25

Chapter II

PROJECT DESIGN AND FRAMEWORK

This chapter explicates about related literature and studies

Related Literature and Studies

Toilets unblocked: A literature review of school toilets, is an article made and

written by Sarah Burton.

Abstract

According to Sarah Burton ( September 2013 )Toilets and sanitation systems cater

for one of the most basic human functions. Inadequate facilities, poor access and poor

knowledge of urinary or bowel health can have wide ranging implications for physical,

emotional and psychological health. This is true for adults and children, but it is children

who are often powerless to bring improvements to this aspect of their life. While

inadequate access to clean, pleasant toilets will affect all children badly, it can have a

particularly negative impact for children with disabilities and/or additional support needs,

for children with bladder or bowel conditions, or for children experiencing bullying.

Toilet facilities in school, is a research made and written by Sue Vernon.

Abstract

According to Sue Vernon ( May 2003 ) School toilet facilities are reported to be a

problem for many school children as well as teachers, caretakers and school nurses

Toilets unblocked: A literature review of school toilets

https://www.cypcs.org.uk/ufiles/Toilets-Literature-Review.pdf
 26

(Croghan, 2002). In a recent survey, when children were asked to describe their school

toilets, a clear picture emerged of poor standards of cleanliness, supervision and access

(Vernon et al, 2002). Children frequently reported smelly, dirty and unpleasant toilets in

their schools, inadequate supplies of toilet paper and soap, no hot water and no towels.

They also commented on the lack of privacy and the problems associated with bullying

(Vernon et al, 2002). Croghan (2002) also reported additional problems of overcrowding

and potentially insanitary conditions

Public toilets: Against all odds, article written by Rebecca Webber for the Gotham

Gazzette in July 2001.

Abstract

According to an article written by Rebecca Webber for the Gotham Gazzette in

July 15, 2001, even big cities like New York suffered from a lack of proper public toilets.

Public toilets are not cleaned properly, and were obviously neglected. When they fell into

disrepair, they were just ignored. Pay to use public toilets were not welcomed because

there were plenty of people who could not use them, such as homeless people, for

instance. Other times, people themselves would oppose the building of public toilets in

residential areas for fear that they might attract deviants. These deviants include drug

addicts and child molesters who are known to haunt public toilets. Further, the issue of

gay men and women sex in public toilets remains unresolved up to the present. The

Toilet facilities in school

https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/continence/toilet-facilities-in-
Public toilets: Against all odds
http://essay-thesis.blogspot.com/2010/11/literature-review-public-toilet.html
 27

government has not done much to help. However, other organizations have stepped up to

theplate. Automatic public

Toilet facilities in school

https://www.nursingtimes.net/clinical-archive/continence/toilet-facilities-in-
Public toilets: Against all odds
http://essay-thesis.blogspot.com/2010/11/literature-review-public-toilet.html
 28

toilets have been installed, and there are websites that can pinpoint the location of the

nearest public restroom. Cities in the United States (for instance) are now beginning to

plan for the installation of public toilets.

Public Toilets Down the Pan! Written and made by European journalist Peter

Young. It describes the disadvantages of the absence of public toilets.

Abstract

According to a European journalist Peter Young (2001) described the

disadvantages of the absence of public toilets with easy access in his article Public

Toilets Down the Pan!. Public toilets were removed from duty due to a revamping

scheme in Newcastle (Young, 2005, p.18). For this reason, majority of the number of

people have resorted to urinating on the streets or alleys. This led to people’s detention

and up to the extent of taking to court. But for the most part, the presence of

imprisonment and even arrests did not really stop the habit of urinating just about

everywhere. Not only does it result in bad odors in streets but it also presents an obvious

health and environmental hazards. Although public toilets may not be the most sanitary

places in a given society, at the very least, the health dangers can be controlled.

Go before you go: How public toilets impact public transit

https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1134&context=mcnair
 29

Go before you go: How public toilets impact public transit usage; an article written

by Kate M. Washington.

