Connections

Teaching
Perry S. Green, Ph.D.

Toolkit Thomas Sputo, Ph.D., P.E.

Patrick Veltri

A Teaching Guide for Structural Steel Connections

 PREFACE

This connection design tool kit for students is based on the failure. Connections are always designed as planar, two-
original steel sculpture designed by Duane S. Ellifritt, P.E., dimensional elements, even though they have definite three-
Ph.D., Professor Emeritus of Civil Engineering at the Uni- dimensional behavior. Students who have never been
versity of Florida. The tool kit includes this teaching guide, around construction sites to see steel being erected have a
a 3D CAD file of the steel sculpture, and a shear connection difficult time visualizing this three-dimensional character.
calculator tool. The teaching guide contains drawings and Try explaining to a student the behavior of a shop-welded,
photographs of each connection depicted on the steel sculp- field-bolted double-angle shear connection, where the out-
ture, the CAD file is a 3D AutoCAD® model of the steel standing legs are made purposely to flex under load and
sculpture with complete dimensions and details, and the cal- approximate a true pinned connection. Textbooks generally
culator tool is a series of MathCAD® worksheets that show orthogonal views of such connections, but still many
enables the user to perform a comprehensive check of all students have trouble in “seeing” the real connection.
required limit states. In the summer of 1985, after seeing the inability of many
The tool kit is intended as a supplement to, not a replace- students to visualize even simple connections, Dr. Ellifritt
ment for, the information and data presented in the Ameri- began to search for a way to make connections more real for
can Institute of Steel Construction’s Manual of Steel them. Field trips were one alternative, but the availability
Construction, Load & Resistance Factor Design, Third Edi- of these is intermittent and with all the problems of liability,
tion, hereafter, referred to as the AISC Manual. The goal of some construction managers are not too anxious to have a
the tool kit is to assist students and educators in both learn- group of students around the jobsite. Thought was given to
ing and teaching basic structural steel connection design by building some scale models of connections and bringing
visualization tools and software application. them into the classroom, but these would be heavy to move
All information and data presented in any and all parts of around and one would have the additional problem storing
the teaching tool kit are for educational purposes only. them all when they were not in use.
Although the steel sculpture depicts numerous connections, The eventual solution was to create a steel sculpture that
it is by no means all-inclusive. There are many ways to would be an attractive addition to the public art already on
connect structural steel members together. campus, something that would symbolize engineering in
In teaching engineering students in an introductory course general, and that could also function as a teaching aid. It
in steel design, often the topic of connections is put off until was completed and erected in October 1986, and is used
the end of the course if covered at all. Then with the crush every semester to show students real connections and real
of all the other pressures leading up to the end of the semes- steel members in full scale.
ter, even these few weeks get squeezed until connections are Since that time, many other universities have requested a
lucky to be addressed for two or three lectures. One reason copy of the plans from the University of Florida and have
for slighting connections in beginning steel design, other built similar structures on their campuses.
than time constraints, is that they are sometimes viewed as
a “detailing problem” best left to the fabricator. Or, the mis-
taken view is taken that connections get standardized, espe-
cially shear connections, so there is little creativity needed
in their design and engineers view it as a poor use of their
time. The AISC Manual has tables and detailing informa-
tion on many standard types of connections, so the process
is simplified to selecting a tabulated connection that will
carry the design load. Many times, the engineer will simply
indicate the load to be transmitted on the design drawings
and the fabricator will select an appropriate connection.
Yet connections are the glue that holds the structure
together and, standardized and routine as many of them may
seem, it is very important for a structural engineer to under-
stand their behavior and design. Historically, most major
structural failures have been due to some kind of connection

Connections Teaching Toolkit • i

 INTRODUCTION

Connection design in an introductory steel course is often every connection that is illustrated by the steel sculpture has
difficult to effectively communicate. Time constraints and multiple photos and a data figure. The data figure has tables
priority of certain other topics over connection design also of information and CAD-based illustrations and views.
tend to inhibit sufficient treatment of connection design. Each figure has two tables, the first table lists the applicable
The Steel Connections Teaching tool kit is an attempt to limit states for the particular connection, and the second
effectively incorporate the fundamentals of steel connection table provides a list of notes that are informative statements
design into a first course in steel design. The tool kit or address issues about the connection. The views typically
addresses three broad issues that arise when teaching stu- include a large isometric view that highlights the particular
dents steel connection design: visualization, load paths, and location of the connection relative to the steel sculpture as
limit states. well as a few orthogonal elevations of the connection itself.
In structural analysis classes, students are shown ideal- In addition to the simple views of the connections provided
ized structures. Simple lines represent beams and columns, in the figures, also included are fully detailed and dimen-
while pins, hinges, and fixed supports characterize connec- sioned drawings. These views were produced from the full
tions. However, real structures are composed of beams, 3D CAD model developed from the original, manually
girders, and columns, all joined together through bolting or drafted shop drawings of the steel sculpture.
welding of plates and angles. It is no wonder that students The guide covers the most common types of steel con-
have trouble visualizing and understanding the true three- nections used in practice, however more emphasis has been
dimensional nature of connections! placed on shear connections. There are more shear connec-
The steel sculpture provides a convenient means by tions on the steel sculpture than all other types combined.
which full-scale steel connections may be shown to stu- In addition to the shear connection descriptions, drawings,
dents. The steel sculpture exhibits over 20 different connec- and photos, MathCAD® worksheets are used to present
tions commonly used in steel construction today. It is an some design and analysis examples of the shear connections
exceptional teaching instrument to illustrate structural steel found on the steel sculpture.
connections. The steel sculpture’s merit is nationally recog- The illustrations, photos, and particularly the detail draw-
nized as more than 90 university campuses now have a steel ings that are in the teaching guide tend to aid visualization
sculpture modeled after Dr. Ellifritt’s original design. by students. However, the 3D CAD model is the primary
In addition to the steel sculpture, this booklet provides means by which the student can learn to properly visualize
illustrations, and each connection has a short description connections. The 3D model has been developed in the com-
associated with it. monly used AutoCAD “dwg” format. The model can be
The steel sculpture and the booklet “show” steel connec- loaded in AutoCAD or any Autodesk or other compatible
tions, but both are qualitative in nature. The steel sculpture’s 3D visualization application. The student can rotate, pan
connections are simply illustrative examples. The connec- and zoom to a view of preference.
tions on the steel sculpture were not designed to satisfy any The issue of limit states and load paths as they apply to
particular strength or serviceability limit state of the AISC steel connections is addressed by the illustrations and narra-
Specification. Also, the narratives in the guide give only tive text in the guide. To facilitate a more inclusive under-
cursory descriptions, with limited practical engineering standing of shear connections, a series of MathCAD®
information. worksheets has been developed to perform complete analy-
The main goals of this Guide are to address the issues of sis for six different types of shear connections. As an analy-
visualization, load paths, and limit states associated with sis application, the worksheets require load and the
steel connections. The guide is intended to be a teaching connection properties as input. Returned as output are two
tool and supplement the AISC Manual of Steel Construction tables. The first table lists potential limit states and returns
LRFD 3rd Edition. It is intended to demonstrate to the stu- either the strength of the connection based on a particular
dent the intricacies of analysis and design for steel connec- limit state or “NA” denoting the limit state is not applicable
tions. to that connection type. The second table lists connection
Chapters in this guide are arranged based on the types of specific and general design checks and returns the condition
connections. Each connection is described discussing vari- “OK” meaning a satisfactory value, “NA” meaning the
ous issues and concerns regarding the design, erectability, check is not applicable to that connection type, or a phrase
and performance of the specific connection. Furthermore, describing the reason for an unsatisfactory check (e.g.

ii • Connections Teaching Toolkit

“Beam web encroaches fillet of tee”). The student is Many Thanks to the following people who aided in the
encouraged to explore the programming inside these work- development of this teaching aid and the steel sculpture
sheets. Without such exploration, the worksheets represent
“black boxes.” The programming must be explored and
Steel Teaching Steel Sculpture Creator
understood for the benefits of these worksheets to be real-
ized. Duane Ellifritt, Ph.D., P.E.
A complete user’s guide for these worksheets can be
found in Appendix A. Contained in the guide is one exam- Original Fabrication Drawings
ple for each type of shear connection illustrated by the steel
Kun-Young Chiu, Kun-Young Chiu & Associates
sculpture. Each example presents a simple design problem
and provides a demonstration of the use of the worksheet.
Steel Sculpture Fabrication and Erection
Appendix B provides a list of references that includes
manuals and specifications, textbooks, and AISC engineer- Steel Fabricators, Inc.
ing journal papers for students interested in further informa- http://www.steel-fab-florida.com
tion regarding structural steel connections.
Steel Sculpture Funding Steel Fabricators, Inc.
http://www.steel-fab-florida.com

Teaching tool kit Production Staff

Perry S. Green, Ph.D.
Thomas Sputo, Ph.D., P.E.
Patrick Veltri

Shear Connection MathCAD® Worksheets

Patrick Veltri

AutoCAD Drawings & 3D Model

Patrick Veltri

Photographs
Patrick Veltri
Perry S. Green, Ph.D.

Proofreading and Typesetting

Ashley Byrne

Teaching tool kit Funding

American Institute of Steel Construction
http://www.aisc.org

Connections Teaching Toolkit • iii

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface ...............................................................................i. Chapter 5: Moment Connections

Introduction .....................................................................ii. Flange Plated Connections....................................5-1
Chapter 1. The Steel Sculpture Directly Welded Flange Connections....................5-5
Extended End Plate Connections ..........................5-5
Design Drawings
Moment Splice Connections .................................5-7
General Notes........................................................1-2
North Elevation .....................................................1-3
South Elevation .....................................................1-4
Chapter 6: Column Connections
East Elevation........................................................1-5 Column Splice .......................................................6-1
West Elevation.......................................................1-6 Base Plates.............................................................6-3

Chapter 2. Limit States Chapter 7: Miscellaneous Connections

Block Shear Rupture .............................................2-1 Clevises .................................................................7-1
Bolt Bearing ..........................................................2-2 Skewed Connection (Bent Plate) ..........................7-3
Bolt Shear..............................................................2-2 Open Web Steel Joist.............................................7-6
Bolt Tension Fracture ............................................2-2 Cold Formed Roof Purlin......................................7-6
Concentrated Forces..............................................2-3 Shear Stud Connectors ..........................................7-6
Flexural Yielding ...................................................2-4 Truss Connections .................................................7-6
Prying Action.........................................................2-4
Shear Yielding and Shear Rupture ........................2-4
Chapter 8. Closing Remarks
Tension Yielding and Tension Rupture .................2-5
Weld Shear ............................................................2-6
Whitmore Section Yielding / Buckling .................2-6
Appendix A. MathCAD Worksheets
. User’s Guide
Chapter 3. Joining Steel Members
Structural Bolting ..................................................3-1
Welding..................................................................3-2 Appendix B. Sources for Additional Steel
. Connection Information
Chapter 4. Simple Shear Connections
Shear Connection Examples
and MathCAD worksheets ....................................4-1
Double-Angle Connection.....................................4-3
Shear End-Plate Connection ...............................4-12
Unstiffened Seated Connection...........................4-12
Single-Plate (Shear Tab) Connection ..................4-18
Single-Angle Connection ....................................4-18
Tee Shear Connection..........................................4-20

iv • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 CHAPTER 1
The Steel Sculpture

As a structure, the steel sculpture consists of 25 steel mem- the lower, heavier section is a W12×170. Each shaft of the
bers, 43 connection elements, over 26 weld groups, and column has four faces (two flanges and two sides of the
more than 144 individual bolts. As a piece of art, the steel web) and each face is labeled according to its orientation
sculpture is an innovative aesthetic composition of multi- (North, South, East, or West). A major connection is made
form steel members, united by an assortment of steel ele- to each face of the upper and lower shafts. Seven of the
ments demonstrating popular attachment methods. eight faces have a girder-to-column connection while the
At first glance, the arrangement of members and connec- eighth face supports a truss (partial). Two short beams
tions on the steel sculpture may seem complex and unorgan- frame to the web of each girder near their cantilevered end.
ized. However, upon closer inspection it becomes apparent Thus, the steel sculpture does indeed resemble a tree
that the position of the members and connections were “branching” out to lighter and shorter members.
methodically designed to illustrate several specific framing The upper shaft girder-to-column connections and all of
and connection issues. The drawings, photos, and illustra- the beam-to-girder connections are simple shear connec-
tions best describe the position of the members and connec- tions. The simply supported girder-to-column connections
tions on the steel sculpture on subsequent pages. The on the upper shaft are all propped cantilevers of some form.
drawings are based on a 3D model of the sculpture. There The east-end upper girder, (Girder B8)* is supported by the
are four complete elevations of the sculpture followed by pipe column that acts as a compression strut, transferring
thirteen layout drawings showing each connection on the load to the lower girder (Girder B4). A tension rod and cle-
sculpture. Each member and component is fully detailed vis support the upper west girder (Girder B6). The channel
and dimensioned. A bill of material is included for each lay- shaped brace (Beam B5A) spans diagonally across two
out drawing. girders (Girder B5 and Girder B8). This channel is sup-
In general terms, the steel sculpture is a tree-like structure ported by the south girder (Girder B5) and also provides
in both the physical and hierarchical sense. A central col- support for the east girder (Girder B8).
umn, roughly 13 ft tall is comprised of two shafts spliced The enclosed CD contains 18 CAD drawings of the steel
together 7 ft -6in. from the base. Both shafts are W12-series connections sculpture which may serve as a useful graphi-
cross-sections. The upper, lighter section is a W12×106 and cal teaching aid.

