pter

Cha

05 URBAN AREAS FACE FOUR BROAD

ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES:
> providing public services in an
equitable manner;

“Just” Environmental
> addressing environmental risks, from
pollution to climate change impacts;

Sustainabilities > minimizing the negative impacts of

land transformations in the use of
resources, biodiversity and ecosystems;

> and responding to the global call for

Quick Facts decarbonization and rationalizing the
use of resources.
1 By 2030, global demand for energy and water is expected to
grow by 40 and 50 per cent respectively.

2 Solid waste management dominates municipal annual

budgets in low- and middle-income countries, with shares of 30
to 50 per cent

3 In urban areas, climate change impacts like heat waves,

heavy precipitations and droughts can compound one another,
making disaster risk management more complex.

4 Faced with extreme events, cities increasingly understand

that novel ways are called for to build resilience, in the process
contributing to a more equitable environment

5 Although developed countries provide those less developed

with financial support for climate change mitigation, it falls Environmental planning and management
short if the on-going rise in global temperatures is to be
contained. are essential to the advent of sustainable
cities. This must include planning for
resilience in the face of disasters.

Policy Points
1 A human rights-based approach to the urban environment
emphasizes our universal dependence on unadulterated,
abundant resources.

2 Mainstreaming the notion ‘just sustainabilities’ into urban

planning and policies will challenge dominant, outdated
preconceptions, while taking in specific local ecological
Urban areas
constraints. are emerging as sites of
3 New planning approaches are emerging that offer a range of opportunity for effective
possibilities to finance environmental action and recognize its
valuable contribution beyond purely economic valuation. environmental
4 Strengthening multi-level governance approaches is
essential to achieving low-carbon cities and raising standards of
action.
urban resilience in the future.
 A review of sustainable development policies and implementation that followed the conference in
Rio 1992, the MDGs, the LA21, Habitat II, including the constitution of global city networks, have
recognized delivering sustainability - particularly just sustainabilities - requires good global and
effective environmental governance. Ensuring justice and equity in the process of environmental
planning and management is crucial towards a just and sustainable city.

Just sustainabilities policies, already advanced by community

groups and some local governments, have four pillars that build upon previous
experiences of sustainable development in urban planning:

Improving people’s quality of

life and wellbeing.

Ensuring justice and equity in

terms of recognition, process,
Meeting the needs of both present procedure and outcome.
and future generations, that is,
considering simultaneously intra- and
intergenerational equity.
Recognizing ecosystem limits
and the need to live within the
possibilities of this planet.

Representatives from different sectors play a key role

in delivering urban sustainability. These include:

Urban communities
have played a leading role in;
> climate change action, Academia Private Research
corporations foundations
> influencing policy and practice for
the reduction of GHGs emissions at
the global level.
Philanthropies Community organizations
and citizen groups
87
Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

U
rban development enables human communities to expand the amount
of space available to them even as the surface of planet Earth appears
to be more finite than ever.1 This is the apparent paradox that can
turn urbanization and environmental sustainability into a workable challenge.
Beyond more verticality and density, this realization speaks to the transforma-
tive power of urbanization, a notion that has increasingly
been recognized over 40 years of global policy-making
through a succession of challenges and breakthroughs.
The 1976 Vancouver Declaration described
uncontrolled urbanization as a problem leading to over-
crowding, pollution and general deterioration of living
conditions in urban areas.2 In 1992, along with the final
declaration of the UN Conference on Environment and
Development held in Rio de Janeiro, representatives from
Urban
development 173 countries adopted Local Agenda 21 (LA21), which
enables human was advanced by local authorities, and is now operational
communities in some 1,200 localities in over 70 countries.3 Agenda 21
to expand the
amount of
stressed the need for sustainable settlements as well as for local action, alongside preservation of biodiversity.
space available “conservation and management of resources for develop- The transformative role urbanization can play
to them ment” and participatory decision-making. The scheme has in environmental sustainability has been increasingly rec-
made a lasting mark on governance systems.4 The 1996 ognized.11 When well-planned and managed (Chapter 2),
Istanbul Declaration re-emphasized the importance of urbanization, together with building design and transport
specific local circumstances in the pursuit of sustainable modalities, provides a welcome opportunity to devise
urban environments.5 Habitat III should ensure an equally resilience strategies, in the process reducing resource
positive agenda for urban sustainability, with workable use, entrenching incremental development gains and
proposals for effective change and in full compliance with managing vulnerability vis-a-vis all plausible hazards.12
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). While empirical Action in urban centres is critical to global climate change
evidence confirms that urbanization acts as a major factor adaptation13 and “decarbonization” (i.e. “net zero” planet-
of socio-economic development, it also has all-too visible warming emissions).14 The discrete agendas of environ-
negative effects on ecosystems, biodiversity and resource mental conservation and sound urbanization can be
use, with pollution a threat to public health.
6 brought to converge if and when environmental planning
Climate change has emerged as a central issue addresses the structural (largely spatial) underpinning
in urban agendas.7 Globally, the number of natural disas- factors.
ters is increasing in both intensity and frequency (4,000 Accordingly, “sustainable cities” was one pri-
between 2003 and 2012, compared with ority area at the 2012 UN Con-
Urbanization acts as a major factor
82 in 1901-1910).8 Natural disasters are of socio-economic development,
ference on Sustainable Develop-
particularly detrimental to the urban poor it also has all-too visible negative ment (“Rio+20”). The theme
and their recognized human rights to effects on ecosystems, biodiversity was discussed against the back-
and resource use, with pollution a
decent living conditions, since unplanned ground of Sustainable Devel-
threat to public health
Natural urbanization and inadequate infrastruc- opment Goals (SDGs) and as a
disasters are
ture9 leave them more exposed than the rest of the component of the UN-sponsored Post-2015 Development
particularly
detrimental population. The risks from global warming are expected Agenda.15 SDG 11 prescribes “inclusive, safe, resilient and
to the urban to intensify in the years ahead and fresh pressures are sustainable” cities.16 This comes as a universal recognition
poor and their emerging. Indeed, by 2030, global demand for energy that human life in all its dimensions is inseparable from the
recognized
human rights and water is expected to grow by 40 and 50 per cent wide variety of physical (either natural or, increasingly, man-
to decent living respectively.10 This will likely accelerate biodiversity loss made) circumstances that give humankind vital sustenance.
conditions and spur the spread of infectious diseases. Consequently, To a broader extent than their predecessors the Global
adaptation to climate change must continue to mobilize Development Goals (2000-2015), SDGs now provide for
 88

Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Overview wind power
mills in the town of
Palencia, Spain
Source: Jose Angel Astor Rocha
/ Shutterstock.com

all humankind’s living arrangements (and effective basic access to basic resources.18 Aiming to inspire an effec-
rights) on planet Earth, and that is why those goals are tive urban agenda, this chapter introduces the notion of
inseparable from each other, too. Since a higher propor- “just sustainabilities” to address urban environmental,
tion of humankind is now living in towns and cities, it is alongside economic welfare and social justice issues.19
incumbent on urban governments, each in its own way, to Emerging in the early 2000s, just sustainabilities offer
provide for durable life support systems through adequate a more nuanced definition of sustainable development
planning— and for the benefit of their population as a since the Brundtland Commission: the need to ensure a
whole, since slums and other dimensions of urban poverty better quality of life for all, now and into the future, in a
are a manifestation of unsustainable, environmentally det- just and equitable manner, whilst living within the limits
rimental living arrangements.17 These were the dynamics of supporting ecosystems.20 Anchored by just sustain-
behind Habitat II, which gained impetus with implementa- abilities ideals, this chapter reviews current urban envi-
tion of LA21— thus, Habitat III should be an opportunity ronmental challenges, and analyses key trends in urban
to give these dynamics further momentum in the face of environmental planning, moving from guiding principles
mounting pressure from climate change. to sector-based initiatives. This is followed by a discussion
The multi-dimensional challenges to sustain- on key issues governing and financing urban sustainability.
able planning are daunting, yet many cities have devel- Finally, it concludes that achieving healthy cities depends
oped promising examples of environmental action, in an on planning approaches that deliver just sustainabilities21
effort to restore and preserve ecological balance, changing in relation to urban environmental challenges and their
consumption and production patterns, promoting ecolog- manifestations in specific locations.
ical efficiency and striving for social equity. A comprehen-
sive human rights-based approach to urbanization would
contribute to environmental sustainability policies, as
resources and risks determine the standards of living and
89
Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

5.1
Equal access to resources and
services
Cities must ensure universal access to basic
services like water, sanitation, waste management, energy,
Today’s Urban food, and mobility, which are crucial to socioeconomic

Environmental
welfare, public health and the urban environment. Many
developing country cities seek to deploy new infrastruc-

Challenges ture and systems in a bid to compete in the global economy

and attract foreign investors.22 However, such efforts only
enhance persistent inequalities, as they do little to alleviate
Cities typically face four main types of environmental acute deprivation and low living standards, particularly in
challenges, including three types of threat to, and one informal settlements.23 In Africa as a whole, the average
from, the natural milieu: urban sanitation rate stood at 54 per cent in 2010, with dis-
Many ◗◗ effective equal access to resources and urban public eases like cholera still plaguing urban areas.24 Similarly, in
developing services contributes to poverty alleviation. Sub-Saharan Africa electricity was available to only 32 per
country
cities seek to ◗◗ managing environmental hazards requires a risk-based cent of the urban population in 2011, with power shortages
deploy new approach, fully taking in the uncertainties inherent to in at least 30 countries.25 In the Latin America-Caribbean
infrastructure environmental information and climate change. (LAC) region, overall proportions are comparatively higher
and systems
in a bid to
◗◗ the effects of urban expansion on land conditions but access to basic services remains inequitable: in 2010,
compete in make it impossible to consider any town or city in over 20 per cent of the urban population still had no access
the global isolation, highlighting the need to recognize the to improved sanitation, 6 per cent lacked access to safe
economy and
variety of specific spatial connections and impacts water and 7 per cent to electricity.26 It is incumbent on
attract foreign
investors (such as biodiversity loss and deforestation). urban planners to understand the implications of inequi-
◗◗ a low-carbon world calls for changes to resource table access to infrastructure within the context of their
consumption and an effective if gradual shift to more city’s environment and resources.
sustainable societies. Solid waste management dominates municipal
annual budgets in low- and middle-income countries, with
shares of 30 to 50 per cent according to the World Bank.
Figure 5.1: Waste management per capita and urbanization rates in the Waste is correlated to economic development and popula-
main regions of the world tion27 (Figure 5.1). In developing country cities, informal
Source: Vergara and Tchobanoglous, 2012. pickers typically represent five per cent of urban jobs, but
are unable to provide proper solid waste management a
2.5
citywide scale.28
OECD Other cities are reaping the benefits of inte-
2.0
grated management and public-private partnerships (PPPs).
Municipal solid waste generated

However, PPPs require thorough assessment and mitiga-

per capita (kg/cap-day)

1.5
tion of the risks to private partners, public officials and
1.0 EAP
MENA ECA LAC financial investors. Norway’s Tonsberg Waste to Energy PPP
converts sewage sludge, food waste, organic commercial
0.5
AFR
waste and manure into biogas for heating, electricity pro-
SAR
duction and fuel for biogas (an alternative fuel for buses,
which in Norway use approximately four million gallons of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
gasoline/diesel annually).29 Nonetheless, despite increased
% Population residing in urban areas
AFR: Sub-Saharan Africa technical skills provided by the private sector, enhanced
EAP: East Asia and Pacific
ECA: Eastern and Central Europe
financing mechanisms, improved institutional capabilities
LAC: Latin America and the Caribbean and regulatory frameworks are needed.
MENA: Middle East and North Africa
OECD: member countries of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
A “just sustainabilities” perspective on infra-
SAR: South Asia Region structure emphasizes alternatives for underserviced areas
 Municipal solid wa
per capita (kg
MENA ECA LAC
1.0 EAP

AFR
90
0.5
SAR

Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% Population residing in urban areas

and maintaining reliability and accessibility through part- Figure 5.2: Risks from climate change, as reported by 110 cities to the
nerships with community groups, universities, the private Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP)
sector and NGOs.30  Participatory governance enables com- Source: Based on data from https://www.cdp.net/CDPResults/CDP-Cities-2013-usage-summary.pdf.

munities to control public service delivery, achieving effec-

tive convergence between entitlements and public policy.31
Sea level rise
In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, community groups in fringe
Storms/floods
areas mobilize fund-raising and external technical assis-
Drought
tance for water supply and sanitation roads and drainage Frequent/intense rainfall
channels.32 However, community-based approaches may Temperature increase/heatwaves
reduce incentives for governments to monitor and even- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
tually run service provision.33 In LAC, service delivery
Africa East Asia Europe
is led by the public sector, but significant gaps remain in Latin America North America South Asia/Oceania
capital expenditure: infrastructure fluctuates between two
and three per cent of the region’s GDP, when five per cent
would close the existing gap34 not including an estimated
additional 0.6 per cent of GDP for capital expenditure in cope with disasters, including ability to address the struc- Participatory
climate change adaptation and mitigation.35 With rapid tural factors underpinning vulnerabilities and to build governance
enables
urbanization, new mechanisms are necessary if infrastruc- more sustainable communities.41 Local authorities and communities
ture and basic services associated with better living stand- other urban stakeholders have an essential role to play to control
ards are to be provided, and if poverty and inequalities are here. In6 this respect, the UN Office for Disaster Reduc- public service
delivery,
to be reduced against a background of finite resources. tion (UNISDR)
5 has set out a number of practical recom-
achieving
mendations.
4 42 Since then, UN-Habitat, together with
effective
Are environmental risks 3
the Technical Centre for Disaster Risk Management and convergence
and climate change impacts 2
Urban Resilience (DiMSUR) has developed and success- between
1 entitlements
manageable? fully tested a participatory methodology, known as the
0 and public
Across the world in 2002, inadequate water, City Resilience Action Plan (CityRAP) (Box 5.1). Clearly, policy
Delhi