Abstract

The emphasis on sustainable solutions in Portland, Oregon includes developing

multi-modal transportation methods. Using public transit means giving up a certain

amount of control over one’s schedule and taking on a great deal of uncertainty when it

comes to personal hygiene. Buses, the MAX, and the Streetcar – the cornerstones of

public transit in Portland – are not equipped with toilets and rarely are their stations,

while most shops and restaurants reserve toilets for patrons only. As a result, many

people may bypass public transit in favor of cars, which afford travelers greater

autonomy and flexibility. Theories of New Urbanism endorse urban lifestyles, where all a

person’s needs are within a “twenty-minute neighborhood.” The reality is that many

people commute to work or school outside that radius. As sustainability focuses on public

transit, it must also consider the needs of the public for hygiene and dignity. Using data

from an online survey of Portlanders and applying New Urbanism’s lens, this article

examines the relationship between public toilet availability and public transit usage.

Understanding this correlation may enable communities, planners, and administrators to

create sound strategies that may increase ridership and align with sustainability goals.

Go before you go: How public toilets impact public transit

https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1134&context=mcnair
 30

Public toilets: an exploratory study on the demands, needs, and expectations in

Turkey, an article made by Yasemin Afacan and Meltem O Gurel.

Abstract

Provision of public toilets is not only a matter of land use, but also an essential

design and planning concern. This study examines the following questions through an

explanatory study. (i) What problems do public toilets pose? (ii) What toilet facilities do

people require most and/or most emphasize would affect the way they use land and

participate in social life? (iii) How do demands, needs, and expectations around public

toilets change depending on gender, age, and ability? We conduct a survey of 300 people

in fourteen public restrooms in the city centre of Ankara, Turkey. According to factor

analysis results, public toilets should be seen as potential urban spaces and initial

opportunities for sustainable urban developments and liveable cities.

“Governing with Clean Hands: Automated Public Toilets and Sanitary

Surveillance”, written and made by Irus Braverman.

Abstract

To anyone familiar with the story of urban decay in major American cities in the

1980s – and with the subsequent abolition of toilets from city streets – the introduction of

Public toilets: an exploratory study on the demands, needs, and expectations in Turkey
http://yoksis.bilkent.edu.tr/pdf/?doi=7424
Governing with Clean Hands: Automated Public Toilets and Sanitary Surveillance
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1680477
 31

automated public toilets (APTs) to urban spaces sounds like very good news. This article

explores the re-democratizing message that commonly accompanies the introduction of

APTs to North American city streets as well as their on-the-ground manifestations. It

focuses on two major components of APTs: privatization and automation. The process of

privatization, which characterizes most APT operations in North America, carries with it

various exclusionary effects that stand in stark contrast to the democratic aspirations of

public space. Additionally, the APTs normally feature automated devices, and, most

prominently, the auto-flush and the automated faucet and dryer. On the face of things,

these devices eradicate the injustices that sometimes accompany human discretion.

However, they also conceal the necessarily social and valueridden human decision

making that goes into their design. The article proposes that both the privatization and the

automation of public toilets are part of a broader and increasingly expansive sanitary

regime, one that imposes a morality in practice on its users.

“Lack of Public toilet facilities in cities”, an article made by the JAMA Network.

Abstract

The lack of public toilet facilities in American cities has frequently been

commented on. Some cities have followed European precedent and established public

comfort stations. A recent example is Detroit, which has established a $15,000 comfort

station, which is deservedly popular, averaging over 2,000 users a day. In Chicago the

provision is very inadequate, but the fact that investigation is beginning is promise of

better
Lack of Public toilet facilities in cities
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/443410
 32

things. A recent investigation1 by V. C. Hart, Jr., brought out the fact that the facilities

which ought to be furnished by the city are provided by the saloons and the large office

buildings. In the office buildings it is estimated that about one-third of the elevator

service is occasioned by the use of the toilet rooms by outsiders. "Public buildings afford

facilities of the most inadequate sort, miserably ventilated, meager in equipment and

inconveniently located. Department stores, railroad stations, Y. M. C. A.