* The identification/labeling scheme for beams, columns, and girders with

respect to the drawings included in this document is as follows:

• Columns have two character labels. The first character

is a “C” and the second character is a number.
• Girders have two character labels. The first character is
a “B” and the second character is a number.
• Beams have three character labels. Like girders, the
first character is a “B” and the second character is a
number. Since two beams frame into the web of each
girder, the third character is either an “A” or “B” iden-
tifying that the beam frames into either the “A” or “B”
side of the girder.
• Plates have two character labels that are both are
lower-case letters. The first character is a “p”.
• Angles have two character labels that are both lower-
case letters. The first character is an “a”.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 1-1

 GENERAL NOTES (U.N.0.)

ABBREVIATIONS

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Connections Teaching Toolkit • 1-3
1-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit
Connections Teaching Toolkit • 1-5
1-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit
 CHAPTER 2
Limit States

Structural design is based on the concept that all structural intended function of the member or element under consid-
members are designed for an appropriate level of strength eration.
and stiffness. Strength relates to safety and is essentially the A connection may have many or only a few limit states.
capacity of a structure or member to carry a service or ulti- The controlling limit state can be either strength related or
mate design load. Stiffness is typically associated with ser- based on serviceability criteria. The controlling strength
viceability. Serviceability is concerned with various limit state is the specific condition that has the lowest resist-
performance criteria of a structure or member during serv- ance to the given design load. Initially, most designers tend
ice loading and unloading. to proportion elements based on strength requirements then
For acceptable safety and satisfactory performance of the check that the particular design meets applicable service-
structure, the load and resistance factor design philosophy ability limit states, refining if necessary. The inverse design
uses statistically based load and resistance factors to modify procedure is also acceptable: design for serviceability and
nominal resistance and service loads. Load factors increase then check strength. Regardless of the methodology the
the nominal loads, and resistance factors (also known as φ controlling limit state dictates the optimal design.
factors) reduce the nominal resistance of a member. The The following pages have descriptions and figures that
load factors account for the possibility of higher than antic- explain the general applicability of the more common con-
ipated loads during service. The resistance factors account nection limit states. The applicability of any given limit
for the possibility of lower than anticipate strength. Design state is dependent upon the specific connection geometry
loads and design strengths are obtained when the service and loading. These figures are only a guide and are not
loads and nominal resistance values are multiplied by the meant to represent any and all possible combinations of
appropriate load and resistance factors. limit states.
Structural members must be proportioned with sufficient
design strength to resist the applicable design loads. In
addition to strength, an appropriate stiffness level must be BSR BLOCK SHEAR RUPTURE
provided to satisfy applicable serviceability requirements.
When loads exceed the design strength or serviceability Block shear rupture is a limit state in which the failure path
requirements, a limit state has been reached. A limit state is includes an area subject to shear and an area subject to ten-
the condition where the structure or member is functionally sion. This limit state is so named because the associated
inadequate. Structural elements tend to have several limit failure path tears out a “block” of material. Block shear can
states, some based on strength and others based on service-
ability.
A single connection might include a large number of
structural members and several fastener groups. However,
the basic components of connections are the fastening sys-
tem and the attached plies of material. Thus, strength-based
limit states for connections can be based on either the mate-
rial (members) or the fasteners. Connection strength limit
states of both the fasteners and the plies of material result
from tension, shear, or flexural forces.
Each strength limit state has a particular failure path
across, through or along the element or member. The failure
path is the line along which the material yields or ruptures.
Serviceability limit states typically involve providing an
appropriate amount of stiffness or ductility in a structural Figure 2-1. Block Shear Rupture Limit State
element. The serviceability requirements depend on the (Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon, courtesy of
Georgia Institute of Technology)

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-1

occur in plies that are bolted or in plies that are welded. The condition where there are indeed two or more shear planes,
only difference between the treatments of either the bolted but the forces are not evenly distributed. (e.g. double-sided
or welded block shear limit state is that in the absence of connections)
bolt holes, the gross areas are equal to the net areas. Figure If the load path does not pass through the center of grav-
2-1 shows the condition of the gusset plate well after the ity of a bolt group, then the load is considered eccentric.
block shear rupture limit state has occurred. Eccentrically loaded bolt groups are subject to a moment
force that induces either additional shear (for in-plane
loads) or combined shear and tension (for out-of-plane
BB BOLT BEARING loads). In reality most connections possess some degree of
eccentricity, however some of these eccentricities are small
Bolt bearing is concerned with the deformation of material and are commonly neglected.
at the loaded edge of the bolt holes. Bearing capacity of the
connection is influenced by the proximity of the bolt to the
loaded edge. Bolt bearing is applicable to each bolted ply BT BOLT TENSION FRACTURE
of a connection. The AISC specification contains two
design equations, one equation is based on strength (when If bolts are subject to loading along their length then the bolt
deformation around bolt holes is not a consideration) and is loaded in tension. Bolts that fail in tension will do so
the other is based on serviceability (when deformation within the threaded portion of the bolt, through one of the
around the bolt holes is a design consideration).

BS BOLT SHEAR

Bolt shear is applicable to each bolted ply of a connection

that is subjected to shear. The shear strength of a bolt is
directly proportional to the number of interfaces (shear
planes) between the plies within the grip of the bolt that a
single shear force is transmitted through. Single shear
occurs when the individual shear force is transmitted
through bolts that have two plies within the grip of the bolt.
Additional plies further distribute the shear force. Three
plies of material represent two shear planes, thus the bolt or
bolt group is in double shear and has effectively twice the
strength as single shear. It is important to realize that dou- Figure 2-3. Bolt Shear Limit State
(Photo by P.S. Green)
ble shear, triple shear, etc. requires an individual shear force
vector evenly distributed across the plies. There may be a

BS

Figure 2-2. Bolt Bearing Limit State Figure 2-4. Bolt Tension Fracture Limit State
(Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon, (Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon,
courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology) courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology)

2-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

roots of the threads. This coincides with the least cross-sec-
tional area.

CONCENTRATED FORCES

FLB FLANGE LOCAL BENDING

WCB WEB COMPRESSION BUCKLING

WC WEB CRIPPLING

WLB WEB LOCAL BUCKLING

WLY WEB LOCAL YIELDING

Sometimes forces that are transferred from one member to

another create localized deformation (yielding) or buckling.
The applicable limit states depend on the specific connec-
tion geometry. The limit states for concentrated forces most
often occur in seated connections and moment connections. Figure 2-6. Web Crippling Limit State
For example, when the supported beam is coped, (i.e. flange (Photo by T. Murray, Virginia Tech)
material has been removed) the remaining web may be sus-
ceptible to web local buckling.
For seated connections, the outstanding angle leg on the
seat provides a bearing area for the bottom flange of the
supported beam. This bearing area creates a concentrated
reaction at the end of the beam. The web of the supported
beam is susceptible to web crippling and web local yielding.
Since most moment connections provide continuity
between the supporting and supported members, the flanges
of the supported member transfer concentrated tension and

Figure 2-5. Flange Local Bending Limit State Figure 2-7. Web Local Buckling Limit State
(Beedle, L.S., Christopher, R., 1964) (SAC Project)

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-3

compression forces to the supporting member. Flange local
SHEAR YIELDING AND
bending, web local yielding, web crippling and web com- SY SR
SHEAR RUPTURE
pression buckling limit states must be investigated.
Most connections are subjected to the shear component of
loading. Even moment connections must have provisions
FY FLEXURAL YIELDING for shear transfer. Thus, those elements in the connection
that are subject to shear forces must be investigated for
When a beam is coped, the reduced section modulus of the shear yielding and shear rupture. Both limit states will
remaining beam cross section may significantly reduce the apply regardless of fastening method (bolt or weld). For
flexural strength of the member. Other instances of flexural welded plies, without bolt holes, shear yielding will usually
yielding are flexure of the stem of a tee shape in a shear tee control over shear rupture. (The net area of welded plies
connection and bending of the outstanding angle leg of an without bolt holes is equal to the gross area. If the ratio of
unstiffened seated connection. yield strength to ultimate tensile strength is less than 1.2,
then shear rupture will generally control).

PA PRYING ACTION

Prying action is a phenomenon in which additional tension

forces are induced in the bolts due to deformation of the
connection near the bolt. Flexibility of the connected parts
within the grip of the bolts creates these additional tension
forces.

Figure 2-9 Tee Stem Deformation

(Astaneh, A., Nader, M.N., 1989)

Figure 2-8 Web Local Yielding Limit State Figure 2-10 Seat Angle Deformation
(SAC Project) (Yang, W.H. et al., 1997)

2-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Shear yielding is a ductile limit state; it is a function of
the gross shear area of the element. The failure path associ- TENSION YIELDING
TY TR
ated with shear yielding is linear in the direction of load AND TENSION RUPTURE
from the top edge of the element to the bottom edge and
through the thickness of the ply. The tension yielding limit state is a function of the gross
Shear rupture is an ultimate limit state; it is a function of cross-sectional area of the member subjected to tension
the net shear area of the element. The failure path associ- load. The tension rupture mode is a limit state that is a func-
ated with shear rupture is also linear, in the direction of load tion of the effective net area. The net area is the reduced
from the top edge of the element to the bottom edge and gross area due to bolt holes or notches. This net area is fur-
through the thickness of the ply. If both flanges of the sup- ther reduced to account for the effects of shear lag. Shear
ported member are coped, then a potential shear failure path lag occurs when the tension force is not evenly distributed
on the beam is present and shear yielding and shear rupture through the cross sectional area of a member. Certain geo-
must be investigated for this member. metric areas of a section may have higher localized stresses.
Shear lag often occurs in angle members when they are used
as struts. The fastening (bolting or welding) is generally

Figure 2-12. Shear Yielding Limit State

(Astaneh, A. and Nader, M.N. 1989)

Figure 2-11. Prying Action Limit State Figure 2-13. Shear Rupture Limit State
(Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon, (Astaneh, A. and Nader, M.N., 1989)
courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology)

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-5

made along only one leg of the angle. When the angle is
loaded in tension the leg that is fastened has a disproportion-
ate share of the tension load. This unbalance causes a shear
force to lag across the section.

W WELD SHEAR

Weld shear is applicable to each welded ply of a connection.

The failure mode for fillet welds is always assumed to be a
shear failure on the effective throat of the weld. In a simi-
lar fashion as bolt shear, if the load path does not pass
through the center of gravity of a weld group, then the load
is considered eccentric. Eccentrically loaded weld groups
are subject to a moment that tends to induce either addi- Figure 2-14. Tension Fracture Limit State
tional shear (for in-plane loads) or combined shear and ten- (Photo by J.A. Swanson and R. Leon,
courtesy of Georgia Institute of Technology)
sion (for out-of-plane loads).

WHITMORE SECTION
WS
YIELDING / BUCKLING

Whitmore section yielding or buckling is a limit state that

applies to bolted and welded gusset plates and similar fit-
tings that are much wider than the pattern of bolts or welds
within them. The stress distribution through the ends of
members that are attached to the gusset is complex. This
limit state involves either the yielding or buckling of plate
material near the ends of the attached members. The Whit-
more method of analysis assumes the member force is uni-
formly distributed over an effective area. This effective area
is determined by multiplying the gusset plate thickness by
an effective length that is defined from the projection of 30-
degree lines on each side of the “strut” member that is con- Figure 2-15. Weld Shear Limit State
(Astaneh, A. and Nader, M.N., 1989)
nected to the gusset plate. The projection is assumed to
originate at either the first row of bolts on the plate or the
origin of the weld. The projection is assumed to terminate at
the plane that passes through the last row of bolts or at the
end of the welds. The 30-degree projection lines form a
trapezoid, and the effective length is assumed as the base
dimension of this trapezoid.