Manila

São Paulo

Beijing

London

Jakarta

Seoul

Tokyo

Mexico City

New York

Singapore

Los Angeles
sanitation and hygiene caused four per cent of all deaths sustainable development is relevant to all cities and each
and 5.7 per cent of the estimated total of diseases.36 A in its own way (Chapter 2). Resilient infrastructure and
parallel trend, from London to Shanghai, is air pollution, services may not comeMetropolitan
cheap, per
butcapita
unitcarbon
costs decrease
footprint as
(metric tons)
particularly in rapidly growing and industrializing cities urban density rises, and the average
National benefits remain
carbon footprintsignificant.
(metric tons) 43

with increasing rates of motorization.37 In urban areas, Both the UN-Habitat and the “just sustain-
climate change impacts like heat waves, heavy precipita- abilities” approaches to urban resilience look beyond the Accordingly,
tions and droughts can compound one another, making natural environment, and take in other dimensions such Habitat III
presents an
disaster risk management more complex (Figure 5.2). as long-term, participatory in-situ slum and infrastruc- opportunity
However, the physical effects, timeframes and ture upgrading,44 relocation to improved sites, institu- to include
associated migration potential of such climate-related tional development and building both awareness and local environment-
linked
disasters differ significantly across urban areas and conti- capacity to respond and adapt.45 In this respect, Pakistan’s migration in
nents, with resettlement widely viewed as a last resort.38 Orangi Pilot Project Research and Training Institute sup- the New Urban
Accordingly, Habitat III presents an opportunity to include ports local capacity building for the purposes of planning, Agenda
environment-linked migration in the New Urban Agenda, implementation and low-cost financing of basic sanitation
as addressed by the UNISDR Sendai Framework for resil- in more than 300 communities in Karachi.46 Arab cities like
ience building, the UN Principles on Housing and Prop- Amman, Cairo, Casablanca and Rabat have launched urban
erty Restitution for Refugees and Displaced Persons, and “greening projects” in response to
the World Bank Guidelines on Involuntary Resettlement.39 climate change.47 Faced with extreme Efforts to build urban resilience
Efforts to build urban resilience can benefit events, more cities understand that can benefit from integrating
from integrating climate change adaptation with existing novel ways are called for to build resil- climate change adaptation with
existing efforts in disaster risk
efforts in disaster risk reduction, and other similar plan- ience, in the process contributing to a reduction, and other similar
ning processes.40 Resilience refers to a city’s capacity to more equitable environment. planning processes
91
Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Box 5.1: The UN-Habitat City Resilience Action Plan background of institutional fragmentation.51 In less devel-
oped countries, rising suburbanization results in low den-
UN-Habitat has developed a new tool, which enables fast-growing small- and sities and exponential expansion of the urban footprint
medium-size towns to overcome their lack of capacities, experience, information and in regions like LAC52, compared with increased inequality
resources and to kick-start resilience action planning over a five-week programme. and social exclusion in industrialized countries.53
Instead of imposing a predefined model or involvement of outside technical experts, Faced with these changes in peri-urban land
the City Resilience Action Planning (“City RAP”) tool leverages local knowledge and patterns, it is essential for urban planners to set appro-
abilities, including stakeholders and communities. After a week’s training programme, priate guidelines regarding both density (to be increased)
participants engage in local government self-assessment, participatory risk-mapping and mixed land uses (for a better balance among residen-
and cross-sector action planning. Together they set priorities for the short term, which tial, commercial and leisure uses of land, favouring non-
can be met with currently available resources, including the medium (2-3 years) and motorized mobility). It is for local authorities to develop
longer (10 years) terms (to be resourced), which local governments validate, with and implement such policies and plans. These should also
support from UN-Habitat and other international staff along the process. include preservation of agricultural land (and any land
that sustains biodiversity, water quality and groundwater
Source: UN-Habitat, City Resilience Action Planning Tool, 2015. recharge), including fragile and coastal areas and others in
need of protection. The World Bank’s Land Governance
Assessment Framework emphasizes the benefits of inte-
Managing urbanization, land grating land use planning, public land management and
transformation and biodiversity revenue collection, while recognizing historical specifici-
Resilient
infrastructure Cities exist in continuous interaction with ties in urban areas.54 Finally, as meeting points between
and services their surroundings, through many diverse two-way links. individuals and communities, public spaces have a major
may not come However, empirical studies in Mali, Niger and Tanzania role to play in sustainable cities.55
cheap, but
unit costs
demonstrate how urban and rural households now rely on Urbanization affects biodiversity and ecosys-
decrease as both rural- and urban-based resources and exchanges for tems.56 Ecosystem services through rooftop gardens, “ver-
urban density access to land, water, markets and diversified livelihoods.48 tical forests” and green corridors benefit both residents and
rises, and
Urban sprawl, as induced by spatial expan- urban biota.57 However, the need remains for improved
the benefits
remain sion, is not homogeneous: in industrialized economies
49 – including participatory – governance, as emphasized by
significant it causes loss of arable land and more pollution-inducing Cities and Biodiversity Outlook (CBO)58 (Box 5.2).59
mobility.50 In developing countries, sprawl results from
rigid land markets at the peri-urban interface and is a Responding to decarbonization
challenge to basic service provision– especially against a imperatives
A shift from fossil fuels to renewable energies
and improved efficiency is needed to cut planet-warming
emissions to a “net zero.”60 Estimates of carbon emissions
(Figure 5.3) attribute between 67 and 76 per cent of
global energy use to urban areas.61
Rapidly urbanizing areas must respond to
increasing infrastructure needs. At the same time, urban
Changing Course in Urban
Transport: Strategies to
manage traffic in Asia like
here in Xian must include
a wide range of measures.
The "Avoid-Shift-Improve"
approach is central to
reducing dependence on
individual car dependency.
It also ensures a high level
of mobility while minimizing
greenhouse gas emissions.
Source: Armin Wagner / Asian
Development Bank, CC BY 2.0,
https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by/2.0/legalcode
 2.5

OECD
2.0 92

Municipal solid waste generated

per capita (kg/cap-day)

Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

1.5

MENA ECA LAC

1.0 EAP

AFR
0.5
SAR

Box 5.2: The Cities and Biodiversity Outlook: 10 main messages

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

1. It is for urban areas to remedy their 6. Existing food systems and associated % Populationurbanization
residing in urban areas

own negative effects on the natural ecosystems can be maintained if their 9. Cities test our capacity to live together and
environment through development and degree of biodiversity is increased, to create environments that are socially
implementation of adequate solutions improving global food security in the just, ecologically sustainable, economically
2. With proper planninc and management, process productive, politically participatory and
cities can retain substantial components of 7. Urban and environmental planning culturally vibrant
native biodiversity provides opportunities and formal legal 10. Fostering creativity, innovation and
3. Quantifying the value of ecosystems and/ mechanisms for biodiversity conservation learning is essential if the global challenge
Sea level rise
or attaching qualitative values enables through design guidelines, building of preserving biodiversity in the face of
Storms/floods
mainstreaming of ecological factors into codes, zoning schemes, spatial plans unprecedented urbanization is to be met.
Drought
city management and strategic choices, all coupled with
Frequent/intense rainfall
4. Proper planning and resources can effective enforcement Source: Secretariat for the Convention on Biological
Temperature increase/heatwaves Diversity, 2012.
result in mutual benefits for human and 8. Cities have an essential role to play
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
environmental healthiness in environmental governance focusing
Africa East Asia Europe
5. Urban green spaces can contribute to on both the urban landscape and the
Latin America North America South Asia/Oceania
climate-change mitigation. remote ecosystems that are affected by

sprawl and motorization come hand in hand with the Figure 5.3: Comparison between individual city and national carbon
expansion of slums and gated communities, and the footprints per capita
associated social divide62 (with the better-off classes pro- Source: Sovacool and Brown, 2010.

ducing the bulk of emissions).63

The pursuit of lower- or no-carbon cities has 6
spawned numerous initiatives, such as harmonized instru- 5
ments for emission inventories (Chapter 2) and alternative 4

financing mechanisms and business models, infrastruc- 3

2
ture building, changing consumer behaviour and tech-
1
nological diffusion.64 Regardless of national approaches
0
and circumstances, some basic options are available. In
Delhi

Manila

São Paulo

Beijing

London

Jakarta

Seoul

Tokyo

Mexico City

New York

Singapore

Los Angeles
its 2014 report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC)65 highlighted the three pillars of “deep
decarbonization,” as follows: Metropolitan per capita carbon footprint (metric tons)
National average carbon footprint (metric tons)
i. energy efficiency and conservation (transport, build-
ings, manufacturing)
ii. low-carbon electricity (nuclear, solar, hydro, wind geo- zation in urban areas are still not well understood. For The urban poor
typically rely
thermal), or coupling fossil fuels with carbon capture example, restrictions on energy use may compromise on polluting
and storage (CCS) access to traditional, non-commercial sources, which calls low-efficiency
iii. switching to lower carbon fuels (as in (i.)). for attention to the interactions between climate change fuels, but also
on renewable
mitigation and environmental justice.67 Overall, aware-
energy
Under a “just sustainability” perspective, ness of harmful emissions has launched the urban world production
decarbonization must combine with service provision. on a transition towards a sustainable energy future.68 or micro-
The urban poor typically rely on polluting low-efficiency grids, which
can provide
fuels, but also on renewable energy production or micro- A shift from fossil fuels to renewable energies and sustainable,
grids, which can provide sustainable, “clean” energy.66 improved efficiency is needed to cut planet-warming “clean” energy
However, the practical policy implications of decarboni- emissions to a “net zero
93
Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

5.2
LA21 Chapter 28 emphasized local govern-
ments’ role as mediators between citizens and other insti-
tutions, at both national and international levels. Local
climate change mitigation has been encouraged by posi-
Trends in Urban tive experiences supported by urban networks like ICLEI

Environmental
Urban — Local Governments for Sustainability, Cities Alliance,
environmental the Inter-American Development Bank’s urban initiatives,
issues appear
at various
spatial scales
Planning and and the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group.69 Since
2008, UN-Habitat’s Cities and Climate Change Initia-
and should
be tackled
Management tive has expanded to over 45 cities in 23 countries, with
neighbourhood pilot projects, climate strategies and coor-
at various
levels through dination of partners at national and world levels.70
multi-tier This section examines the key trends shaping urban envi- South Korea’s “green growth” policies 71
governance
ronmental planning and management. First, it analyses the encourage cities to promote new technologies, energy
relationships between national and local actors, and how efficiency, renewables, “green” buildings and higher den-
this can be redefined through multi-level governance, Sec- sity-oriented public transport.72 Although local authorities
ondly, it reviews integrated planning developments since depend on various multi-level governance arrangements to
Habitat II. Thirdly, it reaffirms the relevance of participa- guide policy actions, theirs remains a crucial role when it
tory approaches towards environmental management. comes to achieving “just sustainable” societies, and that is
Thereafter, it discusses the rise of eco-cities and how why they should be supported by other tiers of government.
they are changing ecology and sustainable development
LA21 Chapter discourses. Finally, it highlights sector-based innovations Integrated approaches to
28 emphasized
local that may help achieve just sustainabilities. environmental planning
governments’ Integrated environmental management tackles
role as National, local and multi-level related issues like urban management and governance,
mediators
between
governance integrated spatial planning, economic wellbeing and com-
citizens Urban environmental issues appear at various petitiveness, social inclusion and environmental steward-
and other spatial scales and should be tackled at various levels ship – as increasingly recognized after the Rio and Istanbul
institutions,
through multi-tier governance: municipal, metropolitan or conferences. However, deregulation of public service pro-
at both
national and supramunicipal (Table 5.1), as long as they are addressed vision has tended to marginalize urban planning, turning
international at a proper, i.e. ecological scale, overcoming institutional attention away from the perceived gap between “green”
levels boundaries. (rural-environmental) and “brown” (urban, particularly
the poor) agendas.

Table 5.1: National and local environmental planning and management

Source: Adapted from UN-Habitat,2014b; Cities Alliance,2007.

Environmental challenges National level policies Local level policies

Resource use Diversification of energy resources Infrastructure planning
Water pricing reform Local environmental education
Environmental risks Adaptive social protection programmes Air quality management
Public health programmes
Land and related issues Diversification of agriculture Physical planning, zoning
Land management policies and property rights Infill and brownfield incentives
Restrictions on development of vulnerable land
Green space zoning
Greenbelt boundaries
Decarbonization imperatives Energy pricing, taxes and subsidies Incentives to increase density
Sustainability and diversification of economic sectors Education campaigns
Low-carbon policies
 94

Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Table 5.2: Instruments for environmental integration
Source: modified from Cities Alliance,2007.
Type of intervention Type of instrument Examples Objectives
Policy Information Instruments Training, research and awareness campaigns Produce and share environmental information
Voluntary Instruments Codes, labelling, audits Incentives for eco-friendly behaviour
Economic instruments Taxes or subsidies Account for environmental costs of certain activities
Regulatory instruments Controls, bans, quotas, licensing, standards Applicable to specific outcome
Process instruments Developing a vision Events bringing together various stakeholders Develop a city vision
Baseline studies Background studies of a city Understanding current neighbourhood or city conditions
Development priorities Dialogue forums and consensus conferences Ensure an open definition of multiple priorities and
contrasting values that will inform the planning process
Planning instruments Environmental profile Systematic analysis of background environmental Provide a common understanding of city sectors
conditions in a given area interaction with the environment and governance
Environmental footprint and targets Resource footprinting Assess the city’s ecological carrying capacity
Material flows analysis
Impact assessment tools Strategic Impact or Sustainability Assessment Assess the impact of specific policies and programmes
Monitoring systems and indicators Systems to take measurements at regular intervals Specify progress against objectives and revise the
planning process
Management Environmental budgets and audits EcoBudget, EMAS or ISO 14001 Periodic revision of environmental management
instruments procedures

