seoul were
a success. The continuing improvements in ridership statistics, operational and financial performance and user satisfaction
rates are a testament to this fact. Seoul thus serves as an exemplary model for implementing comprehensive reform of an urban
bus system in a very short period of time. The keys to Seoul’s success were manifold. Chief among these was the existence of a

130 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 131
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI
CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

CASE STUDY 4 Table 3 Transport Indicators for Mumbai Metropolitan Region, 1991-2005

MUMBAI Population Growth

Suburban Train Daily Trips *
+43%
+35%
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: August 2010
Bus Daily Trips (Main Mode + Feeder Trips) +9%

1. Introduction: City Context Registered Cars +137%

Registered Two wheelers +306%
Mumbai is the capital of the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is India's most populous city and the second most populous city in
Registered Auto Rickshaws +420%
the world [38]. Mumbai is also the richest city in India and has the highest GDP in South and Central Asia. The city is the
Registered Taxis +128%
commercial and entertainment centre of India and contributes to 5% of India's GDP. Several financial institutions such as the
National Stock Exchange of India, Bombay Stock Exchange, Reserve Bank of India and most Indian and foreign banks are Registered Commercial vehicles +200%
located in the financial district in Mumbai. India's Hindi Film and television industry is also located here. Because of its Airport Passengers +94%
numerous work opportunities, Mumbai attracts migrants from all over India.

One of the biggest contradictions in Mumbai is that the richest city in India also accounts for the highest percentage of urban A total of 2.6 million registered vehicles occupied the streets in Mumbai as of 2005 (having increased from 1.14 million in 1996
poor. About 47% of the population in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region live in slums. Many of these people cannot afford to use at an annual compounded growth rate of 9.7%). Of these vehicles, 1.34 million were two-wheelers and .69 million were cars,
public transport and instead walk or bike to work. As a result, over half the trips made in Mumbai are on foot. If we do not which means that personal vehicles accounted for almost 80% of total vehicles. In 2005, 97 out of every 1000 people had a
consider the mode share of walking, rail has the highest mode share with 52% followed by bus with 26%. The remaining 22% private vehicle as opposed to 50 out of 1000 in 1996. The rapid growth in the rate of private vehicle ownership is explained by
of motorized trips use vehicles including rickshaws, taxis, cars and two-wheelers. Even though these trips account for only 22% the heavy crowding of suburban railways, inadequate and unreliable bus service, increasing income levels and easy availability
of total trips, they are responsible for much of the heaviest congestion. Table 1 shows the modal shares in Mumbai. of loans. Private vehicle growth trends are expected to continue, helped in part by the broad availability of low cost vehicles in
the market. Table 4 shows the total growth in vehicles from 1996 to 2005.
Table 1 Modal Shares in Mumbai
Table 4 Growth in vehicles from 1996 to 2005
Mode Daily Trips Mode Share Mode Share (w/o walk)
Walk 1,48,50,000.00 52% Year Vehicles Yearly Growth
Train 69,75,000.00 25% 52% 1996 1140000
Bus 35,50,000.00 13% 26% 1997 1290000 13.2%
Rickshaw 10,50,000.00 4% 8% 1998 1430000 10.9%
Taxi 2,25,000.00 1% 2% 1999 1550000 8.4%
Two Wheeler 10,50,000.00 4% 8% 2000 1690000 9.0%
Car 6,25,000.00 2% 5% 2001 1840000 8.9%
Total 2,83,25,000.00 100% 100% 2002 1980000 7.6%
2003 2140000 8.1%
According to the 2001 census, the Mumbai municipal area had a population of 11.9 million, which rose to 13.8 million in 2004 2370000 10.7%
2010. The population of the city grew by 43% over the 14 year time period between 1991 and 2005. Table 3 shows the growth
2005 2600000 9.7%
trend in various transport indicators during this same time period. Suburban rail trips have grown by 35%, but bus trips have
gone up only 9%. The huge increases in two wheeler and auto rickshaw trips – often serving many rail passengers for the start
and end of their commuting journey in place of traditional bus service – may explain the minimal growth in bus trips. Car
ownership and taxi registration increased by over 100% during this time period. The city has had strong public transport services since the eighteenth century. There are two national rail lines serving Mumbai –
the Western Railway (WR) and Central Railway (CR) – which also provide suburban commuter rail services. This commuter
Table 2 Mumbai Demographics service, now called the Mumbai Suburban railway, began with the opening of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway (GIPR)
between Bombay and Thane. Built by the British and opened to the public as an experimental line on April 16, 1853, the routes
Population 14 million expanded to become mobility lifelines of the city.
Average household expenditure on transport 8 percent
The Mumbai Suburban railway currently operates 2,099 scheduled services per weekday (1,186 by Central Railway and 913
Registered vehicle population 2.9 million
by Western Railway) covering a route network over 400 km in length. In 2005, average weekday suburban rail travel demand
Average number of trips daily in the city 22.7 lakh
was estimated to be 15 million passenger km with an average rail journey length of 26 km. Figure 1 shows the route map of the
Average vehicular speeds in central city > 18 km/h current system.
Average trip length (excluding walking) >8 km

132 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 133
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Figure 1 Route Map of Mumbai Suburban Rail The high cost of living in central Mumbai has resulted in urban sprawl along the railway lines. Average trip length on the rail is
unusually high at 24 km. Average trip lengths on other modes are much shorter. In terms of expenditure on transport, people
using cars spend the most on monthly travel whereas train riders spend the least.

Table 5 Average Trip Length and Monthly Expenditure on Transport

Mode Average Trip Length (km) Monthly Travel Expenditure (Rs)

Walk 1.4 0
Train 23.8 360
Bus 8.9 405
Rickshaw 4.3 455
Taxi 7.1 521
Two Wheeler 6 396
Car 12 1033

Urban development and urban transport throughout the city are managed by the Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development
Authority (MMRDA), a regional planning agency under the Department of Urban Development.
The road network is linear along the Mumbai peninsula, with three major arterial roads that run through crowded urban areas.
In parallel to increased vehicle ownership, road congestion has worsened over the years. Average minimum speeds in the city
have fallen from 18 kilometres per hour to only 8 kilometres per hour, while average maximum speeds have marginally
increased from 25 kph to 30 kph despite major road construction projects.

Today, the rail system carries about 6.9 million commuters on an average day, while the city’s bus system handles 4.6 million
daily riders. At 88%, Mumbai's public transport mode share (of motorized trips) is the highest in India.

2. History of Bus Services in Mumbai

The Bombay Tramway Company Limited was first established in 1873. The following year, the Bombay Tramways Act was
enacted and the company signed a contract with the Municipality to start a tramway service. The company started with a fleet of
20 horse-drawn cars and 200 horses. At the time it closed down, the company had as many as 1360 horses.
In 1905 a newly formed concern, The Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company Limited (BEST), bought the Bombay
Tramway Company Limited [105]. They were granted a monopoly for electricity supply and the running of an electric tram
service. BEST built a thermal power station at
Wadi Bunder, Bombay in November 1905 to Figure 2 Old tram in Mumbai
generate electricity for its trams and for sale to
the city of Bombay. Service on the new
electrically powered tram-cars began in 1907
and was well received by passengers because
of its cheap, fast and smooth ride. To handle
increasing traffic, double-decker trams were
introduced in September 1920. Figures 2 and
3 show pictures of Mumbai’s early electric
trams.
Source: [104]

Severe overcrowding is commonplace throughout the system. During peak hours, up to 4,500 passengers may be packed into
a 9-car rake designed to carry only 1,700 [54]. The result has been densities of up to 16 standing passengers per square meter
of floor space, known as a “Super-Dense Crush Load” [54]. More than 3,500 people die on the Mumbai suburban railway
tracks annually due to unsafe riding on trains or trespassing on railway tracks or as a result of suicide attempts. This is believed
to be the highest number of fatalities per year on any urban or suburban railway system.

134 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 135
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Figure 3 Old double decker tram in Mumbai both its traffic and electric departments. The traffic services is 9km. These buses serve an impressive average BEST has attempted to rationalize the operational network by
department is overseen by an 'Assistant General Manager of 1579 passengers per bus per day. In the feeder route introducing the concept of corridor services. The agency will
(Traffic Operations)', and assisted by the 'Chief Traffic market that serves train stations, BEST buses have a 72% operate corridor services parallel to the suburban rail
Manager (Sr.)'. The 'Chief Traffic Manager' oversees the five mode share. Other modes of reaching the station are network. Buses will be available on the corridor service
BEST zones, each headed by a 'Traffic Manager'. Each zone walking, auto rickshaws, taxis and private vehicles. around every 20 minutes. This concept was adopted by BEST
consists of 5 to 6 depots. A 'Traffic Superintendent' or 'Assistant to create convenient nodal points for changeover.
Traffic Superintendent' heads each depot [106]. 2. East-West Connectors: These routes connect the Eastern
and Western suburbs where there is no railway service. The major roads for Corridor Service in the suburbs are:
The agency’s high ratio of employees to buses leads to high Bus is the primary public transport mode in these
operating costs which in turn results in an operating loss every corridors, with BEST accounting for 71% transit market 1. Western Link Road - Mahim to Dahisar
year. BEST’s transport division is supported via a cross subsidy share. Average trip length of these routes is 25 km. It is 2. Swami Vivekanand Road - Mahim to Dahisar
from its electricity distribution business, but that might higher because they connect two suburban regions. 3. Western Express Highway - Sion/Mahim to Mira Road
become increasingly difficult in the coming years. The These buses have an average of 1097 passengers per bus 4. Eastern Express Highway - Sion to Thane
company’s various employee unions are supported by per day, and account for 10% of total bus ridership.
5. Lal Bahadur Shashtri Marg - Sion to Thane
numerous political parties.
3. Trunk Routes: These routes run along South-North roads 6. V.N. Purav Marg & Y. B. Chavan Marg – Sion to Anushakti
3.2 Service Provision through the city and are almost parallel to the railways. Nagar/ Navi Mumbai
These long distance trunk routes offer an alternative to the
Buses were introduced to supplement the tramway service in BEST owns a fleet of over 4700 buses of various make, overcrowded Suburban Railways, apart from linking the The major roads for Corridor Service in the city are:
the city in 1926. That year, 24 buses plied three routes and capacity and comfort, which ply 365 city routes along 70,000 suburbs and the City. These routes account for 33% of
transported almost 600,000 passengers. The following year, kilometres daily [105]. Not all of these buses are run daily total bus ridership. Average trip length of these routes is 1. Mantralaya to Mahim via Worli
the number increased to 3.8 million. After World War II and due to a lack of road space. About 10% of the fleet must 24 km because of the long distances between the suburbs 2. Colaba To Sion via Dr. Ambedkar Road
India's independence, the management of the company was instead sit in depots each day [36]. and the city. These buses have an average of 1195 3. Colaba to Sion via R.A. Kidwai Road.
taken over by the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC) on 7 passengers per bus per day. Trunk route buses account for
August 1947. The company was thereafter renamed as “The All buses are owned and run directly by the company, as they only 18% of the North-South trunk transit market share The nodal points for the operation will be Mahim and Sion
BEST Undertaking.” BEST more than doubled its fleet of do not use private contractors and have no plans to use them because of direct competition with rail. initially. On these corridor services the fare will be charged as
buses from 242 to 582 and expanded coverage by starting in future. They utilize 25 depots spread throughout their per the ‘Express’ fare structure. The daily bus pass ticket on
services in the western and eastern suburbs. Due to service area. In an effort to reduce costs BEST decided in 4. Intercity Routes: These services satisfy the travel demand to theses service is Rs.40 and the monthly bus pass will be
mounting losses, the tramway system was closed in 1964. June 2005 to hire buses from private operators instead of suburban areas in the Greater Mumbai region such as Rs.750. The holders of these bus passes also have the benefit
After the city of Bombay formally changed its name to procuring new buses [108]. These buses would look the same Mira-Bhayander, Navi Mumbai and Thane. The high cost of being able to travel in any Ordinary or Limited bus routes in
Mumbai in 1995, BEST adjusted its name to Brihanmumbai as a regular bus, but the maintenance and salaries would be of living in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region forces people the entire operational area of BEST Undertaking.
(Greater Mumbai) Electric Supply and Transport. The BEST the responsibility of the private operators. At the time of to move farther away to adjoining cities like Navi Mumbai
undertaking continues to function as the largest bus operator writing, BEST has yet to hire buses in this fashion. and Thane. Average trip length is 31 kilometres because The Market Share of BEST in different corridors is given in
in the city, and provides trunk services, east-west, inter-city of the long distances between the suburban towns and the Table 6.
and feeder services. BEST is highly regarded throughout The agency employs 38,000 people, including 22,000 bus city. These buses have an average of 1195 passengers per
India in terms of coverage and ridership. drivers and conductors. This equals an average of 11.2 bus per day and they bring in 9% of total revenue. 57% of
employees per bus. This high ratio in Mumbai compares with the intercity market uses BEST buses.
3. Mumbai Bus System Characteristics 4-5 employees per bus for the Bangalore Metropolitan
Transport Corporation (BMTC). BEST’s long history is blamed
3.1 Institutional Setup for the carryover of ongoing institutional inefficiencies from
Table 6 Share of BEST in different Market Segments
the early twentieth century.
Since taking control of BEST in 1947, the Bombay Municipal
Corporation has provided the agency with a high level of 3.3 Corridors Item Description Feeder East / West Trunk Intercity Total
managerial autonomy. The BMC is responsible for approving
BEST Passenger Trips Daily – ( Lakhs) 21 5 15 4 45
periodic fare increases on BEST buses and approving the The routes operated by BEST can be broadly classified in the
annual budget for BEST. For oversight, the ruling party of the following categories [36]: Other Modal Trips Daily – ( Lakhs) 8 2 65 3 78
BMC selects a body of 17 Municipal Corporators to form the Market Size in Trips Daily ( Lakhs) 29 7 80 7 123
BEST Committee. The committee, headed by a Chairman, 1. Feeder Routes: These routes feed the railway stations
oversees the undertaking's daily operations. The committee either from the residential complexes or Business Districts. BEST Market Share (%) 72 71 18 57 37
has a staggered two year term [36]. More than half of the BEST buses are used for feeder
routes, which correspondingly generate almost half of Source: [45]
BEST is headed by a General Manager who presides over BEST's total revenue. Average route length on these

136 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 137
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Table 7 BEST fleet

3.4 Service Types 2. Single Deck: These are regular size Ashok Leyland and
Tata buses that have a total capacity of 67-71 passengers. Sr. No. Type of Bus. Number of Buses Percentage of fleet Carrying Capacity
Within each of the corridors, there are further demarcations BEST has both diesel and CNG single deck buses. These
in services. These services include ordinary, limited, special, 1. Single Deck 2022 52.49 71
buses conform to the environmental and anti-pollution
express, air conditioned, AC/super, and so on as described norms of Euro-1 & Euro -2 standards. As part of the 2. CNG Single Deck 737 19.13 67
below: Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP), single deck 3. Single Deck (MUTP) 644 16.72 71
buses conforming to Euro-3 standards were added. These
• Ordinary: These are the most common routes, with buses buses are more fuel efficient and passenger friendly as 4. Ultra Low Floor(Single Deck) 31 0.80 46
stopping at all stops. Buses plying on these routes are they are better upholstered and are more roomy and airy. 5. Double Deck 182 4.72 89
identified by a white route number on a black
background. 6. Midi (Diesel) 63 1.64 48
3. Leyland Articulated (Vestibules) Buses: These buses
with a trailer attached have a seating capacity of 65 and a 7. Midi (CNG) 102 2.65 55
• Limited: Buses on these routes stop only at important standing capacity of 20. They are deployed on high traffic
places and skip all the minor stops in between on high 8. Air Conditioned (Diesel) 51 1.32 45
routes to meet the increased demand for bus transport.
volume routes. They used to have a marginally higher Vestibule buses were introduced in 1996 and 9 Air Conditioned (CNG) 20 0.52 47
fare and are identified by the route number in red on a subsequently discontinued. TOTAL 3852 100 2,69,005
white background. In 2008, the fares of limited and
ordinary buses were brought to the same level. The route 4. Low Floor Buses: Due to demands from the community
number ends with LTD. to introduce buses that are accessible to young children, Source: [107]
older people and the physically handicapped, BEST
• Special: These buses ply on select routes covering railway Figure 3 Bus Fleet Composition of BEST
introduced low floor buses in 2005. BEST uses Tata's Ultra
terminuses and the central business districts. These routes Low Floor Buses.
have a fare marginally higher than the 'Limited' routes and
are identified by the route number in white on a red 5. A/C Luxury Buses: In an effort to attract private vehicle
background. owners to use BEST buses, 71 air conditioned buses were
introduced. These include Tata Marcopolo buses and 20
• Express: These buses service long distance intra-city King Long CNG buses. These buses have carpeted
routes, and have fares that are the same as the Special flooring, luxury seating with soft fabric, wide corridors for
routes, but with fewer stops. They have route numbers easy movement, wide doors and comfortable rides with
indicated in red on a yellow background. These buses do reduced vibrations. These buses are mostly used for
not skip the flyovers, unlike other buses. longer distance intercity services.
• Air-conditioned: The fare for these buses is a little over
four times the fare of an 'Ordinary' route covering the
same distance. These buses have route numbers starting
with ‘A’.

3.5 Vehicles

BEST has a composite fleet of buses of different makes,

varying carrying capacities and offering different levels of
comfort to suit the specific demands of commuters. The fleet
consists of:

1. Midibus: These buses are smaller than a full-size single-

decker and larger than a traditional minibus. They have a
carrying capacity of 48-55 passengers. They comprise a
little over 4% of BEST's bus fleet. BEST has two types of
midi buses: CNG and Diesel. The CNG buses can carry
55 passengers while the diesel can carry 48.

Euro III Bus (MUTP)

138 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 139
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

KING LONG BUS CNG BUS TATA CNG BUS TATA LOW FLOOR BUS

Source: [105]

3.6 Fares

BEST fares depend on the type of service, but are generally low. The base fare is Rs. 3 for the first 2 kilometres and an additional
Rs. 1 for every 2 kilometres after that. The average trip length on BEST buses is 8.9 kms.

A daily pass is available for Rs.15 per day. It can be used for travel in any bus except the air conditioned ones in Mumbai city
limits. It is valid up to midnight on the day of purchase and available with all conductors. Senior citizens, children and freedom
fighters get concessions. About 20% of passengers travel using passes.

Raising bus fares is a politically sensitive issue and it is therefore very hard to do so. For comparison, Bangalore Metropolitan
Transport Corporation (BMTC) has the authority to automatically revise fares without any political interference. BEST does not
have that authority resulting in increasing losses.

4. Mumbai Bus System Performance

VESTIBULE BUS LEYLAND CNG BUS BEST is one of the biggest bus transport corporations in the world in terms of ridership, although service levels and ridership
have been stagnant for almost a decade. Their fleet size has not changed much in the last 10 years in spite of the increasing
population and traffic congestion in Mumbai. BEST purchased 1,000 new buses over the last two years using JnNURM funding
and introduced new express and luxury services. Table 8 below shows performance indicators for the system as a whole and
Table 9 shows performance characteristics by route category.