2-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

Figure 2-16. Whitmore Section Yielding/Buckling Limit State
(Beedle, L.S. and Christopher, R., 1964)

BSR BB BS

FY WLB
W BT PA

TY TR

BSR BB BS SR SY

Figure 2-17. Shear Connection; Potential Limit States Figure 2-19. Tension Connection
(Hanger Connection Potential Limit States

W FLB

BB BS

W WS

BSR BB BS TR TY

BSR BB BS

SR SY WLY WC WCB

Figure 2-18. Moment Connection; Potential Limit States Figure 2-20. Tension Connection (Gusset Plate);
Potential Limit States

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 2-7

 CHAPTER 3
Joining Steel Members

In current construction practice, steel members are joined teria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, (Kulak, Fisher and
by either bolting or welding. When fabricating steel for Struik, 1987).
erection, most connections have the connecting material High strength bolts can be either snug tightened or pre-
attached to one member in the fabrication shop and the other tensioned. When bolts are installed in a snug-tightened con-
member(s) attached in the field during erection. This helps dition the joint is said to be in bearing as the plies of joined
simplify shipping and makes erection faster. Welding that material bear directly on the bolts. This assumes that the
may be required on a connection is preferably performed in shank of the bolt provides load transfer from one ply to the
the more-easily controlled environment of the fabrication next through direct contact. Bearing connections can be
shop. If a connection is bolted on one side and welded on specified with either the threads included (N) or excluded
the other, the welded side will usually be the shop connec- (X) from the shear plane. Allowing threads to be included
tion and the bolted connection will be the field connection. in the shear planes results in a shear strength about 25% less
The use of either bolting or welding has certain advan- than if the threads are specified as excluded from the shear
tages and disadvantages. Bolting requires either the punch- plane(s). However, appropriate care must be taken to spec-
ing or drilling of holes in all the plies of material that are to ify bolt lengths such that the threads are excluded in the as-
be joined. These holes may be a standard size, oversized, built condition if the bolts are indeed specified as threads
short-slotted, or long-slotted depending on the type of con- excluded.
nection. It is not unusual to have one ply of material pre- In pretensioned connections, the bolts act like clamps
pared with a standard hole while another ply of the holding the plies of material together. The clamping force
connection is prepared with a slotted hole. This practice is is due to the pretension in the bolts created by properly
common in buildings having all bolted connections since it tightening of the nuts on the bolts. However, the load trans-
allows for easier and faster erection of the structural fram- fer is still in bearing like for snug-tightened joints.
ing. The initial load transfer is achieved by friction between
Welding will eliminate the need for punching or drilling the faying or contact surfaces of the plies of material being
the plies of material that will make up the connection, how- joined, due to the clamping force of the bolts being normal
ever the labor associated with welding requires a greater to the direction of the load. For slip-critical joints, the bolts
level of skill than installing the bolts. Welding requires a are pretensioned and the faying surfaces are prepared to
highly skilled tradesman who is trained and qualified to achieve a minimum slip resistance. The reliance on friction
make the particular welds called for in a given connection between the plies for load transfer means that the surface
configuration. He or she needs to be trained to make the condition of the parts has an impact on the initial strength of
varying degrees of surface preparation required depending slip-critical connections. The strength of slip-critical con-
on the type of weld specified, the position that is needed to nections is directly proportional to the mean slip coefficient.
properly make the weld, the material thickness of the parts Coatings such as paint and galvanizing tend to reduce the
to be joined, the preheat temperature of the parts (if neces- mean slip coefficient.
sary), and many other variables. The two most common grades of bolts available for struc-
tural steel connections are designated ASTM A325 and
STRUCTURAL BOLTING ASTM A490. The use of A307 bolts is no longer that com-
mon except for the ½-in. diameter size where they are still
Structural bolting was the logical engineering evolution
sometimes used in connections not requiring a pretensioned
from riveting. Riveting became obsolete as the cost of
installation or for low levels of load. A307 bolts have a 60
installed high-strength structural bolts became competitive
ksi minimum tensile strength. A325 and A490 bolts are des-
with the cost associated with the four or five skilled trades-
ignated high-strength bolts. A325 bolts have a 120 ksi min-
men needed for a riveting crew. The Specification for
imum tensile strength and are permitted to be galvanized,
Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts, pub-
while A490 bolts have a 150 ksi minimum tensile strength,
lished by the Research Council on Structural Connections
but are not permitted to be galvanized due to hydrogen
(RCSC, 2000) has been incorporated by reference into the
embrittlement concerns. High strength bolts are available in
AISC Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification for
sizes from ½- to 1½-in. diameters in 1/8 in. increments and
Structural Steel Buildings. Many of the bolting standards
can be ordered in lengths from 1½ to 8 inches in ¼ in. incre-
are based on work reported by in the Guide to Design Cri-
ments.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 3-1

 When a pretensioned installation is required, four instal- Several welding processes are available for joining struc-
lation methods are available: turn-of-the-nut, calibrated tural steel. The selection of a process is due largely to suit-
wrench, twist off bolt, and direct tension indicator methods. ability and economic issues rather than strength. The most
The turn-of-the-nut method involves first tightening the nut common weld processes are Shielded Metal Arc Welding
to the snug tight condition, then subsequently turning the (SMAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux Core Arc
nut a specific amount based on the size and grade of the bolt Welding (FCAW), and Submerged Arc Welding (SAW).
to develop the required pretension. The calibrated wrench SMAW uses an electrode coated with a material that
method involves using a torque applied to the bolt to obtain vaporizes and shields the weld metal to prevent oxidation.
the required level pretension. A torque wrench is calibrated The coated electrode is consumable and can be deposited in
to stall at the required tension for the bolt. Twist-off bolts any position. SMAW is commonly referred to as stick
have a splined end that twists off when the torque corre- welding.
sponding to the proper pretension is achieved. ASTM GMAW and FCAW are similar weld processes that use a
F1852 is the equivalent specification for A325 “twist-off” wire electrode that is fed by a coil to a gun-shaped electrode
bolts. Currently, there is no ASTM specification equivalent holder. The main difference between the processes is in the
for A490 tension control bolts. Direct tension indicators method of weld shielding. GMAW uses an externally sup-
(DTIs) are special washers with raised divots on one face. plied gas mixture while FCAW has a hollow electrode with
When the bolt is installed, the divots compress to a certain flux material in the core that generates a gas shield or a flux
level. The amount of compression must then be checked shield when the weld is made. GMAW and FCAW can be
with a feeler gage. deposited in all positions and have a relatively fast deposit
rate compared to other processes.
WELDING
Welding is the process of fusing multiple pieces of metal
together by heating the metal to a liquid state. Welding can
often simplify an otherwise complicated joint, when com-
pared to bolting. However, welds are subject to size and
length limitations depending on the thickness of the materi-
als and the geometry of the pieces being joined. Further-
more, welding should be preferably performed on bare
metal. Paint and galvanizing should be absent from the area
on the metal that is to be welded.
Guidelines for welded construction are published by the
American Welding Society (AWS) in AWS D1.1 Structural
Welding Code-Steel. These provisions have been adopted
by the AISC in the Load and Resistance Factor Design
Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. Figure 3-2. Direct Tension Indicators and Feeler Gages

Figure 3-1. Structural Fastener - Bolt, Nut and Washer Figure 3-3. Structural Fastener - Twist-off Bolt

3-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 In SAW welding, a consumable electrode is submerged weld size that can be deposited in one pass in the horizontal
below a blanket of granular flux. The flux protects and or flat position is normally 5/16 in. Multiple passes require
enhances the resulting weld. SAW tends to produce high more time and more weld metal. Due to labor costs, weld
quality welds that are strong and ductile. The major limita- metal, by weight, is the most expensive part of a structure.
tion of this process is that weld can only be deposited in the Groove welds are typically used when the plies are
flat position due to the granular flux used. This process is aligned parallel and lie in the same plane (i.e. no material
frequently used for the web-to-flange connections of plate overlap), as in a butt joint, or to make a tee, corner, or edge
girders. The SAW process is most often found automated in joint. Groove welds that extend through the full thickness
the better-controlled conditions of shop welding operations. of the materials being joined are called complete-joint-pen-
For engineers, it is important to realize that the effective etration groove welds. When the welds do not extend com-
throat dimension for the SAW process is calculated differ- pletely through the thickness, they are called
ently than for the other processes. Since the SAW process partial-joint-penetration groove welds. Groove welds, par-
produces higher quality welds with deeper penetration, the ticularly complete-joint-penetration groove welds, are
effective throat is permitted to be equal to the weld throat potentially expensive. The metal pieces being joined must
size if the weld is less than 3/8 in. For larger welds the effec- be prepared by shaping the edges. Additional metal is often
tive throat for SAW welds is the minimum distance from the used in the form of backing or extension bars and runoff
root to face of the weld plus 0.11 in. For the other processes tabs to help contain the weld metal. If the structure is
the effective throat is taken as the minimum distance from loaded cyclically, the backing bars and runoff tabs must be
the root to the face of the weld (for equal legs: 0.707 × leg removed and the surfaces finished smooth. This obviously
length). adds significant labor costs to the already expensive weld.
There are four types of welds: fillet, groove, plug, and Finally, when groove welds are used for beam flange con-
slot. Fillet and groove welds make up the majority of all nections, small access holes (known as weld access holes)
structural welds, therefore only those types will be dis- need to be cut in the web just below and above the top and
cussed here. There are five types of structural joints that can bottom flanges respectively to allow access to make the
be made using either fillet or groove welds. These are weld (bottom) and to allow placement of the backing bar
called butt, lap, tee, corner, or edge. The welds can be (top).
placed in any of four positions depending on the configura- Weld material strength should be matched to the base
tion and location of the joint: flat, horizontal, vertical, and metal so that the resulting weld is stronger than the pieces
overhead. Whenever possible, it is beneficial to make a of metal being joined. Regardless of the process or type of
weld in either the horizontal or flat position for ease of welds, shear is always the controlling limit state. Weld
workmanship and cost. strength is based on either the shear strength of the weld or
Fillet welds are by far the most common type of weld shear strength of the base metal, through the thickness. In
used in welded construction. In general, fillet welds are the AISC Manual, the shear connections have tables for
economical, easy to fabricate, and require very simple standard elements and weld lengths. These tabulated
preparation of the materials being joined. Joint types are strength values assume E70 electrodes and have an associ-
either lap or tee. Fillet weld strength is directly proportional ated minimum thickness based on shear strength of the weld
to its length and throat dimension. The volume of weld matching the shear strength of the base metal. If less than
material, and therefore the cost, is proportional to the square the minimum material thickness is present or the weld is not
of the weld leg. It is more economical to use smaller and made with an E70 electrode, the tabulated strength must be
longer fillet welds with small legs rather than shorter fillet reduced by the ratio of thickness provided to minimum
welds with large legs. There is an additional economic thickness or by electrode used to E70 electrode strength (70
advantage if the weld can be made in one pass. The largest ksi), respectively.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 3-3