Table 5.2 shows the variety of instruments require long-term integrated urban planning, and one that Deregulation of
used to implement LA 21 in Bangkok; Bayamo, Cuba; and speaks to the vision all residents share for their city. public service
provision
Manizales, Colombia. The general lesson is as follows:73 has tended to
The central role of participatory marginalize
1. Environmental issues can be integrated in urban plan- planning urban
planning,
ning through City Development Strategies Sustainable urban development processes turning
must be based on an integral approach, which must attention
2. Broader-based participation improves focus and rel- comprise all the dimensions the population recognize as away from
the perceived
evance, enhancing implementation in urban planning essential to their individual and collective wellbeing.75
gap between
strategies Through participatory planning, citizens can be heard76 “green” (rural-
3. Various instruments are available that combine devel- and become a reliable, inexpensive source of information environmental)
opment, social justice and environmental preservation for spatial planning, decision-making, and identifying both and “brown”
(urban,
objectives. resources and the needs of vulnerable groups. Participa- particularly
tion enhances local ownership, improves governance and the poor)
Still, considerable barriers to integrated man- accountability,77 and helps mobilize and allocate budget agendas
agement remain, including rigid sector-based (“silo”) resources to local priorities. Still, managerial- and techno-
approaches and fragmented institutions. However, experi- cratic-style planning remains predominant,78 regardless of
ence shows that when ecological resource use is planned agreed development goals.79 Tension can emerge between
around existing environmental and social constraints, col- local managers’ strategic objectives and citizens’ demands
lective wellbeing, and a city’s attractiveness, are enhanced. for immediate action;80 still, participation has a crucial
For instance, in Freiburg, Germany, role to play in environmental out-
or Stockholm, Sweden, integrated Experience shows that when comes, including strategic planning
urban planning is based on significant ecological resource use is planned and sector-based initiatives.
around existing environmental
citizen participation and consensus From a “just sustainabili-
and social constraints,
building. Given their multi-dimen-
74
collective wellbeing, and a city’s ties” perspective, which is related to
sional nature, “just sustainabilities” attractiveness, are enhanced the “right to the city” agenda,81 par-
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Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Modern Dutch houses with

solar panels on the roof.
Source: Allard One / Shutterstock.com

Box 5.3: An eco-city project in India

Palava is a private, mixed-use urban development 40 km northeast of Mumbai, India.
Developed by the local Lodha Group with foreign architects and engineers Palava will
house over one million families once completed. Given local water scarcity, Palava
resorts to rainwater harvesting and grey water recycling.

Source: Lodha Group, 2014.

From a “just ticipatory planning opens up forums where the citizenry

sustainabilities” can develop their own visions for the city. This would Such “science” can in turn be mobilized
perspective,
suggest that broad-based, participatory planning works to solve complex problems and hold local governments
which is related
to the “right to well as a long-term process, enabling local authorities to accountable.87 In New Haven (Connecticut, US), resi-
the city” agenda, build legitimacy for investment in sustainability. dents use SeeClickFix.com, a local advocacy website, to
participatory report on public issues affecting their neighbourhood and
planning opens
up forums Technologically-driven to monitor developments.88
where the sustainable urbanism
citizenry can The private sector can play a crucial role in Sector-based initiatives for
develop their
own visions for
urban sustainability through cross-sector partnerships healthier urban environments
the city with government and civil society. Recently launched, Habitat II came as a rallying call behind inte-
privately-led “eco-” or “smart” cities82 typically showcase grated urban management and away from conventional
private sector engineering and design capacity for sustain- sector-based responses, particularly where local authority
able urban development83 (Box 5.3: An Eco-city Project fragmentation made it difficult to gauge progress against
in India), largely based on new digital technologies. Built environmental objectives.89 However, experimental
The private
sector can from scratch by the Yellow Sea, Songdo, South Korea is approaches which privilege mul-
Habitat II came
play a crucial the world’s first “smart city,” where electronic sensors tiple actions in separate locales are as a rallying
role in urban monitor roads and the water, waste and electricity systems legitimate,90 and policy integration is call behind
sustainability integrated
through
in a constant drive for efficiency. However, such a techno- not necessarily in a position directly
urban
cross-sector cratic focus favours top-down action by municipal experts to solve some problems (e.g. noise management
partnerships and planning elites, to the detriment of social equity.84 pollution).91 Whatever the specific and away from
with
Innovation cannot be embraced for its own modalities, local interventions in conventional
government sector-based
and civil sake and instead must respond to genuine needs— first specific sectors also have the poten-
responses,
society and foremost the need for more liveable cities for all as tial to deliver “just sustainabilities.” particularly
embedded in SDGs. This (together with participatory gov- Transport, in a sustain- where local
ernance) is the background against which appropriateness able perspective, takes in whatever authority
fragmentation
of “smart cities” and gated communities, as development mobility mode (including walking) made it
Innovation models for the future, is to be carefully considered.85 people require for their overall difficult to
cannot be gauge progress
embraced for
Consistent with SDGs, an alternative perspec- wellbeing. Instead of motor vehi-
92
against
its own sake tive on eco-friendly urban technologies stresses more cles, the focus is on healthier (less
93
environmental
and instead bottom-up policies that can bring about the type of devel- pollution and carbon emissions) objectives
must respond
opment the population actually wants. Sweden’s Ham- and fairer cities, where inclusive
to genuine
needs - first marby Sjöstad eco-district shows86 that ICT alone cannot public transport remedies structural inequalities.94 In
and foremost substitute for integrated management and participatory Medellín, Colombia, cable cars provide slum-dwellers
the need for planning. More valuable interactions are preferable, like the safe access to the city centre they badly need for eco-
more liveable
cities for all as citizen science, which enlists residents to gather scientific nomic reasons, with minimal environmental impact.95
embedded in data, monitoring local biodiversity, identifying pollution “Smarter” mobility also involves (electric) car and bike
SDGs “hotspots” and mapping vulnerabilities to disasters. sharing.96
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Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Housing programmes (Chapter 3) can gen-
Box 5.4: Financing eco-technologies in Mexico’s
erate substantial savings in resource use and carbon
housing sector
emissions (Box 5.4). Still, sustainability must be fully
mainstreamed in new housing designs; existing buildings In 2009, Mexico’s National Workers’ Housing Fund (INFONAVIT) developed a housing
must be upgraded and rehabilitated. However, unplanned finance scheme known as “Green Mortgage” in partnership with a housing subsidy
housing can come with efficient space use and higher den- body, to encourage use of energy-efficient systems and technologies for low-income
sities, while local construction techniques can reduce the households. “Green” mortgages include up to US$1,250 in subsidies to make up for
embodied energy of buildings, improving performance and the cost of additional eco-technologies, including:
enabling materials recycling. Low-cost solar water heaters • Electricity: energy-saving lamps, roof and wall thermal insulation, reflective
and lamps benefit the urban poor.97 General progress can coatings and voltage optimization
be measured with tools like Japan’s Comprehensive Assess- • Gas: gas and solar water heaters
ment System for Built Environment Efficiency (CASBEE).98 • Water: ecological toilets and sprinklers, water saving devices, isolating and flow
Sustainable centralized energy (power, gas) control valves
systems involve efficient grid management and alterna- • Health: purified water filters and supply, waste separation containers.
tive sources, but full transition to sustainability requires a So far, over 900,000 Green Mortgage credits have been granted, with USAID,
model overhaul.99 A post-networked society,100 based on Germany’s Environment Ministry and GIZ supporting the scheme with resource
decentralized networks, calls for consumer micro-genera- sharing and advisory services.
tion101 (Box 5.5).
Pioneering community-led energy projects Source: BSHF 2014; Castán Broto and Bulkeley, 2013.

