South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No.

1, February 2013 

Slope Monitoring using Total Station: What are the Challenges and
How Should These be Mitigated?

T.B. Afeni1, F.T. Cawood1

1
School of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of
the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa. [email protected]
2
School of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of
the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Abstract
The purpose of this study is first, to provide a mine survey perspective on the typical problems
that can be expected during slope monitoring using total station (also known as prism monitoring)
and second, to suggest ways of mitigating such problems. The aim is to create awareness of the
implications of incorrect use or negligence during slope monitoring surveys utilising a total station.

1. Introduction

Slope instability can be expected at any surface mining operation, but the unpredicted
movement of ground endangers lives and destroys property. Unstable slopes are unsafe for miners
who work on or beneath them, and large-scale failures have the potential to cause loss of life
(McHugh et al, 2006). A typical example of this is slope failure in phosphate mine Southwest
China’s Guizhou on 28th July 2012 as reported in Xinhua on 28th July 2012. Therefore, it is
necessary to implement an effective monitoring program to oversee and predict the occurrence of
such events. Monitoring success, be it slope monitoring or structural monitoring is performed to
detect movement that could lead to collapse and to allow for sufficient warning to successfully
evacuate the area or structure. In mine surveying, slope stability monitoring is one of the routine
events during mining operations. Slope stability is based on the interaction between two types of
forces, namely driving forces and resisting forces. The driving forces cause downslope movement
of material, whereas resisting forces prevent such movement. Consequently, when driving forces
overcome resisting forces, the slope is unstable and movement occurs. Diligent monitoring of
structures and slopes for early warning signs are, thus, imperative for protecting life and equipment
(Osasan and Afeni, 2010).

Wyllie and Mah (2004) declared that: “because of the unpredictability of slope behaviour,
slope monitoring programs can be of value in managing slope hazards, and they provide
information that is useful for the design of remedial work”. Slope movement is most common in
open pit mines, and many mines continue to operate safely for years with moving slopes that are
carefully monitored to give warning of deteriorating stability conditions.

The use of total station surveying instruments for monitoring structures movement with good
results were reported by many authors, such as Radovanovic and Teskey (2001); Hill and Sippel
(2002); Kuhlmann and Glaser (2002); Zahariadis and Tsakiri (2006). Continuous monitoring, as an
important operation in an open pit mine to ensure safety and predicting the stability of the mine
wall, was also described by Palazzo et al, (2006). The use of total station to monitor mine slope
stability is still widely used.

41 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
2. Slope Monitoring using Total Station

Usually, slope monitoring using total station comprises of three components. Firstly, a network
of reference beacons is required on stable ground that can be observed from the transfer (i.e.
instrument) station. Secondly, a number of transfer stations are established on stable ground at
locations from which the slope surface is visible. If the positions of the monitoring points are to be
measured, then the transfer stations should be arranged so that they form a suitable survey network
for optimal line-of-sight and a robust network . The third component involves installation of
monitoring prisms at the suspected likely unstable slope zone or area of interest. It is preferable that
the measurement direction is in the likely direction of movement so that the distance readings
approximate the actual slope movement. The monitoring points on the slope can be reflectors or
survey prisms, depending on the distance and the accuracy required (Wyllie and Mah, 2004). The
monitoring frequency depends on the nature of the rock type, operations around the slope and the
objectives of the monitoring programme in place. For slow-moving slopes, the measurements may
be taken every few weeks or even months. For a potentially rapidly-moving slope, an automated
system should be set up to take more frequent readings at pre-set intervals as determined by the
geotechnical engineer. Also, quick checks of stability can be made by making distance
measurements only. When slope movement is detected, there is need for check surveys (using other
methods such as triangulation, GPS etc.) to determine the coordinates of each station at less
frequent intervals to re-confirm measurements and ensure they are not “outliers”.

This paper is concerned with the typical challenges expected during such prism monitoring.
These challenges include staffing, budgeting, establishment of the survey control network,
construction of the monitoring shelter (observation house) at the transfer beacon, installation of
prisms on the bench faces, planning or consideration for weather influence and transfer of data to
the control room.