“Factors influencing utilization of public toilet Projects in Nakuru town, Nakuru

country, Kenya”, written by Sammy K. Wakaba.

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors influencing utilization of

the public toilets in Nakuru town as way of contributing knowledge to current and

prospective investors on viewing public toilets as a profitable business. The objectives of

the study were to determine to what extent location and design of the public toilet project

nfluence utilization of the public toilet; to assess how marketing strategies influence the

utilization of the public toilet project; to evaluate how socio-cultural factors influence

utilization of public toilets and to assess how environment factors affect the utilization of

public toilets. The study was conducted within the Nakuru Town and a sample of 180

respondents represented the population of the users of the public toilets in the town. The

study adopted a descriptive survey design and a questionnaire was used to collect data.

Data was analysed through descriptive statistics especially the central tendencies

Factors influencing utilization of public toilet Projects in Nakuru town, Nakuru country, Kenya
http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/56334?show=full
 33

measures. The findings of the study were that: location is not a key element in

influencing; most toilets have a design

Factors influencing utilization of public toilet Projects in Nakuru town, Nakuru country, Kenya
http://erepository.uonbi.ac.ke/handle/11295/56334?show=full
 34

not friendly to all; most toilets mainly relied on the sign posts outside the toilets to

advertise; society approves on the important role of the public toilets; gender issue is a

key aspect to be considered in the hiring of staff to work in these toilets and observance

of proper environmental measures especially health measures and standards in the toilet

usage were prioritized. The study concluded that the quality of the toilet service is

essential despite the location of the toilet; there is need to incorporate more strategies to

market the toilets; the toilet providers have a strong societal recognition of the toilets as a

business thus need improve their vision of the toilets and there is a need to have health

regulations displayed inside the toilets to enlighten the users of the toilets. It is

recommended that future researchers should study on factors attracting investors to offer

public toilet services in Nakuru town.

“Lifting the lid on toilet plume aerosol” it is an article made by Johnson DL and

Mead K.

Abstract

The potential risks associated with "toilet plume" aerosols produced by flush

toilets is a subject of continuing study. This review examines the evidence regarding

toilet plume bioaerosol generation and infectious disease transmission. The peer-

reviewed scientific literature was searched to identify articles related to aerosol

production during toilet flushing, as well as epidemiologic studies examining the

potential role of toilets in infectious disease outbreaks. The studies demonstrate that

Lifting the lid on toilet plume aerosol

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23040490
 35

potentially infectious aerosols may be produced in substantial quantities during flushing.

Aerosolization can continue

Lifting the lid on toilet plume aerosol

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23040490
 36

through multiple flushes to expose subsequent toilet users. Some of the aerosols desiccate

to become droplet nuclei and remain adrift in the air currents. However, no studies have

yet clearly demonstrated or refuted toilet plume-related disease transmission, and the

significance of the risk remains largely uncharacterized. Research suggests that toilet

plume could play a contributory role in the transmission of infectious diseases.

Additional research in multiple areas is warranted to assess the risks posed by toilet

plume, especially within health care facilities.

LOCAL

Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Eco-Toilet Systems in Rural Areas: A Case

Study in the Philippines, made by Jonathan Jared Ignacio , Roy Alvin Malenab,

Carla Mae Pausta, Arnel Beltran, Lawrence Belo, Renan Ma. Tanhueco, Marlon

Era, Ramon Christian Eusebio, Michael Angelo Promentilla and Aileen Orbecido.