make power more accessible to the vast majority of urban

populations.102 Namibia’s Electricity Control Board is
investigating decentralized supply for small communities,
mobilizing their resources to improve costs, access and Box 5.5: Decentralized energy provision, Sydney
healthiness.103 In Haiti, affordable micro-grid and com-
munity-based retail energy ventures complement conven- In a bid to reduce carbon emissions by 70 per cent by 2030 from 2006 levels, Sydney,
tional access.104 Australia is introducing a “tri-generation” scheme, whereby small-scale power
In many cities, participation has improved generation systems use bio-waste and accumulated waste for heating and cooling.
water, sanitation and waste management, empow- The scheme is expected to meet 70 per cent of the city’s electricity requirements by
ering residents without fully displacing the public sector’s 2030.
responsibility for service provision.105 In Pune, India,
community involvement in solid waste management and Source: City of Sydney 2013.

recycling has changed behaviour patterns, improved live-

lihoods and facilitated composting.106 However, social
stigma and health hazards remain for those involved,107 ipatory approach involving community and local leaders, Unplanned
which goes to show that community initiatives must be civil society and government agencies protects house- housing can
come with
supported by political commitment to social cohesion.108 holds in the high-risk Audi União shantytown, combining efficient space
In principle, local governments are well placed improved infrastructure, social inclusion and relocation use and higher
to improve resilience against disasters through struc- avoidance.111 Business involvement in disaster risk reduc- densities,
while local
tural developments, education, community-based preven- tion is generally confined to corporate social responsibility
construction
tion, commercial insurance policies, proper regulatory (emergency relief).112 techniques
enforcement, coordinated emergency response, and Local governments can encourage nature can reduce
reconstruction. In Mexico, Romania and New Zealand, conservation through social and economic development, the embodied
energy of
teaching of disaster-related subjects in schools is manda- including recognition of traditional livelihoods and cul- buildings,
tory.109 The UNISDR Sendai Framework for urban resil- tures. Eco-friendly agriculture and provision of common improving
ience and disaster risk reduction engage urban areas land should be integrated into the planning of urban and performance
and enabling
through high-profile events and city-to-city learning oppor- peri-urban areas. “Green” planning approaches emphasize materials
tunities, tools, capacity-building and partnerships.110 In urban-nature relationships and patterns, through green recycling
Curitiba, Brazil an integrated, multidisciplinary and partic- belts and land-use zoning.113
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Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Restoration and preservation of cultural Box 5.6: Preserving culture and traditions
vestiges and heritage areas can enhance civic pride, in port town of Hoi An, Viet Nam
create a unique sense of place and identity, and attract
both visitors and investors, in the process creating a The ancient port town of Hoi An in Central Viet Nam
variety of jobs, as has happened for instance in Hoi An and was the country’s first encounter with western traders in the
Hue, Viet Nam; Siem Reap, Cambodia; Luang Prabang, Lao 15th century. The pattern of its structures and street design
PDR; and Jakarta (Box 5.6). Easy access to multicultural reflect a combination of indigenous and colonial architecture
activities contributes to social inclusiveness, especially and urban design typical of the former Indo-China colonies in
amongst low-income groups— another way of sharing the Greater Mekong Sub region. Hoi An preserves its cultural
urban space and evolving a common vision for a city.114 identity through strict policy measures on maintaining the
urban fabric of the old quarter, including transport policies

5.3
which prevent motorized vehicles’ access into the old quarter,
and policies promoting local industries in and around the old
quarter to support the local economy. These have translated
into a robust tourism industry, which runs all year round.
Still, the town needs to address the perennial flooding which
Governing and affects its socio-economic activities during the wet season.

Financing the
Hoi An recently sought ADB’s assistance to design a project
that will address their flood protection concerns.

Transition to Source: Asian Development Bank.

Sustainable Cities
US$3.2 million in revenues through sales of carbon
If adequately empowered, local authorities can credits and electricity.121 Micro-finance can help micro-
achieve sustainability through various modes of govern- enterprises to become involved in “green” urban strate-
ance,115 including improved services and appropriate regu- gies. In LAC, the Regional Initiative for Inclusive Recycling
lations, with partnerships supporting and enabling private involves urban communities in over a dozen countries in
or civil society initiatives.116 Securing resources in support an effort to strengthen the financial and commercial link-
of policies and stakeholder cooperation for effective envi- ages of informal waste pickers with formal recyclers.122
ronmental action can prove to be a challenge, though. Municipalities can provide economic incen-
Cross-sector partnerships facilitate urban gov- tives in favour of efficient resource use and minimal waste
ernance against a background of climate change,117 coordi- as an alternative to environmental or “green” levies (like
nating various stakeholders at various scales, with enough Ecuador’s tax on plastic (PET) bottles) which effectively
flexibility to deal with uncertain futures and changing enforce the “polluter pays” principle.123 In Tuzla, Bosnia
demands.118 The extent to which PPPs can extend ser- vehicle tax revenues go to environmental improvement
vices from privileged to underprivileged groups is limited, projects.124
though.119 Cross–sector partnerships can go further, such Where resources are scarce, user fees can
as local savings groups and land-sharing schemes. make municipal services “greener” and support more
resource-efficient alternatives. In Paris and London, busi-
Leveraging finance for urban nesses fund bike hire schemes as a quid pro quo for adver-
environmental action tising space.125 Capturing land values can fund public
Local governments have access to diverse transport, as in Hong Kong.126
financing sources for urban environmental action, Multi-level governance reallocates authority to
including taxes, revenues and intergovernmental trans- various tiers of government both vertically and horizon-
fers. Alternative own sources include recycling waste and tally, involving various stakeholders127 and also enabling
collecting biogas in dumping sites.120 In eThekwini, South resource transfers. National governments may compen-
Africa three waste-to-energy plants generate an annual sate local authorities for environmental service provi-
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Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