3. Steps in Slope Monitoring using Total Station

According to Cawood and Stacey (2006), the main considerations for effective monitoring have
to do with correct design, legal compliance, monitoring requirements and systems design that
provide for both geotechnical and survey monitoring instrumentation. Steps in slope monitoring
using total station start with staffing and budget, in addition to systems design and implementation.
Data collection, processing and the presentation of results in a concise format that allow for
efficient analysis, interpretation and decision making complete these steps.

3.1 Staffing and Budget

The survey monitoring operation requires a significant investment in resources. Staffing during
survey monitoring has two considerations: the appointment of an expert to carry out the design
upon which the entire monitoring programme will be based and personnel (suitably qualified
surveyors and assistants) who will implement the design and operate the survey monitoring system
on a daily basis.

Slope monitoring is an auxiliary operation, since it does not contribute directly to mine
production but has definite economic benefit when it gives early warnings to prevent loss of life,
damage to equipment, loss of production and possibly the closure of the mine (Cawood and Stacey,
2006). It is also required by law as part of health and safety measures at mines. Therefore, relevant
persons (e.g. the heads of the mine surveying and geotechnical departments) must motivate the
safety critical aspect and expected cost-benefit of the monitoring programme that will convince
42 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
management to release adequate budget for slope monitoring. The success of any slope monitoring
exercise depends on the budget provided for the procurement of appropriate equipment and hiring
of competent or suitably qualified personnel. Inadequate personnel and budgeting would lead to
operational failure. Table 1 summarises the likely challenges that could be encountered during
staffing and budgeting. The table also gives possible ways to solve these problems.

Table 2: Staffing and Budget

Problem Mitigation
Staffing: Design Secure the services of an expert (part-time or on contract basis) to
help in the design of the monitoring programme
Survey monitoring Employ suitably qualified surveyors to perform the day-to-day
monitoring survey
Employ able assistants to assist the surveyors in their daily routine.
Ensure competency through continuous professional development of
staff.
Budget: Salaries Prepare a motivation that can accommodate suitably qualified
Procurement of instruments personnel, procure necessary instruments and other running cost.
Explain the requirements (health and safety and statutory reasons)
for a monitoring programme and highlight the overall benefits.
Present and motivate the budget plan.

3.2 Survey System Design and Implementation

Slope monitoring system design must be a thorough process that takes into account adequate
information and provides a design aimed at mitigating risk. During system design, the objective of
the monitoring system must be clearly stated, coupled with the geological and geotechnical history
of the area under consideration. Detailed reconnaissance entails the examination of published
geological maps and reports, study of aerial photographs, gathering of local experience, field visits
to examine, if possible, the performance of existing slopes in similar geological conditions, and
geophysical studies if data is limited. The reconnaissance will assist in establishing the project
requirement. The findings will suggest probability of failure and the variables that will most likely
contribute to such failure. These variables must be considered when designing the monitoring
system, investigating appropriate instrumentation and implementing the monitoring system (Ding et
al, 2000). Wyllie and Mah (2004) also affirm that the system design should be able to predict
accurately the type of movement that is likely to occur in a particular area of interest. This
information can be used to select appropriate instrumentation for the site and assist in interpretation
of the results. Above all, the system design should state clearly the frequency of monitoring,
accuracy required and reporting method to be used.

Design specifications are carried out in consultation with a geotechnical engineer (i.e. expected
magnitude of movement, parameters to measure, type and scale of deformation to be monitored,
purposes of various instruments, locations of equipment, desired accuracy/precision, checks using
different survey methods and equipment) have great influence in selection of slope monitoring
equipment. Cawood and Stacey (2006), emphasised that the survey monitoring equipment selection
depends on economic value-added as a result of the system, required level of confidence in the
results, ease of interface (i.e. compatibility with other monitoring technologies), GIS adaptability,
environmental conditions, survey budget and survey training necessary for optimal use. Equipment
required for prism monitoring surveys include a robotic total station (RTS), total station shelter,
equipment for measuring atmospheric conditions, pillar beacons (for transfer and reference
beacons) and prism for monitoring points (Thomas, 2011). The procedure of prism installation must
also be considered, this includes:
43 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
 bench crest beacon (in case of bench crest prism installation); and
 drilling and grouting (in the case of bench face prism installation).