Abstract

Death due to diseases from poor sanitation is a serious global issue and it has

become one of the priorities of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (i.e.,

SDG6). This SDG6 aims to provide adequate improved sanitation facilities to over 2.3

billion people around the world who have no or limited access to sanitation, wherein

more than two-thirds of these un-served people live in rural areas. One of the strategies

for addressing this global issue is through emerging sustainable sanitation technologies

Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Eco-Toilet Systems in Rural Areas: A Case Study in the
Philippines www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/2/521/pdf
 37

such as the Eco-Toilet System (ETS), which uses small amounts of water or is even

waterless

Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Eco-Toilet Systems in Rural Areas: A Case Study in the
Philippines www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/2/521/pdf
 38

and recovers nutrients from human waste thereby promoting water-energy conservation,

improved sanitation and supplement nutrients essential to plant growth. Social

acceptance, however, remains a key barrier in deploying the ETS. A social perception

study on the use of the ETS was conducted in a rural community in Mulanay, Philippines.

The researchers analyzed the proposed combined technology acceptance model and

theory of planned behavior (C-TAM-TPB) using multiple linear regression and the

Mann-Whitney U-test to evaluate the perceptions and attitudes of a rural community

towards the use of the ETS. The results showed that more than 50% of the respondents

are aware of the nutrient value of human excreta and believe that it is usable as fertilizer;

however, less than 25% prefer to utilize it for food production. Results also indicate that

the behavior of the users is driven by their attitude (β = 0.420, p-value < 0.010).

Moreover, the Mann-Whitney U-test results revealed that people who are knowledgeable

of the nutrient value of human excreta and are willing to collect them have more positive

attitude towards the ETS.

Improving Sanitation in Coastal Communities with Special Reference to Puerto

Princesa, Palawan Province, Philippines by: Rachelle G. Navarro, 1994

Abstract

The sanitary collection, transportation, treatment and disposal of human waste

promotes health, improves the quality of the environment and thus, the quality of life in a

community. Some poor communities in developing countries, rarely consider inadequate

excreta disposal a problem. In absence of sanitation facilities, these communities rely on

Improving Sanitation in Coastal Communities with Special Reference to Puerto Princesa,
Palawan Province, Philippines
https://www.mcgill.ca/mchg/student/sanitation#ABSTRACT
 39

natural processes to dispose of their waste, wherein the practice of defecating in the open

fields or on surface water is prevalent.In communities occupying coastal, waterfront and

low-lying areas, human waste is directly disposed of into the surface water such as rivers,

canals and sea or in the mudflat to await the tide. These surface waters, however, are

often the communities' sources of food, and water for drinking, domestic and personal

cleaning. Studies on sanitation show that contaminated water and human wastes are

major factors in the transmission of serious diseases in the developing world.

This thesis aims to contribute to the process of selecting appropriate sanitation

technologies for the low-income coastal and waterfront communities. The thesis analyzes

sanitation and environmental conditions in the coastal communities of Puerto Princesa,

Palawan Province, Philippines, to identify the important considerations for the provision

of sanitation systems in these communities and hence, determine the feasible sanitation

options.

Where is the CR? A Description of Philippine English in Hawaii by: Rodney C

Jubilado

Abstract

When people migrate, they bring with them their language and culture. In the case

of the Filipinos, it means bringing various languages and indigenous or amalgamated

cultures. The Filipinos have come to Hawaii with hopeful ideals of economic prosperity,

and involuntarily transported the Philippine English that has further enriched the already

Where is the CR? A Description of Philippine English in Hawaii

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309740722_Where_is_the_CR_A_Description_of_Phi
lippine_English_in_Hawaii
 40

multiglottal linguistic landscape of Hawaii. This paper aims at the documentation of the

existence of Philippine English in Hawaii (PEH). This study focuses on the preliminary

description of the sound properties, lexical items, and grammar features of PEH. There

are two sources of data in this study: (1) data from the result of direct participant

observation among Filipinos for three years and four months (August 2012-December

2015) and (2) data from the unstructured interviews conducted with the 35 Filipino-

American students from Spring 2015 to Fall 2015 at University of Hawaii at Hilo (UHH)

who are first and second generation Filipinos and residents or citizens of Hawaii. Results

showed that Philippine English is spoken among first and second generation Filipinos in

Hawaii.