 CHAPTER 4

Simple Shear Connections

Simple shear connections are assumed to have little or no These are qualitative definitions and it is up to the discretion
rotational resistance. They are assumed to carry only the of the engineer as to whether the support should be treated
shear component of the load and are idealized as pins or as flexible or rigid.
rollers for design. Therefore, no moment forces are
assumed transmitted by the connection from the supported SHEAR CONNECTION EXAMPLES &
member to the supporting member. The attachment of a MATHCAD® WORKSHEETS
shear connection may be made to the web of the supported
Shear connections are the workhorse of structural steel
beam, usually with the flanges unconnected. The exception
framing. Today, the majority of structural steel building
is the seated connection where the connection is made to the
connections are shear connections. Even most moment con-
flanges of the supported beam.
nections integrate a shear connection to carry the shear
Experimentally it has been shown that shear connections
component of the beam reaction. Individually, shear con-
possess some amount of rotational restraint. For design pur-
nections exhibit relatively complex behavior and tend to
poses, ignoring this resistance produces a conservative
have a significant number of limit states that need to be
result. The majority of the rotational flexibility of most
checked.
shear connections is achieved in the deformation of the con-
The AISC Manual has tables that list design strengths for
nection element (plate, angle, tee, etc.) or through slotted or
most shear connections. Although the tables provide a quick
oversized holes. The deformation of the fasteners, if it is a
and simple way to design shear connections, there are a few
bolted connection, or the welds, if it is a welded connection
points that must be noted concerning the use of the design
usually adds little to the overall connection flexibility.
tables. The first is that the tables list strengths based on
The goal for shear connections is to have both adequate
assumptions of standardized connection geometry. The
strength and sufficient rotational ductility. Shear connec-
tables have limited effectiveness for analysis or design of
tion elements are typically designed using thin and/or mild
connections with unusual geometry. Second, and most sig-
yield strength materials (i.e. A36) to provide rotational flex-
nificant, is that the tables list only the controlling strength of
ibility in excess of what the supported member requires.
the connection. The tables provide little information as to
Many shear connection elements can be either bolted on
which limit state controls the design. Additionally, other
the supported side and welded on the supporting side, or
applicable limit states may need to be checked. This pre-
welded on the supported side and bolted on the supporting
vents any sort of comparison of the applicable limit states
side, or all-bolted or all-welded. However, from an
for the connection.
erectability point of view, all-welded shear connections are
For these reasons, MathCAD® worksheets were devel-
usually impractical. Since it is a common practice to weld
oped for six types of shear connections: Double-Angle,
shop attachments and bolt field attachments, many shear
Shear End-Plate, Unstiffened Seat, Single Plate, Single-
connections are bolted on one side (to either the supported
Angle and Shear Tee. The worksheets allow the user to see
member or the supporting member) and welded on the
how a change in any particular connection parameter (i.e.
other.
bolt size, element thickness, material strength, etc.) affects
When designing shear connections, the pin is assumed to
the strength and/or controlling limit state. These work-
be located at the most flexible part of the connection. The
sheets are included on the companion CD that came with
stiffness and strength of some connections depend on
this guide.
whether or not the supported member is considered “flexi-
For specific instructions and information regarding the
ble” or “rigid”. The terms “flexible” and “rigid” as they
use and installation of the MathCAD® worksheets see
refer to the supporting side of a connection are subjective
Appendix A. For instructions and information regarding the
and somewhat open to interpretation. In general, a flexible
MathCAD® software application, refer to the MathCAD®
support is one in which the supporting side of the element is
User’s Guide.
attached to either a girder or column web where deforma-
tion of the web contributes to rotational flexibility (if the
support is flexible rotation occurs largely in the supporting
member). A rigid support is typically connected to the cen-
ter of a column flange on the supporting side (if the support
is rigid rotation occurs largely in the connection element).

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-1

 Figure 4-1 Limit States
Shear Connection: All-Bolted Double-Angle
Girder B1 / Beam B1B Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Yielding
Local Web Buckling
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding

West Elevation South Elevation

Notes

• Girder B1 supports Beam B1B by an all-bolted, double-angle connection.

• These double-angles are field bolted to the supporting girder and shop bolted to the
supported beam. This eliminates "knifed" erection. (Lowering the supported beam
web into place between the angles).

• The offset bolt rows between the in-plane and outstanding angle legs provide better
entering and tightening clearances.

• Since both of the members are the same depth, the beam is double coped to
accommodate the flanges of the girder.

4-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 The steel sculpture connections were not designed for Standard all-bolted or all-welded double-angle connec-
any particular loading. Therefore, in order to establish a tions are efficient from a material standpoint. For an all-
rational and comprehensive set of shear connection exam- bolted double-angle connection, typically there are two
ples, several basic assumptions are made: lines of bolts on the supporting side (one bolt line on each
outstanding leg) and one line of bolts on the supported side.
• All wide-flange members are ASTM A992 steel (Fy = The number of bolt rows is usually common to both sides.
50 ksi, Fu = 65 ksi). The two bolt lines on the supporting side are in single shear
• All other shapes and plates are ASTM A36 steel (Fy = and the one bolt line one the supported side is in double
36 ksi, Fu = 58 ksi). shear. Although the supported side may have half as many
• All bolts are ASTM A325-N, bearing connections in bolts, they are in double shear. Often the strength based on
standard holes. bolt shear alone is the same on either ply of the double-
• All welds are made using E70 electrodes and are pro- angle. The same general idea is also applicable for all-
duced by the SMAW process. welded double-angle connections. Welds on the supporting
• The beams and girders have a simple span (with full side (referred to in the AISC Manual as Weld B) are typi-
lateral support) equal to 20 times their nominal depth cally placed along each toe of the outstanding legs of the
(rounded up to the next whole foot). angle with a return at the top. Welds on the supported side
• The design load for the shear connections is equal to (referred to in the AISC Manual as Weld A) are typically
one half the maximum design uniformly distributed placed along the toe and/or across the top and bottom edges
load (½ UDL) based on the span to depth ratio of the of both in-plane angle legs. Minimum tabulated thickness
supported member. in the manual for welding assumes E70 electrodes and are
• The MathCAD® worksheets will only accept valid based on matching shear rupture strength of the weld with
AISC W-shapes as supporting and supported mem- the shear rupture strength of the base metal. If less than the
bers. A few of the supported beams on the steel sculp- tabulated thickness is provided the tabulated weld values
ture are S-shapes or channels rather than W-shapes. must be reduced by the ratio of thickness provided to thick-
To perform the analysis, W-shapes with section prop- ness required. Thus, longer yet smaller welds are better
erties similar to those of S-shapes or channels will be suited, as larger welds provide no strength advantage once
substituted. the limiting thickness has been reached.
To facilitate erection the connection may have short slot-
DOUBLE-ANGLE CONNECTION ted holes and/or a detailed length such that the overall mem-
ber length is slightly shorter than the span with shims
Double-angle connections are made by attaching the in-
provided to fill any gap. If the angles are shop attached to
plane pair of legs (by bolting or welding) to the web of the
the face of the supporting column, then the supported beam
supported beam and the out-of-plane pair of legs (also by
will be erected in a knifed manner where the bottom flange
bolting or welding) to the web of the supporting beam, or
of the supported beam is coped allowing it to be lowered
flange or web of the supporting column.
into position between the in-plane angle legs.

Figure 4-2. Shear Connection: All-bolted double-angle Figure 4-3. Shear Connection: All-bolted double angle
Girder B1 / Beam B1B Girder B1 / Beam B1B

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-3

 The assumed location of the idealized pin for a double- Girder B8 represents an all-welded arrangement of dou-
angle connection is at the outstanding legs. Whether bolted ble-angle connections. All-welded double-angle connec-
or welded, it is through the deformation of the outstanding tions are difficult to erect. At least one of the members must
legs that the rotational flexibility is achieved. Guidance is somehow be supported so that the double-angle can be
provided in the AISC Manual for angle thickness and gage welded. Temporary erection bolts are usually used to sup-
requirements to ensure adequate rotating flexibility. port and stabilize members during erection. The practice of
The absolute position and spacing of bolt holes are con- using temporary erection bolts for support of a member to
trolled by either clearance or edge distance limitations, create an all-welded connection tends to nullify the reason
however, for some regularity, common gages have been for welding. Shop welding has been performed on the sup-
established by usage. The usual gages are a function of the ported side of each beam. Both the outstanding angle legs
angle leg dimension and are based on design, fabrication, and the areas they frame into have not been painted. Field
and erection convenience. For given angle sizes, the hole- welding should be performed on unpainted bare steel.
to-hole gage is generally kept the same.
Welds on the supporting member side have ductility con-
cerns. The welds are placed along the toe of each of the out-
standing angles, thus the entire outstanding angle legs are
available for deformation. The top edges of angles (as well
as other shear connectors) on the supporting side should not
be welded across the top, except for short weld returns. If
the entire top edge of the outstanding angle leg were
welded, it would inhibit its flexibility and thus the rotational
flexibility of the connection.
On the steel sculpture, connections of members B1B,
B3A, B3B, B8, B8A, and B8B are examples of double-
angle connections. The B1B connection is an all-bolted
double-angle connection with rows of bolts on the support-
ing member side offset from those on the supported mem-
ber side. The offset pitch requires the angles to be slightly
longer but provides better entering and tightening clear-
ances. The double-angles have been shop assembled on the
supported side. Since both the supporting girder and the
supported beam are the same depth (W18 series) and the top
flanges of both beams are aligned, the supported beam must
be double coped to permit erection.
The B3A/B3B joint is an example of a back-to-back con-
dition with two double-angle connection sharing bolts.
When such connections would occur in column webs, or in
girder webs directly over the top of a column (e.g. as in can-
tilevered roof framing), current OSHA safety standards pro-
hibit this unless erectability is provided for with an erection
seat or other means. One solution to the problem is illus-
trated on the steel sculpture - provide an additional row of
bolts on one of the double-angles that is not shared with the
other. This allows erection of the beam with the additional
bolt row until the other beam can be fitted up. Other solu-
tions involve providing one additional bolt in two opposite
corners of each connection, or offsetting the beams such
that they both share only one bolt line. Note that the bolts
common to both connections are not in double shear.
Rather, they are in single shear on two planes. The top of
the supported beam has been coped to allow the flanges to
be aligned vertically.

4-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

Figure 4-4 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted-Welded Double-Angle
Girder B3 / Beam B3A Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Yielding
Local Web Buckling
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

East Elevation North Elevation

Notes

• Girder B3 supports Beam B3A by a bolted-welded double-angle connection.

• The double-angles are shop welded to the supported beam and field bolted to the
supporting girder.

• The girder web is shared between two double-angle connections. The additional row of
bolts holds the east side connection temporarily in place until the west side connection
can be fitted up.

• The top flanges of both the beam and the girder are at the same elevation. The top
flange of the supported beam is coped to eliminate the interference of girder flange.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-5

Figure 4-5. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle Figure 4-8. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle
Girder B3 / Beam B3A Girder B3 / Beam B3B

Figure 4-6. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle Figure 4-9. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle
Girder B3 / Beam B3A Girder B3 / Beam B3B

Figure 4-7. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle Figure 4-10. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded double-angle
Girder B3 / Beam B3A Girder B3 / Beam B3B

4-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure4-9
Figure 4-11 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted-WeldedDouble-Angle
Shear Connection: Bolted-Welded Double-Angle
GirderB3
Girder B3/ /Beam
BeamB3B
B3B Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Yielding
Local Web Buckling
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

West Elevation North Elevation

Notes

• Girder B3 supports Beam B3B by a bolted-welded double-angle connection.

• The double-angles are shop welded to the supported beam and field bolted to the
supporting girder.

• The girder web is shared between two double-angle connections. The additional row of
bolts holds the east side connection temporarily in place until the west side connection
can be fitted up.

• The top flanges of both the beam and the girder are at the same elevation. The top
flange of the supported beam is coped to eliminate the interference of girder flange.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-7

 Figure 4-12 Limit States
Shear Connection: All-Welded Double-Angle
Shear Yielding
Girder B6 / Beam B8B
Shear Rupture
Weld Strength

North Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Girder B6 supports Beam B8B by an all-welded double-angle connection.

• The double-angles are field welded to the supporting girder and shop welded to the
supported beam.

• When connection elements are field welded to members, the area of attachment must be
free of any coatings (i.e. paint) or lubricants (i.e. oil or grease)

• Welds on the supporting member should be placed along the toe and optionally along
the bottom edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be provided at the top
edge of the angle; welding across the entire top edge should be avoided since it would
inhibit the flexibility of the connection.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

4-8 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure4-15
Figure 4-13 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted-Welded
Shear Connection: All-Welded Double-Angle
Double-Angle
Girder B8 / Beam B8A Shear Rupture
Girder B8 / Beam B8A
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

North Elevation East Elevation

Notes

• B8 girder supports Beam B8A by an all-welded double-angle connection.

• The double-angles are field welded to the supporting girder and shop welded to the
supported beam.

• When connection elements are field welded to members, the area of attachment must be
free of any coatings (i.e. paint) or lubricants (i.e. oil or grease)

• Welds on the supporting member should be placed along the toe and optionally along
the bottom edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be provided at the top
edge of the angle; welding across the entire top edge should be avoided since it would
inhibit the flexibility of the connection.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-9

 Figure4-18
Figure 4-14 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted-Welded
Shear Connection: All-Welded Double-Angle
Double-Angle
ColumnC2
Column C2/ Girder
/ GirderB8
B8 Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

North Elevation East Elevation

Notes

• Column C2 supports Girder B8 by all-welded double-angles.