Table 8 BEST System Performance Measurements

Fleet size 4700 buses

Number of Routes 365
Route km 6,00,000 km
Number of Employees 38,000
Avg. Speed (kmph) (Peak Period) 14 kmph
Avg. Speed (kmph) (Offpeak Period) 19 kmph
Average passengers per day 4,500,000
Income (Rs in Crore) Rs. 893.99
Expenditure (Rs in Crore) Rs. 1304.80
AIR CONDITIONED BUS EURO II BUS
Loss (Rs in Crore) Rs. -410.81

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 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Table 9 Service and Travel Characteristics by Route Category Figure 5 Fleet Size Trend from 1999-2008

Item Description Feeder East West Trunk Intercity Total Fleet Size
Routes 193 38 111 18 360 3600

Routes (% of total) 54 10 31 5 100

3550
Buses 1246 407 1178 256 3087
Buses (% of total) 41 13 38 8 100 3500

Route Span (Km) 1662 958 2667 560 5807

3450
Av Route Length (Km) 9 25 24 31 16
Vehicle Utilization (km) 177 236 220 316 213 3400

Av. Speed (kmph) (peak hour) 11 14 14 18

3350
Av. Speed (kmph) (Non peak) 16 20 20 22
BEST Passengers/day (Lakhs) 21 5 15 4 45 3300

Passengers (% of total) 47 11 33 9 100

3250
Passengers/Bus per day 1579 1097 1195 1277 1344 99-00 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08
Revenue/Bus per day (Rs) 6621 7123 6816 10,177 7809
4.2 Speeds
Cost /Bus per day (Rs) 9119 9707 9472 11,459 9939
Loss/Bus per day (Rs) 2498 2584 2656 1282 2130 Speeds on BEST buses are below 20kmph in the peak hours. Some buses on intercity routes run on expressways and they have
speeds slightly higher than 20kmph in the off peak hours. Table 10 shows the average speeds by route category.
Source: [45]
Table 10 Average Speeds of BEST Buses
4.1 Operational Statistics

Ridership has decreased in the last 10 years due to rapid motorization within the city. As two-wheelers and cars have become Category Routes Average Speeds (kmph)
more affordable and more easily financed, new drivers are reducing their use of public transport. Given the decrease in Peak Hours Off peak Hours
ridership, it is not surprising that there was an almost negligible increase in fleet size of 3% over the same 10 year period. Feeder 193 11.31 15.10
Figures 4 and 5 graphically illustrate these trends. Trunk 111 14.40 19.75
East West 38 14.47 19.58
Figure 4 Daily Passengers from 1999-2008
Intercity 18 17.76 21.51
Passengers /day (Lakhs)
47 Source: [36]

46 4.3 Financial Statistics

45
In the financial year 2008-2009 the bus service earned Rs. 894 crores. However, with operating costs of Rs. 1304 crores, the
44 bus company experienced a net loss of Rs. 410 crores. Though BEST is a government-owned company, it does not receive any
43 financial assistance from the BMC or the state government. Instead, its subsidy comes from the electric supply division of the
company, which remains Mumbai’s biggest energy provider.
42

41 Between 1999 and 2008, total income increased by 40%, at a very low average annual growth rate of 3.5%. Costs, however,
40 have increased at a faster pace than income. During this 10 year period, total costs have gone up 55% which equates to a
4.5% annual rate of increase. With high costs and lower income, losses have been increasing steadily at the rate of 6.7% every
39 year. Table 11 displays these financial performance trends while Figures 6 and 7 show these trends in a graphic format.
38
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 BEST has a very high employee per bus ratio (11.2 employees/bus) which makes it much harder to keep operational costs low.
Table 12 shows the costs and earnings per kilometre of bus operators from different cities in India. Mumbai has the highest cost
per kilometre and more than half of this cost is attributable to employee-related expenses.

142 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 143
 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Table 11 Performance Trends 1999-2008 Figure 7 Annual Losses, 1999-2008

No Parameter 99-00 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08 Change from 99 Loss (Rs in Cr)
500
1 Fleet 3458 3430 3380 3380 3386 3391 3395 3406 3570 3%
450
2 Fleet Utilization (%) 94 92 90 91 91 91 91 91 90 -4%
400
3 Income (Rs in Cr) 567 646 663 702 726 756 795 795 795 40%
350
4 Cost (Rs in Cr) 793 870 857 890 947 1125 1098 1254 1227 55% 300
5 Loss (Rs in Cr) 226 224 194 188 221 369 303 459 432 91% 250
6 Passengers /day (Lakhs) 46 41 41 43 44 45 41 41 42 -9% 200
150
Source: [107]
100
50
Table 12 Performance Trends 1999-2008
0
City Cost / KM Earnings / KM 99-00 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08

All buses Average

Mumbai 46 Rs 39 Rs
Bangalore 24 Rs 24 Rs 5. Reform Efforts in Mumbai
Ahmedabad 24 Rs 22 Rs Slow speed and traffic congestion are the biggest problems faced by buses in Mumbai, but there are no concrete plans to
Indore 22 Rs 26 Rs implement bus priority. Instead, bus reforms have focused on the following areas:

• In order to reduce costs, BEST has been hiring contract employees (drivers and conductors) and plans to lease vehicles.
Figure 6 Annual Income, 1999-2008
• In order to raise new sources of revenue, advertisements have been placed on buses. Buses have also been leased to
Income (Rs in Cr) airlines for airport use.
900
• In the last 5 years, BEST has added about 500 new buses including ultra low floor, double deck and air conditioned buses.
800
They are in the process of converting a majority of their fleet to CNG.
700
• In 2007, BEST launched the multi-application contactless smart card called Go Mumbai. This card can be used for
600
storing season tickets, single journey and extension tickets. The Go Mumbai card can be used on the Mumbai Sub
500 urban Railways as well.
400
The Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority (MMRDA) has studied the feasibility of BRT on Mumbai's eastern
300 and western expressways, but there are no concrete plans to implement this project. Recent bus transport successes in other
200 cities can be attributed to political leaders who were convinced that bus based transport would solve urban mobility needs.
In Mumbai, the prospect of cheaper and faster bus projects has been overshadowed by the Mumbai Metro and Mumbai
100 Monorail projects.
0
99-00 00-01 01-02 02-03 03-04 04-05 05-06 06-07 07-08 The Mumbai Metro is a mass rapid transit system (MRTS) currently under-construction. After about 10 years of planning, the
first stretch between Versova to Andheri to Ghatkopar is slated to be completed in 2011 at a cost of over Rs. 2000 crores. This
line will provide east-west rail connectivity to central and western suburbs. The plan is to provide efficient interchange between
the suburban rail system and MRTS at Andheri and Ghatkopar. Once constructed, projections predict a reduced journey time
from 71 minutes to 21 minutes from Versova to Ghatkopar. Additionally, a 19.4 km Mumbai Monorail from Chembur to
Jacob circle has also been under construction and is expected to cost about Rs. 2500 crores. In contrast, the first line of
Ahmedabad BRTS cost less than 200 crores and took 3 years from concept to completion. Figure 8 shows the planned
alignments of these projects.

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 CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI CASE STUDY 4 – MUMBAI

Figure 8 Alignment of Versova-Ghatkopar Metro Line BEST, like many public transport corporations throughout the world, does not have its own transportation planning and
modelling divisions. Most of the decisions are taken via demand-response techniques. Data based demand analysis is seldom
used for planning present or future operations. The national government of India is trying to change this scenario by creating a
UMTA (Unified Metropolitan Authority) that will include all major stakeholders. With this reform, a UMTA will be responsible for
developing comprehensive mobility plans using reliable demand estimates. Such technical guidance from a reputed local
institution, along with partnerships involving local academic institutions, can be very useful for improving the current state of
transportation planning.

6. Conclusions

Transporting over 4.5 million passengers a day is not an easy job. Due to the enormity of BEST’s current task, they have been
falling behind in keeping up with innovations in bus operations and service. Going forward, it will be imperative for BEST to
study and implement changes that could make it a world class bus system.

Indian and International case studies have shown that reforms take place only when political leaders are convinced about the
effectiveness of bus transport in solving a city's mobility needs. Government funds are limited and should be used to improve
transport infrastructure and services that benefits a maximum number of users from all classes of society. Bus transport is the
cheapest mode of public transport and its efficiency can be increased to match rapid rail transit by implementing bus priority
measures. Metro rail and monorail are good modes of rapid transit, but they are very expensive and take many years to
construct. They are also costly to use and are out of reach for low income households.

The multitude of agencies in Mumbai that deal with transport issues increase the difficulty of decision making. Plans are
underway to create a UMTA (Unified Metropolitan Authority) that will unify all major stakeholders under one umbrella. It is also
very useful to have reputed local institutions providing technical guidance to decision makers. It will be wise for the government
to involve local academic institutions, research and non-profit organizations in technical studies.

Bus priority is the only way to improve bus speeds and reliability. Mumbai should draw inspiration from successful BRT systems
in India and the rest of the developing world. The technology to improve bus services has become affordable and accessible in
India. Simple measures like electronic ticket collection, wide bus doors, and level boarding can reduce dwell times and
overcome system inefficiencies. Economical and environmentally friendly fuels are now available in all major cities in India.
Bus agencies can take advantage of this to improve their fuel efficiency and reduce pollution. Technology is making it easier to
contract bus operations to private agencies to improve efficiency in operations. BEST should constantly monitor its systems to
identify problem areas and develop solutions. Customer feedback surveys should be conducted by independent third parties to
get information on passenger satisfaction.

146 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 147
 CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE
CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE

CASE STUDY 5 Regional Connectivity

Indore is connected to other parts of the country through a

Figure 2 Timeline of Bus Services in Indore

INDORE well developed regional road system. Important amongst

them are the Agra-Mumbai Road (NH-3), Ahmedabad Road
(NH-51), Ujjain Road (SH-27) Khandwa Road (SH-27) and ICSTL set up in
Indore approved by
Central Govt. for BRT
system, ICSTL
Indore to operate
Depalpur Road (MDR) [109]. and manage the Bus system in
appointed as state
nodal agency for its
public transport Indore begins
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: implementation and
Intra City Network system in PPP operations with a
operations.
August 2010 model. fleet of X buses

Some of the important roads which provide for movements in

1. Introduction: City Context the east-west direction are Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Jawahar
Marg and Subhash Marg. The roads which cater to north- Jan Dec Dec Jan Jan
Indore, a historical city situated on the banks of the rivers 2005 2005 2005 2006 XXX 2009
south direction movements are Sadar Bazar road, Sitala Mata
Khan and Saraswati, is the largest city in Madhya Pradesh. It is
Road, Harsiddi Main road, PNT Marg, Pathar Godam Marg,
the nerve centre of the economic activities of the state. Rapid
Tilak Path and Loharpati Nivas road. In addition, other
industrial and commercial development has been coupled
important roads are Maharani Road, Prince Yashwant Road Talks to dissolve Bid’s for ICSTL approved
with a rapid rise in population. Indore recorded a population the MPSRTC operating the for grant to
and Bhandari Road.
of 2.72 million in 2001 with an increase of almost 50 percent begins in the State buses in Indore procure 175
Government were invited from buses under
during the period 1991-2001. Registered vehicles in the city have increased at an average private agencies. JnNURM scheme
annual rate of 10.4% per year since 1993.
Table 1 Indore Transport Indicators
The intra-city public transport system is road-based, with Figure 2 Timeline of Bus Services in Indore
Population 2.72 million
around 500 private minibuses, 550 tempos and 10,000 auto
Average household expenditure on transport 8 percent rickshaws. These are operated by a large number of Subsequently, a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) in the form of a public limited company, Indore City Transport Services Ltd.
Registered vehicle population 0.48 million independent para-transit operators on 67 minibus routes. (ICTSL), was set up in December 2005 to act as a specialized agency in charge of city bus transit operations. It is constituted as a
Average number of trips daily in the city 22.7 lakh 400 LPG-based Maruti Omni vans have replaced the older Public Limited Company incorporated under the Companies Act 1956, with a paid up capital of Rs. 25 lakhs. The management
Average vehicular speeds in central city > 20 km/h tempos, and carry 7-8 passengers each along designated of the company is entrusted with a Board of Directors consisting of officers from different government bodies. The company
Average trip length (excluding walking) 4.4 km
routes. In addition to minibuses, there are intercity buses operates and manages the public transport system in Indore in partnership with the private sector via contracting and
running on state permits. The majority of trips are made for franchising arrangements, to ensure the financial viability of the bus operations.
work, business and education purposes – these three
Figure 1 Google Map of Indore categories account for nearly 76% of total trips. 3. Summary of Bus Operations in Indore

2. History of Bus Services in Indore Indore City Transport Services Limited (ICTSL) is the only formally organized agency in charge of providing transport services in
Indore city. ICTSL operates as a public-private partnership by way of granting route permits to private bus operators to run their
Before the establishment of ICTSL, inter-city buses were run by buses in the city. Out of the 110 buses currently in operation, 96 serve intra-city demand on 22 routes while 14 buses ply on 2
the Madhya Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation suburban routes to Dewas, Mhow, Pithampur, and Ujjain. The base fare is INR 3 for the first 3 km with a Rs 0.50 increase for
(MPSRTC). However the organization was unable to sustain every additional kilometre. The average trip length on ICTSL buses is 6.9 kms. 100,000 to 120,000 passengers use ICTSL
the system financially - almost half of the fleet was non- services on a daily basis [110]. All ICTSL vehicles are monitored in real-time by a central control centre, using GPS devices
functional with huge amounts of money required towards installed on each bus.
maintaining it. Towards its last few months, MPSRTC recorded
a debt of Rs 800 crores while suffering monthly losses of over Given the scope of demand and future growth, ICTSL has plans for installation of a high-end BRT system. ICTSL is currently
Rs 5 crores. building a pilot BRT corridor on a 11.5 km stretch of A B Road. Outside the segregated pilot corridor, buses are to ply in mixed
traffic. In its eventual form, the BRT system is planned as an 88 km network of segregated bus ways including exclusive lanes
In early 2005, the possibility of dissolving MPSRTC was along the river. The project will be implemented in two phases - 47 kms in phase I and the remaining 41 kms in phase II. The
announced amidst much dissent. While much of the segregated lanes are to be used exclusively by ICTSL buses. It is projected that the bus system will serve 50% of the travel
resistance came from the employees whose jobs were at demand by 2021.
stake, even political parties were unsure of the decision. The
fate of MPSRTC is still being discussed by the State The Public Bus Service
Government, while it has been acknowledged that the closure
of the bus system under MPSRTC and the formation of small As of October 2009, there are 6 private operators running the bus service under contract to ICTSL. The operators own the bus
company is financially a more feasible option. fleet and pay for the upkeep of the buses themselves. The fleet size of the private operators varies from 2 to 50 buses. The
existing contracts are valid for a period of five years up to 2011 and are renewable for a further period of two years at the
discretion of the company.

148 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 149
 CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE

The system now accommodates a fleet of 110 buses, plying 24 routes on a network length of 277 km, carrying 100,000 to Figure 4 Indore Bus Services Route Map
110,000 passengers per day.

Table 2 Indore Bus Service Statistics

Fleet size 110

Number of Routes 24
Route km 277
Average passengers per day 100,000

Buses

From 60 buses in its year of inception in 2006, ICTSL has increased its fleet size to 110 buses. The buses are modern low floor
buses, each with two wide doors allowing passengers to board and alight quickly and easily. 8 passengers can alight at a time.
The buses have a capacity for 44 sitting and 40 standing passengers. The use of these buses has resulted in time and fuel
savings with better Kilometre per Litre and Emissions per Kilometre performance.

Figure 3 Fleet Size, 2006-2008

120

100

Source: [111]
80
Ridership
60
Average ridership on ICTSL buses is around 100,000 passenger trips per day. Even with its limited infrastructure and fleet size
40 the mode share of public transport share shot up from 16.4% to 21% since its incorporation in Jan 2006.

Figure 5 ICTSL Monthly Ridership, 2006 - 2009

20

ICSTL Monthly Ridership 2006 - 2009

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 3000000

2006 2007 2008

2500000

Routes
2000000

ICTSL started out with eighteen routes based on demand studies with permits from the Regional Transport Authority. These
routes are in turn offered for tender in an open bid process to private bus operators who are to pay the route premium as per the 1500000
mutual agreement. ICTSL now runs 22 intra-city routes and 2 inter-city routes. The routes are colour coded based on coverage
to enable easy recognition by users. 1000000

500000

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2006 2007 2008 2009

150 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 151
 CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE

Fares There are six members on the Board of ICTSL, with the Collector of Indore District as its Executive Director entitled to exercise his
powers to ensure the effective management of the new bus transit system. ICTSL concentrates mainly on planning,
The State Government is in charge of setting fare rates for buses plying in the limits of the Indore Municipal Corporation. The implementing, setting service quality standards and monitoring performance and outsources operations, revenue collection,
fare structure is designed to allow equitable access for the poor, along with offering a competitive price for the upper middle and so on to private companies in a transparent manner. It currently has 4 staff, including a chief technical officer and 3
class, in order to entice them to use buses over private vehicles. The setting of low fares is also intended to offer healthy administrative staff.
competition to minibuses and tempos. However, on special request, ICTSL is granted the right to modify this fare structure,
although it cannot increase fares more than 25 percent above the regulated fares. Based on the financial viability of the system, The Joint Collector of Indore, who acts as the CEO, spends 15-20% of his time at ICTSL. ICTSL is nested within the government,
ICTSL finalized the following fare structure: but enjoys decision-making autonomy in matters of technical operations, finance and management. This implies that the SPV is
eligible to receive funds from central and local governments along with being able to generate its own revenue. Financial
Table 3 ICTSL Fare Structure autonomy allows for an internal balance of costs and revenues, restricting the outflow of resources from the system beyond
sustainable levels.
Distance (kms) Less than 3 Between 3 & 7 Between 7 &10 Between 10 & 13 Between 13 & 16 Between 16 & 19

Fare (INR) 4 6 8 11 13 15 Absence of qualified staff

• The CEO of ICTSL is also entrusted with the position of the Sub-Divisional Magistrate. As a result his work time is divided
Passes: between multiple responsibilities and he is not able to devote his attention solely to the activities of ICTSL.
ICTSL also offers a monthly pass that costs Rs. 250. The issuance and collection of monthly pass fees is performed by a private • ICTSL is managed by a single Chief Technical Advisor who is required to handle multiple duties. On a day to day basis, this
vendor under a contractual agreement with ICTSL. There are 15 Instant Pass centres across the city to issue these passes. involves technical, financial and administrative activities on a day to day basis. At the same time he is responsible for
Revenue from the passes is shared between the private operators, who receive 60% of the amount collected, and ICTSL, who developing the long term ambitions of the organization. It is not advisable to overburden a single officer with multiple
receive the remaining 40%. responsibilities.
Figure 6 ICTSL Organizational Structure • ICTSL has only one administrator who is responsible for communications, coordination between vendors and resolving
operator disputes along with general administrative functions. Again, it is advisable to separate these types of activities and
assign full time officers for each type.
Chairperson
• Buses are run by private operators. However, there is a lack of technical staff to monitor the performance of bus operations.
(Mayor of
Indore City) As a result, it has been seen that buses are not operated on fixed schedules and fixed routes. There is an inadequacy in the
organization with regards to route planning and prioritization of routes based on changing travel needs.
Executive Vice
Director Chairperson
(Collector, (Chairperson • There is a dearth of dedicated staff for monitoring user satisfaction and collecting their feedback. If the company intends to
Indore) of IDA) sustain increased ridership, it is imperative to have staff dedicated to this task.