Sourcing external energy to power the total station and other auxiliary equipment is a further
consideration. The implementation of the slope monitoring survey is discussed below:

3.2.1 Setting up control points

A control point is a point at which the coordinates (X, Y) and the elevation (Z) are known and
from which survey measurements to a number of reference points can be made. Prism monitoring
survey requires three types of points namely: transfer, reference and monitoring points. The
transfer and reference points is part of the survey control network.

Both the transfer and reference beacons must be positioned to ensure unobstructed line-of-sight
between beacons but not located in a position that is unstable and hazardous, i.e. too close to
crest/highwall (Thomas, 2011). For accurate monitoring, the survey control network must have a
minimum grouping of four intervisible forced-centring pillar beacons (that can form a quadrilateral)
and spatially fixed by a least squares adjustment. It is recommended to construct additional transfer
and reference beacons for redundancy purposes. Figure 1 shows a typical transfer beacon and
reference beacon respectively.

Reference prism with a

protective metal casing

Robotic total station

Pillar beacon

Insulated pillar beacon

Pillar beacon solid base

foundation
a b
 

Figure 1: Typical example of (a) transfer beacon and (b) reference beacon (source: Thomas, 2011 )

The location of monitoring points must be determined in consultation with the geotechnical
engineer. Monitoring points are usually located on the crest and the bench faces. Their position
must be intervisible from the transfer pillar beacon and some (if not all) of the reference pillar
beacons. Figure 2 shows typical example of a crest mounted monitoring point. Figure 3 shows
typical example of a bench face monitoring point.

44 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 

Prism protector

Prism

Concrete base

Bench crest

                                        

Figure 2: A typical example of a crest mounted monitoring point at Anglo Platinum, Mogalakwena
operation, South Africa (source: personal photographs taken during two days visit to Anglo
Platinum, Mogalakwena operation).

Bench face (could be

mineral rock or waste)

Installed prism

                                     

Figure 3: A typical example of a bench face mounted monitoring point at Anglo

PlatinumMogalakwena operation, South Africa (source: personal photographs taken during two
days visit to Anglo Platinum, Mogalakwena operation).

3.2.2 Construction of shelter at transfer beacon

A protective shelter must be constructed on the transfer beacon on which the RTS will be setup
as shown in figure 4. If the transfer beacon protective shelter is made from metal sheet, the inner
part must be insulated to reduce heat generation from sunlight. The outer part should also be painted
white to reduce the effect of heat from sunlight. Air conditioning may also be installed, but such air
conditioning may have its own effects on the RTS readings as reported by Rueger et al (1994). Due
to the high cost and sensitive nature of the RTS, they are usually housed in a protective shelter for
the following reasons:

 protection from fly rock resulting from blasting operation;

 protection against dust resulting from drilling, blasting and haulage operation at the mines;
 protection against excessive sunlight and rain; and
 theft.
45 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
The power source, i.e. battery, that is supplied with RTS can only work for a limited period
before it has to be recharged. To overcome this problem, the RTS can be powered using an external
energy source, for example, a solar energy (as shown in figure 4a) or a standby generator.

The monitoring is usually carried out through glass as shown in figure 4b. The properties of the
glass such as shape, thickness and colour (tint level) must be borne in mind during the selection
process. The importance of the glass properties has been explained by Afeni and Cawood (2010).
The distance between the window glass and the robotic total station must also be kept to a
minimum. Figure 4 a and b shows a typical total station shelter constructed on a transfer beacon at a
mine site.

GPS

Shelter glass
window

Robotic Total
Station (RTS)
Insulated metal
sheet
a b

Solar power panel

 

Figure 4: a - RTS shelter with solar power panels, b – Typical RTS/GPS shelter
(source: Chrzanowski and Chrzanowski, 2008)

3.2.3 Installation of monitoring point prisms

Installation of the prisms into the area of interest in the open pit is another task to be carried out
for slope monitoring. The installation of the prisms must be performed when the bench is still
accessible. It is compulsory that the installation of the prisms is done at the early stage of the
mining operations in areas where there are faults and there is likelihood of slope failure. Holes are
drilled into the bench face and then cleaned to remove all dust in the hole before grouting in a prism
rod. Injected grouting material can be used to seal the drilled hole after inserting the metal rod that
holds the prism and its protective (metal) hood. The moveable plastic arms (U-shaped) that hold the
prism can be made rigid by applying silicon sealant (or an adhesive to keep the prism in place)
before installation. In terms of consistency and uniformity of error propagation, all prisms (or
reflectors) must be identical (Cawood and Stacey, 2006). A typical example of installed prism on a
bench faces is shown in Figure 3.