sion, through direct lump-sum contributions to specific open-ended dialogue where participation and innovation
programmes or matching grants.128 In Eastern Europe are essential, and where life-cycle costing, multi-criteria
and Central Asia, intergovernmental transfers are made evaluation and eco-budgeting can help.
available when local services cannot be entirely funded by Life-Cycle Costing (LCC) is used in project
user charges— making local governments dependent on development and appraisal, focusing on potential costs
national policy and reducing incentives for own-revenue and various associated externalities.135 Urban authori-
base expansion. 129 ties use LCC for infrastructure and large transformation
Further sources of funding include the Clean projects. Since the methodology identifies environmental
Development Mechanism (CDM). costs and benefits it lends itself well
The scheme currently provides emis- Environmental planning is an to stakeholder deliberation of various
open-ended dialogue where
sion reduction credits for projects in participation and innovation are
alternatives,136 but requires detailed
Bogotá, Dhaka and São Paulo which essential, and where life-cycle information.
can be exchanged and used by indus- costing, multi-criteria evaluation Multi-criteria analysis
and eco-budgeting can help
trialized countries to meet their own (MCA) is used for sustainability
targets under the Kyoto Protocol.130 assessments at neighbourhood scale,
However, cities have not yet accessed carbon finance on comparing various options in relation to well-defined cri-
any large scale, given the low number of current CDM teria beyond financial benefits and costs. MCA assists
projects in urban areas.131 The World Bank Institute local governments in procurement procedures as it can
has proposed institutional reforms for access to carbon integrate multiple criteria (costs, bidder’s reputation,
Environmental
finance by individual cities,132 which are currently piloted etc.).137 When combined with participatory methods, decision-
in Amman, Jordan. MCA can justify decisions beyond cost, providing alterna- making
The “financing climate change adaptation tive or complementary evaluation ranking and criteria.138 emphasizes
the need
initiative” established by multi- and bi-lateral agencies Environmental auditing is promoted by to shift
provides loans or grants either directly from one govern- ICLEI through the so-called “ecoBudget,” which enables away from
ment to another or indirectly through non-governmental any local authority not just to set environmental budgets overreliance
on cost-benefit
organizations, the UN system or other multilateral agen- for the annual fiscal cycle but also to plan, monitor and
analysis
cies. A good example is the multi-donor Urban Climate report natural resource consumption within its terri- (CBA), which
Change Resilience Trust Fund (UCCRTF) administered by tory-— in the process demonstrating the validity of sus- privileges
the Asian Development Bank (ADB). tainability policies to the taxpayer and the public at large the present
monetary
Although industrialized countries provide (Box 5.7). value of
those less developed with financial support for climate different
change mitigation, it falls short of needs if the on-going options
rise in global temperatures is to be contained. New forms
Box 5.7: Implementing an ecoBudget
of financing are needed, such as facilitated by information In 2006 in India, the Guntur Municipality adopted the
technologies and crowd-funding as a complement or an ecoBudget format, with targets and indicators for water
alternative to local micro-finance for global Internet-based quality and quantity, waste management, green space surface
cooperation. 133 areas and air quality. Water management was the main
priority (monitoring water pollutants, structural improvements,
Decision-making beyond cost- upgraded water supply metering) – with tangible results.
benefit analysis This highlights two success factors for ecoBudgets – strong
Environmental decision-making emphasizes political commitment and selection of relevant environmental
the need to shift away from overreliance on cost-benefit issues – and two (potential) challenges: inadequate public
analysis (CBA), which privileges the present monetary involvement and cross-sector coordination. Implementation
value of different options.134 On its own, CBA is not in Tubigon, Philippines showed that the ecoBudget cycle can
suitable with regard to the many dimensions of environ- require support from higher tiers of government.
mental services, or quantifying environmental benefits,
or contested perceptions of the actual values of various Source: http://www.gunturcorporation.org/genx/ICLEI_News/July_2006.pdf
and http://www.unep.org/Urban_Environment/PDFs/ICLEI_Ecobudget.pdf.
resources. By contrast, environmental planning is an
99
Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

5.4
with local environmental issues, adjusting policies and
institutions in the process. Participatory governance is
there on the ground to provide much-needed “mediators
of change” towards “just sustainabilities”; combined with
Concluding citizen knowledge, this is as good a means as any to trigger
a broad-based, sustainable dynamics – and to maintain the
Remarks and momentum over time.

Lessons for Policy This chapter recommends the following

towards a New Urban Agenda:
◗◗ Acknowledging the interdependence of the
The world has become predominantly urban environmental and urban agendas
but this is no reason to overlook our natural environment ◗◗ Emphasizing the interconnection of local and global
– quite the contrary. More and more humans choose to environmental agendas and climate change as an
move to the city, in the process transforming urban spaces urban issue
– together with our shared environment. It is for govern- ◗◗ Re-imagining the paradigm of sustainable development
ments worldwide to ensure that when “making space” to emphasize “just sustainabilities”140
for urbanization they meet the needs of the challenging ◗◗ Reaffirming the need for reformed urban planning to
dynamics driving both human advancement and the achieve “just sustainabilities” in cities141
natural environment that gives it basic sustenance. There ◗◗ Addressing the multiscalar aspects of environmental
is no escaping the solidarity of environmental and socioec- challenges, involving multiple stakeholders and
onomic governance of urban and rural areas. Space is the interdisciplinary research
most basic defining condition of “the total human being” ◗◗ Recognizing the innovation potential of the various
139 which in turn resonates with recognized human rights stakeholders in urban governance, including business,
(and “just sustainabilites”). This is why integrated man- civil society and the citizenry; and
agement of the urban environment must be both demo- ◗◗ Using participatory planning to mainstream the right
cratic and participatory for all. to the city142 and to develop effective environmental
This chapter, through a variety of practical programmes.
local examples, amply demonstrates that this apparently
daunting endeavour is within reach of any town or city,
if only step by step. In other words, urbanization and
environmental preservation represent a workable mutual
challenge. Worldwide, any town or city is endowed with
one of the basic tenets of sustainable urban prosperity as
defined by UN-Habitat, namely, the environment – and
one that they must make as “productive” as possible in
terms of long-term collective prosperity. Since the envi-
ronment pervades all dimensions of human life, its proper
management provides all sorts of leverage, to set the
transformative power of cities going. Building resilience
to climate change is not just an urgent imperative for
many towns and cities; it is also a good way to familiarize
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Chapter 5: “Just” Environmental Sustainabilities • WORLD CITIES REPORT 2016