ICTSL Regulatory and Legislative Framework

BOARD
ICTSL is the special purpose vehicle that acts as the nodal agency for the development and operation of an integrated multi
Municipal modal transit system including BRT in the Indore Metropolitan Area. The road ownership for the entire right-of-way remains with
Commissioner, CEO, IDA the IMC. The maintenance of motor vehicle lanes, cycle tracks and other general road amenities is also the responsibility of
Indore
IMC. It will be paid through revenue generated from enhanced property taxes and receipts from additional FAR provided along
Chief
Vendors Executive the BRT corridor. Bus shelters and bus lanes will be maintained by ICTSL through its share of public transport receipts.
Officer,
Joint Collector,
Bus Operators Indore

GPS data Consultation

programmer
Chief Chartered
Technical Advisor Accountant
Advertisements

Seasonal Passes
Administrator Accountant

152 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 153
 CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE

Figure 7 Indore Bus Services Institutional Hierarchy Figure 8 ICTSL Stakeholders and Responsibilities

Private Operators Pvt. agency

State Transport Department
• State level enforcement agency of the MVA, 1988 • Buses • Issuing bus passes
• Operations • collection of fees
• Fare Collection
Regional Transport Authority
• Sets fares for all transportation providers
• Issues vehicular registration and permits
• Collection of road taxes

Transport Trading Limited

• Bus Terminals • Road Infrastructure • Land Acquisition & • Route Permits

Indore City Transport Services Ltd Para-transit Operators • Parking Infrastructure • Bus Stops Development • Fare Setting
• Planning for all aspects of bus service • Operate mini-buses and vans • Implementation of • Tracking, Monitoring
• Sets Bus Fare structure • Bridge gaps in feeder network ICTSL IMC Road Infrastructure & Inspection
• Provides terminal infrastructure • Often compete with ICTSL
• Monitors service quality • Information
• Research and Development IDA ICTSL Technology systems
• Runs a parallel fleet taxi service • Traffic patrol
• Traffic safety Pvt. agency

Private Operators
• Provide bus services Indore Traffic • Vehicular permits
• Provide assets, including Police • Tax collection
• Under Contract with ICTSL

RTO

Public Private Partnership Model

Under the Public Private Partnership model, the public agencies are in charge of infrastructure provision, service regulation, The successful public private partnership framework of ICTSL requires almost no investment from the state and has become a
tracking, supervision and performance monitoring. Bus operations, ITS, issuance of seasonal passes and fare collection are successful model for the provision of public transport in the country. It has recognized as a model to replicate in other Indian
contracted to private vendors based on an open bidding process. cities by the Ministry of Urban Development and officials of the World Bank.

ICTSL has made office space available for each of the private bus operators within their own city premises. This allows for good Variation with the bus procurement scheme
communication between ICTSL and the operators. Conflicts are identified and resolved in lesser time due to the healthy
relationship between these actors. The city of Indore has secured Rs. 70 crores ($14 million) from the Indian government to purchase 170 new transit buses
featuring low-entry platforms and air conditioned interiors. The new fleet has the potential to double the city's total bus ridership,
ICTSL also includes suggestions from bus operators in planning decisions. For instance, suggestions from operators were which currently measures at about 100,000 passengers per day. The funding also creates the opportunity to switch the entire
incorporated in the design of the schedule for new fleet induction. fleet of buses to compressed natural gas. The one-time funding assistance, allocated under the JnNURM programme, was
unveiled earlier this year to help mission cities purchase city buses for their BRT systems.

However, these buses come with a condition that the ownership of the buses must remain with ICTSL. As a result, a new financial
arrangement has been developed so as to accommodate buses from both the current contracts and from the new scheme
without compromising the existing relationship with the private bus operators.

The buses procured by ICTSL will be leased to private operators at a fixed monthly charge in order to recover capital costs and
interest. On recovery of the entire amount at the end of the lease term, the ownership of the buses will be transferred to the
private operators who can continue to run operations as is being done currently.

This arrangement thus results in the recovery of an amount equivalent to the grant from the central government, which can then
be used for future investments by ICTSL. A cursory look at the various options shows that charging the operators a monthly
amount in the range of Rs. 30,000 to 40,000 over a term of 7 years to lease the buses is financially feasible for both the
operators and ICTSL.

154 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 155
 CASE STUDY 5 – INDORE
CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

4. Reform efforts in Indore:

CASE STUDY 6
On submission of a Detailed Project Report to the MoUD in September 2006, a BRTS project was approved for JnNURM
funding in December 2006. As per the BRTS master plan, 88 kms of BRT routes have been identified. The project will be
AHMEDABAD
implemented in two phases.
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: August 2010
Travel Demand Analysis
1. Introduction: City Context
No elaborate travel demand estimation has been done for the BRTS project. A comprehensive traffic and transportation plan
was developed for Indore in 2000. The projections from this study were used to choose the routes. The raw data or Origin- Ahmedabad is the largest city in the state of Gujarat and the seventh largest city in India. In the last decade, the city has
Destination data from this study is not available. As per the study, the peak hour public transport passenger trips per direction witnessed an enormous growth in its economy with the establishment of various industries, expansion of the Information
demand on the pilot BRT corridor varies from 500-2500 passengers at various points. This is expected to increase five times with Technology sector, and significant improvements in transportation and communications. Rapid economic development
a modal public transport share of 42%, and to 6000-25000 by 2021 with a modal public transport share of 50%. resulted in rapid urbanization.

Finances Ahmedabad has a population of 5.6 million people. The city is spread over 440 Sq.km of area. The river Sabarmati cuts the
city into two parts: the eastern walled city and western Ahmedabad on either side of its banks. The population of the
A JnNURM fund of Rs. 868 crores was estimated for the entire BRT system. 98.45 crores were sanctioned for the pilot project Ahmedabad urban agglomeration has increased from 3.31 Million in 1991 to 4.5 Million in 2001. Known as the textile
under JnNURM. A grant of 20% was received from Madhya Pradesh state government and a 30% contribution came from local capital of India, it is also a major industrial and financial city contributing about 14% of the total investments in all stock
Indore agencies, Indore development authority (IDA) and Indore municipal corporation (IMC). A 350 crore project has been exchanges in India and 60% of the total productivity of Gujarat state.
submitted to Government of India for the river-side corridor and the Public Private Partnership
Table 1 Ahmedabad Statistics
Work was awarded to the contractors on June 22nd 2007 and is in progress. About 20% of the funds have been spent and 15-
20% of the infrastructure work is complete. Population 5.6 million The street network in Ahmedabad evolved organically and
Annual Growth Rate of Population 6% may be classified as exhibiting a ring-radial form. There are
5. Conclusion about 20 well-defined radials; 12 in the west and 8 in the
Registered vehicle population 1.45 million
east. Ashram road, running along the river Sabarmati, also
Things Done Well: Annual Growth Rate of Vehicles 6.8 %
functions as a north-south radial. The Ahmedabad
% 2 wheelers 73%
Municipal Corporation manages a large road network of
• Administration led the initiative from the front. Average trip length (excluding walking) 6.8 km 1272 km, of which 93% are surfaced roads.
• Re-organization of all the civic utilities to edge of the street.
Registered vehicles in the city are increasing at an average annual rate of about 13 percent per annum. During the year
• Creation of a Special Purpose Vehicle in ICTSL provides a workable distribution of responsibilities, incentives and risks in
2001-02, number of new vehicles registered was 4.3 lakh. This has risen to 5.1 lakh and 5.7 lakh during 2002-03, and
project development and operation - the public sector is in charge of infrastructure, planning, supervising and controlling
2003-04 respectively. Ahmedabad district had a total of 14.9 Lakh motor vehicles registered in the year 2004, of which 73%
operations, while the private sector is responsible for procuring buses, bus operations and fare collection.
were two wheelers.
• Introduction of information technology systems for live information feeds and live tracking of buses.
Figure 1 Distribution of Registered Vehicle Types in Ahmedabad
• Evolution of a performance monitoring system to identify system weaknesses and areas for improvement.
• Appropriate redesign of the financial arrangement between ICTSL and private operators for seamless integration of stimulus Bus LCV
package schemes into the current system, without adversely affecting the bus system. 1.64% 1.06% Taxi
Trucks 0.41%
• Reservation of 50 percent of the bus seats has allowed women a secure commute in the city of Indore. 2.03%
MUV
Things that need improvement:
4.45%
• Financial planning for non-infrastructure components needs to include operations and maintenance of the system. The
3 Wheelers
project was initiated with grants from JnNURM, which are limited to the infrastructure investments only. As a result the project 5.01%
has become very infrastructure focused. 2 Wheelers
72.91%
• There is no dedicated full time, trained staff at ICTSL. The success of the organization depends heavily on individuals rather Car
than a stable system. 12.50%
• A more organized study and approach to dealing with the existing minibuses and IPT services is required.

156 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 157
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

Like many Indian cities, non-motorized transport accounts for a large portion (54%) of daily trips. 37% of trips are on foot and Figure 2 Ahmedabad Bus Services Route Map
another 17% on bicycles. 25% percent of trips are on two-wheelers, while 2.5% of trips used cars. Car use in Ahmedabad is thus
still limited. Auto rickshaws and shared autos account for 8.5% of trips which and these travellers are the most likely candidates
for conversion towards using bus services. Public transport ridership as a percentage of total trips was a little over 8%. In Bus patronage levels in Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad, on average, a person spends about Rs.103 on travel every month which is quite low. have started to decline drastically
since the year 2000, in large part due
Table 2 Modal Shares in Ahmedabad to an insufficient number of buses to
cater to the ever-increasing needs of
Mode Mode Share the population in the city and stiff
Walk 37% competition from intermediate modes
Bicycle 17% of transport such as shared auto-
Two Wheeler 25% rickshaws plying on the same routes
Auto Rickshaw 8.5% as the buses. Since 2000 there has
Car 2.5%
been a steady decline in the fleet size.
Table 3 shows service parameters and
Bus 8.0 %
ridership for the bus system from
Total 100%
1995 to 2005. As can be seen from
the Table 3 and Figures 3 and 4, the
2. Ahmedabad Bus System Characteristics fleet size in 2005 is lower than it was
in 1995. The number of buses per
Institutional Setup
lakh of population decreased from 19
The Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Service (AMTS), functioning under the supervision of the Ahmedabad Municipal in 1995 to 11 in 2005. Ridership in
Corporation (AMC), is responsible for providing public transportation services in the city. AMTS is a 63 year old organization 2005 was half of what it was in 1995.
originally set up in April 1947. At the time, their fleet size was 112 buses and they operated on historic routes previously run by
private operators. The organization is under the administrative control of a Transport Committee formed by the General Board
of the AMC. The Transport Committee is made up of nine members. These members are from various fields and need not
necessarily be elected Municipal Corporators. A Transport Manager heads the administration of AMTS and exercises all
administrative and operational powers under the control and supervision of Transport Committee. Financial control of the
organization, however, lies with the General Board of the AMC. The AMTS has no capital base. Ahmedabad Municipal
Commission provides financial assistance as required in the form of interest-bearing loans.

Service Provision

AMTS buses have been in service from 1947. Most of the bus routes are historic routes and very few changes have been made. Table 3 Ahmedabad Bus Service Statistics, 1995 - 2005
Consequently, although the city has grown rapidly both on eastern as well as western sides of the Sabarmati River, a large
number of bus routes still continue to terminate or pass through the walled city centre. AMTS caters to 6 lakh trips every day. Year Fleet-size Routes Service kms per day Buses per lakh of population Passengers per day (in millions)
About 200 routes are in operation with a fleet size of 750 buses. The routes cover over 200 Sq km of the city’s area. A majority
1995 705 180 115123 19 0.63
of the bus routes are structured around the work centres that used to exist in and around the walled city. But the scenario has now
changed with the development of major commercial sub-centres in the western parts of city. The existing AMTS route structure 1996 724 170 119563 19 0.68
falls short of catering to this new spatial structure of the city. 1997 820 164 134192 21 0.80

Also, because of the vast coverage area of AMTS, the services are spread thinly and buses have to cover large distances 1998 882 166 141726 22 0.79
irrespective of demand along the route. This has also led to longer journey times and waiting times at the bus stops. AMTS route 1999 882 132 150134 22 0.80
lengths average about 17 kms and range from 5 kms to 57 kms. About 55 per cent of buses operate on routes having lengths
2000 942 144 155675 22 0.76
of 10 to 20 kms with a running time of between 30 and 90 minutes. The average speed of an AMTS bus is 15km/hr
and the average waiting time at bus stops is around 15 minutes (Louis Berger, 2000). Moreover, the inefficient road network 2001 886 140 151245 21 0.68
and buses plying on parallel routes have worsened the situation. The AMTS average bus stop spacing is only 410 meters, which 2002 801 136 124375 18 0.57
is convenient for passengers but results in longer travel time and delays. In the absence of faster bus services, the average
2003 687 115 81802 15 0.39
operating speed of AMTS buses is between 15-20 kmph. At present AMTS has bus terminals at eleven locations in the city:
Lal Darwaja, Kalupur, Sarangpur Maninagar, Hatkeshwar, Vasna, Memnagar and Vadaj being the prominent ones. A repair 2004 601 110 76028 13 0.33
and maintenance workshop is located at Jamalpur which caters to the needs of the entire AMTS fleet. Figure 2 shows the AMTS
2005 540 117 77411 11 0.35
route network

158 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 159
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

Figure 3 Ahmedabad Bus Service Fleet Size and Route trend, 1995 - 2005 Table 5 Growth in vehicle types in Ahmedabad, 1971 - 2001

1000
Year All Vehicles Two Wheelers Three Wheelers AMTS Buses
900
800 Total Growth Total Growth Total Growth Total Growth

700 1971 62922 - 21702 - 4865 - 525 -

600
500
1981 165620 163% 86550 299% 16741 244% 610 16%
Fleet -size
400 Routes 1991 538182 225% 361372 318% 38359 249% 756 24%
300
200 2001 1210278 125% 863003 139% 65868 72% 886 17%
100 Total Growth (71-2001) 1823% 3877% 1253% 69%
0
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
AMTS has no capital base to finance various capital expenditures such as the replacement of old buses and the expansion of the
fleet to meet with the growing transport needs of the city. They are required to take interest-bearing loans from AMC, to the
Figure 4 Ahmedabad Bus Service Daily Ridership (millions), 1995 - 2005 detriment of their financial health. The AMTS is also required to fulfil various social objectives in terms of providing subsidized
travel for a large number of students and assisting in the movement of police personnel, physical challenged personnel and
Passengers per day (in millions)
senior citizens without any reimbursement or added subsidy. These social objectives also result in an unnecessary burden on its
0.90
financial health. Fare revision is a highly politicised issue and the resulting failure to raise fares when needed also results in
0.80
heavy losses. Furthermore, there is no effective monitoring system for bus operations which has resulted in poor service quality.
0.70
0.60 The Government of Gujarat had declared 2005 the ‘Year of Urban Development’. During this year, the urban development
0.50 department undertook various initiatives to resolve urban issues such as traffic management, and the introduction and
0.40 enhancement of a city transport system. AMC loaned over Rs. 100 crores to AMTS to help restructure the organization, which
0.30 was suffering from huge pension commitments as a result of staff ratios of 10-11 employees per bus. Voluntary retirement
0.20 schemes were used to reduce the number of employees. The small fleet of 450 buses, mostly older diesel models, were retired
0.10 and replaced with the new CNG buses, the purchase of each of which was subsidised to the tune of Rs. 5 lakhs. An additional
0.00 500 CNG buses were added to the fleet to increase service levels. The fleet size of AMTS which had come down from 886 buses
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
in 2001 to 540 in 2005 was restored to its 2001 levels in a few years. Fleet utilization has also improved since 2006. The trend
of increasing number of cancelled service kilometres was reversed and the supply of buses increased.
Table 4 shows total revenues and deficits in the last 10 years. Deficits witnessed a sharp increase in the year 2000 and have AMTS has also begun upgrading the red-buses carrying local passengers in Ahmedabad. The new environmental friendly
remained very high since then. From 2000 onwards, there has been a steady decline in the fleet size. The number of very old buses will run on CNG fuel. Some of the new features in these buses are:
buses in the fleet increased considerably, resulting in unreliable services as well as increased costs of repairs & maintenance.
The average age of an AMTS bus is 11.5 years, which is unusually high. • Low floor buses with sliding doors on both sides

Table 4 Ahmedabad Bus Service Revenues and Costs (lakh Rs.) 1995 - 2005 • Comfortable fibre seats. Latest handling, steering and dashboard systems
Year Traffic Revenue Other Revenue Total Revenue Gross Costs Deficit
• Passenger capacity of 33 seated, 60 standing
1995 4572.08 187.19 4759.27 5766.99 1007.72
1996 4937.76 367.36 5305.12 6169.03 863.91 • Four LCD screens in each bus
1997 5723.76 283.96 6007.72 7528.44 1520.72
• GPS connectivity available
1998 6921.9 234.75 7156.65 8723.21 1566.56
1999 7420.92 295.41 7716.33 10286.04 2569.71 • Fire safety kit, announcement system and emergency window
2000 7685.09 356.01 8041.1 12214.01 4172.98
There will be 145 such buses on road by end of the year 2010. AMTS eventually intends to buy 400 such buses at a total cost of
2001 8223.14 318.64 8541.78 13752.29 5210.51
Rs 117 crore.
2002 7607.96 448.99 8056.95 11996.53 3939.58
2003 4734.33 250.37 4984.7 10134.53 5149.84
2004 4548.37 1181.85* 5730.22 11161.79 5431.58
2005 5266.78 328.35 5595.13 9618.61 4023.48

160 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 161
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

Figure 5 New AMTS Red Bus • To keep a medium and long term perspective
• To choose options which are technically feasible to implement (road width, corridor length, fewer bottleneck-junctions, level
crossings, flyovers)
• To minimize negative environmental and social adverse Issues, and
• To ensure system wide impact.

Figure 7 shows the BRT network.