46 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 

Protective hood

Silicon sealant

Prism

Prism rod

Grouting material

Bench face
 

Figure 5: A typical example of prism installed to the bench face for monitoring purposes (source:
Thomas, 2011).

As a result of mining operations the RTS may not be able to measure to the monitoring point
prism because of dust covering the face of the prism. This dust emanates from drilling, blasting and
haulage operations. This problem is more common in winter (South Africa) when there is little or
no rainfall. If the point is not too high for a hydraulic water hose to reach, the prism can be cleaned
with a water jet. The problem of dust settling on the prism face can be problematic to the
monitoring programme. Measurement can be interrupted until rainfall assists in cleaning the prism;
only then can the RTS measure to the point again. Figure 6 shows a prism covered with dust.
Improper design and poor implementation mean no slope monitoring. Table 2 summarises the
problem and mitigation on system design and implementation.

Prism face

Silicon sealant

Dust

Figure 6: Typical example of Prism covered with dust at Anglo Platinum, Mogalakwena operation,
South Africa (source: personal photographs taken during two days visit to Anglo Platinum,
Mogalakwena operation).

47 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
Table 2: System Design and Implementation
Problems Mitigations
System System installation Design system that is commensurate with the objective of
Design the monitoring program.
System designed must be simple and flexible, i.e. not
onerous.
State clearly the frequency of monitoring, accuracy required
and reporting method.
System installed must be accurate to satisfy requirements
stated in the system design.
Equipment selection Use fit for purpose equipment (vendor selection is
important).
Equipment Calibrate the total station frequently, especially when errors
maintenance and replacement in data are suspected to be instrumental.

Maintain, repair or replace any faulty equipment.

Power source Ensure frequent/adequate supply of continuous power.
Design of Beacon design Use appropriate method to establish reference points.
survey
control
Ensure that the beacons are stable.

Prism selection and Select appropriate prism for job at hand (i.e. use genuine
geometry manufacturers prism for slope monitoring).
Install selected prism properly at the crest or bench face
Use identical prisms.
Prism maintenance Clean the prism glass when covered with dust. Check
stability.

3.3 Data Collection and Processing thereof

The use of RTS for monitoring work is a common practise at most open pit mines and dams
because it can provide continuous 24 hours remote data collection for analysis and warning alarms
to alert personnel with regard to ground stability problems (Afeni 2011). Manual total station
observations are time consuming, labour intensive and have the potential for human error when
recording survey data. Although conventional systems are suitable for ad hoc monitoring,
continuous monitoring requires more advanced systems to cope with the amount of data recorded
(Jooste and Cawood, 2006) . The use of robotic total stations has become popular due to their
flexibility, high speed, high efficiency and accuracy. When referring to flexibility in this case, it
means the ability of the instrument to find the prism, take a reading and store the data. The
measurement intervals can be set according to monitoring programme requirements, and high risk
areas measurement intervals can be set according to priority, providing for the monitoring of such
areas more frequently. Monitoring surveys make use of two data sources, namely data that is
measured by the RTS (e.g. distances and angles) and data that is external to the total station (e.g.
meteorological sensor). Data that is external to the total station is complementary data (i.e.
atmospheric condition measurements i.e. ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure, for
atmospheric corrections). The two types of data are summarized below:

 Total station measurements: horizontal, slope and vertical distances readings, and angular
(horizontal angle, Hz and vertical angle, V) readings.

48 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
 Data external to total station: Atmospheric conditions (i.e. ambient temperature, atmospheric
pressure and humidity), observation glass properties, etc..

Data from these two sources must be integrated and processed before a meaningful survey
result can be achieved. Such data is processed using suitable computer software. A control centre
for automated data collection and processing thereof must be established. Data transfer to the
survey/geotechnical office is usually done by radio link (Cawood and Stacey, 2006). However, care
must be taken to ensure that the communication network does have a limitation from frequency
interference when the radio link is used.