• The double-angles have been field welded to the supporting column and shop welded to
the supported girder.

• When connection elements are field welded to members, the area of attachment must be
free of any coatings (i.e. paint) or lubricants (i.e. oil or grease)

• Welds on the supporting member should be placed along the toe and optionally along
the bottom edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be provided at the top
edge of the angle; welding across the entire top edge should be avoided since it would
inhibit the flexibility of the connection.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

4-10 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

Figure 4-15. Shear Connection: All-welded double-angle Figure 4-18. Shear Connection: All-welded double-angle
Girder B6 / Beam B8B Column C2 / Girder B8

Figure 4-16. Shear Connection: All-welded double-angle Figure 4-19. Shear Connection: All-welded double angle
Girder B6 / Beam B8B Column C2 / Girder B8

Figure 4-17. Shear Connection: All-welded double-angle Figure 4-20. Shear Connection: All-welded double-angle
Girder B8 / Beam B8A Column C2 / Girder B8

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-11

 SHEAR END-PLATE CONNECTION
A shear end-plate connection involves welding a plate per-
pendicular to the end of the supported web and bolting or
welding the plate to the supporting member. The vertical
dimension of the plate should not exceed that of the sup-
ported beam web. If the supporting side is bolted, the hori-
zontal dimension will depend on the bolt size, gage spacing,
and edge distance. Shop welding is the only method of join-
ing the supported beam web and the plate. In the AISC
Manual, the minimum tabulated thickness for welding
assumes E70 electrodes and is based on matching shear rup-
ture strength of the weld with the shear rupture strength of
the base metal. If less than the tabulated thickness is pro-
vided, the tabulated weld values must be reduced by the
ratio of thickness provided to thickness required. Thus,
Figure 4-21. Shear Connection: Bolted shear end-plate
longer yet smaller welds are better suited as larger welds Girder B2 / Beam B2A
provide no strength advantage once the limiting thickness
has been reached.
Shear end-plates are generally simple to design but
require good control of tolerances in fabrication since the
detailed length must fit between supports. The detailed
length is normally established such that a small erection gap
is present. This gap can be filled with shims.
The shear plate essentially has only one ply; the assumed
location of the idealized pin is at the plate itself. The rota-
tion flexibility for a shear plate will approximate that of a
double-angle connection with similar thickness, gage lines,
and connection length.
Beam B2A illustrates a shear end-plate connection. The
plate is shop welded to the supported beam web, and field
bolted to the girder. Beam B2A is an American Standard (S)
shape, characterized by tapered flanges. S shapes are not
commonly used in steel framing today, but used here for
Figure 4-22. Shear Connection: Bolted shear end-plate
illustration purposes. Girder B2 / Beam B2A

UNSTIFFENED SEATED CONNECTION

The unstiffened seated connection is somewhat unique to
the family of shear connections. Unlike all the other shear
connections, the attachment for a seated connection is not
made at the web of the supported beam. A seated connec-
tion is made from an angle that is mounted to the support
such that one leg is vertical against the face of the support-
ing member, and the other, outstanding angle leg, provides
a “seat” upon which the beam rests and supports the reac-
tion. The seat angle also provides a location to place the
supported beam during erection as the angle is shop
attached to the supporting member. The seat angle may be
attached to the supporting member either by bolting or
welding.
In the AISC Manual, the minimum tabulated thickness
for welding the seated connection assumes E70 electrodes
and is based on matching the shear rupture strength of the

4-12 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure4-21
Figure 4-23 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted Shear End-Plate
Shear
GirderConnection:
B2 / Beam B2ABolted Shear End-Plate Block Shear Rupture
Girder B2 / Beam B2A
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Girder B2 supports Beam B2A by a bolted shear end-plate connection.

• Shear end-plates are always welded to the supported beam.

• The plate is shop welded to the supported beam and field bolted to the supporting
girder.

• The supported beam is an American Standard (S) shape, characterized by tapered

flanges.

• No geometric eccentricities are associated with this connection.

• Shear end-plate connections require tight fabrication and erection tolerances. For
bolting, the beam may be specified short and shims used to fill the gap.

• Only A36 grade steel should be used for shear end-plate connections.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-13

weld with the shear rupture strength of the base metal. If
less than the tabulated thickness is provided, the tabulated
weld values must be reduced by the ratio of thickness pro-
vided to thickness required. Thus, longer yet smaller welds
are better suited than shorter larger welds, which provide no
strength advantage once the limiting thickness has been
reached.
Unlike other shear connections, bearing limit states, due
to concentrated forces are applicable to seated connections.
The bottom flange of the supported beam bears on the out-
standing angle leg. Therefore, the additional limit states of
web local crippling and web local buckling of the supported
member must be investigated.
If the supported beam were to be simply placed on the
seat angle, it might roll over or slide off under loading. To
prevent the beam from sliding off the angle, the bottom
Figure 4-24. Shear Connection: Bolted shear end-plate
flange of the beam must be attached to the outstanding angle Girder B2 / Beam B2A
leg and this is usually done by bolting with 2 A325 bolts. To
prevent the beam from rolling over, an additional stabilizing
angle must be attached to the top flange or along the web of
the supported beam. AISC has no particular strength
requirement associated with the stability angle. It should be
noted that these additional attachments provide some addi-
tional stiffness to the connection. The AISC Manual of sug-
gests using a 4 × 4 × ¼ angle attached with the minimum
size fillet weld or two bolts. However, only the seat angle
is assumed to provide strength for the connection.
Rotational flexibility of the unstiffened seat connection is
achieved through the deformation of the outstanding leg of
the seat angle, as well as deformation in the top or side
angle. The seat angle must be thick enough to carry the
reaction but thin enough to provide rotational flexibility. If
the seat angle is welded to the supporting member, the
welds should be placed along the vertical edges of the angle.
Figure 4-25. Shear Connection: Bolted shear end-plate
Welds for the supporting and supported side of the stability Girder B2 / Beam B2A
angle should be placed at each toe of the angle legs. Weld-
ing along the vertical edges of a top angle would inhibit the
flexibility of the connection. The end of the beam bears on
the seat angle; thus web crippling and local web yielding of
the supported beam must be checked.
Beams B5 and B6 represent unstiffened seat connections.
Beam B5 has the vertical seat angle leg bolted to the column
flange. The bottom flange of the supported beam is welded
to the seat. The top angle is attached to the top flange of the
beam. Beam B6, on the other hand, has the vertical seat
angle leg welded to the column web. The seat is bolted to
the bottom flange of the supported beam. The B6 connec-
tion also has the top angle located in the optional side posi-
tion.

4-14 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure 4-26 Limit States
Figure
Shear 4-24
Connection: Bolted Unstiffened Seat
Shear
ColumnConnection: Bolted Unstiffened Seat
C2 / Girder B5 Bolt Bearing
Column C2 / Girder B5
Bolt Shear
Flexural Rupture
Flexural Yielding
Local Web Yielding
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Web Crippling

East Elevation South Elevation

Notes

• Column C2 supports Girder B5 by a bolted-welded seat connection.

• The seat angle is field bolted to the supporting column and shop welded to the supported
girder.

• The top angle only provides stability to the supported beam. All shear is assumed to be
carried by the seat angle.

• The attachment of the outstanding angle leg to the bottom flange of the girder is only to
prevent the beam from slipping off the seat.

• The seat provides bearing for the bottom flange of the girder, thus web crippling and
local web yielding limit states must also be considered.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-15

 Figure 4-27 Limit States
Shear Connection: Welded Unstiffened Seat
Column C2 / Girder B6 Flexural Rupture
Flexural Yielding
Local Web yielding
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Web Crippling
Weld Strength

South Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Column C2 supports Girder B6 by a welded-bolted seat connection.

• The seat angle is shop welded to the supporting column and field bolted to the supported
girder.

• The top angle only provides stability to the supported beam. All shear is assumed to be
carried by the seat angle.

• The attachment of the outstanding angle leg to the bottom flange of the girder is only to
prevent the beam from slipping off the seat.

• The seat provides bearing for the bottom flange of the girder, thus web crippling and
local web yielding limit states must also be considered.

4-16 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 SINGLE-PLATE (SHEAR TAB) CONNECTION Eccentricity must always be considered in the design of
single-plate connections. The eccentricity, for calculation
The single-plate (or shear tab) connection consists of a
purposes, may be one of four possible cases depending on
plate welded to the supporting member and bolted to the
the rigidity of the support and whether standard or short
web of the supported beam. Since this connection is one
slotted holes are used. The two equations for short slotted
sided it can be easily erected by swinging the supported
holes (rigid and flexible support) are nearly identical. Like-
beam into position from the side. The equations in the AISC
wise, the two equations for the standard holes (rigid and
Manual are based on E70 electrodes. The weld size on each
flexible support) are also nearly identical. Based on either
side of the plate should be three-quarters the thickness of the
standard holes or short slotted holes, the only difference in
single plate to ensure that weld strength is not the control-
the formula for eccentricity between a rigid support and a
ling element in the connection.
flexible support is that the flexible support equations have a
The orientation of the single-plate connection is in the
lower bound value associated with them. The lower bound
plane of the web of the supported member. This means that
value for the flexible support is equal to the horizontal dis-
the rotational flexibility and the idealized location of the pin
tance from the weld line to the bolt line.
are dependent on the relative rigidity of the plate and the
The steel sculpture shows a single-plate connection with
support (and whether or not short slotted holes are used). If
Beam B2B. The plate is welded to the supporting girder and
the support is flexible then the rotation is accommodated by
bolted to the supported beam. Assuming standard holes this
the deformation of the supporting member. If the support is
would correspond to a flexible support condition. The sup
rigid, then the rotation occurs primarily within the plate
ported beam is top coped to provide vertical alignment of
connection.
between the top flange of the girder and beam.
Recommended upper and lower bound plate thickness
have been established for this connection type. The lower
SINGLE-ANGLE CONNECTION
bound plate thickness is to control local buckling assuming
the bottom half of the plate is in compression due to flexure. A single-angle connection is similar to a double-angle con-
The minimum thickness is a function of the length of the nection, except that only one angle is used. The outstand-
plate, L, material yield stress, Fy, and a plate buckling coef- ing and in-plane legs of the single-angle can be attached to
ficient, K. The minimum thickness equals: either the supporting or supported member by bolting or
welding. In a fashion similar to the single-plate connection,
L Fy the single-angle connection is a one-sided connection,
allowing the supported beam to be swung, rather than low-
234 K ered, into place. Single-angles are normally shop attached
but not less than ¼ in. The upper bound thickness is to to the supporting member. When field bolting, short slots in
ensure adequate rotational ductility in the plate. The maxi- the angle can provide any needed adjustment.
mum plate thickness is a function of the bolt diameter used, Single-angle connections are simple to erect particularly
db, and is equal to db/2 + 1/16 in. but not less than the mini- when shop attached to the support. A standard all-bolted,
mum plate thickness previously established. single-angle connection has all the bolts in single shear.

Figure 4-28. Shear Connection: Welded unstiffened seat Figure 4-29. Shear Connection: Welded unstiffened seat
Column C2 / Girder B6 Column C2 / Girder B6

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-17

 Figure 4-30 Limit States
Shear Connection: Single-Plate
Girder B2 / Beam B2B Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Yielding
Local Web Yielding
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

North Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Girder B2 supports Beam B2B by a single-plate connection.

• The plate is shop welded to the supporting girder and field bolted to the supported
beam.

• This is a one sided connection. Erection is simplified as the beam can be swung into
place.

• The top flanges of both the beam and the girder are at the same elevation. The top
flange of the supported beam is coped to eliminate the interference of girder flange.

• The weld size should be limited to three-quarters the thickness of the single plate to
ensure that weld strength is not the controlling element in the connection.

• Only A36 grade steel should be used for single-plate connections.