Figure 7 Planned Ahmedabad BRT Corridors

The planners envisioned the BRT system as an interconnected

network and not independent corridors. Importance was given to
connect key origins and destinations. The goal was to connect
busy places but avoid busy roads. This was to limit disruption to
normal traffic. The BRT system is a contentious concept and
Ahmedabad took all precautions to manage the expectations of
people. Phase 1 was built on wide roads with least inconvenience
to existing traffic. This helped in gaining public approval for the
3. Ahmedabad Bus Rapid Transport concept. Phase I was also build along some low income, low
accessibility zones in an effort to bolster area development.
Project Conception
Project Implementation and Design
In 2001 Ahmedabad was ranked as the most polluted city in India, out of 85 cities studies, by the Central Pollution Control
Board. Taking this as a wakeup call, the state government recognised the need to take drastic steps to curtail pollution levels in In 2007, Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation floated a Special
this city. The year 2005 was declared as the "Year of Urban Development". Auto rickshaws and buses were gradually converted Purpose Vehicle (SPV) to implement and run the BRT system. This
into CNG and plans were made to improve public transport services. Bus fleet size was almost doubled from 560 to 1100. Of SPV is named “Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited” (AJL). AJL is an
these 650 are CNG and diesel buses meeting Euro-III standards. As a result, by 2008 Ahmedabad had moved down the list of autonomous body headed by the Municipal Commissioner of
most polluted cities in India, from 1st to 50th place. Ahmedabad and has on its board representatives from the local
Ahmedabad's population is expected to grow from 5.6 million in 2010 to over 10 million by 2035. The city area is also likely to
government, the state government and experts in urban
increase to about 1000 sq km by 2035. Minimizing the negative impacts of this growth is possible only with the development of
transport. AJL is heading the planning and design of 88 km of BRT roads in Ahmedabad. It is in charge of floating tenders,
an efficient rapid public transport system. In 2004, a feasibility study for a ‘Metrorail’ system was conducted on a small 6km
finalizing contracts and running operations as the BRT system moves towards completion.
stretch. The project is yet to start construction.
Bus operations have been contracted to private operators under the gross cost contracting model. Separate contractors have
Figure 6 Proposed Ahmedabad Metro Rail corridor
been hired to maintain landscaping, bus stations and other operations. Janmarg (translates to "People's way") is being branded
Given the projected increases in population and area, the city as an efficient and effective public transport system.
and state governments realised that no single mode can serve the
The operations plan was developed in such a way that BRT operations would work in conjunction with the existing AMTS routes.
mobility needs of the city and that it was best to consider both
This was to ensure that the two systems complement each other rather than compete with each other. Three types of routes have
Metro rail and Bus Rapid Transport systems. The BRT concept was
been developed to operate bus transport services -
further boosted by a visit from the former mayor of Bogotá, Mr.
Enrique Peñalosa. He presented the success story of the • BRT Trunk Routes
TransMilenio BRT system in Bogotá to the local authorities. In
2005, the Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology • Complementary Routes (AMTS)
(CEPT) was awarded the contract for the development of a BRT • BRT Feeder Routes
system. From conception to implementation, CEPT worked in
partnership with Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC) to Figure 8 shows the 10 routes that are proposed for BRT trunk routes in the initial year. These would be put into operations in
finish the project within budget and schedule. The BRT system was phases as each section of the network is constructed and ready for operations.
developed with the following guiding principles:

• Given the present low levels of public transit patronage

(7-8% mode share) the prime task of BRTS is to develop a
market for public transport.

162 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 163
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

Figure 8 Janmarg BRT Routes, Phase 1 Table 6 BRT Pilot Route Operations Plan

Characteristic Description
Pilot Route R.T.O. to Kankaria
Route length 18.5 kms (one direction)
Number of Stations 26
Operational Timings 6:00 AM to 11:30 PM.
Peak hours 8:30 AM – 11:30 AM ; 5:00 PM – 8: 00 PM
Frequency 4 minutes (peak) ;8- 10 minutes (rest of the day)
Total Buses 25
Total Round Trips 132
Daily Ridership 37,000 to 43,000
Average Speeds 27 to 29 kmph

BRT SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS

Following are the BRT system characteristics:

• System Type - Closed system: BRT lanes are restricted only for BRT buses. The exclusive BRT lanes are physically separated
from the rest of the traffic by a physical barrier. This will ensure efficiency in operations and maintenance. Most of the
successful BRT systems in the World, such as the ones in Bogota and Curitiba are closed systems.

• Running Way - Centre Running: Experiences worldwide suggest having the BRT system in the central verge (median lane) of
the roadway is a better option than curbside lanes. For the city of Ahmedabad, given the constraints of road widths,
encroachments, cattle menace and traffic disorder, the median lane option for BRT is recommended.

• Stations - Stations have been aesthetically designed and set up for level boarding. Following are the features of Janmarg
stations:

o At grade boarding
A survey of the Phase 1 BRT corridor showed that over 50% of travellers use 2 wheelers. Given the hot and humid climate of
Ahmedabad, these travellers are more inclined to shift to a public transport mode if it meets their requirements. Figure 9 shows o Facility for off-board fare collection
the mode share before BRTS was started in the corridor. o Automated doors

Figure 9 Mode Share in 1st BRT Corridor prior to launch o Advertising space for additional revenue
o Easy access for physically challenged
NMT and
others o IT applications
Tractors 13.2%
0.2%
o Synchronizing doors and sensors
o 25m from intersection/mid block
Trucks
o Two buses at each side
1.6%

LCV/Tempo
3.4%

Buses Sc/Mc
1.3% 55.1%

Car / Jeep
14.8%
Auto Chhakda
10.4% Photo Credit: CEPT, Ahmedabad

164 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 165
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

• Vehicles: The Janmarg BRT system uses Euro III standard Diesel Buses with wide central doors on both sides. Following are Figure 10 Technology Components in Janmarg BRT system
some features:

• High floor buses (900mm)

IT Components in Bus
• Flat floor
• Standard bus (Capacity 80 passengers )
• Two wide central doors
• Width of doors in centre - 1960 mm
• Length of bus - 12 m
• Euro III Diesel standard
• Mix of A.C. and Non A.C.
• Use of ITS

Bus Stop: Specially designed

pneumatic doors at the bus stop for
passengers. They function with sensors.

Driver
Console

Card Validator: Placed at the

entrance, the machine will validate
the card in less tha half a second.
• ITS - ITS features such as public information system, automatic vehicle tracking system, area traffic control system and smart
cards are being implemented. All buses are equipped with GPS devices. GPS devices enable a central command centre to
monitor bus system performance in real time. The Janmarg command centre tracks bus location and bus speed. In case of • Contracts and Tenders: Ahmedabad uses gross-cost contracting for their Janmarg BRT system. The contract is for 7 years
an incident, the driver uses his cell phone to call the command centre who in turn alert the closest police station based on the and 50 buses and they are paid Rs.36 per kilometre. Rolling stock assets are with the operator. In this setup, the operator is
location of the vehicle. The system is still new and procedures are still being developed to convert GPS data into performance paid per kilometre and the authority takes all the revenue risk thereby lowering the cost per km. There is a need to monitor
indicators that can be used to monitor the performance of the system. The BRT bus stations in Ahmedabad have electronic and supervise operators to ensure the quality of service. Although existing contracts include a list of violations and associated
boards to display traveller information including the arrival time of the next bus. Inside the bus, there are automatic penalties, contracts for new routes being tendered should include performance-related criteria in order to better share of
announcements of stop names in English and Hindi. A contactless smartcard has been devised for fare collection. It was not risks and incentives.
in function as of March 2010, when a site visit was conducted.
• Enforcement- A team of ex-army servicemen have been hired as ‘BRT Police’ to support traffic police

Photo Credit: CEPT University

166 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 167
 CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD CASE STUDY 6 – AHMEDABAD

BRT Performance Figure 13 Janmarg BRT Ridership and Fare Collection

On 14 October 2009, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation inaugurated the first 12.5 kms of Janmarg, a corridor running
from RTO to Chandranagar. The corridor has been extended to Kankaria Lake, and is now 24.5 km long. The ridership has
increased to 35,000 passengers per day on weekdays and 40,000 passengers per day on weekends. About half of the trips
were works trips while the other half included social and school trips. 40% of users shifted from AMTS bus while 25% shifted
from auto rickshaw and another 20% shifted from 2 wheelers. Figure 11 shows the previous mode of Janmarg users in the 4th
month after opening.

Total passengers travelled

Total fare collection in Rs

Figure 11 Current Janmarg Users – Previous Mode

Current Janmarg Users - Previous Mode

1.30% 2.20%

Walk
Cycle
25.20% Rickshaw/Shared
40.00%
Rickshaw
2-Wheeler
20.00%
4-Wheeler
11.30% Total Passengers

4. Conclusions
Figure 12 shows the mode of access for current Janmarg users in the 4th month of operations. More than 50% of users access
Ahmedabad is the first high-end BRT system in India. There were a lot of hurdles during design and planning, but these were
the Janmarg system by foot.
overcome by strong leaders who supported the projects. The municipal commissioner of Ahmedabad, Mr.I.P.Gautam has been
Figure 12 Current Janmarg Users – Mode of Access instrumental in spearheading the BRT project and developing a consensus in the local, state and central governments. After its
opening, the Municipal commissioner, the Mayor and even the Chief Minister of the state have been promoting the BRT. In the
first few months of operation, these leaders invited delegates from various political, social and religious groups to ride the new
Current Janmarg Users - Mode of Access
bus. They have rallied around their new bus system and created a marketing campaign instilling a sense of pride among the
3.67% citizens of Ahmedabad and Gujarat. Janmarg was awarded the 'Best Mass Transit Project under JnNURM' for 2008-2009 by
Government of India and the "International Sustainable Transport Award - 2010". The sense of ownership and pride for the first
Walk
true BRT in India should help them complete the planned additional 58 kms by the end of 2011, and 88 kms by 2014.
Rickshaw
16.51% Janmarg BRTS is heading in the right direction. It is still a new system, so it remains to be seen if it can maintain its service and
1.83% Shared Rickshaw performance levels and go on to become a successful bus system.

7.80% 2-Wheeler
52.75%
10.55%
4-Wheeler
AMTS
With Someone
6.88%

168 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 169
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE
CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

CASE STUDY 7 Transportation in Bangalore

Two important National Highways pass through Bangalore City. They are NH-4, from Tumkur to Kolar and NH-7 from

BANGALORE Anathapur to Hosur. The Bangalore-Mysore Highway Corridor is also an important roadway. Bangalore City has major arterial
roads such as Kanakapura Road, Bannerghatta Road, Magadi Road and Sarjapura Road which connect Bangalore City to
rural areas outside the city.
EMBARQ Centre for Sustainable Transport – India: August 2010
Inside the city centre important roads such as Sankey Road, M.G.Road, Cubbon Road, J.C.Road, Kempegowda Road,
1. Introduction: City Context Sheshadri Road, Richmond Road, and Residency Road, form the core traffic areas. A majority of roads in Bangalore City are
operating at above capacity level. The volume-to- capacity ratio for most of the roads is above 1.
Bangalore is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of the state,
Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration [112]. Bangalore is known as the Figure 1 Google Map of Bangalore
Silicon Valley of India because of its position as the nation's leading hub for IT businesses. A demographically diverse city,
Bangalore is a major economic and cultural hub and the fastest growing major metropolis in India
[113]. The city is home to many of the most well-recognized colleges and research institutions in India. Numerous public sector
heavy industries, software companies, aerospace, telecommunications, and defence organisations are also located in the city.

According to the 2001 census, Bangalore had a population of 4.3 million which rose steadily to 5.4 million in 2010 at an
annual growth rate of 2.6%. The extent of developed area has also increased considerably - in 1971 the area was 174.7
sq.kms and today it is about 437 sq.kms.

Table 1 Bangalore Transport Indicators

Population 5.4 million

Registered vehicle population 2.9 million
Average vehicular speeds in central city > 20 km/h
Average trip length (excluding walking) >8 km

The number of motor vehicles registered in Bangalore increased from 2,36,000 in 1983 to 6,84,497 in 1992 and 2,100,000
by December 2004, a phenomenal rate of increase 289% and 278% respectively during the two periods. Table 2 shows the
growth in vehicles from 1980 to 2005. Out of the total 21 lakhs registered vehicles in Bangalore in 2004, 15.42 lakh vehicles
are 2 wheelers and 3.3 lakhs vehicles are cars, meaning that in total 88.17% of all vehicles are personal vehicles. This does not
include the floating vehicle population.

Table 2 Growth of Registered Vehicles, 1980-2005

Year Vehicles Total Growth Average Annual

(from 1985) Growth
1980 1,75,325
1985 3,06,589 175% 12%
1990 6,01,059 196% 14%
1995 8,70,659 145% 8%
2000 14,38,057 165% 11%
2002 17,38,929 121% 10%
2003 19,12,341 110% 10%
2004 21,57,480 113% 13%
2005 22,72,239 105% 5%

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 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

Bangalore has one of the most extensive networks of public bus transport in India. The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport underground section with the rest being elevated. It connects the eastern and western areas of Bangalore.
Corporation (BMTC) is the sole provider of public transport services, including bus services, in the city. With a mixed fleet of
5593 buses of various makes and capacities operated by BMTC, about 4 million passengers a day are carried on 2368 routes Figure 2 Namma Metro Route Map
(2009 Data) [112]. On any given day, BMTC operate 583 city and 1785 suburban routes running a total of 76266 trips
[40].The base fare is Rs. 3 for the first 2 km and Rs. 2 more for every additional kilometre. BMTC operates all its buses. They do
not use private contractors currently and have no plans to use them in future. They have 30 depots spread throughout their
region so there are minimal dead kilometres in getting to and from the bus starting and terminal point. BMTC owns their entire
bus fleet. They even have their own bus body building centres. Their Shantinagar workshop performs body building and
reconditioning of assemblies. Their innovations in body building have improved aesthetics and resulted in fuel savings with
better kilometre-per-litre & emissions-per-kilometre performance.

Table 3 BMTC Statistics

Fleet size 5593

Number of Routes (including city and suburban) 2368
Route km 13,00,000
Average passengers per day 4,000,000

In the last 5 years, they have increased the number of scheduled services by 140% [41], thereby doubling their daily revenue.
Ridership has been increasing at a steady 10% per year.

BMTC also boasts of being the safest bus transport system in India with an average of 267 accidents per year. In an effort to
attract private vehicle users, BMTC purchased an initial set of 50 high quality Volvo buses and added premium AC routes in the
IT corridor in January 2006. They currently own about 200 Volvo buses. Overall, the ridership in the AC buses has been far
from satisfactory [37]. Their operating costs are higher than their earnings.

To simplify bus routes and improve coverage, BMTC started direction based services marketed as ‘Big10’ in February 2010.
The high frequency, green and blue colour Big10 buses run on 12 major radial roads in and out of the city. ‘Kendra Sarige’
buses were introduced to operate in a circular route on the ring roads around the city. In conjunction with citizens groups, BMTC
recently conducted a 'Bus Day' on February 4, 2010 to promote public transport usage. The event was mildly successful Travellers that live outside the Metro catchment area or cannot afford the service will have to continue relying on buses for their
prompting BMTC to declare the 4th of every month as a 'Bus Day.' trips.
To improve public transport further even further, a rail-based rapid transit system called the Namma Metro is being developed 2. History of BMTC
and is expected to be operational by 2011. It is expected to connect central locations in Bangalore to Devanahalli and the
Chikballapur regions. Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Ltd (BMRCL) is the agency responsible for its implementation. The first Before the establishment of the BMTC, Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) used to run bus operations in the
stretch between Bayappanahalli to M.G. Road is scheduled to open in December 2010. entire state. KSRTC has been in operation since August 1961. Between 1997 and 2000, the company restructured operations
and created three new agencies to run bus services. BMTC was created on August 15, 1997 to operate buses in the Bangalore
The first phase of the project comprises 42.3 kilometres (26.3 mi) of route length with 8.8 kilometres (5.5 mi) underground and Metropolitan area. It had an operational jurisdiction 20Kms beyond the Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) borders.
most of the rest elevated [114]. Later the area was extended up to 25km beyond the BBMP limits.
Table 4 Namma Metro Phase 1 Figure 3 Reorganization of KSRTC

Line Terminals Opened Length Stations

1 Hesaraghatta Road Puttenahalli Estd. 2011 24.2 km 22
2 Baiyappanahalli Mysore Road Estd. 2010 18.1 km 18
Total: 42.3 km 40

The Green line of the Bangalore Metro will consist of twenty two stations from Hesaraghatta Cross to Puttenahalli Terminal. The
line will measure 24.2 kilometres (15.0 mi) and will be mostly elevated, with 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) and two stations
underground [114]. The line will connect the Northern and Southern areas of Bangalore.

The Purple line consists of 22 stations from Baiyappanahalli Terminal to Mysore Road [114]. The 18.1 km line has a 3.4 km

172 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 173
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

Before this restructuring, the BMTC was called Bangalore Transport Service (BTS). BTS incurred losses continuously for many Table 5 Transport Corporation Performance, Various Cities (2006)
years. Figures 4 and 5 show profits and losses from years 1992 to 2007. As can be seen, the agency incurred heavy losses until
BMTC was created in 1997. Thereafter, the agency turned its financial performance around very quickly and has recorded Benchmark BMTC BEST DTC MTC STC
impressive profits. Bangalore Mumbai Delhi Chennai Calcutta

Figure 4 Bangalore Transport Service Profits/Losses, 1992 - 1997 Fuel Efficiency (kmpl) 4.66 3.31 3.94 3.77 3.70

Bus utilization/day (in km) 217.90 194.20 204.60 208.70 124.10

Loss (in millions of Rs) 1992 - 1997
0 Effective km per staff/day 45.59 19.20 24.93 32.62 18.66

Staff per bus 5.00 11.50 9.07 8.15 11.54

1992-93

1993-94

1994-95

1995-96

1996-97

1997-98
-50
Revenue per bus/day (in Rs) 4,952.00 7,573.00 4,055.00 5,946.00 2,990.00
-100
Cost per bus/day (in Rs) 4,188.00 9,692.00 11,064.00 7,019.00 7,373.00
-150
Number of buses in fleet 3,977.00 3,391.00 3,467.00 2,778.00 1,144.00
-200
Average age of buses 4.47 5.56 4.70 8.39 6.41
-250
Net profit/loss (Rs., millions) 1,148.80 -2,379.30 -5,913.30 -851.60 -1,054.10
-300
-350 Institutional Setup resulted in fuel savings with better KMPL & EPKM.

-400 The Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation came 3. BMTC Bus Services
into existence in 1997 with the sole aim of providing public
Figure 5 BMTC Profits, 1998 - 2007 transportation to the city of Bangalore and its suburban Vayu Vajra Airport Service
areas. The mission of the organization is to provide safe,
reliable, clean and affordable travel to everyone. BMTC operates services to Bangalore International Airport,
Profits (in millions of Rs) 1998 - 2007 known as ‘Vayu Vajra’, using high-end Volvo buses that offer
BMTC is headed by a Chairman, who presides over all the air-conditioned comfort to passengers in an effort to wean
2500 them away from personalized modes of travel. Figure 6
departments. The chairman is assisted by a Vice-chairman
2000 and a Managing Director. They have separate directors shows the type of new bus used for these routes. The service is
overseeing services, projects and technical departments. available round the clock, providing seamless connectivity
1500 Depots are managed by separate managers. A few years ago between important areas of the city and the airport. Figure 7
BMTC went from a three-tier to two-tier management shows the routes for Vayu Vajra operations. Vayu Vajra can
1000 also be used to travel in the city on special fares until Hebbal.
structure consisting of the central office and depots. This
500 resulted in effective supervision and control and eliminated The stops are limited, and therefore the service is in effect an
duplication of work. express service. Fares start from Rs 120 and go up to a
0 maximum of Rs 230. The routes have a frequency of 20
1998-99

1999-00

2000-01

2001-02

2002-03

2003-04

2004-05

2005-06

2006-07

Service Provision minutes to 1 hour between buses, depending on the time of

day.
Bangalore has one of the most extensive networks of public
bus transport in India. Bus services are operated by Figure 6 BMTC Airport Bus
Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC). With
BMTC, being relatively new, is a much leaner and more efficient organization compared to Mumbai's BEST which was a mixed fleet of 5593 buses of various make and capacity
established in 1947. BMTC has 27,000 employees and about 5600 buses. Their employee per bus ratio (4-5 employees per operated by BMTC, about 4 million passengers a day are
bus) is the lowest in the country. Table 5 shows the performance of BMTC against a few benchmark parameters. BMTC has been carried on 2307 routes (2009 Data). BMTC operates all its
recording profits consistently for many years and is one of the few public sector undertakings in Asia to make profits. They have buses. They do not use private contractors currently and have
the youngest fleet of buses in the country due to which their kilometre-per-litre performance is also higher than other no plans to use them in future. They have 30 depots spread
undertakings. throughout their region so there are minimal dead kilometres
in getting to and from the bus starting and terminal point.
BMTC owns their bus fleet. They even have their own bus
body building centres. Their Shantinagar workshop performs
body building and reconditioning of assemblies. Their
innovations in body building have improved aesthetics and

174 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 175
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

Figure 7 Route Map of BMTC Airport Services (‘Vayu Vajra’) Figure 9 BMTC Vajra Service (‘IT Service’) Route Map Figure 11 BMTC Big10 Service Green Bus Figure 13 BMTC Parisaravahini Service Bus

Suvarna
Atal Sarige:
‘Suvarna’ is a newly introduced service with a fleet comprising
BIG10 of air-suspension and high comfort (without A/C) buses. ‘Atal Sarige’ services, operated through branded buses, are
There are 295 services in operation as of 31st July 2009, aimed at providing direct connectivity at cheaper rates to
Since February 2009, BMTC has been steadily introducing which are specially deployed during peak hours. areas populated by economically weaker sections. The
"Direction-based" bus services, which are easy for customers service was introduced at the behest of the State Government
Vajra to understand and use. These buses, popularly known as Figure 12 BMTC Suvarna Service Bus as a pro-poor measure and to make public transport more
‘Big10’ and ‘BigCircle’ buses, run on main roads and equitable.
‘Vajra’ services are premium services operated by BMTC. Also together form a simple grid. There are 12 major roads
known as ‘BMTC IT services’, they provide premium in and out of the city, and on each of these a Big10 route is Figure 14 BMTC Atal Sarige Service Bus
transportation in the hi-tech corridor in order to attract people operated. On the Outer Ring Road, BigCircle buses ply in
who would other use cars or two-wheelers. The service is overlapping routes. Green Big10 buses run on a single main
operated by deploying high quality Volvo buses that are air- road (e.g. Hosur Road, Bellary Road, and so on), whereas
conditioned, conform to Euro-III emissions standards, have a Blue Big10 buses connect two such roads (e.g. Hosur Road
kneeling mechanism, a collapsible exit floor and room for to Tumkur Road).
wheel-chairs. These services are hard to miss as they are
bright red in colour and operate in many localities, including Figure X shows the grid of routes. With this grid, a passenger
on the arterial and ring roads of Bangalore. These routes are can intuitively find their way around town. These are also
priced higher than the regular routes and cost a little less than high-frequency buses, with a bus every 15 minutes.
Rs 5 per kilometre. They have frequencies of 15-60 minutes Fares start at Rs 4 for the first 2 km and go up to a maximum
depending on routes and the time of day. of Rs 16.