Error propagation and data processing are the next tasks after data transfer to the surveyor’s
office. There are several software packages on the market for total station error propagation,
processing and analysis of monitoring data. Such software allows for error propagation and network
analysis (i.e. least square analysis for near errorless measurements, and entails reduction of standard
deviation of measurements to a minimum). The error propagation and network analysis use separate
software (e.g. Surpac). Unlike monitoring software (e.g. GeoMos) which involves atmospheric
corrections to adjust total station measured distances (Bannister et al, 1998). The software also
calculates coordinates (XYZ), compares final coordinates for different surveys and presents these
results using graphs showing movement trends over time.

The final step in slope monitoring is to present the data in a manner that facilitates
interpretation and decision-making. The presentation of the monitoring data can be in form of
graphs, tables, photographs and charts (e.g. movement according to time, rainfall and temperature
variations). What is important at this stage is for the surveyor to record and document all relevant
events that may affect the slope monitoring data (e.g. drilling blasting and rainfall). Also survey
decisions and design changes with supporting evidence (i.e. planned versus mined) when
communicating results to management must be recorded. Wrong data collection and processing
thereof would lead to erroneous alert or no slope failure warning. The summary of problems and
mitigations on data collection and processing thereof is presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Data Collection and Processing thereof

Problems Mitigations
Data collection Onboard the total Ensure that all necessary settings required are set correctly.
station
Data external to total Use quality instruments to acquire atmospheric
station measurements and apply corrections.
Integration of different Use software and good network linkage between the transfer
data station (observation house) and the survey office.
Data processing Error propagation Always bear in mind that no survey is free from error..
Accurately describe spatial data accuracy without
ambiguity.
Data presentation for decision Process all collected data by close-of-business each day and
making disseminate the results as soon as possible, if it is not done
on a real-time system.
Present the outcome of monitoring data in a manner that
will facilitate efficient interpretation and decision-making.
Document all events, decisions and design changes with
supporting evidence.

The influence of atmospheric conditions pose great challenges on prism monitoring. The
refraction effects of atmospheric conditions (ambient temperature, atmospheric pressure and
49 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
humidity) on light wave have been modelled by many researchers in the past (Barrel and Sears,
1939; Edlen, 1966; Fraser, 1981 and Ciddor, 1996), many effects of atmospheric conditions still
needed to be modelled.

Changes in weather conditions, such as heavy rainfall and mist, greatly hinder prism
monitoring. To overcome this, the instrument could be sheltered resulting in measurements to be
taken through a glass surface. Experience by the authors during measurements to check the impact
of glass on total station distance measurements revealed that both rainfall and mist have a
significant impact on the results as revealed in Figures 7 to 8 and Tables 4 to 5.

Figures 7 and 8 show horizontal distance (HD) measurements to a prism without glass and with
glass (5.0 mm clear float glass) at different angles (45°, 60° and 90°). In Figure 7 the HD
measurements to the prism were corrected for prism constant and scale factor but not atmospheric
corrections. Figure 8 shows the graph of HD measurements to prism corrected for prism constant,
scale factor and atmospheric corrections. Tables 4 and 5 show HD readings during monitoring to
prism in early morning misty weather condition. Figure 9 shows a photograph taken during the
misty weather condition.

Figure 7: Graph of HD measurement to prism, corrected for prism constant and scale factor only.

Figure 8: Graph of HD measurement to prism after all corrections.

50 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
In Figure 7, the trend in the HD path changes when the light shower began, even after
atmospheric correction formulae are applied as revealed in Figure 8. The impact of the rain on HD
(without and with glass) is about 4.1mm at 13h00. If the rain continued on that day, the impact may
have risen and may have affected any alarm limit set by the monitoring group. (i.e. if the light
shower had continued, it may have given rise to a false alarm). Figure 8 revealed that the trend
returned back to the normal after the rain had stopped (i.e. beginning from 15h00 to 18h00).