Notes

1. Lussault, 2013. ascariasis and hookworms 71. Turok and Parnell, 2009. des Expositions, Shanghai, 2010 World
2. From the report of Habitat: United Nations 37. Marcotullio and McGranahan, 2012. 72. UN-Habitat, 2014b. Exposition Committee, 2011.
Conference on Human Settlements, 38. López-Carr and MarterKenyon, 2015. 73. Cities Alliance, 2007. 115. Bulkeley and Kern, 2006; Kern and
Vancouver, Canada, 31 May to 11 June 39. López-Carr and MarterKenyon, 2015. 74. Iveroth, Vernay et al., 2013; Rohracher and Bulkeley, 2009.
1976. 40. UN-Habitat, 2015j; UN-Habitat and Späth, 2014; see also Box 5.4. 116. Morgan et al., 2014.
3. Dodds F., Schneeberger K., Ullah F., DiMSUR, 2015; World Bank, 2011b. 75. Westendorff, 2004. 117. Castán Broto et al., 2015.
Stakeholder Forum for the Future and UN- 41. Folke, 2006. 76. Castán Broto et al., 2015. 118. Okereke et al., 2009; Schroeder et al.,
DESA (2012). 42. UNISDR, 2012. 77. Labonne and Chase, 2009. 2013.
4. ICLEI, 2012. 43. UNEP, 2014. 78. Watson, 2009 119. see for example: O'Malley, 2004;
5. UN, 1996. 44. Roberts, 2008. 79. Bond, 2006. Siemiatycki, 2011; Ferreira da Cruz et al.,
6. Seto et al., 2012. 45. Satterthwaite et al., 2007. 80. Castán Broto et al. 2015 2013; Sengupta, 2013; Baletti, 2014.
7. UN-Habitat, 2011e. 46. World Bank, 2012. 81. UN-Habitat, 2008; see also Castán Broto 120. Suocheng et al., 2001.
8. UNDP 2014. 47. UN-Habitat, 2012f. et al., 2015. 121. Gumbo, 2014.
9. Revi et al. 2014. 48. Bah, 2003. 82. Joss, 2011; Joss and Molella, 2013; 122. This platform is the result of a
10. ODI/ECDPM/GDI/DIE 2012; see also 49. Urban sprawl refers to the spatial growth Datta, 2012; Caprotti, 2014. collaboration between foundations, civil
IEA 2014. of urban areas, typically to the detriment 83. Olds, 2002. society, national and local governments,
11. United Nations, 2014d. of rural areas. 84. UNEP, 2013a. and multilateral agencies. More details at
12. United Nations, 2014c. 50. See for example Fazal 2000, Aguilár and 85. Landman, 2000. www.reciclajeinclusivo.org
13. Revi et al. 2014. Ward 2003, Huang, Wang et al. 2009, 86. Iveroth et al., 2013. 123. An environmental law principle whereby
14. UN-Habitat 2011e; Seto. 2014. Seto, Guneralp et al. 2012. 87. Desouza and Bhagwatwar, 2012. the polluter pays for the environmental
15. BMZ, 2014. 51. Kombe 2005; Allen, Dávila et al. 2006; 88. Slotnikjan, 2010. damage of which they are responsible.
16. Open Working Group of the General McGregor et al., 2006. 89. See for example: Wesselink et al., 2008. 124. Castán Broto, 2012.
Assembly on the Sustainable 52. Angel, Parent et al. 2010. 90. Bulkeley et al., 2014. 125. UNEP, 2013a.
Development Goals, 2014. 53. Graham and Marvin 2001; Herzog 2014. 91. Weber and Driessen, 2010. 126. UNEP, 2013a.
17. Griggs et al. 2013. 54. Deininger et al. 2011. 92. Urry, 2007. 127. Liesbet and Gary, 2003.
18. United Nations, 2014d. 55. UNDP, 2013. 93. Barter, 2004. 128. Kumar and Managi, 2009.
19. Agyeman et al. 2003; Agyeman, 2005. 56. Pauchard, Aguayo et al., 2006, Seto et 94. Levy, 2013. 129. OECD, 2006b.
20. Agyeman, J, Bullard, R. D, and Evans, B. al., 2012. 95. Brand and Dávila, 2011. 130. UNEP-DTIE.
eds, 2003 57. Sustainable Development Solutions 96. ICLEI, 2011; Intelligent Energy Europe, 131. As of December 2009, there were more
21. Rydin, 2013. Network Thematic Group on Sustainable 2008. than 1900 registered CDM projects.
22. UN-Habitat 2015i; Siemens, PwC and Cities, May 2013. 97. Ilha and Ribeiro, 2012 According to the World Bank Carbon
Berwin Leighton Paisner, 2014. 58. A multi-expert assessment of the 98. Murakami et al., 2011. Finance Unit “There are more than
23. Alkire and Santos, 2014. relationship between cities and 99. Grin et al., 2010. 40 approved methodologies that are
24. UNDESA, 2014. biodiversity led by the Stockholm 100. Coutard and Rutherford, 2011. relevant to urban areas. The number of
25. IEA 2014;see also Yepes, Yepes et al. Resilience Centre, under the auspices of 101. Micro-generation consists of small-scale registered CDM projects in urban areas
2008, Foster and Briceño-Garmendia 2010 Convention on Biological Diversity. energy production, with renewables or is approximately 150 of which 90% are in
26. Serebrisky, 2014. 59. Elmqvist et al., 2013. low carbon technologies. the solid waste sector” CFU, 2010; p. 11.
27. World Bank, 2012. 60. Rowling, 2015. 102. Seyfang and Smith, 2007; Hargreaves et 132. The World Bank Institute is the capacity
28. IFC, 2014. 61. Seto and Dhakal, 2014. al., 2013; Kind, 2013. development branch of the World Bank.
29. KPMG, 2012. 62. UN-Habitat, 2008. 103. ESI AFRICA, 2014. 133. Ashta et al., 2015.
30. Mcgranahan and Owen ,2006; Muller, 63. Romero Lankao, 2007. 104. Moreno and Bareisaite, 2015. 134. see for example: Barde and Pearce, 2013.
2007; Mitlin, 2008; Muller, 2008; 64. Bulkeley and Castán Broto, 2013, Castán 105. Allen, Hofmann et al., 2008; Mitlin, 2008; 135. UNEP/SETAC 2011.
Spronk,2010. Broto and Bulkeley, 2013, Bulkeley et Satterthwaite et al., 2015. 136. Thabrew et al., 2009.
31. McDonald and Ruiters ,2012. al., 2014. 106. UNDESA, 2012. 137. Govindan et al., 2013.
32. Kyessi, 2005. 65. IPCC, 2014. 107. Wilson et al., 2006. 138. Munda, 2006; Stirling, 2006.
33. Jaglin, 2002. 66. Haines et al., 2007. 108. Zurbrügg et al., 2004. 139. Mauss (1925), 2007.
34. Bhattacharya, et al. 2012, see also 67. Bulkeley et al. 2013; Bulkeley et al., 2014. 109. UN-Habitat, 2007. 140. Agyeman et al., 2003.
Economic Commission for Latin America, 68. van Staden and Musco. (eds.), 2010. 110. UNSIDR, 2012. 141. Rydin, 2013.
2010. 69. Bulkeley and Kern, 2006; Betsill and 111. BSHF, 2014. 142. UN-Habitat, 2010a; Castán Broto et al.,
35. Vergara et al. 2013 Bulkeley, 2007; Bulkeley, 2010. 112. UN-Habitat, 2007. 2015.
36. Prüss, et al. 2002; Diseases include: 70. UN-Habitat Cities and Climate Change 113. Yokohari et al., 2008.
diarrhoea, schistosomiasis, trachoma, Initiative. 114. United Nations, Bureau International