Figure 8 BMTC Vajra Service (‘IT Service’) Bus Figure 10 BMTC Big10 Service Route Map Other Services

Ordinary services, including Parisaravahini vehicles, are

operated at ordinary passenger fare. At present there
are 5402 of those services operating in the city and in BMC FLEET DESCRIPTION
suburban areas.
BMTC has a composite fleet of buses of different makes,
1. City: Black destination board buses are operated within carrying capacities and offering different levels of comfort to
the erstwhile BMP limit. suit the specific demands of commuters. They are
2. Sub-urban: Red destination board buses are operated
1. LEYLAND/TATA BUSES: Ordinary buses with a seating
within the jurisdictional limit of BMTC (which extends up to
capacity of 44 and provision for 10 standing passengers.
25 Kms beyond the BBMP outer limits).
2. LEYLAND / TATA / EICHER PARISARA VAHINIS
3. Mofussil services are introduced on public demand to few
(seating capacity 46/44/ 48): These are specially
destinations beyond BMTC jurisdiction and operated on
configured buses conforming to environmental and anti-
KSRTC fare. These are limited services.

176 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 177
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

pollution norms with Euro-2 & Euro-3 engines and are more passenger friendly too as they are better upholstered and are Figure 15 BMTC Annual Bus-Kilometres Operated, 2004 - 2009
more roomy and airy.
Annual Bus kms (lakhs)
3. LEYLAND ARTICULATED (VESTIBULES) BUSES: These buses, with a trailer attached and having a seating capacity of 65 4500 4,062
and a standing capacity of 20, are deployed on high traffic routes to satisfy high demand loads. These vestibules in 3,767
4000
operation with BMTC are mostly deployed on the ORR and long routes with good roads. 3,334
3500 3,163
4. Leyland/Tata PUSHPAK/PUSHPUK + BUSES: These buses offer a level of comfort that is a notch or two higher than 2,974
3000
ordinary buses as the seats, the upholstery and the interior are designed to make travel by them a more comfortable and
relaxing experience. These are mostly deployed for charted services to reputed institutions for their daily travel requirement. 2500
Some are also operated on selected routes in the city with a higher fare than ordinary buses. 2000

5. SWARAJ MAZDA/MINIBUSES: BMTC has minibuses for deployment on low traffic routes and on roads that not roomy 1500
enough to allow free manoeuvring of normal capacity buses. 1000
6. VOLVO CITY BUSES: BMTC has the unique distinction of world renowned, A/C, city type Volvo buses considered the 500
ultimate in quality in a city traffic scenario. BMTC considers them as its mascot. 0
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Fares

Fares for BMTC bus services are amongst the highest in the country, especially in terms of the starting fares. However they are Figure 16 BMTC Annual Bus Ridership, 2005 - 2009
not very costly in the later stages. They range from Rs 2/- a km in the first stages to Rs 0.5/- per km as the distance increases.
Annual Ridership
BMTC also issues a daily pass that costs Rs.32. It can be used for travel in any bus except the air conditioned ones. It is valid up to 5,000,000
midnight on the day of purchase and available with all conductors [115]. On producing ID cards (voter's card, driving license, 4,500,000
and so on), BMTC provides a 25% concession on fares for senior citizens in all types of buses. Children below the age of 12 are 4,000,000
given 50% concession. 3,500,000
About 46% of passengers travel using passes, which is quite high. This means that there are a large number of regular riders on
3,000,000
the system,
2,500,000
4. BMTC Bus System Performance 2,000,000
1,500,000
BMTC is one of the few public transport corporations in the world that are profitable. They have been consistently increasing the 1,000,000
number of buses and kilometres run every year and the profits recorded have also been rising every year since 2005. Table 6 500,000
below shows the detailed statistics from 2004 to 2009. 0
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
Table 6 BMTC System Performance Indicators, 2004 - 2009

Parameter 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

Figure 17 BMTC Bus Service Fleet Size, 2005 - 2009
Fleet Size 3,925 4,106 4,606 4,891 5,542
Fleet Size
Bus Kilometres 2,974 3,163 3,334 3,767 4,062
6000
Operation Costs 49,218 58,852 66,327 79,958 94,545

Fare Revenue 50,619 62,334 70,744 80,149 90,750 5000

Other Revenue 6,601 8,006 18,015 13,831 9313

4000
Ridership n/w 34,80,000 38,53,184 42,58,989 47,04,689

Passengers / Bus n/a 848 848 848 848 3000

Operational Statistics 2000

Annual bus kilometres run increased by 36% while fleet size increased by almost 40% from 2004 to 2009. Ridership increased 1000
35% and revenue went up 45% during this same period. As can be seen from the graphs below, bus services have been
increasing gradually every year resulting in an increased ridership every year. 0
2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

178 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 179
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

Financial Statistics Table 7 BMTC Costs and Earnings per Kilometre by type of bus

Revenue has increased 45% in the last 5 years. Non-farebox revenues have been especially impressive. BMTC has been renting Type of Bus Cost / KM Earnings / KM
out commercial space that it owns and this has been a good source of alternate revenue for the agency. They own about 20 lakh Bangalore
sq.ft. of real estate space. They get between Rs. 30-50 per-sqft depending on the market conditions. Advertising on buses
contributes 2% of the total revenue of the system. Advertising revenues have been lower in recent years as a result of the Regular, Non-AC 24 Rs 24 Rs
recession. At present, non-traffic revenue adds up to 5-10% of total revenue. This additional revenue is being utilized to improve Suvarna, AC 36 Rs 20 Rs
services and subsidize the transport services. BMTC aims to increase this share to 25%.
Volvo AC 48 Rs 38 Rs

Figure 18 BMTC Bus Service Revenue, 2004 - 2009

Revenue (lakhs)
5. Reform Efforts in Bangalore

100,000 BMTC has been implementing reforms to improve services and maintain profitability. Reforms have focused on the
following areas:
80,000
• Infrastructure Development - BMTC has been building additional depots, modern bus stations and parking facilities
60,000 at bus stations.
• They add new routes, new buses and increase service kilometres consistently every year
40,000
• They have added non-stop services, direction-based services, services on ring roads and night services to cater to customer's
growing needs
20,000
• They have introduced special services to cater to comfort and convenience of commuters

0
• They have modernized their fleet in recent years. They added over 4000 high-quality buses, replaced 1700 old buses and
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 added 48 Volvo Low Floor buses (2006 data). Their fleet is the youngest in the country.
• Revenue Mobilization Measures – Introduced various weekly and monthly passes. 'Rainbow benefits' from these monthly
Figure 19 BMTC Bus Service Operational Costs, 2004 - 2009 passes provide limited medical and life insurance coverage. About 40% of revenue is realized through passes. Revenue from
advertisements and renting real estate account for about 5-10% of total revenue.
Cost of Operation • Use of IT in managing operations : Deport activities have been computerized, an e-tendering system has been developed
100,000 for the procurement of goods, electronic ticketing machines have been introduced on a pilot-basis, e-route/e-GPS provide
90,000 route, schedule and bus location information to the riders at stations, and a Passenger Information System provides
80,000 additional information on 'Vajra' buses.
70,000 • Conduct bus body building in their own workshops. They have been successful in building bus bodies that reduce fuel
60,000 consumption.

50,000 BMTC recently commissioned an independent study to evaluate the performance of their buses. The report was titled
40,000 "PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF BMTC BUSES AND MEASURES TO IMPROVE THE RIDERSHIP". A total of 6000 passengers
30,000 were surveyed over a period of 75 days. Table 7 shows their ratings for various measures. Not surprisingly ‘punctuality’ and
20,000
‘reliability’ were ranked as their number one concern. The second major concern was accessibility or walking distance to the
nearest bus stop. Travel cost was rated number 3 and safety and comfort were rated last.
10,000
-
Table 8 BMTC Bus Service Passenger Survey Ratings
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09

ATTRIBUTE PERCENT
BMTC has one of the lowest employee-per-bus ratios (5-6persons/bus) which makes it much easier for them to keep their
Punctuality / Reliability 46
operation costs low. Table 7 shows the costs and earnings per kilometre for non-ac and ac buses. Regular buses are earning
enough to cover costs where as the AC bus earnings are substantially lower than their costs. If this scenario continues, it might be Accessibility (walking Distance) 28
wise to review the routes and make changes to serve origins and destinations of people in the mid-high income range that Travel Cost 14
prefer the comforts of an AC bus.
Safety 4

Comfort 8

180 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 181
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE

Over the last 5 years, BMTC has been adding at least 300-500 new buses per year in an effort to increase accessibility and Technology
frequency. Their fleet size has increased by a remarkable 35% in the last 5 years. Their bus fares, while higher for the first few
stages, are very reasonable for longer distance rides. At 3 times the cost of regular bus fare, their AC buses are also very Bangalore has the youngest fleet of any city transport corporation in India. They have many new Volvo buses which lead the
affordable when compared to private vehicles or auto rickshaws. BMTC has the youngest fleet in the industry which results in industry in terms of vehicle design and comfort. The Vajra buses are tracked using GPS and real time arrival and departure
higher fuel savings and greater passenger safety. Their new state-of the art Volvo buses are the industry standard for comfort information is displayed at the bus stops. The BIG10 buses also have GPS and can be tracked online at the www.btis.in website.
and safety. As can be seen from Table 8 and the discussion above, BMTC has been able to provide excellent service on all Other than these services, about 1000 buses have GPS fitted into them, but BMTC is still working on setting up systems to
performance measures except the first one - punctuality and reliability. download, analyze and distribute that information.

BMTC cannot guarantee on-time arrival of their buses because of heavy vehicular traffic. The average speed of BMTC buses is Most of the existing buses use diesel or petrol. There are no plans to convert the fleet to CNG until 2012.
15-18kmph, which is quite low. Many times buses cannot complete their scheduled number of trips because of heavy
congestion. The only solution to this problem is to provide bus priority. One or more lanes can be used exclusively for bus BMTC plans to construct 45 Traffic & Transit Management Centres (TTMCs) as envisioned in the Comprehensive Traffic &
movements thereby reducing the impact of congestion. This was also the recommendation of the independent stud. Listed Transportation Plan (CTTP) for Bangalore and the vision plan under JnNURM. These TTMCs are conceived as transport
below are the first and third major recommendations: infrastructure for the urban renewal project aimed at providing one stop travel to commuters. Each TTMC consists of a state of
art bus terminal, maintenance facilities, public amenities, a park-and-ride facility and provisions for inter modal connectivity. In
1. Exclusive and dedicated bus lanes with adequate service facilities for passengers. On roads which are wide enough (more turn, they also positively impact traffic congestion and address environment concerns in the long run.
than 4/6 lanes), exclusive bus lanes can be created and the work must be taken up on a priority basis. Till then, the extreme
left lane can be dedicated for buses which facilitates quicker passenger boarding and alighting as all stops are located at the Published Schedules and Route Searches
left. To start with all one way roads like Sehadri road, Nrupatunga road, Museum road, Kasturba road, RRMR road, K.G.
One very basic facility that is missing in most Indian public transport systems is the lack of published bus routes and schedules.
road, and so on can be tried for exclusive bus lanes (extreme left lane).
Information can be gathered anecdotally but there is very little information available at the bus stops or on the internet. This
2. Along K.G. Road as well as Sehadri Road, a BMTC bus either enters or exits every 8 seconds. The idea of an elevated road causes difficulties to passengers who are new to the city or those that are new to public transport. Bangalore has made many
exclusively for BMTC and KSRTC buses should be explored. This elevated road can start near the Martha’s Hospital or improvements in this area. The BMTC website now has a 'Route Search' page where you can enter your origin and destination
Cauvery Bhavan which can run directly to the K.G. Road bus stand. Adequate head room must be made available at Mysore stop or look at pull down menus of bus routes and look up the list of stops and timings. Figure 20 shows a screenshot of this
Bank Junction permitting the movement of other vehicles. With this intervention BMTC buses can increase its present speed webpage.
of 17-18 Kmph to 30 Kmph. Considering the trips performed at present, an additional one or two trips can be made to
Figure 20 BMTC Website ‘Route Search’ Screenshot
conserve fuel and time.

With new vehicles being added to the road every day, there is just not enough space for the free-flowing movement of buses.
New roads and flyovers induce more traffic and are congested within weeks of their opening. In this situation, one of the best
solutions is to prioritize movement of people over movement of cars. Cars take up more space per person than buses. For the
same amount of road space, a bus can carry 50-80 passengers compared to 3 cars carrying an average of 6 people. This
realization is what led Latin American countries to invest heavily in Bus Rapid Transport. A physically segregated middle lane of
the road was set aside for buses. Platform boarding, wide doors, automatic fare collection and signal priority were used to
improve system performance. Some of these countries have achieved extremely high performance levels of 40,000 pphpd.

Bangalore has studied the feasibility of implementing a BRT system but there are currently no concrete plans to build a BRT
corridor. Bad press from the Delhi BRT system resulted in shelving the reports from the Bangalore BRT study (Silk Road Junction -
Hebbal flyover on ring road).

Local Transportation Planning Institution

BMTC, just like most public transport corporations in the world, do not have a transportation planning and modelling division.
Most of the decisions are taken via demand-response techniques. Travel demand analysis is seldom used for planning present
or future operations. The Government of India is trying to change this by promoting the creation of UMTAs (Unified
Metropolitan Authority) that will include all major stakeholders. The UMTA will be responsible for developing comprehensive
mobility plans using reliable demand estimates. From our research, we have determined that it is very useful to have a reputed
local institution providing technical guidance.

The government of Karnataka, with support from BMTC, BDA, KSRTC and NEKRTC helped form the Centre for Infrastructure,
Sustainable Transport and Urban Planning (CiSTUP) at IISC, Bangalore. In the coming years, this institute is expected to
undertake world class research and development in sustainable transport and urban planning. This website provides only published schedules. Most buses in busy corridors are delayed because of traffic and cannot adhere
to scheduled timings. This causes an increase in wait times. A firm called MAPUNITY has devised a methodology to present the
real-time location of all BMTC buses. This information can be checked online at http://www.btis.in/ or the information can be

182 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 183
 CASE STUDY 7 – BANGALORE APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

downloaded on to a mobile phone. This facility makes it easier for the passenger to assess bus locations and delays before
APPENDIX B:
proceeding to the bus stop.

6. CONCLUSION
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
BMTC has done an incredible job over the last few decades in providing mobility to a significant portion of Bangalore's Chapter 1 Tutorial Activities:
population. However, it has been rather slow in adapting reforms and innovations. Interviews conducted with BMTC
management revealed that slow bus speeds and reliability were two of the biggest factors that need to be improved. Despite this Describe a key lesson learned by Sao Paulo, London, and Seoul (one for each) that could be applied successfully in your city:
realisation, Bangalore is focusing on adding new, comfortable and air conditioned buses while doing nothing with respect to
bus priority. Sao Paolo:

Indian and international case studies have shown that reforms take place only when political leaders are convinced about the London:
effectiveness of bus transport in solving a city's mobility needs. Government funds are limited and should be used to improve
Seoul:
transport infrastructure and services that benefits the maximum number of users from all classes of society. Bus transport is the
cheapest mode of public transport and its efficiency can be increased to match rapid rail transit by implementing bus priority Using the 7 key features of successful citywide bus reform from Chapter 1, complete the following table by summarizing
measures. Metro rail and monorail type systems are good modes of rapid transit, but are very expensive and take many years strengths and weaknesses in your city:
to construct. They are also costly and out of reach for low income households.

Bus priority is the only way to improve bus speeds and reliability. Bangalore should draw inspiration from successful BRT systems Your City
in India and the rest of the developing world. 1 Strong Political Leadership in the Decision Making process

2 Local institution leads technical planning for route reorganization

3 Implementing bus priority and building segregated infrastructure for buses

4 Use of Technology

5 Innovations in contracting

6 Need for managed subsidies to improve quality of service

7 System performance monitoring and user feedback

184 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 185
 APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Chapter 2 Tutorial Answer: Describe some tactics used by cities to reduce the occurrence of bus convoys in a BRT corridor?

Calculate Frequency and Fleet Size for the example case provided in Section 2.4. Use the information provided to calculate the
buses per hour, interval and fleet size according to data provided.

Answers:

Corridor 1 Corridor 2 Corridor 3 Total

Kilometres 15.4 10.8 9 35.2 What factors should be considered when planning for the size and aesthetics of bus stops?
Description Fort-Kadawatta Fort-Battaramula Dematagoda-Battaramula

PPHPD 4000 3000 14,000 154,000

Daily Passengers 80,000 60,000 14,000 154,000

Buses Per Hour

Interval

Fleet
Chapter 4:

Chapter 3 Tutorial Activities: Why would a transportation agency wish to adopt smaller bus vehicles?

This chapter covers the topic of Bus Priority. Describe what can be done to improve infrastructure for bus service in your city for
each of the following categories:

1. Road modifications:

What are some reasons why they would want to adopt the largest possible bus vehicles?
2. Bus stops:

3. Vehicle boarding:

Which perform better when operating at the high frequencies of a BRT line?