Table 4: HD readings to Circular prism

HD to HD to HD to HD to
HD to Circular Circular Circular Circular Circular
Prism without Prism with Prism with Prism with Prism with
Date with Time glass glass @ 30o glass @45° glass @60° glass @90°
2010/05/13 06:00 Misty weather with visibility below 100 m
2010/05/13 07:00 Misty weather with visibility below 120 m
2010/05/13 08:00 Misty weather with visibility below 150 m
2010/05/13 09:00 Misty weather with visibility slightly above 200 m
2010/05/13 10:00 626.5093 626.5118 626.5112 626.5112 626.5110
2010/05/13 11:00 626.5091 626.5112 626.5118 626.5114 626.5109
2010/05/13 12:00 626.5084 626.5106 626.5099 626.5104 626.5097
2010/05/13 13:00 626.5082 626.5097 626.5091 626.5098 626.5097
2010/05/13 14:00 626.5070 626.5082 626.5087 626.5089 626.5085
2010/05/13 15:00 626.5070 626.5087 626.5083 626.5084 626.5085
2010/05/13 16:00 626.5063 626.508 626.5085 626.5083 626.5087
2010/05/13 17:00 626.5067 626.5078 626.5085 626.5088 626.5080
2010/05/13 18:00 626.5075 626.5084 626.5087 626.5092 626.5091

Table 5: HD readings to Circular prism

HD to HD to HD to HD to
HD to Circular Circular Circular Circular Circular
Prism without Prism with Prism with Prism with Prism with
Date with Time glass glass @ 30° glass @45° glass @60° glass @90°
2010/05/14 06:00 Poor visibility and misty weather condition; visibility limited to 150 m
2010/05/14 07:00 Poor visibility and misty weather condition; visibility limited to 500 m
2010/05/14 08:00 626.5085 626.5103 626.5101 626.5101 626.5101
2010/05/14 09:00 626.5081 626.5095 626.5093 626.5104 626.5093
2010/05/14 10:00 626.5069 626.5082 626.5088 626.5088 626.5087
2010/05/14 11:00 626.5069 626.5082 626.5080 626.5077 626.5081
2010/05/14 12:00 626.5057 626.5070 626.5073 626.5074 626.5071
2010/05/14 13:00 626.5060 626.5069 626.5073 626.5069 626.5070
2010/05/14 14:00 626.5051 626.5068 626.5065 626.5068 626.5062
2010/05/14 15:00 626.5045 626.5060 626.5063 626.5061 626.5065
2010/05/14 16:00 626.5047 626.5057 626.5061 626.5061 626.5060
2010/05/14 17:00 626.5052 626.5069 626.5073 626.5072 626.5067
2010/05/14 18:00 626.5055 626.5071 626.5070 626.5071 626.5067

51 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 

Figure 9: Picture of misty conditions

Monitoring to a prism during misty weather conditions as presented in Tables 4 and 5 revealed
that the total station cannot capture any data during poor visibility, the instrument can only capture
data as weather visibility improves. Figure 9 shows the misty condition during one of the
monitoring exercises. Since rainfall and misty weather conditions have temporary effects (as shown
in Figures 7 to 8 and Tables 4 to 5 above) on the total station monitoring data their effect is
temporary. A combination of more than one monitoring technique (multiple monitoring tools) to
complement total station monitoring during these two adverse conditions might be suggested but
the performance of other monitoring tools under heavy rainfall and misty conditions remain
doubtful (radar does penetrate mists but its performance under heavy rainfall is uncertain).
Atmospheric influence can mar the outcome of the whole monitoring operation if not well catered
for. Table 6 summarizes the problem and mitigation on weather influence.

Table 6: Atmospheric Influence

Problems Mitigations
Atmospheric Atmospheric Use good meteorological sensor and software for
conditions/weather conditions atmospheric corrections.
variations Heavy rainfall Use suitable instrumentation that can work under extreme
conditions
Misty conditions Stop operations temporarily till weather improves

4. Conclusion and Recommendation

This paper discusses various challenges likely to be encountered during slope stability
monitoring using a total station and possible ways to overcome them. The challenges discussed, if
not handled properly, can affect the integrity of prism monitoring. Therefore, a RTS system should
be complemented by other monitoring techniques such as GPS (for spatial control), radar and/or
laser scanning and geotechnical instrumentation e.g. piezometer and extensometer.

5. Acknowledgement
This paper is part of research project 3.9, financed by Coaltech Research Association, South
Africa and University of the Witwatersrand. The authors are grateful to both sponsors.