4-18 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure 4-31. Shear Connection: Single plate Figure 4-32. Shear Connection: Single plate
Girder B2 / Beam B2B Girder B2 / Beam B2B

Thus, the strength based on bolt shear alone is the same on TEE SHEAR CONNECTION
either ply of the single-angle. For a standard all-bolted sin-
gle-angle connection, there is typically one bolt line on both The tee shear connection is fabricated from a WT section
plies with all the bolts in single shear. Thus, like a double- with the stem connected to the web of the supported mem-
angle, the strength based on bolt shear alone is the same on ber and the flange attached to the supporting member. Both
either ply of the single-angle. the stem and the flange may be either bolted or welded to
Eccentricity should always be considered on the out- the appropriate members.
standing angle leg. Eccentricity should also be considered The required beam setback for a shear tee connection is
on a welded angle leg. If two or more lines of bolts are used greater than that of other connections. The tee has a rolling
on the web of the supported beam, then eccentricity should fillet on each side at the junction of the flange and the stem,
be considered on the in-plane angle leg. which requires a setback distance sufficient enough so as
Like a double-angle connection, the rotational flexibility not to interfere with the rolling fillet. A limited amount of
of the single-angle connection is achieved primarily through rolling fillet encroachment is permitted depending on the
the deformation of the outstanding angle leg. Welds on the size of the rolling fillet of the WT section.
supporting side should be placed along the toe and bottom The theoretical location of the pin (assumed most flexible
edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be part of the connection) will depend on the support and tee
provided at the top edge of the angle; welding across the chosen. The AISC Manual gives guidance for proper design
entire top edge on the supported side should be avoided in this regard.
since it would inhibit the flexibility of the connection. Tees with thick flanges may provide for rotational flexi-
Beams B4A and B4B demonstrate the use of single-angle bility through stem behavior similar to that of a shear tab.
connections on the steel sculpture. The supported members Tees with thicker flanges may provide for rotational flexi-
in each of these connections are channel shapes, which rep- bility through flange behavior similar to that of an end plate
resent typically lightly loaded members used for infill steel or double angle connection. The AISC Manual provides
framing. suitable guidance for all cases.
The single-angle for Beam B4A is shop welded to the Beam B1A shows a tee shear connection. The tee has
girder and field bolted to the beam, while Beam B4B has the been shop welded to the girder and field bolted to the beam.
single-angle field bolted to the girder and shop welded to
the channel.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-19

 Figure 4-33 Limit States
Shear Connection: Welded-Bolted Single-Angle
Bolt Shear
Girder B4 / Beam B4A
Bolt Bearing
Block Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Shear Rupture
Weld Strength

North Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Girder B4 supports Beam B4A by a welded-bolted single-angle connection.

• This single-angle is field bolted to the supported beam and shop welded to the
supporting girder.

• This is a one sided connection. Erection is simplified as the beam can be swung into
place.

• The supported beam is a channel (C) shape. Channels have tapered flanges similar to
American Standard (S) shapes.

• Single-angle connections tend to have lower load capacities then double-angle

connections.

• In-plane and out-of-plane eccentricity should be considered.

• Welds on the supporting member should be placed along the toe and optionally along
the bottom edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be provided at the top
edge of the angle; welding across the entire top edge should be avoided since it would
inhibit the flexibility of the connection.

4-20 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure4-36
Figure 4-34 Limit States
Shear Connection: Bolted-WeldedSingle-Angle
Shear Connection: Bolted-Welded Single-Angle
Girder B4 / Beam B4B Block Shear Rupture
Girder B4 / Beam B4B
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation East Elevation

Notes

• Girder B4 supports Beam B4B by a bolted-welded single-angle connection.

• The single-angle is shop welded to the supported beam and field bolted to the supporting
girder.

• This is a one sided connection. Erection is simplified as the beam can be swung into
place.

• The supported beam is a channel (C) shape. Channels have tapered flanges similar to
American Standard (S) shapes.

• Single-angle connections tend to have lower load capacities then double-angle

connections.

• In-plane and out-of-plane eccentricity should be considered.

• Welds on the supported side are placed along the toe of each angle and optionally along
the top or bottom edges of both angles.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-21

Figure 4-35. Shear Connection: Welded-bolted single-angle Figure 4-38. Shear Connection: Bolted-welded shingle-angle
Girder B4 / Beam B4A Girder B4 / Beam B4B

Figure 4-36. Shear Connection: Welded-bolted single angle Figure 4-39. Shear Connection: Welded-bolted tee
Girder B4 / Beam B4A Girder B1 / Beam B1A

Figure 4-37. Shear connection: Bolted-welded single-angle Figure 4-40. Shear Connection: Welded-bolted tee
Girder B4 / Beam B4B Girder B1 / Beam B1A

4-22 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure4-39
Figure 4-41 Limit States
Shear Connection: Welded-Bolted Tee
Shear
GirderConnection:
B1 / Beam B1AWelded-Bolted Tee
Girder B1 / Beam B1A Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Rupture
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

West Elevation North Elevation

Notes

• Girder B1 supports Beam B1A by a welded-bolted shear tee connection.

• The tee is shop welded to the supporting girder and field bolted to the supported beam.

• This is considered a flexible support condition since the support of this connection is the
web of the girder.

• This is a one-sided connection. Erection is simplified as the beam can be swung into
place.

• Welds on the supporting member should be placed along the toe and optionally along
the bottom edge of the angle. Properly sized weld returns should be provided at the top
edge of the angle; welding across the entire top edge should be avoided since it would
inhibit the flexibility of the connection.

• To ensure adequate connection flexibility the welds connecting the tee flange to the
supporting member and the thickness of the tee stem are subject to specific size
limitations.

• Setback of the supported beam must extend beyond the k distance of the tee flange.

• Due to the extended setback, eccentricity and tee stem flexure must be considered.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 4-23

 CHAPTER 5

Moment Connections
Moment connections transfer the moment carried by the (transverse stiffeners and web doubler plates) are welded to
flanges of the supported beam to the supporting member. the section to enhance the stiffness. The use of these com-
Moment connections (or continuous or rigid-frame connec- ponents will increase fabrication costs, so it may be more
tions) are assumed to have little or no relative rotation economical to select a heavier column section or one with
between the supporting member and the supported mem- higher yield strength.
bers. A Fully Restrained (FR) connection assumes the
measured angles between intersecting members are main- FLANGE-PLATED CONNECTIONS
tained (i.e. no relative rotation) and there is full transfer of (BEAM-TO-COLUMN)
the moments. Partially Restrained (PR) connections assume
Flange-plated connections are made with top and bottom
that there will be some relative rotational movement that
flange-plates that connect the flanges of the supported beam
occurs between intersecting members, though there will still
to the supporting column. There are several types of flange-
be transfer of the moments.
plated connections. The flange-plates are fillet or groove
Infinite rigidity can never be realistically attained; there-
welded to the supports. The flanges of the supported mem-
fore, even fully restrained moment connections do possess
ber may be either bolted or welded to the plates. Flange-
some minimal amount of rotational flexibility, which is usu-
plates are usually shop attached to the column and field
ally neglected. FR connections are idealized as having full
attached to the flanges of the supported member.
fixity between members.
Flange-plates are usually positioned slightly wider apart
To transfer the tension and compression forces carried by
than the depth of the supporting member if they are to be
the flanges, continuity between the supported beam flanges
bolted to the flanges of the supported member. This arrange-
and the supporting member must be realized. Hence, the
ment makes it easier to erect, providing adequate clearance.
flanges of the supported member are attached to either a
Shims are provided to fill any of the resulting gaps. If the
connection element or directly to the supporting member.
flange-plates are welded to the flanges of the supporting
Most moment connections are made from the supported
member, then the plates are designed and detailed such that
beam to either the flange or the web of column members
flange plate welding can be performed in the flat position.
(called beam-to-column connections). Beam splices to
This can be accomplished by using a flange-plate that is
transfer moments are also common. Moment connections
slightly narrower than the beam flange on top and a flange-
also normally include a simple shear connection at the web
plate that is slightly wider than the beam flange on the bot-
of the supported member to carry the shear component of
tom. This arrangement permits flat-position (down-hand)
the beam reaction. Any load eccentricity considerations in
welding.
the shear connection as part of a moment connection may be
If the beam frames into the web of a column, the plates
ignored as it is carried by the moment connection. If a
should be sized wide enough to fill the space within the col-
moment connection is made to the web of a column, the
umn flanges, but narrowing outside the column to allow
connection elements may be extended so that field welds
downhand welding. In this case the top plate will likely be
and/or bolts can be located outside of the column flanges for
wider than the top flange of the supported beam. Thus, to
easier erectability.
accommodate the flat welding position of flange plates
Columns in beam-to-column connections are subjected to
attached to column webs, the top flange plate should be
concentrated forces from the flanges of the supported mem-
blocked to make an easier joint for welding to the supported
ber. In some instances the column section may have insuf-
member. Regardless of the bolting or welding arrange-
ficient local strength at the location of these concentrated
ments, if the connection is made to the web of a column, the
forces. In such circumstances, a heavier column section or
supported side attachment should provide enough space to
a higher strength column may be substituted, or transverse
accommodate bolting or welding access (i.e. extending
column stiffeners and/or web doubler plates may be
plates past the column flanges). See the AISC Manual for
installed.
discussion of corner clips and plate configurations when
Transverse stiffeners are plates fabricated to fit between
attaching to column webs.
the flanges of the column at the point(s) of concentrated
Girders B2 and B4 are bolted and welded flange plate
loading (tension or compression). Web doubler plates are
connections to the web of Column C1, respectively. The
steel plates that are fabricated to increase the overall thick-
flange-plates for Girder B2 are bolted to the top and bottom
ness of the web of a section. Both types of components
flanges of the beam. As mentioned above, the flange-plates

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 5-1

 Figure 5-1 Limit States
Moment Connection: Bolted Flange-Plates
Column C1 / Girder B2 Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Plate Buckling
Tension Rupture
Tension Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Column C2 supports Girder B2 by bolted flange-plates.

• These flange-plates are shop welded to the supporting column and field bolted to the
supported girder.

• The moment connection is made to the web of Column C1. The flange-plates are cut to
fill the space between the column flanges.

• The corners of the flange-plate are clipped to eliminate the possibility of creating a
stress concentration at the re-entrant corner of the web-flange junction. No weld is
provided at these locations.

• The plates attached to the flanges of the girder are for transfer of the moment forces.

• The plate attached to the web of the girder is for transfer of the shear force.

• The effect of eccentricity in the shear connection is neglected.

• For all FR and PR column connections, column stiffening must be investigated to ensure
that the connection flange forces do not exceed applicable limit states.

5-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

Figure 5-2. Moment Connection: Bolted flange plates Figure 5-4. Moment Connection: Welded flange plates
Column C1 / Girder B2 Column C1 / Girder B4

Figure 5-3. Moment Connection: Bolted flange plates Figure 5-5. Moment Connection: Welded flange plates
Column C1 / Girder B2 Column C1 / Girder B4

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 5-3

 Figure5-4
Figure 5-6 Limit States
Moment Connection: Welded Flange-Plates
Moment Connection:
Column C1 / Girder B4 Welded Flange-Plates
Column C1 / Girder B4 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Plate Buckling
Tension Rupture
Tension Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation East Elevation

Notes

• Column C1 supports Girder B4 by welded flange-plates.

• The flange-plates are shop welded to the supporting column and field welded to the
supported girder.

• The moment connection is made to the web of Column C1. The flange-plates are cut to
fill the space between the column flanges.

• When connection elements are field welded to members, the area of attachment must be
free of any coatings (i.e. paint) or lubricants (i.e. oil or grease)

• The plates attached to the flanges of the girder are for transfer of the moment forces.

• The plate attached to the web of the girder is for transfer of the shear force.

• The effect of eccentricity in the shear connection is neglected.

• For all FR and PR column connections, column stiffening must be investigated to ensure
that the connection flange forces do not exceed applicable limit states.