4. Station aesthetics:

Political pressure in London forced the new mayor to convert many bus priority lanes into bus and motorcycle lanes. Describe
both the possible short term and long term consequences of this decision for bus system priority: What are some reasons to purchase high-floor buses and construct level boarding platforms?

186 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 187
 APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Name some bus types manufactured in India for use as BRT vehicles and some of the advantages of using them: What are some ways that operators can cheat the system in both gross and net cost contracts?

Chapter 5: How does a mixed cost model help alleviate these concerns?

Where has traffic signal priority been used to generate positive benefits for public transit? How could it be used in the city you
live or work in?

London pursued Quality Incentive Contracts with Minimum Performance Measures. Describe two ways that an operator can
receive incentives by achieving the Minimum Performance Measures:
Describe how London was able to do away with roadside equipment to detect buses, yet still implement bus priority at traffic
signals:

How do GPS devices benefit the users of a public transit system? Chapter 7:

Why should capital costs be reviewed at a system level?

Chapter 6:

A public transit market with unregulated entry is likely to provide effective bus coverage throughout the city: What are some acceptable ways to use operational subsidies?
Is this True [ ] or False [ ]?

Describe the difference between Net cost and Gross cost contracts. Does gross cost provide an incentive for the bus operator to
increase ridership? Does net cost work if a large percentage of revenue is collected off-bus?

How can London justify the increased cost of subsidizing its bus operations?

188 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 189
 APPENDIX B: TUTORIAL APPENDIX C:
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS

Chapter 8:
APPENDIX C:
How does your city monitor system performance? What strategies from this chapter could your city adopt to ensure further
improvements in the future?
INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS

Describe ways to identify problematic routes or erratic scheduling along a route.

performance?
What can your city do to improve
Indore City Transport Services Ltd.
(ICTSL)

SPECIFICATIONS OF FULLY BUILT

AIR-CONDITIONED (AC) AND

NON-AC BUSES (SEMI LOW FLOOR)

For Operation in Indore City

Appendix C: Indore Bus Specifications

1.0 Introduction

1.1 The end-use requirement oriented specifications for ICTSL Indore buses are proposed for fully built Diesel
fuelled buses for urban passenger transport system with maximum make / model neutrality.

1.2 A summary of bus specs / end use requirements is given in the following Table duly supplemented with
general description at the end of the table.

190 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 191
 APPENDIX C: APPENDIX C:
INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS

Summarized Technical Specifications of Fully Built Diesel fuelled Buses

Sr. Item Required specification for Bus Configurations Sr. Item Required specification for Bus Configurations
No. A B No. A B
850+/-50 mm partial 850+/-50 mm partial 850+/-50 mm partial 850+/-50 mm partial
Non AC Semi Low Floor Buses AC Semi Low Floor Buses Non AC Semi Low Floor Buses AC Semi Low Floor Buses
1 Engine 14 Bus dimensions & other details as per
I. Type Compression ignition, water cooled, turbo charged & intercooled diesel fuelled. Bus Code (AIS 052)
ii. Fuel Diesel i Bus length 11400mm +/- 500 mm
iii Engine HP Sufficient to provide ii Bus width 2600 mm (minus tolerance of up to 30mm)
An acceleration (meter/sec/sec) of more than 0.5 0.7
iii Bus height 3800 mm max
Grade ability from stop at its GVW in degrees 8 degrees 8 degrees
iv Wheel base 6000 + 200 mm tolerance
HP of the Engines to be accordingly decided by
v Front overhang Not exceeding 45% of the wheelbase (limited to 2700mm)
he bus manufacture subject to a minimum of 150 HP 180 HP
iv Max torgue Nm at Max Engine torque required at lower range of RPM and spread over a wider range of RPM
vi Rear overhang Not exceeding 60% of the wheelbase
v Emission Norm BSIII vii Angle of Approach (unladen) Not less than 9 degrees
2 Clutch Dry signal plate, power assisted operation viii Angle of departure (unladen) Not less than 9 degrees
3 Gear Box Heavy duty synchromesh on all forward gears (5 forward gears) and constant mesh on reverse ix Ramp ove rangle (half of the break over angle) Minimum 4.8 to 5.1 degrees, as per wheel base
with power assisted gear shifting. Gear Ratios conducive to urban operation with frequent 15 Maximum floor height above the ground (mm)
stops and starts. i Axle Clearance (mm) min. 190 mm
4 Rear Axle Single reduction, hypoid gears, fully floating axle shafts with optimal gear ratios. ii Wheel Area Clearance (mm) Not less than 250mm for parts fixed to the bus body and 200mm for the parts that
5 Front Axle Heavy duty Axle suitable for various floor heights move vertically with the axle
6 Steering system Hydraulic power steering iii Minimum Ground Clearance (mm) Within the wheelbase not less than 270mm with bus unkneeled
7 Suspension system
16 Front and central service doors
i. Front Optional (Mechanical/Weveller) Optional (Mechanical/Weveller)
(Doors-collapsible inside)
ii. Rear Optional (Mechanical/Weveller/Air) Optional (Mechanical/Weveller/Air)
i Door aperture
iii. Kneeling Not Required Not Required
a) Front 800 mm (min)
iv. Anti roll bars Rear and Front Rear and Front
b) Central 1700 mm (min)
v. Shock absorbers Hydraulic double acting 2 at front and 4 at rear
8 Braking System Drum brakes for front and rear. Drum brakes for front and rear.
ii Clear door width
Graduated hand controlled, spring actuated Graduated hand controlled, spring actuated a) Front 700 mm +/- 50mm (in fully open condition)
parking brakes acting on rear wheels parking brakes acting on rear wheels b) Central 1500 mm +/- 50mm (in fully open condition)
9 Electrical system 24 volt DC 24 volt DC iii Door height 1900 mm (min)
10 Typres Steel Radial 10.00 R 20 Steel Radial 10.00 R 20 iv Type of door Double jack knife door electro pneumatically controlled.
11 Fuel Tank Capacity > 150 liters of Diesel fuel Opening/Closing time< Four seconds.
12 Air conditioning Heating, ventilation and air conditioning v Position of service door Max 1500 mm ahead of the Center of the Rear Axle, Front ahead of the front axle
system is to be roof mounted. Power vi First step - height of service door Maximum 400 mm for the 1st step from Ground (Unkneeled)
supply is to be from bus engige. The time vii Locations excluding driver doors Front door - In front of driver door
required for obtaining nominal Central door- Between two wheels arches
temperature of 20 degree celsius in the 17 Type of bus body Type I as per bus code Type I as per bus code
saloon under above operating and Floor material as Marine plywood board of 19mm tickness, superimposed with Anti-skid
loading conditions shall be provided by the type Silicon grains of non-skid material of silicon grain of minimum 3mm thickness
bidder besides tonnage total power
18 Safety fitting and glasses
consumption of AC system for 16hrs of
i Front windscreen Laminated Safety Glass, plain, flat with curved corners with PVB film insert as per
operation maintaining saloon temperature
IS 2553 (part-2) 1992 or latest min. size in mm
of 23 degrees celsius under continous
(2300-2500*8mm* one piece) (2300-2500*8mm* one piece))
operation of vehicle with dooors closed
and load etc. The noise levels of AC ii Side window Flat, 2-piece design with top fixed & bottom sliding toughened glasses of thickness
system shall be as required under the 4.8 -5.3mm
Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR). In iii Rear windscreen Single piece curved toughened glass with plain/flat at centre and curved at
case of AC shall be provided on each side corners of thickness
of pillar on both sides of the bus and one 800-900 * (2200-2300) mm 800-900 * (2200-2300) mm
fan in driver's cabin. The heating, iv Emergency exit window glasses Toughened glasses of min area of 4000 sq cm and thickness 4.8-5.3mm per gate
ventilation and air-conditioning system v Front and rear service door glasses With 4 Toughened glasses of thickness 4.8-5.3mm per gate
shall maintain an inside temperature on 19 Passenger Seats 2*2 layout > * 38-40 seats of 350*350mm 2*2 layout > * 38-40 seats of 350*350mm
18 degree+/- 3 degrees. (minimum) seating space, made up of (minimum) seating space, made up of
13 Bus System performance Minimum Requirement 'PPLD/LDPE' moulded material. 'PPLD/LDPE' moulded material.
Description Specifications Number of Standees > 32. Number of Standees > 32.
i Acceleration m/s > 0.5 > 0.7 20 Lighting - passenger compartment Sunken type tube light assembly of 20 W transistorized inverter with slim type
ii Speed 0-16 kmph in secs <8 <6 600mm long fluorescent tube rod of 18W
iii Speed 0-32 kmph in secs < 16 < 13 21 Wind screen wiper Two numbers Electrically operated, complete with two wiper arms & blades, wiper
iv Speed 0-48 kmph in secs < 27 < 23 motor of heavy-duty steel body with minimum 2-Speed operation. Variable speed
v Speed 0-60 kmph in secs < 42 < 34 with time delay relay. 24V*150W. Minimum of 20-40 cycles per minute panoramic type
vi Maximum speed full load (GVW) 70-80 kmph 22 Floor materials Marine board, High density BWR, thickness 19mm
23 Anti- skid materials Anti skid vinyl flooring type silicon grains (as per GER-Floor)

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INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS INDORE BUS SPECIFICATIONS

2 Main Scope of specifications / end use requirements: 2.2.6 The bus body design shall be a proved design duly evaluated by the agencies authorized as per CMVR / Central
Institute of Road Transport, Pune (CIRT) using Finite Element Analysis for the above loads / performance requirements
The specifications cover the main end use based design features of various floor height city operation buses for for values for the above loads / conditions / performance parameters as given in subsequent paragraphs.
transportation of passengers mainly in Indore municipal areas.
2.3.7 The minimum required performance values / data for above load conditions may be considered as follows:
The bus design shall be energy efficient, environment friendly, safe, efficient and reliable besides meeting all
statutory, legal and other requirements, as also those related to easy passenger accessibility including for persons i. Strength (Factor of safety): minimum of 3 (tolerance – minus 10%) i.e. design stress shall be 1/3rd of
with disabilities, passenger comfort, driver’s work place, internal and external aesthetics, ease of repair and yield stress.
maintenance etc.
ii. Stiffness (Deflection): 5mm.
2.1 The bus specifications envisage compliance with all applicable Central, State and local laws (including Acts, Rules &
Regulations). These shall include, but are not be limited to, the Disability Act 1995 as amended till date as well as state iii. Vibrations (Lowest Natural Frequency):5Hz
and local accessibility, safety, emission and other requirements. The bus shall meet or exceed the Central Motor
Vehicles Rules (CMVR) of India / Safety Norms, Emission & other norms applicable at the time of supply. In the iv. Frontal Impact:
event of any conflict between the requirements emanating from these specification and those as per any
(Velocity = 56 Kmph against fixed rigid barrier)
statutory/legal etc in force, the superior/higher requirements/standard shall prevail.
• Head Injury Criterion(HIC) = 1000
2.2 General Design Features of the bus
• Crumbled Zone = 132mm
2.2.1 The full forward control urban bus shall have right hand drive & be fitted with engine at the front of the bus. The bus
shall be designed and manufactured in accordance with the specifications & ‘Code of Practice for Bus Body Design • No part of structure shall intrude into residual space.
and Approval’ (AIS 052)-- hereafter referred to as Bus Code, as applicable to buses in India/CMVR rules/Karnataka
motor vehicle rules whichever is superior. The bus shall be designed to carry commuters in the urban/municipal area • (HIC= Head Injury Criterion calculation is based on the acceleration level at the head of the driver/ passenger
with ease of boarding and alighting especially for ladies, senior citizens and Persons with Disabilities (PWDs). The bus & the time duration during which the maximum value of above acceleration is built up. Typical acceleration at
shall be provided with the wheel chair disabled persons friendly access system. The bus design shall be suitable for the head should not exceed 80g continuously for 3 milliseconds to avoid head injuries).
daily operation for 16 to 20 hours in an urban passenger transport system with peak loading of about 150% of bus
capacity (each passenger weighing 68 Kgs on an average), average journey speed of about 18 Kms per hour with v. Roll over (as per bus code) tests with modifications of making the bus roll from ground level instead of the raised
frequent starts/stops, say, after every 200 to 700 metres. The maximum attainable speed of the bus shall be in the platform:
range of 70-80 kmph.
1. Bus tilted to its unstable position
2.2.2 The bus design shall be eco-friendly and energy efficient meeting specified exhaust emissions norms (Bharat
Stage III or Euro-III or the latest as amended up to the date of supply). 2. Bus allowed to fall freely under gravity from this position.

2.2.3 The bus shall be of a proven design suitably modified to the climatic & operational conditions, infrastructure and road 3. Gross vehicle weight of the bus is to be considered
conditions as available in the urban/municipal areas of Indore.
4. The Energy absorbed by the structure =0.75 ER
2.2.4 The bus design shall meet all statutory requirements applicable for the city of Indore in all respects.
[ER =Reference energy – the Potential energy of the bus in its (unstable) equilibrium position).
2.2.5 The bus structure shall meet the requirements of structural strength, stability, deflection, vibration, crashworthiness, roll ER = M x g x h
over protection etc. amongst others for at least the following main loads:
Where

i. Static loads M= Effective weight of bus

ii. Dynamic loads g = Acceleration due to gravity.

iii. Single wheel bump loads h= Height of Centre of Gravity above ground level in

iv. Double wheel bump (diagonally opposite) loads (unstable) equilibrium position.]

v. Braking and acceleration loads - Angular velocity should not exceed 5 deg/sec

vi. Front impact loads - The unstable position should not occur before 35 deg

vii. Roll over loads - No part of structure intrudes into residual space.)

viii. Speed breaker induced loads vi. Buckling Factor shall be equal to or more than four.

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vii. Various loads: transmission of vibrations to the bus structure. The engine foundation & mounting shall be so located as to
facilitate easy accessibility & replacement. Engine design shall be such that it shall not overheat during normal
• Normal Loads (Static) operating conditions of vehicle. An arrangement for audio-visual signal shall be provided in the event of engine
getting overheated excessively. The temperature at which the signal operates shall be indicated. Similar arrangement
= No. of Passengers x wt. of passengers (68 Kgs.) + passenger luggage weight (7 Kgs). for other sub-systems of the engine with their monitor-able indicators be made on the dashboard.
(Besides the vehicle related loads).
3.4 The engine compartment shall be insulated to avoid transmission of heat and noise to saloon area. The passenger
• Bump Loads:
& engine compartments shall be separated by a bulkhead(s) that shall, by incorporation of fireproof materials
- Bump height = as per relevant BIS/Indian Road Congress Guidelines. preferably of ceramic fibre of minimum density of 128 Kgs/M3 in its construction, be a firewall. The engine
compartment shall include areas where the engine and exhaust systems are housed including the muffler, if mounted
- Case I: Single Wheel on Bump/Pot hole. above the horizontal shelf. This firewall shall prevent or retard propagation of an engine compartment fire into the
- Case II: Diagonally opposite wheels on Bump/Pot hole. passenger compartment. Only necessary openings shall be allowed in the firewall, and these shall be fireproofed.
Wiring may pass through the bulkhead only if connectors or other means are provided to prevent or retard fire
- Case III: Both wheels (Front & Rear) on Bump/Pot hole.
propagation through the firewall. Engine access panels in the firewall shall be fabricated of fireproof material and
• Braking Loads: secured with fireproof fasteners. These panels, their fasteners, and the firewall shall be constructed and reinforced to
minimize warping of the panels during a fire that will compromise the integrity of the firewall.
Horizontal = 0.6g load Vertical = 1g load (Applied together)
3.5 The engine shall be suitably designed to operate optimally under Indore peak summer heat and dust. Suitable
2.3.8 The bus, loaded to Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW), with crush load and under static conditions, shall not exhibit lighting arrangement with separate switch shall be provided for the engine compartment.
deflection or deformation that impairs the operation of the steering mechanism, doors, windows, passenger escape
mechanisms and service doors. 3.6 Engine noise and emission levels must conform to the Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR)/AIS/any other Indian
standards, adopting the most superior one
2.3.9 Besides meeting the statutory requirements the bus shall be designed with respect to its body and different
aggregates / systems / sub systems to operate satisfactorily in urban transport service for at least 10 years or 3.7 Specific fuel consumption of Diesel per KW hour at standard conditions shall be indicated along with expected fuel
7,50,000 Kms, whichever is later. consumption level (kilometres per kg of Diesel) under GVW and urban operational conditions.

2.3.10 The material used in the construction of buses shall be as per Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)/ Automotive Industry 3.8 For sound-proofing & for protection against fire risk in engine compartment, no flammable material or material liable
Standards (AIS)/ specifications and/or other international specifications meeting/ surpassing the performance & to soak fuel, lubricant or any combustible material shall be used in the engine compartment unless the material is
other requirements as given in the Bus Code. In absence of above specifications, Association of State Road clad by an impermeable fireproof sheet. A partition of heat– resistant material shall be fitted between the engine
Transport Undertakings (ASRTU) specifications could be followed. Wherever Indian standards are not available, compartment & any other source of heat.
internationally acceptable standards may be referred. Specifications / standards followed shall conform to the
3.9 A mechanism in the engine compartment shall be provided to prevent start of the engine from driver’s seat while
Specification/Standards as amended /up dated/ or the latest published by the concerned agencies.
maintenance is being carried out near the engine compartment area
2.3.11 Any other provisions/fitments required for safe and efficient operation and or for fulfilling statutory requirements be
3.10 Cooling system: Heavy-duty radiator and other subsystems of cooling system shall be designed to efficiently
provided in the offered bus.
dissipate heat from the engine system. De-aeration tank and pressurized radiator cap shall be provided. It shall be
2.3.12 The bus shall be so designed to maintain operational stability requirement as per Bus Code. Interior noise and pass by easy for filling and level checking of coolant. Replacement/ maintenance of radiator and its items be also easily
noise of the vehicle shall confirm to BIS:12832:1989 or latest and BIS: 3028:1998, 10399: 1998 or latest carried out.
respectively.
4. Paints:
3. Engine:
All the structural members of the bus shall be treated for corrosion prevention internally as well as externally and
3.1 Diesel fuelled engine shall have adequate horse power to obtain desired performance in respect of its painted wherever required. Polyurethane (PU) painting conforming to BIS: 13213-1991 or latest/ international
adequacy of power, acceleration levels, emission norms, specific fuel consumption etc. The engine to have adequate standards as applicable shall be used for exterior painting of the bus including interiors wherever required. Colour
horsepower not only to propel the bus but also to operate efficiently all other auxiliary devices fitted to the bus, if any. shade shall match to the shades as per BIS: 5-1978 or latest. Details of paints used, surface treatment & preparation,
As the bus is required for operation in urban services, engines of adequate horse power at lower RPM levels with a corrosion prevention treatment, base primer coatings, number of paint coats to be applied etc shall be supplied.
high torque over a larger RPM range (over the lower side of the RPM range) should be considered for use.
5. Colour schemes:
3.2 Engine should be able to operate efficiently at ambient temperatures of approximately 0oC to 50oC, humidity
Exterior, interior colour schemes including floor colour and logo/ graphics shall be painted as directed by the ICTSL.
level from 5% to 100%, and altitude levels of over 500 meters of Indore municipal areas, generally operating in the
Information, on the seats, for reservation for persons with disabilities, ladies, senior citizens, shall be marked as per
semi arid zone as prevailing in the above area.
the details provided by the ICTSL.
3.3 The engine and its accessories shall be easily replaceable. The engine mounting shall be such as to minimise