6. References
Afeni, T.B., 2011, An Approach to Eradicate the Effects of Atmospheric Variations on Total Station
Distance Measurement in a Surface Mine Environment. The impact of taking measurement through a
glass medium. PhD Thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.

52 
 
South African Journal of Geomatics, Vol. 2, No. 1, February 2013 
Afeni, T.B. and Cawood, F.T., 2010, ‘Do the properties of glass matter when taking total station distance
measurements through an observation window?’ Proceedings of International Society for Mine Surveying
(ISM) XIV international Congress held in Sun City, South Africa, pp. 109 – 120.
Bannister, A., Raymond, S. And Baker, R., 1998, Surveying. Pearson Education Ltd. Edinburgh Gate,
England.
Barrel, H. and Sears, J.E., 1939,’ The refraction and dispersion of air for the visible spectrum’,
Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society, Series A, vol. 238, pp 1 – 64.
Cawood, F.T. and Stacey, T.R. 2006, ‘Survey and geotechnical slope monitoring considerations’, South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (SAIMM) vol. 106, no. 7, pp. 495 – 501.
Chrzanowski, A.S. and Chrzanowski, A., 2008, ‘Interdisciplinary approach to monitoring analysis and
modelling of deformations’, Electronic Journal of Polish Agricultural University (EJPAU), vol. 11 no. 2,
viewed 30 January 2011 <http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume11/issue2/art-29.html>.
Ciddor, P.E., 1996, ‘Refractive index of air: new equations for the visible and near infrared’, Applied Optic,
vol. 35, no. 9, pp.1566-1573.
Ding, X., Ren, D., Montgomery, B. and Swindells, C., 2000, ‘Automatic monitoring of slope deformations
using geotechnical instruments’. Journal of Surveying Engineering, vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 57 – 68.
Edlen, B., 1966, ‘The refractive index of air’. Metrologia, vol. 2, 1966. pp. 71 – 80.
Fraser, C.F., 1981, ‘A simple atmospheric model for electro-optical EDM reduction’. The Australian
Surveyor, vol.30, no.6, pp. 352 – 362.
Hill, C.D. and Sippel, K.D., 2002, ‘ Modern deformation monitoring: A multi sensor approach’. FIG XXII
International Congress, Washington DC, USA, 2002. 12pp.
Jooste, M.A. and Cawood, F.T., 2006, ‘Survey slope stability monitoring: Lessons from Venetia Diamond
Mine’. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Stability of Rock Slopes in Open Pit Mining and
Civil Engineering, The South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Symposium Series 44, pp 361 –
374.
Kuhlmann, H. and Glaser, A., 2002, ‘Investigation of new measurement techniques for bridge monitoring’.
2nd Symposium on Geodesy for Geotechnical and Structural Engineering, Berlin, Germany.
McHugh, E.L., Dwyer, J., David G. Long, D.G. and Sabine, C., 2006, ‘Applications of ground-based radar to
mine slope monitoring’. Report of Investigations 9666; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 39pp.
Osasan, S.K. and Afeni, T.B., 2010, ‘Review of slope monitoring techniques’. Journal of Mining Science,
vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 177 – 186.
Palazzo, D., Friedmann, R., Nadal, C., Santos-Filho, M., Veiga, L., and Faggion, P., 2006, ‘Dynamic
monitoring of structures using a Robotic Total Station’. XXIII FIG Congress, Munich, Germany, Oct. 8-
13, 10pp.
Rueger, J.M., Alanko, G. and Snow, T.J., 1994, ‘Monitoring of an open cut mine with a surveying robot’.
The Australian Surveyor, vol. 39, no. 4, 1994. pp. 252 – 266.
Thomas, H.G., 2011, Slope stability prism monitoring: A guide for practising mine surveyors. Unpublished
M.Sc dissertation, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
Wyllie, D.C. and Mah, C.W., 2004, Rock slope engineering civil and mining. Spon Press, Taylor and Francis
e-library, 456pp.
Xinhua News Agency, 2012, Slope failure kills 4 in SW China mine. Reported online by Xinhua web editor:
Liuyuanhui.
Zahariadis, H. And Tsakiri, M., 2006, ‘Low cost monitoring system in the Open Pit Lignite Mines of
Megalopoli, Greece’. 3rd International Association of Geodesy (IAG)/12th FIG Symposium, Baden, 10pp.

53