Health and Sanitation Development in the Philippines: Potential for Stakeholder

Cooperation and Education: Hayashi Seminar, Faculty of Economics, Faculty

Linkage Program

Abstract

Is a research about the effect of awareness program as the approach of expanding

sanitation coverage and its customary usage. In developing countries, it is considered that

defect of sanitation facilities is a big problem. Although access of safe drinking water

tackles preferentially, supply of sanitation facilities is far late. Defect of sanitation

facilities will also be connected with water pollution because polluted water flows into a

river and also causes soil pollution by being forced to excrete in the field. Such an

insanitary situation becomes a cause which causes water borne disease and leads also to
Health and Sanitation Development in the Philippines: Potential for Stakeholder Cooperation and
Education
u.ac.jp/~mhayashi/rireki/Thesis2011EN.pdf
 41

an economical loss of a country. In the Philippines, the sanitation facilities such as

drainage and toilets were

Health and Sanitation Development in the Philippines: Potential for Stakeholder Cooperation and
Education
u.ac.jp/~mhayashi/rireki/Thesis2011EN.pdf
 42

improved only to a limited extent because of the delay in construction causing some

serious problems. However, the residents in poverty area have still no access to safe

water. The number of toilets in school is also lacking. It is difficult to use these facilities

even if there are sanitation facilities in school because they have become old. To assist in

this situation, the government of Philippines has been conducting activities.

Do Piped Water And Flush Toilets Prevent Child Diarrhea in Rural Philippines?

By: Joseph J. Capuno, Carlos Antonio R. Tan, Jr and Vigile Marie Fabella

Abstract

Like in other developing countries, diarrhea in the Philippines continues to be

among the top causes of infant mortality and morbidity. In pursuit of its Millenium

Development Goals, the Government of the Philippines commits to reduce the child

deaths and to provide water and sanitation services to more rural households by 2015.

Applying propensity score matching on the 1993, 1998, 2003 and 2008 rounds of the

National Demographic and Health Survey, the incidence of diarrhea among under-5

children is found lower by as much as 4.5 percent in households with access to piped

water and 10 percent in those with their own flush toilets than in comparable households.

These underscore the need to ensure at the point of use the quality of drinking water from

piped or other improved sources, and the provision of improved and own sanitation

facilities.

Do Piped Water And Flush Toilets Prevent Child Diarrhea in Rural Philippines?
http://www.3ieimpact.org/media/filer/2013/10/25/do_piped_water_and_flush_toilets_prevent
_child_diarrhea_in_rural_philippines.pdf
 43

Evaluation of a smart toilet in an emergency camp

Abstract

An experimental prototype of the eSOS (emergency Sanitation Operation System)

Smart Toilet® was evaluated in an emergency settlement in the Philippines. The toilet was

equipped with sensors and information communication technologies (ICT) for an

efficient operation in an emergency setting. The field testing aimed at evaluating the

toilet's service capacity related to the user frequency/intensity obtaining insight on the

usage patterns in an actual post emergency situation. In addition, the novel features and

functionality of the toilet were assessed. Operational performance of the toilet was

assessed based on data collected from nearly 700 users within a 7-weeks period. The

eSOS Smart Toilet has been properly operating during the evaluation period. A

methodology to distinguish defecationand urination activities was developed based on

determining discharges to faeces and urine tank. The toilet achieved up to 97% savings

on water consumption compared to conventional toilets. The application of sensors and