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6. Windows: letters. The audio messages and the video display shall be clearly audible/ visible in all weathers at a distance
of up to 50 metres.
The window shall be in two-piece design with flat and fixed top window glass and sliding bottom window glasses.
Window shall be tinted with transparency level as per M.P. Motor Vehicle Rules. The intermediate supporting frame 10.1.3 Rear Destination Board
member shall be of adequate size to bear the load of top fixed glass without bending during the life span of the bus of
minimum 10 years or 7, 50,0000 Kms. whichever is later. The toughened glass wherever used in the body shall be Not Required
4.8 mm to 5.3 mm thick. The fixed top window glasses & bottom sliding glasses shall be aesthetically installed. The
size and shape of the glasses shall enable even the standees to have maximum outside view without kneeling. The 10.1.4 Inside Display Board (behind the driver partition)
general requirements of windows shall be as per the provisions of bus code.
There shall be display of name of approaching bus stops in Hindi & English alternatively duly synchronised with
7. First aid kit announcement system. The system shall be operated with inbuilt software for above purpose with provision available
for driver to display at each stop. The system should be compatible with GPS/any other ITS device whenever fitted. The
First aid kit complete with items, medicines, bandages etc. shall be provided as per the provisions of CMVR fitted system should be able to store onboard up to a minimum of 100 messages of 50 characters each on an average.
near driver seat at appropriate position and level on side with proper reinforcement. The messages should be capable of rolling, flashing (fully or selectively) in Hindi/English/symbols as per pre-
programmed system. The message shall be visible to all the passengers standing/sitting up to the last seat of the bus.
8. Tool kit The micro- processor based announcement shall be made for both current and next bus stop/destination
synchronized with the display alternatively in Hindi and English. The illumination system will be of module display type.
The manufacturer shall provide a suitable tool kit and other mandatory items as per CMVR 138 (4)/ other applicable The display size of one row shall be 800 mm x 100 mm. The display panel shall have multiple rows for higher
rules comprising of common tools and other essential items required. The complete list of tools in the tool kit to be coverage. The display shall be mounted behind the driver at an appropriate height for clear visibility to all
supplied with every bus shall be supplied by the manufacturer. One Hydraulic Jack per bus of a capacity of at least passengers in the bus from all angles. Present and next stop details shall be highlighted with flashing in modern
10 Ton as per design of the bus shall also be supplied. different commuter-friendly colours. The display time, frequency and sequencing of advertisements/messages shall
be programme controlled. The display system shall have the provision of flashing/highlighting information in pre-
9. Warranty/ Guarantee: programmed mode and through an intervention by the driver/conductor.
The fully built bus shall be covered under Warranty/ Guarantee for up to 1,50,000 Kms. or 2 years whichever The system shall have a programming for minimum 15 numbers of routes and 30 numbers of destinations. Further
is later from the date of putting the bus into operation after registration. All the assemblies, sub-assemblies, fitments, the system shall also have a programming for minimum 50 nos. of bus stops on each route. The system shall be
components would be covered under Warranty Period as per the commitment of the bus manufacturer at the time of GPS/any other ITS device compatible. Provision shall be made at a suitable location for the fitment of GPS box/ITS
supply of the bus. device so that a suitable GPS/ITS device can be installed in future. There shall be provision for feeding more
destination options against any route number. The periodic operational interventions of the system by the drivers
10. Intelligent Transport System (ITS):
shall be made through touch type/or any other input device located on the dashboard/near it. There shall be
10.1 Electronic route Destination display system single point near dashboard for changing programme. The system shall be of rugged construction, vibration
proof, and water proof and shall be able to operate efficiently at ambient temperatures of approximately 0 degree to
Alphanumeric Dual Display Technology coloured LED based electronic route display system of high intensity 50 degree C, humidity level 5% to 100% and dusty conditions of Indore urban area.
illumination with automatic brightness control along with audio-video display system in English and Hindi shall be
installed at the front and side of bus as per the following details. 10.2 Integrated voice announcement system

10.1.1 Front Destination Board • A noise free integrated voice announcement system of adequate volume (which can be heard by all the bus
commuters (4 watt, 2 nos.)) shall be fitted one at the front (behind the driver along with LED display) and one at the
There shall be display of destination with options in Hindi & English along with route number in Arabic numerals. The rear side- inside.
display system be accommodated within the minimum size specified in the bus code. The display should be fixed type.
The pitch of the LED shall be optimised to cover the maximum possible area along the length for displaying maximum • Two more speakers for exclusive use of the passengers outside the bus, especially for the persons with
number of letters. The display shall be clearly visible in all weathers at a distance of up to 50 metres. disabilities shall be fitted - one speaker mounted on/near the front gate along with LED display and the other
on/near the rear gate.
10.1.2 Side Destination Board
• Synchronization of voice messages / announcements with the visual displays is essential.
There shall be scrolling display of destination in Hindi & English alternatively along with fixed route number in Arabic
numerals. Simultaneously the route number and destination shall be announced so as to be audible to the passengers Control Panels shall have the following features –
on the bus stop. The system shall be operated with inbuilt software for above purpose to enable the driver to change
• Easily operable, robust, water & dust proof, control switches/keys/touch type within easy reach of driver.
the destination at each bus stop. The system shall also be compatible with GPS/any other ITS device whenever fitted.
Loudspeakers integrated and synchronised with the display system be fitted one at the front gate and another speaker • Control Panel layout and content shall be simple and easily comprehensible by crew who is not highly educated.
at the rear gate. The display system be accommodated within the minimum size specified in the bus code. The pitch of The displays should have all weather visibility.
the LED shall be optimized to cover the maximum possible area along the length for displaying maximum number of • Crew access to the requisite information by operating least no. of robust buttons /switches / keys.

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• Console to have over-riding provision to jump the information operation sequence like skipping a xiv. It should be damage proof on account of power fluctuation and should continue to operate smoothly even during
particular stop, etc. such fluctuations.

• Mechanism/port etc. be provided to load/amend/upgrade on-board stored data from PC at the workshop xv. Any other precaution / measures required for smooth and efficient trouble-free functioning of the system year
office complete with any related software interfacing hardware required. Memory storage, retrieval, after year for up to the life of the vehicle be incorporated.
amendments, additions, deletions etc.
xvi. The above systems have provision to be upgraded as and when required in future.
i. A microprocessor / controller with adequate memory to store minimum 15 numbers of routes (alphanumeric
characters) and 30 numbers of destinations with 50 stops each on an average. Bus architecture should be compatible with ITS components. Adequate arrangements should be made inside the bus
for various fixtures to be retrofitted at the later stage like:
ii. Easy and quick retrievability of the all the memory whenever required.
• GPS/GPRS vehicle location module
iii. Easy accessibility to microprocessor / controller by driver / conductor from his seat inside the bus.
• Driver to control centre communication module
iv. Provision for upgrading / modifying the existing information as well as additions and deletions.
• At-least one LCD screen behind driver’s seat
v. The size, quality, robustness etc. of the microprocessor / controller be such as to accommodate the entire
information required for this system including that required in flashing advertisement messages. • Ticket vending machines/smart card validators etc.

vi. All information pre-programmable and loaded on to the micro-controller through PC. 10.4 Other Fitments/requirements

vii. Ability to retain the entire data in memory in the event of power failure or any other kind of failure in the Buses will also be provided with all other fitments indicated in bus code.
system be provided.

10.3 General Requirements

i. The system be designed such that data can be fed on-board using add on devices like pen drive etc.

ii. The system hardware should be able to withstand the fluctuations in climatic conditions, battery power,
noise and vehicle vibrations, etc.

iii. All the items / sub-systems be leak proof and shall have water / dust ingress protection as per IP Protection No.
55/65 or latest standards.

iv. Mounting of the system should be robust and vibration absorbing type.

v. The system hardware should be durable and vandal-proof from inside as well as outside the bus (proper
protection with locking system be provided).

vi. Excellent visibility from all sides during day, twilight and night in all weathers. vii. Ability to withstand acceleration
up to 10G.

viii. Ability to withstand variation in natural frequencies in the range of 5-50 Hz ix. The system should have PC
interface facility.

x. It shall be operable on 24 Volt DC power obtained from vehicle battery. The system shall have adequate
measures to ensure appropriate quality of power supply even during battery output fluctuations.

xi. All components, circuitry, cards, microprocessors, switches / keys should have ISI marks and be of internationally
reputed makes / brands.

xii. All components shall carry ISI mark as far as possible.

xiii. The system should have easy maintainability / repair-ability.

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 APPENDIX D: USER SURVEYS
APPENDIX D: USER SURVEYS

APPENDIX D: • Number of transfers

• Quality of buses
reached the user perception levels of 2006 (pre-
Transantiago).
TRAVELER FEATURES

By gender and age: The sample is not representative of the

USER SURVEYS • Personal security in bus stops and inside mode of transport
• Price of transport
INTRODUCTION

Transantiago is a citywide public transportation plan which

population as there is a bias towards women. The samples
are, however, comparable across time periods.
• Payment system
includes the optimization of the bus routes and services, fare By educational level and occupation: Nearly a third of the
EXAMPLE 1: PASSENGER USER SURVEY QUESTIONS
Which of these aspects have improved since the integration using advanced technologies, continuous bus sample of households surveyed is at least high school
Sample characterization implementation of BRT system (Improved, maintained, got fleet renovation, strong requirements for the companies educated. Further, the second and third highest proportions
worse)? delivering transit services, support infrastructure for buses of users were employees and professionals or technicians.
• Female, male (priority and exclusive lanes, bus stops, integration terminals, Majority of the users indicated ‘other’ as their main activity.
• Time waiting for transport at station ands user information and control systems) and expansion of
• Age
the Metro network. System commissioning happened on a By most frequently used mode of transport: It was found that
• What is your principal activity? (Independent, construction • Quality of access to stations (distance from where you live, the percentage of users that used transfers to switch modes of
single day for the whole Metropolitan Area on February 10,
worker, seller, executive director, technical professional, how easy it is to reach the station, distance from station to transport increased from 47% to 69% between March 2007
2007, after 6 years of planning and implementation process.
and so on) your destination, safety of access) and 2008. Further, the percentage of users that combined
• What is your educational level (basic incomplete, basic • Driving safety Bus service improvements include the reorganization of travel on Transantiago with the Metro or only used the Metro
complete, average incomplete, average complete, routes into five trunk corridors using the main thoroughfares increased from 59% to 65%.
• Comfort level of trip
technical or university incomplete, technical or university of the road network and ten local service areas that feed the
• Number of transfers trunk and metro services and provide transport services within The average number of trips undertaken per week per user
complete)
• Quality of buses the areas. Each trunk corridor and service area is privately decreased from an average of 4.5 in October 2006 to 4.4 in
Characterization of trips provided under concession contracts awarded through an March 2007 to 4.2 in March 2008. The majority of the users
• Personal security in bus stops and inside mode of transport travelled for work.
open and competitive bidding process. Administration of
• Price of transport system funds is also a concession to a pool of banks, which
• What transport mode do you use with more frequency for TRAVEL EXPERIENCE
• Payment system are in charge of providing the integration technology
your typical trips? (Only bus, only metro, bus and metro,
(contactless smart cards, points of sale and re-charge,
transfer between buses, ferry, bicycle, car, taxi, other) Travel Time by Bus: The journey time by bus without any
EXAMPLE 2: TRANSANTIAGO USER PERCEPTION validation on board buses, and transaction management).
• How many times in a week do you make the typical trips? transfers decreased by an average of 16 minutes between
SURVEY (SANTIAGO, CHILE) Control and user information systems are privately provided,
2007 and 2008. Further, the journey time with transfers
• What is the main purpose of your typical trips? (study, as well as selected infrastructures of the system (integration
between buses also fell by an average of 3 minutes between
work, and so on) ABSTRACT terminals.) The Metro network is developed and operated by
2007 and 2008.
an autonomous public agency.
• Average trip time (walk, waiting, trip) A user opinion survey on the Transantiago system was
Travel time by Metro: Travel time by the Metro fell by an
• What alternative transport mode do you have available? conducted on the 26th of March 2008 to measure and USER OPINION SURVEY
average of 8 minutes. Total travel time also decreased on
(car, carpooling, bus, metro, walk, taxi, walk, bicycle, understand the change in perception of the passengers. The
A user opinion survey was conducted on the 26th of March average by 8 minutes even when combining commute by
and so on) results were compared to two similar surveys conducted
2008, similar to the surveys undertaken in October 2006 and Metro with a bus transfer.
before the launch of the new system in October 2006 and
• How much to do you spend daily in transport?
shortly after the launch in March 2007. March 2007. The results of the survey were compared to the
Cost of Travel: The amount spent by users on transportation
user ratings of the public transportation system at two other
each day decreased by 17 cents between March 2007 and
Opinion about the service The sample users were asked to rate the system on the basis time periods, October 2006 – prior to the launch of the
2008.
of their travel experience by rating various aspects of the Transantiago system and March 2007 shortly after the launch
Please classify the following aspects of your transportation system by allocating a number value between 1 and 7, of the Transantiago system. The comparisons were made to
(from 1-Appaling to 7 - Excellent) with 1 being the worst and 7 the best. The ratings were track any change in perception of users regarding the quality
compared between the three separate time intervals - 2006, of Transantiago.
• Time waiting for transport at station 2007 and 2008.
• Quality of access to stations (distance from where you live, The 2008 sample size was a random selection of 45
how easy it is to reach the station, distance from station to Overall it was noted that there has been a positive change in households in the urban area of Santiago that used mass
your destination, safety of access) perception of bus users, with the system as a whole receiving transit. They were interviewed via the telephone on the 26th of
a rating over 4 (out of 7) on all aspects. There is a similar March 2008.
• Driving safety
positive change in perception and ratings of the new system
• Comfort level of trip by Metro users. It is noted that there is still room for The level of reliability of the survey is 95%.
improvement, as travel times and overall ratings have not

202 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 203
 APPENDIX D: USER SURVEYS APPENDIX D: USER SURVEYS

60 % Change in User Perception - Transantiago

54 %
51 % 100%
Cost of Travel
41%
40 % 75%

21 % 20 % 50%
19 %
20 % 17 %
12% 11 % 12 %
9% 9% 9% 9%
6%
25%

0%

0-500 501 -1000 1001 -1500 1501 -2000 > 2000

0%

closer to origin
or destination

price system
waiting time
at stops

travel time

quality of bus

safety level in
commute
comfort
system of
payment

number of
transfers

personel safety
Oct -06 Mar-07 Mar-08 US Cents

QUALITY OF SERVICE

The sample users were asked to rate ten aspects of the transportation system from 1 to 7 with 1 being the worst and 7 the best. Got worse Stayed the same Improved

The following ten aspects were rated: system of payment; price system; safety level in the commute; travel time; distance from CONCLUSIONS
origin or destination; personal safety ; quality of the buses; number of transfers; convenience of travel; and waiting time at
stops. 1. The percentage of users that use transfers in their commute increased by 22% between March 2007 and 2008.
2. The percentage of users who use only the Metro fell from 18% to 9% between March 2007 and 2008.
Rating of various aspects of the Transantiago System 3. The percentage of users who only use the Metro in combination increased by 6% between March 2007 and 2008.
4.8
5 .3
4. The average number of trips undertaken by the sample users each week fell from an average of 4.4 to 4.2 between March
Payment system
5 .6
4.3
2007 and 2008 respectively.
Price 4 .7
5 .1 5. Between March 2007 and 2008, the total time taken to travel a stipulated distance decreased from 75 minutes to 72
4.9
Safety level in commute 4.6 minutes.
4 .7
4 .9
Travel time in vehicle 4.2
4 .6
6. Due to better coverage of the Transantiago service, the total walking time between the origin station or stop and the final
Distance from orgin or destination 4 .2
5 .3 destination has decreased.
4 .6

3 .7
4 .7 7. Despite a poor rating for the use of transfers in commute, there has been a consistent increase in the number of travellers
Personal safety
4 .4
4 .9
using transfers across the time intervals.
Quality of Buses 4.0
4 .3 8. The overall quality of service on the Transantiago system has shown an improvement in almost all aspects as rated by the
4 .7
Number of Transfers 3.7
4 .1 sample users in the survey.
4 .7
Oct -06 Convenience of Travel 3.1
3.9
9. Ratings for the Transantiago system have been consistently improving over the three time periods March 2007, October
Mar -07 Waiting Time at Stops 3 .4
4 .4 2007 and March 2008. Better overall travel or commute time and overall ratings are yet to reach the levels obtained in
3.9
October 2006, before the launch of the system.
Mar -08 0 2 4 6
Summary Table from User Survey
The overall rating of the new Transantiago system increased from 4.1 in March 2007 to 4.3 in 2008; however it is still lower
Micros Amarillas Transantiago Transantiago Transantiago
than the ranking given to the older system.
2006 March 2007 October 2007 March 2008
There is a significant increase in user satisfaction on all aspects of the new system except the quality of the buses and the feeling % Users that transfers 29% 47% 58% 69%
of safety during the commute by the users of the system. Proportion of users- Metro (full journey or one leg) 40% 59% 68% 65%

There is a positive change in the perception of bus users who have rated the new system over a 4 (out of 7) on all aspects. There Average weekly trips per user 4.5 4.4 4.1 4.2
is a similar positive change in perception and subsequent rating of the new system by Metro users. Average travel time 62 mins 75 mins 73 mins 72 mins
Average spending per day (round trip) $1.06 $1.14 $0.98 $0.97
In addition, the sample users were asked to determine if the following aspects had either, Improved, Stayed the same or
Average rating system 4.6 4 4.1 4.3
Worsened since the unveiling of the Transantiago system. The results are shown below.
Source: [116]

204 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 205
 APPENDIX E: GLOSSARY OF
ABBREVIATIONS & ACRONYMS
APPENDIX F: REFERENCES

APPENDIX E:
GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS
APPENDIX F:
& ACRONYMS REFERENCES
Acronym Description [1] Transport for London website, London Buses, Accessed August 2009. Accessible at:
AMC Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1548.aspx

AMTS Ahmedabad Municipal Transport Services

[2] Transport for London, London’s Bus Contracting and Tendering Process, Retrieved August 2009, Accessible at:
AUDA Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/businessandpartners/buses/tenderresults/lbsl-tendering-and-contracting-feb-09.pdf

BAT Boardings, Alightings, Throughs

[3] Transport for London – London Buses. 2003. The case for investing in London’s buses: Presenting the Results of
BBMP Bruhat Bengaluru Mahanagara Palike (Greater Bangalore Municipal Body) the London Buses Strategic Review. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at:
http://www.tfl.gov.uk/businessandpartners/publications/4610.aspx
BEST Brihan Mumbai Electric Supply & Transport

BMC Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation [4] Author’s calculations. Data Source: Transport for London, Travel in London Report number 1, 2009. Retrieved
August 2009. Accessible at: http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/corporate/travel-in-london-report-number-1.pdf
BMTC Bangalore Municipal Transport Corporation

BRT Bus Rapid Transit [5] Transport for London, Travel in London Report number 1, 2009. Retrieved August 2009. Accessible at:
BRTS Bus Rapid Transit System http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/corporate/travel-in-london-report-number-1.pdf

CEPT Centre for Environmental Programming & Technology [6] Author’s calculations. Data Source: SPTrans website, Indicadores – Passageiros Transportados. Retrieved August
CiSTUP Centre for Infrastructure, Sustainable Transportation and Urban Planning 2009. Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/sptrans08/indicadores/passageiros/