5-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

are positioned to be slightly wider apart than the depth of close accommodation of mill, fabrication, and erection tol-
Girder B2 and a shim has been provided to fill the gap. erances and is not often used.
Both connections are attached to the web of the column. On the steel sculpture, Girder B1 is directly welded to the
The plates are shaped such that they fill the entire space flange of Column C1. The runoff tabs have been removed,
between the flanges. The corners of the plates have been but the backing bars have been left in place after welding.
clipped to accommodate the rolling fillets of the supporting Also note that the end of the beam was left unpainted to
column and separate the welds. Although the shear connec- accommodate the welding of the joint. A shear tab transfers
tion (shear tab) has not been extended (bolting of this ele- the shear load to the column.
ment takes place inside the flanges of the column), in
practice this might prove to be a difficult connection to EXTENDED END-PLATE CONNECTIONS
make in the field. It is advised to extend the shear tab. Both
Extended end-plates are similar in appearance and orienta-
girders would normally be specified short and the connec-
tion to shear end-plates. The primary physical difference is
tion elements extended so that all welds and bolts were
that the plate is longer than the depth of the supported beam
located outside the column flanges for easier erectability.
as it must be attached to both the web and the flanges of the
supported beam. The plate is usually fillet welded to the
DIRECTLY WELDED FLANGE CONNECTIONS
flanges and web of the supported beam, however complete-
Directly welded moment connections are typically made or partial-joint-penetration welds may be used if the fillet
with complete-joint-penetration groove welds that directly size is excessively large. The plate is then bolted with high-
connect the top and bottom flanges of the supported beam strength bolts to the supporting member.
to a supporting column. Fillet welds, or partial-joint-pene- End-plate connections are classified based on the number
tration groove welds may be used if suitable for the required of bolts used at the tension flange, such as four-bolt unstiff-
force transfer. ened and eight-bolt stiffened. The bolts in tension should be
Groove welds for directly welded flange connections arranged in a symmetrical pattern with half above and half
require significant joint preparation. Weld access holes are below the tension flange. At least two bolts should be used
cut in the web at the intersection of the flanges of the sup- at the compression flange; these bolts serve primarily to
ported beam. Backing bars and weld runoff tabs are added carry shear forces. Furthermore, the bolts at the compres-
to the flanges. The groove welds connecting the beam to the sion flange should be placed between the flanges of the sup-
column flanges can then be made in the flat welding posi- ported beam whenever possible to reduce the required plate
tion. Once the joint is completed, the runoff tabs are length. Extra bolts may be placed in the plate, near the neu-
removed; however it is sometimes permissible to leave the tral axis of the beam to ensure proper fit-up with the column
backing bars in place. and assist the compression flange bolts in shear transfer.
The shear force may be transferred by either the addition Like their shear counterparts, extended end-plate connec-
of a standard shear connection (i.e. shear tab, single-angle, tions require close accommodation of mill, fabrication, and
etc.) or by directly welding the supported beam web to the erection tolerances. The beam may be fabricated short to
column flange. Direct welding of the web requires very

Figure 5-7. Moment Connection: Directly welded flanges. Figure 5-8. Moment Connection: Directly welded flanges.
Column C1 / Girder B1 Column C1 / Girder B1

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 5-5

 Figure5-7
Figure 5-9 Limit States
Moment Connection: Directly Welded Flanges
Moment Connection:
Column C1 / Girder B1 Directly Welded Flanges
Column C1 / Girder B1 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Compression Buckling
of Web
Local Flange Bending
Local Web yielding
Weld Strength

West Elevation South Elevation

Notes

• Column C1 supports Girder B1 by directly welded flanges.

• A transverse stiffener is attached between the flanges of the support column. The plate
is aligned to receive the concentrated force (tension or compression) from the girder
flange. For all FR and PR Column Connections, column stiffening should be
investigated to ensure that the connection flange forces do not exceed applicable limit
states.

• Weld access holes are cut in the supported girder to accommodate welding in the flat
position and to relieve thermal stresses.

• The plate attached to the web of the girder is designed for shear transfer.

• The effects of eccentricity in the shear connection are neglected.

• When connection elements are field welded to members, the area of attachment must be
free of any coatings (i.e. paint) or lubricants (i.e. oil or grease)

• For all FR and PR Column Connections, column stiffening must be investigated.

5-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

accommodate field tolerances with shims furnished to fill end to end to make up one longer member. Like other
any resulting gaps. moment connections, a shear connection (shear splice) is
Girder B3 has an extended end-plate connection to Col- typically provided at the web to handle the shear force com-
umn C1 of the steel sculpture. The connection is a four-bolt ponent. Moment splices can be fashioned in a similar man-
unstiffened connection with four bolts in two rows at the top ner to any of the three beam-to-column moment
flange. The transverse stiffener is also part of the connec- connections previously discussed. Extended end-plates can
tion. The plate provides continuity transfer of the moment be used in a back-to-back arrangement at the ends of the
force from Girder B3 on the north side, through the column beams to form a moment splice. Flange plates can be bolted
section and into Girder B1 on the south side. The plate is or welded on the top or bottom of both flanges on both
welded between the flanges of the column section and members to transfer flange forces. Flanges of the two mem-
aligned vertically with the top flanges of Girders B3 and B4. bers can be directly welded to one another by a complete-
There is only one such continuity plate on the steel sculp- joint-penetration or partial-joint-penetration groove (butt)
ture. This arrangement is for illustration purposes only; in weld. If the flanges are directly welded, weld access holes
practice transverse stiffeners would be provided on both and backing bars may be required. Backing bars and runoff
sides of the column web. tabs, subject to fatigue loading, will need to be removed.
Girder B3 is in fact two, girders of identical cross-sections,
MOMENT SPLICE CONNECTIONS spliced together with a flange-plated connection. Plates are
A moment splice connection is designed to transfer flange bolted to the top of the top flanges and to the bottom of the
forces across two beams or two girders that are connected

Figure 5-10. Moment Connection: Extended end-plate. Figure 5-12. Moment Connection: All-bolted moment splice.
Column C1 / Girder B3. Girder B3 / Girder B3

Figure 5-11. Moment Connection: Extended end-plate. Figure 5-13. Moment Connection: All-bolted moment splice.
Column C1 / Girder B3. Girder B3 / Girder B3

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 5-7

 Figure5-10
Figure 5-14 Limit States
Moment Connection: Extended end-plate
Moment Connection:
Column C1 / Girder B3 Extended End-Plate
Column C1 / Girder B3 Bolt Shear
Bolt Tension
Compression Buckling
of Web
Local Flange Bending
Local Web yielding
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

West Elevation North Elevation

Notes

• Column C1 supports Girder B3 by a four-bolt unstiffened extended end-plate.

• A transverse stiffener is attached between the flanges of the support column. The plate
is aligned to receive the concentrated force (tension or compression) from the girder
flange. For all FR and PR Column Connections, column stiffening must be investigated
to ensure that the connection flange forces do not exceed applicable limit states.

• Extended end-plate connections require tight fabrication and erection tolerances.

• Extended end-plates may only be used in statically loaded applications.

• Extended end-plates are classified based on the number of bolts at the tension flange and
may be used with or without stiffeners.

• Based on current research, only A36 grade steel should be used for the extended end-
plate as outlined in Volume II of the AISC-LRFD Manual of Steel Construction.

• If bolting is based on bearing, the bolts must be designed for shear-tension interaction.
If bolting is based on slip-critical conditions, the bolts may be designed for shear only.

5-8 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure5-13
Figure 5-15 Limit States
Moment Connection: All-Bolted Moment Splice
Moment
Girder B3Connection:
/ Girder B3 All-Bolted Moment Splice
Girder B3 / Girder B3 Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Flexural Rupture
Flexural Yielding
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Tension Rupture
Tension Yielding

East Elevation North Elevation

Notes

• Girder B3 is spliced at the midspan by an all-bolted moment splice.

• The plates attached to the flanges of the girders are designed for moment transfer.

• The plates attached to the webs of the girders are designed for shear transfer.

• The web plates are subjected to a moment equal to the shear component force times the
distance between the centroids of the fasteners.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 5-9

bottom flanges. If plates are used on both sides of each
flange, then the bolts are in double shear and a more com-
pact moment splice may result. The web plate is a shear
splice. The plate is bolted on both sides and transfers the
shear force between webs of the girders.

5-10 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 CHAPTER 6
Column Connections

Columns are primarily loaded in compression, but may also among several columns. When the force on any single col-
be subject to axial tension, shear, and moment. Therefore, umn is small, the friction on the contact bearing area and/or
the purpose of column connections is to transfer the loads to the flange plates may be sufficient to resist these forces. If
either a supporting member or to the foundation of the struc- the shear force is large, the column splice connection must
ture. be designed to resist these forces and hold all parts securely
When a column is used to transfer loads between a sup- in place. Column splices must also be designed to resist the
ported member and a supporting member, each of these tension forces that may develop due to uplift loads. Regard-
members needs to be checked locally. Stiffeners may be less of the controlling load condition, the splice should be
required to prevent local yielding or buckling from the com- sufficient to hold all parts securely in place. Flange plates,
pression forces being transferred. When the column con- butt plates, or directly welding of flanges may effectively
nection is to a base plate, it is necessary that a suitable splice columns.
bearing area be provided to prevent crushing of the concrete Flange-plated splices involve attaching plates (by bolting
foundation. or welding) to the flanges of the upper and lower shafts.
When two columns being spliced are of different sizes but
COLUMN SPLICE of the same nominal depth, which is a common occurrence,
then shims or filler plates must be used to fill any gaps.
Column splices are used when it is either economical to
Butt plates are used between the ends of the upper and
change column sizes or the height of the structure exceeds
lower shafts of the column splice. Butt plates are conven-
the available column length. Column splices at perimeter
ient when the nominal depths of the upper and lower shafts
locations should preferably be located four feet above a fin-
are significantly different.
ished floor to accommodate attachment of safety cables,
Columns may also be spliced by directly welding the
which may be required at floor edges or openings and to
flanges of the upper and lower shafts. The webs of the
ease erection. The upper and lower shafts of the column do
columns should be attached by welding or by installing
not necessarily need to be in full bearing contact with one
plates. The plates may be either bolted or welded to the
another. A gap up to 1/16 in. is permitted without the need for
upper or lower shaft.
repair or shimming. If the gap is between 1/16 and ¼ in. then
The steel sculpture uses one joint to illustrate two differ-
non-tapered steel shims are required. Engineering evalua-
ent column splices. Column C1 (the lower shaft) is spliced
tion should be performed on gaps larger than ¼ in.
to Column C2 (the upper shaft) by direct welding the
In most column splices, the bearing area between the
flanges on the north side and using a welded-bolted flange
columns will be sufficient to transfer the compression load.
plate on the south side. This would never be done in prac-
In addition, lateral (shear) forces are typically distributed

Figure 6-1. Column Connection: Column splice Figure 6-2. Column Connection: Column splice
Column C1 / Column C2 Column C1 / Column C2

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 6-1

 Figure6-1
Figure 6-3 Limit States
Column Connection: Column Splice
Column Connection:
Column C1 / Column C2Column Splice
Column C1 / Column C2 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Tension Rupture
Tension Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation West Elevation North Elevation

6-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

tice; the splice would either have entirely welded flanges or The south side of the base plate has a series of three, 4-in.
use flange plates on both sides. by 8-in. by ¾-in. thick vertical plate stiffeners. These plates
The end of the flange on the north side of the upper shaft are attached to the column flange using 3/8-in. fillet welds on
(side of the directly welded flanges) has been beveled to each side of the plates. A gap is provided between the top
accommodate a bevel groove weld. In addition, a plate of the base plate and the bottom edge of the stiffeners.
welded to the lower shaft and bolted to the upper shaft has These gaps avoid having the stiffeners bear directly on
been included for fit-up and erection. plate, thus reducing the possibility of buckling of the plate
On the south side, a flange plate is shop welded to the stiffeners. Additionally a horizontal plate is attached across
lower shaft and field bolted to the upper shaft. Both shafts the top edges of the plate stiffeners by a 3/8-inch fillet weld.
of the column are of the same nominal depth (W12 series), This upper plate has two bolt holes aligned with the anchor
but the bottom shaft is a W12×170 while the upper shaft is rod holes in the base plate. The anchor rods extend up
a W12×106. Typically column shapes of the same nominal through both the base plate and upper plate. There is one
depth have equal distances between the inner faces, while each anchor rod between each pair of vertical plates. The
the flange and web thickness vary with respect to the nom- three vertical plates should be placed as close together as
inal weight per foot of the section. Since the outer faces of possible and washers under the nuts of the anchor rods are
the shafts are not equal, the field bolted part of the upper used to minimize any bending of the upper plate.
splice is furnished with shims to fill the resulting gap. The base plate attachment on the steel sculpture shows
very different connection geometry between the north and
BASE PLATES the south sides. In practice only one of the methods would
be used on both sides stiffen and attach the column to the
Column base plates are used to provide a sufficient bearing
base plate. The steel sculpture connection is for illustrative
area on the material below in order that the forces in a col-
purposes.
umn are properly transferred to the foundation. Base plates
The steel sculpture also illustrates a base plate connection
usually anchor columns to a concrete foundation by anchor
for a bracing strut. The pipe column, Column C3, is sup-
rods. The base plates of bracing struts may be bolted or
ported by Girder B4 and supports Girder B8 above. Plates
welded to other steel members.
have been welded to each end of the pipe column. The
The base plate can be attached to the column either by
plates are bolted to the top and bottom flanges of Girders B4
direct welding of the column to the plate, or additional ele-
and B8, respectively.
ments (i.e. angles) can be connected to the column that
Two different web stiffeners have been welded on each
facilitate attachment of the base plate
side of the web of Girder B4. The stiffeners improve the
The AISC-LRFD Specification for Structural Steel Build-
web buckling performance of the girder. Each of the web
ings does not specify a particular method for the design of
stiffeners is essentially the same, the difference lies in that
base plates. However, the AISC Manual does provide the
south side web stiffener extends completely from the top
designer with procedures for base plate design.
flange to the bottom flange of Girder B4. The north side
When the column is in compression, it bears directly on
stiffener is cut short and a gap is provided between the bot-
the material below. The compression load determines the
tom edge of the stiffener and the bottom flange of the girder.
size of the base plate. The actual connection of the base
The gap avoids having the stiffener bear directly on the bot-
plate is effectively passive when there is only an axial com-
tom flange and allows for less restrictive fabrication toler-
pression load. If, however, the column is loaded in tension
ances. This arrangement is for illustration only. Again, in
and/or shear, then the base plate connection becomes active.
practice only one stiffener configuration would be used.
The base plate size is a function of the compression load and
the connection to the base plate is a function of the shear
and/or tension loads.
The base plate for the main column of the steel sculpture
is 1ft 4 in. long, 11in. wide and 1½ in. thick. It is secured
to the concrete foundation with six 1¼-in. diameter anchor
rods with leveling nuts. The column is attached to the plate
with a ½ in. fillet weld all around the column section.
The north side of the base plate has a ¾ in. thick, 4¼-in.
long (each leg) triangular stiffener. The legs of the triangu-
lar stiffener have been welded to the column flange and to
the base plate using a 3/8-in. fillet weld. This triangular stiff-
ener serves stiffen the base plate in cases where moment
must be transferred.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 6-3