ICT features, combined with manually obtained data informed comprehensive usages

data e.g. 62% of identified users were female users, 40% children, and 60% of the visits

were for urination and 40% and for defecation. The accumulation of urine, faeces and

grey water was measured to allow for a responsive maintenance resulting in optimized

operation and increased interest to use the toilet. The field evaluation generated ideas for

further improvements in terms of cost savings, services, and an overall vision for

sustainability

Evaluation of a smart toilet in an emergency camp

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212420917303382
 44

Sex differences in the topic of Bathroom graffiti by: Maryanne L. Fisher and Sarah

Radtke

Abstract

Several researchers have reported their attempts to document and analyze graffiti

that appears in relatively private locations, such as public bathrooms. However, most

reports have been sociological or descriptive in nature, and none have seemingly

examined Canadian bathrooms. Given that graffiti have existed throughout human history

and is readily apparent across cultures, we propose that an evolutionary perspective may

be advantageous for understanding the content of graffiti. To explore this possibility, we

examined the themes that emerge in the graffiti of men’s versus women’s bathrooms in

order to investigate evolved sex differences, as evidenced in content. We propose that the

sex differences in graffiti reflect those that may be expected due to intrasexual

competition and mate preferences. The graffiti in men’s bathrooms included far more

“tagging” (i.e., signatures or personal logos), potentially indicating territoriality or self-

proclamation of status, while the graffiti in women’s bathrooms focused on love and

relationships. We conclude with directions for future research based on an evolutionary

perspective that may further contribute towards an understanding of graffiti.

Gender differences in the topic of Bathroom graffiti

http://ishe.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/HEB_2014_29_2_68-81.pdf
 45

Linking Poverty and the Environment: Evidence from Slums in Philippine Cities,

written by Marife M. Ballesteros

Abstract

This paper examines the linkages of poverty and environment at the household

level in Philippine slums. Rapid urbanization and the inadequate infrastructure and basic

services in large towns and cities have led to the proliferation of slums and informal

settlements in the country. While poverty incidence of population in key metropolitan

centers is on average 17% compared to the national average of 32%, slum population has

been exponentially rising at an average rate of 3.4%. In Metro Manila, which is the prime

city, an estimated 37% of population or over 4.0 million Filipinos live in slums in 2010

and slum population growth rate is at 8% annually. These slum dwellers and informal

settlers confront on a daily basis another dimension of poverty which is environmental

poverty. The underserviced and bad living conditions in slums impact on health,

livelihood and the social fiber. The effects of urban environmental problems and threats

of climate change are also most pronounced in slums due to their hazardous location,

poor air pollution and solid waste management, weak disaster risk management and

limited coping strategies of households. It has also been argued in several studies that

possible trade-offs exist between bad housing and medical care and between bad housing

and education. Bad living environment thus deepens poverty, increases the vulnerability

of both the poor and non-poor living in slums and excludes the slum poor from growth.

Linking Poverty and the Environment: Evidence from Slums in Philippine Cities
https://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps1033.pdf
 46

The Water Quality of the Pasig River in the City of Manila, Philippines: Current

Status, Management and Future Recovery by: Joan B. Gorme, Marla C. Maniquiz,

Pum Song and Lee-Hyung Kim

Abstract

Pasig River is an important river in the Metro Manila, Philippines, since it

provides food, livelihood and transport to its residents, and connects two major water

bodies; Laguna de Bay and Manila Bay. However, it is now considered to be the toilet

bowl of Metro Manila due to the large amount of wastes dumped into the river. Even

with the efforts of the government to revive the quality of the Pasig River and its

tributaries, it continues to deteriorate over time. This paper provides an overview of the

current condition of the Pasig River. The existing water management policies were

reviewed, and the issues and challenges hindering the improvement of its water quality

identified. Moreover, the water qualities of the rivers in Metro Manila were compared to

those of the major rivers in South Korea. The current watershed management system

practiced by South Korea has been discussed to serve as a guideline for future recovery

of the water quality of the rivers in the Philippines.

The Water Quality of the Pasig River in the City of Manila, Philippines: Current Status,
Management and Future Recovery
http://eeer.org/upload/eer-15-3-173-.pdf