CNG Compressed Natural Gas [7] Hidalgo, D. Case Study of the Interligado system, Sao Paulo, Brazil
GPS Global Positioning System
[8] National Public Transportation Association of Brazil Bus user Survey 2006, referenced in Hidalgo, Dario. Case
ICTSL Indore City Transport Services, Ltd
Study of the Interligado System, Sao Paulo, Brazil
IISC Indian Institute of Science
[9] Kim, K.S. 2008. “Lessons Learnt from Seoul’s Bus Reform”. Presented at World Urban Transport Leaders Summit
IPT Intermediate Public Transport
2008 – Transforming Urban Transport for Liveability and Sustainability. Organized by Land Transport Authority
ITDP Institute for Transportation & Development Academy Singapore. 4-6 November 2008, Singapore. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at:
http://www.ltaacademy.gov.sg/pdf/Slides%2006_Kim.pdf (.pdf file)
Janmarg BRTS in Ahmedabad; Hindi term meaning “The People’s Way”

JnNURM Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission [10] Pucher, J., Park, H., Kim, M.K., and Song, J. 2005. Public Transport in Seoul: Meeting the burgeoning travel
demands of a megacity. Public Transport International 54(3): 54-61
KSRTC Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation

MMRDA Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Development Authority [11] Kim, S.B. 2009. “Policy Directions of Seoul for a Clean and Green City”. Presented at Connected Urban
MOUD Ministry of Urban Development Development Global Conference 2009 Connecting Cities for Sustainable Living: An Urban Revolution. 21-22
May 2009, Seoul, South Korea. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at:
MRTS Mass Rapid Transit System http://www.connectedurbandevelopment.org/conferences/seoul_may_2009/presentations/day1_keynote_sessions/
MUTP Mumbai Urban Transport Project
[12] Lee, S., Lee, S., & Lee, Y. 2006. Innovative Public Transport Oriented Policies in Seoul.
NAPCC National Action Plan on Climate Change Transportation 33: 189-204
NUTP National Urban Transport Policy
[13] Park, Y.W. 2005. “A Unique Smart Card Application for Integrated Public Transportation Services”. Presented at
PPHPD Passengers Per Hour Per Direction International Forum on the Public Transportation Reform in Seoul. Organized by Seoul Development Institute. 7-8 July
PT Public Transport 2005, Seoul, South Korea. Retrieved: August 2008. Accessible at:
http://www.sdi.re.kr/seoulforum/english/02_03_speakers.html
TfL Transport for London

TT Travel Time [14] Kim, S.J. & Ma, P.G.K. 2005. “Effects of the Exclusive Median Bus Lanes in Seoul”. Presented at International Forum on
SPV Special Purpose Vehicle; a management agency created to plan, operate and regulate a system

206 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 207
 APPENDIX F: REFERENCES APPENDIX F: REFERENCES

the Public Transportation Reform in Seoul. Organized by Seoul Development Institute. 7-8 July 2005, Seoul, South [30] Transport for London. 2009. Your guide to fares and tickets within Zones 1-6. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible
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[15] Office for National Statistics, Focus on London 2007, Retrieved August 2009, Accessible at: [31] Transport for London, Traffic Enforcement in the Digital Age. Accessible at:
http://www.statistics.gov.uk/focuson/london/ http://www.tfl.gov.uk/assets/downloads/TE-digital-age.pdf

[16] Seoul Metropolitan Government Statistics, Retrieved August 2009, Accessible at: [32] Pucher, J., Park, H., Kim, M.K., and Song, J. 2005. Public Transport Reforms in Seoul: Innovations Motivated by Funding
http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php?pidx=5 Crisis. Journal of Public Transportation 8(5): 41-62

[17] Weston, M. 2007. London’s Hybrid and Hydrogen Bus Programmes, Presented at C40 Transport and Congestion [33] Seoul Metropolitan Government, Bus Operation Planning and Monitoring System, Presented at International Forum on
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[34] EMBARQ, Working paper on city bus operations in Indore, Oct 2008.
[18] SPTrans Presentation. 2008. “Public Transport in Sao Paulo and Metropolitan Region”
[35] Interview with BEST Undertaking Staff, Mr. Victor Nagowkar, February 4, 2010
[19] SPTrans website. “Indicadores - Froto Contrada (Indicators – Contracted Fleet)”. Tranlation from Portuguese via Google
Translate. Accessed: October 2009. Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/indicadores/ [36] Interview with CEPT staff, March 2010

[20] Author’s Calculations, Data Source: Kim, K.S., 2008, Lessons Learnt from Seoul’s Bus Reform, Presented at World [37] Interview with Mr.Garg, BMTC Staff on February 11,2010
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[39] Times of India. 2009-Oct-16. “Day 1: Amdavadis give thumbs up to BRTS.” Accessible at:
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[23] Biderman, C. 2008. “Sao Paulo’s Urban Transport Road infrastructure”. Accessed: August 2008. Accessible at: [40] BMTC Citizen Charter 2009
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[26] Hendy, P. 2003. New Development: Exemplary provision of bus services – Is London a model for other conurbations? [44] MMRDA – Projects – Mumbai Urban Transport Project. Accessible at:
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[27] Kim, H.J., 2007. “Seoul Public Transportation Reform: Experience & Current Initiatives”. Presented at Asia Clean Energy [45] IDS & MIS study of BEST by T.C.S. -2007
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[28] Transport for London. 2006. Bus priority at traffic signals keeps London’s buses moving – Selective Vehicle Detection [47] Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation, “Report on Performance evaluation of BMTC buses and measures to
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Transportation Reform in Seoul. Organized by Seoul Development Institute. 7-8 July 2005, Seoul, South Korea.
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 APPENDIX F: REFERENCES APPENDIX F: REFERENCES

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[51] Gardner, K., Hodges, J., 2007, Keeping London Moving – Bus priority in London, Presented at European Transport [70] Press Release. 30 July 2009. Go-Ahead Acquires East Thames Buses. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at:
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210 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 211
 APPENDIX F: REFERENCES APPENDIX F: REFERENCES

[86] SPTrans website, “A SPTrans – Historico (About SPTrans – History)”. Translation from Portuguese via Google Translate. [102] Won, S. 2006 “Seoul’s Public Administration Reform”. Presented at 4th Quality Conference for Public Administrations in
Accessed: October 2009. Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/a_sptrans/ the EU-Building Sustainable Quality. 27-29 September 2006, Tampere, Finland. Retrieved: August 2008. Accessible at:
http://www.4qconference.org/liitetiedostot/plenary_presentations/WonSeihoon.pdf (.pdf file)
[87] SPTrans website. “Indicadores – Idade Media da Frota (Indicators – Mean Age of the Fleet)”. Translation from
Portuguese via Google Translate. Accessed: October 2009. Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/indicadores/ [103] Kim, G. 2006. Seoul: “Challenges for Environmentally Sustainable Transport”. Presented at Better Air Quality 2006
Workshop. Organized by Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. 13-15 December 2006, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
[88] Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. 2004. Institutional and Regulatory Options for Delhi’s High Retrieved: August 2008. Accessible at: http://www.cleanairnet.org/baq2006/1757/propertyvalue-26685.html
Capacity Bus System. Accessed: August 2008. Accessible at:
http://www.itdp.org/documents/Delhi%20HCBS%20Inst%E2%80%A6onal%20Reform.pdf (pdf file) [104] Mumbai Suburban Railway Map. Accessible at:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Mumbai_suburban_rail_map.png
[89] SPTrans website, “Indicadores – Passageiros Transportados (Indicators – Passengers Transported)”. Translated from
Portuguese via Google Translate. Accessed: October 2009. Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/indicadores/ [105] BEST website. Accessible at: http://www.bestundertaking.com/

[90] SPTrans website, “Indicadores – Historico Receitas e Despesas (Indicators – Historical Revenue and Expenditures)”. [106] BEST, Traffic Department Manual, accessible at:
Translation from Portuguese via Google Translate. Accessed: October 2009. Accessible at: http://www.bestundertaking.com/pdf/Traffic%20Department%20Manual.pdf
http://www.sptrans.com.br/indicadores/historico_receitas-despesas.aspx
[107] Monthly Statistical Review (Part I) of BEST- August 2008
[91] Author’s Calculations. Data Source: SPTrans website, “Indicadores – Historico Receitas e Despesas (Indicators –
Historical Revenue and Expenditures)”. Translation from Portuguese via Google Translate. Accessed: October 2009. [108] Albuquerque, Olav (4 June 2005). "BEST to hire buses from private operators". Times of India. p. 7.
Accessible at: http://www.sptrans.com.br/indicadores/historico_receitas-despesas.aspx
[109] Indore Comprehensive Traffic & Transport Report, prepared by CES in association with ICF Kaiser and Anil Varma
[92] OECD. 2006. “OECD Territorial Reviews: Seoul, Korea OECD Policy Brief”. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at: Associates.
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/8/16/36614817.pdf (.pdf file)
[110] ICTSL Records
[93] Seoul Metropolitan Government. “Investing in Seoul – Investment Guide” website. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible
at: http://english.seoul.go.kr/db/iseoul/guide.php [111] ICTSL Website. Accessible at: http://www.citybusindore.com/

[94] Author’s Calculations. Data Source: Seoul Metropolitan Government Statistics. Retrieved: August 2009. Accessible at: [112] Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Bangalore, June 2010. Accessible at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore
http://english.seoul.go.kr/gtk/about/fact.php?pidx=5
[113] Rediff News. 2008. “India’s 10 fastest growing cities.” Accessible at: http://us.rediff.com/money/2008/feb/06sld2.htm
[95] Reproduced from Ortuzar, J.D. & Willumsen, J.G. 2001. Modeling Transport. Publisher: Wiley
[114] Bangalore Metro: Project Highlights. Accessible at: http://www.bmrc.co.in/ph.html
[96] Kim, K.S., & Dickey, J. 2006. Role of urban governance in the process of bus system reform in Seoul. Habitat
International 30: 1035-1046 [115] BMTC Website. Accessible at: http://www.bmtcinfo.com/

[97] Matsumoto, N. 2006. “Analysis of policy processes to introduce Bus Rapid Transit systems in Asian cities from the [116] Observatorio del Transporte Publico de Santiago, April 17th 2008, Anna Luis Covarrubias
perspective of lesson drawing: cases of Jakarta, Seoul, and Beijing”. Prepared for Better Air Quality 2006 Workshop.
Organized by Institute for Global Environmental Strategies. 13-15 December 2006, Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Retrieved:
August 2008. Accessible at: http://www.iges.or.jp/en/ue/pdf/activity03/BAQ_IGES_Ma.pdf (.pdf file)

[98] Kim, T. 2008. Shopping in Seoul Costlier for Drivers. The Korea Times. 15 May 2008. Retrieved: August 2009.
Accessible at: http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2008/05/117_24157.html

[99] Korea Tourism Organization. “New Bus System of Seoul”. Official Korea tourism Guide website. Retrieved: August
2008. Accessible at: http://asiaenglish.visitkorea.or.kr/ena/SI/SI_EN_3_6.jsp?cid=309429

[100] Currency conversions are as per the rate on August 24, 2009. Exchange rates obtained from Oanda. Accessible at:
http://www.oanda.com/

[101] Seoul Metropolitan Government. 2006. Seoul Bus Rapid Transit Project Design Document. Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM) Program, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Retrieved: August
2008. Accessible at:
http://cdm.unfccc.int/UserManagement/FileStorage/TQSW540OKYVZ9WA5F3A5VV8EDQJYC5 (.pdf file)

212 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 213
 LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES 45
45
Figure 3.8 – Basic Components of a well-designed BRT station
Figure 3.9 – Metrovía, 2006 (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
46 Figure 3.10 – Transjakarta, 2004 (Jakarta, Indonesia)
6 Figure 1.1 – Boardings per day (2007) 46 Figure 3.11 – Metrobús, 2005 (Mexico City, Mexico)
7 Figure 1.2 – Fleet Size (2007) 46 Figure 3.12 – BRT Line 1, 2005 (Beijing, China)
7 Figure 1.3 – Capital Productivity: Passengers per Bus per Day (2007) 46 Figure 3.13 – Megabús, 2006 (Pereira, Colombia)
7 Figure 1.4 – Operational Productivity: Boardings per Bus-Kilometre (2007) 46 Figure 3.14 – Metrovía, 2006 (Guayaquil, Ecuador)
7 Figure 1.5 – Bus Mode Shares (% of Motorized Trips, 2007) 51 Figure 4.1 – Dwell Time Based on Bus Features
15 Figure 1.6 – Funding stream for Bus procurement under JnNURM 52 Figure 4.2 – Contribution of bus features to reduce dwell time
17 Figure 1.7 – Map of India Case Studies 53 Figure 4.3 – PM10 emissions by Fuel Type
17 Figure 1.8 – Administrative Evolution of Transit Agencies 53 Figure 4.4 – GHG emissions by Fuel Type
19 Figure 1.9 – Population in Cities 54 Figure 4.5 – Starbus: Standard Bus
19 Figure 1.10 – Boardings per Day 54 Figure 4.6 – Starbus: Low Floor Bus
19 Figure 1.11 – Fleet Size 54 Figure 4.7 – Starbus: Ultra Low Floor Bus
19 Figure 1.12 – ..per Bus per Day 55 Figure 4.8 – Ashok Leyland Range of Buses
29 Figure 2.1 – Google Map of Indore, Madhya Pradesh 55 Figure 4.9 – Ashok Leyland: Ultra Low Floor Buses
30 Figure 2.2 – Demand by Hour 55 Figure 4.10 – Ashok Leyland: Low Floor iBus
31 Figure 2.3 – Hourly Bus Frequency Formula 55 Figure 4.11 – Ashok Leyland: Low Floor Buses
32 Figure 2.4 – Load Profile on a Colombo Bus Route 56 Figure 4.12 – Ashok Leyland: HYBUS (Hybrid Technology Bus)
33 Figure 2.5 – Calculation of Peak Frequency in Colombo 56 Figure 4.13 – Volvo: 8400
33 Figure 2.6 – Calculation of Off-peak Frequency in Colombo 58 Figure 5.1 – Squareabout at Anjali Junction
33 Figure 2.7 – Total Bus Travel Time Formula 62 Figure 6.1 – Typology of Business Models for Bus Systems
33 Figure 2.8 – Calculation of Total Travel Time in Colombo 66 Figure 6.2 – Flow of funds to system agents, TransMilenio, Bogota
34 Figure 2.9 – Fleet Size Formula 67 Figure 6.3 – Revenue Distribution, TransMilenio, Bogota
34 Figure 2.10 – Calculation of Fleet Size in Colombo 68 Figure 6.4 – Contracting mechanism across several cities in the world
34 Figure 2.11 – Daily Load Profiles 71 Figure 6.5 – Indore Organization Chart
35 Figure 2.12 – Map of Colombo Municipal District 74 Figure 7.1 – Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S1
35 Figure 2.13 – Bus Corridors 74 Figure 7.2 – Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S2
36 Figure 2.14 – Metrobus, Mexico City 75 Figure 7.3 – Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S3
37 Figure 2.15 – Load Profile along a BRT Route in Mexico 75 Figure 7.4 – Routing and Fleet Size for BRT-S4
37 Figure 2.16 – New Service Plan with Two Routes 77 Figure 7.5 – Illustration of Crowding
38 Figure 2.17 – Alternate Service Plan: Three Routes 77 Figure 7.6 – Bus System Subsidy
43 Figure 3.1 – Janmarg, Ahmedabad 78 Figure 7.7 – Bus System Total Cost vs. Fare Revenue
43 Figure 3.2 – Janmarg, Ahmedabad 78 Figure 7.8 – Bus-Kilometres Operated per Year
43 Figure 3.3 – Level Boarding, Janmarg, Ahmedabad 79 Figure 7.9 – Average, Headline and Deflated Bus Fare Indices
44 Figure 3.4 – Ahmedabad BRT Station 80 Figure 8.1 – Bus Passengers per month
44 Figure 3.5 – Ahmedabad BRT Station Identification Signage 83 Figure 8.2 – Percent of Operational Days with Bus Breakdowns (by Route)
44 Figure 3.6 – Illustration of Crowding 83 Figure 8.3 – Bus Arrivals - Route 2 - Palasia Chauraha
45 Figure 3.7 – Saturation at Delhi BRT station 84 Figure 8.4 – Data from Janmarg User Survey
85 Figure 8.5 – User Survey of BMTC in Bangalore

214 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations 215
 LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES 63 Table 6.2 – Role of System Planner and Operator

64 Table 6.3 – Area Contracts vs. Route Contracts
6 Table 1.1 – Performance Indicators, 2007
65 Table 6.4 – Pros and Cons of Gross and Net Cost Contracts
8 Table 1.2 – The Seven Key Factors to Success
72 Table 7.1 – Capital Costs of a Standard Bus
10 Table 1.3 – Segregated Bus Infrastructure (London, Seoul, Sao Paulo)
72 Table 7.2 – Capital Costs of an Articulated Bus
11 Table 1.4 – Technology features adopted by each city
73 Table 7.3 – Operating costs in Rupees
15 Table 1.5 – Financial contributions for urban bus procurement under JnNURM
73 Table 7.4 – Estimates for Standard Bus Operating Costs
18 Table 1.6 – Performance Indicators
76 Table 7.5 – Comparison of Operating Costs for Bus and BRT scenarios
20 Table 1.7 – Analysis of Seven Keys to Success within Indian Cities
76 Table 7.6 – Profit and Subsidy for Indore BRT Scenarios
24 Table 1.8 – Technology features adopted by each city
79 Table 7.7 – Bus System Reliability Statistics
26 Table 1.9 – Costs and Earnings by City and Type of Bus
81 Table 8.1 – Route 1 Monthly Report
27 Table 1.10 – Achievement of Key Factors of Successful Reform in Indian Cities
82 Table 8.2 – Performance Indicators for Janmarg BRT, Ahmedabad
30 Table 2.1 – Sample Roadside Survey
82 Table 8.3 – Operational Indicators by Route
31 Table 2.2 – Observed Bus Ridership in Colombo, Sri Lanka
86 Table 8.4 – TfL Bus Monitoring Systems
32 Table 2.3 – Number of Bus Trips
36 Table 2.4 – Colombo Demographics
36 Table 2.5 – Calculate Operational Statistics
38 Table 2.6 – Benefits of Service Plan Optimization
39 Table 3.1 – Full Scale Priority Treatment for a Good Bus System
39 Table 3.2 – Operator and User Benefits of Priority Treatments
40 Table 3.3 – Types of Segregation and Facilities needed based on Passenger Demand
41 Table 3.4 – Types of Segregation in case study cities
48 Table 4.1 – Recommended Methodology for Vehicle Selection
49 Table 4.2 – Advantages and Disadvantages of a Minibus
49 Table 4.3 – Standard Vs Minibus Costs (Route 16, ICTSL)
51 Table 4.4 – High Floor Vs Low Floor Buses
52 Table 4.5 – Pollutants by Fuel Type
57 Table 5.1 – Benefits of Technology
58 Table 5.2 – Signal priority measures adopted by studied cities
59 Table 5.3 – Fare collection Systems
60 Table 5.4 – GPS-based Bus Management Systems in Cities
62 Table 6.1 – Disadvantages of Public Monopoly and Deregulation models

216 EMBARQ: Bus Karo: A Guidebook on Bus Planning & Operations

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