 Figure 6-4. Column Connection: Base plate Figure 6-7. Column Connection: Base plate
Foundation / Column C1 Foundation / Column C1

Figure 6-5. Column Connection: Base plate Figure 6-8. Column Connection: Base plate (bracing column)
Foundation / Column C1 Girder B4 / Column C3 / Girder B8

Figure 6-6. Column Connection: Base Plate Figure 6-9. Column Connection: Base Plate
Foundation / Column C1 (bracing column)
Girder B4 / Column C3 / Girder B8

6-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure6-4
Figure 6-10 Limit States
Column Connection: Base Plate
Column Connection:
Foundation / Column C1Base Plate
Foundation / Column C1 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Bolt Tension
Flexural Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation North Elevation East Elevation

Notes

• The column base plate provides suitable bearing area to prevent crushing of the
concrete foundation.

• The base plate on the steel sculpture has two different arrangements on one connection.
This particular layout is for illustration only. In practice, one form of stiffening or the
other would be utilized on both flanges of the column.

NORTH FACE:
The north side attachment of the base plate is a moment connection. This
design uses vertical plate stiffeners with a welded top angle. There is a small gap
between the bottom edge of the stiffeners and the base plate. This gap avoids having
to fit the stiffener to bear directly against the base-plate. The top angle provides a
bearing surface for the anchor rods and a means to level the column.

SOUTH FACE:
The south side attachment of the base plate is a moment connection. This
design uses a single triangular plate stiffener welded between the top of the base
plate and the southern face of the column flange. Although the triangular stiffener
tends to reduce bending, the primary purpose is to provide additional material to
increase the weld length and thus the shear strength of the base plate.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 6-5

 Figure6-9
Figure 6-11 Limit States
Column Connection: Base Plate (Bracing Column)
Column
Girder B4Connection:
/ Column C3 /Base Plate
Girder B8 (Bracing Column)
Girder B4 / Column C3 / Girder B8 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Bolt Tension
Prying Action
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

North Elevation (Top) North Elevation (Bottom) East Elevation (Bottom)

Notes

• The bracing column is bolted to the top flange of Girder B4 and the bottom flange of
Girder B8.

• The plate is shop welded to the supporting pipe column and bolted to the supported
girder.

• The pipe column acts as a compression/tension brace for Girder B8. Girder B8 is
cantilevered and simply supported at the column. Girder B6 would be unstable without
the pipe column to transfer the load to rigidly supported Girder B4 below.

• The brace acts primarily in compression, however the connections of the pipe column
should be designed for any shear (i.e. lateral) and/or tension (i.e. uplift) loads.

• Acting in compression, the pipe column delivers a concentrated load to the web of the
lower girder (Girder B4). To manage the localized load from the pipe column, two
different web stiffeners have been added to Girder B4. Each of the web stiffeners is
essentially the same, the difference lies in that south side web stiffener extends
completely from the top flange to the bottom flange of Girder B4. The north side
stiffener is cut short and a gap is provided between the bottom edge of the stiffener and
the bottom flange of the girder. The gap avoids having the stiffener bear directly on the
bottom flange and allows for less restrictive fabrication tolerances. This arrangement is
for illustration only; in practice only one stiffener configuration would be used.

6-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 CHAPTER 7
Miscellaneous Connections

Miscellaneous connections are attachments that cannot be savings in both the brace member and the connection may
characterized by one of the connection categories previ- be possible if the bracing is designed as a tension only mem-
ously discussed. These connections might be specified for ber. The advantage is that the brace member may be slen-
specific types of members such as roof joists or truss mem- der (such as a cable or rod). Stiffeners may be required to
bers. They may also include connections with unusual handle the concentrated forces often associated with axially
framing geometry such as skewed or canted connections. loaded members.
Clevises are mechanical fixtures that are designed to
CLEVISES transfer load from a threaded rod to a transverse pin. The
clevis transfers tension from the threaded rod into double
Bracing members are typically used to add stiffness and/or
shear on the pin. The pin is secured through a hole in a plate
stability to a structure. Most braces are axially loaded com-
that is joined to the appropriate steel member.
pression or tension members. Rarely will a bracing mem-
There are many sizes of clevises available to take an
ber need to transfer shear or flexure. Substantial material
assortment of different rod and pin sizes. The clevises are

Figure 7-1. Misc. Connection: Clevis, plate & rod Figure 7-3. Misc. Connection: Clevis, plate & rod.
Column C2 / Girder B6 Column C2 / Girder B6

Figure 7-2. Misc. Connection: Clevis, plate & rod. Figure 7-4. Misc. Connection: Clevis, plate & rod.
Column C2 / Girder B6. Column C2 / Girder B6.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 7-1

 Figure7-1
Figure 7-5 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Clevis, Plate & Rod
Misc. Connection:
Column Clevis, Plate & Rod
C2 / Girder B6
Column C2 / Girder B6 Pin Bearing
Pin Shear
Tension Rupture
Tension Yielding
Weld Strength

South Elevation South Elevation West Elevation

Notes

• Column C2 supports Girder B6 with a #3 clevis and 13/8 inch diameter rod.

• The rod acts as a support for the girder. The girder is simply supported at the column.
Without the tension rod attached to the end, Girder B6 would be unstable.

• The pin that attaches the clevis to the plate is in double shear.

• A tapered washer and is used in conjunction with a nut to attach the rod to the column
web.

• Strengths (and dimensions and weights) for different size clevises are given in the
Manual of Steel Construction.

7-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

classified based on a clevis number that represents the outer SKEWED CONNECTION (BENT-PLATE)
diameter of the eye. The design strength of a clevis is based
Skewed connections result from members that do not frame
on the size of the clevis.
together in an orthogonal fashion. Skewed connections may
The tension rod that supports propped cantilever Girder
be made by a bent plate, or if more strength is required, a
B6 is probably the most obvious bracing member on the
pair of plates may be bent. The design of a bent plate or
steel sculpture. Girder B6 requires a tension brace because
skewed double-plate is analogous to similar shear connec-
the connection that attaches the girder to the column is a
tions. The plate or double-plates may be bolted or welded
seat connection. The seat connection is assumed to provide
on the supporting side or the supported side. Extended
no rotational restraint, thus without the tension brace, the
gages may be necessary for suitable entering and tightening
cantilevered girder would collapse.
clearances. Any eccentricities that result from skew should
The tension brace supports the girder with a #3 clevis that
be duly considered.
is screwed on the 4 in. long threaded end at the lower end of
A single bent plate at each end attaches the channel brace
the rod. The clevis uses a 1¾-in. pin that is secured through
that obliquely spans between the ends of Girders B4 and B5.
a plate that is welded to the top flange of the girder. The
The skew angle is about 45 degrees. The plates are field
opposite end of the rod passes through a slotted hole in the
bolted to the girder and shop welded to the channel.
column web and is anchored with a tapered (or hillside)
washer and a nut.

Figure 7-6. Misc. Connection: Bolted-welded bent-plate. Figure 7-8. Misc. Connection: Welded joist
Girder B5 / Beam B5A Girder B5 / Joists B9A & B9B

Figure 7-7. Misc. Connection: Bolted-welded bent-plate. Figure 7-9. Misc. Connection: Welded joist.
Girder B5 / Beam B5A Girder B5 / Joists B9A & B9B

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 7-3

 Figure7-6
Figure 7-10 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Bolted-Welded Bent-Plate
Misc.
GirderConnection: Bolted-Welded Bent-Plate
B5 / Beam B5A
Girder B5 / Beam B5A Block Shear Rupture
Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Shear Rupture
Shear Yielding
Weld Strength

East Elevation South Elevation Plan View

Notes

• Beam B5A supports/braces Girder B5 by a bolted-welded bent plate connection.

• The plate is field bolted to the girder and shop welded to the beam/brace.

• Girder B5 is simply supported at the column. Without the brace attached to the end,
Girder B5 would be unstable.

• Skew connections may be furnished with bent double-angles (for small skew angles) or
bent plate(s) (for large skew angles).

• Larger gages may be required to accommodate entering and tightening clearances.

• Due to skew, in-plane and out-of-plane eccentricities should be considered.

7-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure7-9
Figure 7-11 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Welded Joist
Misc.
GirderConnection: Welded
B5 / Joists B9A & B9B Joist Weld Strength
Girder B5 / Joists B9A & B9B

South Elevation
Notes

• Girder B5 supports joists B9A and B9B.

• The joists are welded to the top flange of Girder B5

• Consult joist manufacturer for connection requirements and specifications.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 7-5

 OPEN WEB STEEL JOIST
Open web steel joists are pre-manufactured standardized
structural members. The Steel Joist Institute (SJI) and joist
manufacturers provide connection guidelines for these
members.
Four open web steel joists welded to Girder B5 illustrate
the attachment of these members. When used for roof fram-
ing, the joist connection is typically subject to bearing and
tension (uplift) loadings.

COLD-FORMED ROOF PURLIN

In metal building systems, roof purlins are often cold-
formed steel members. Cutting, rolling, and bending thin
sheets of steel form cold-formed steel members. Connec-
tion guidelines for cold-formed members can be found in Figure 7-12. Misc. Connection: Z Purlin.
Truss B7 / Purlin B9.
the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) “Cold-Formed
Steel Design Manual.”
The Z shaped cold-formed steel roof purlin B9 is attached
to Truss B7 on the steel sculpture. The purlin has been
bolted to the top chord of the roof truss. Z purlins have
point symmetry and have a tendency to rollover on inclined
slopes (such as this roof truss). To prevent the Z purlins
from rolling over, the upper flange should be installed fac-
ing up slope.

SHEAR STUD CONNECTORS

Shear stud connectors are used in composite construction to
transfer horizontal shear forces between a steel beam and a
concrete slab. The studs are resistance welded to the top
flange of the beam through the metal deck (note: no metal
decking is included in the Steel Sculpture). When a con-
crete slab is poured over the metal deck and beam, the studs Figure 7-13. Misc Connections: Shear studs.
become embedded in the concrete. A group of eight shear Girder B1 / Shear Studs
studs have been attached to Girder B1 on the steel sculpture.

TRUSS CONNECTIONS
Trusses are typically used as a roof framing system or in
bridge applications. Members are loaded either in tension,
compression, or bending and may be welded together, or
bolted or welded together using gusset plates. Gusset plates
provide the extra area necessary for welding or bolting. If
the connections are bolted and the truss is for a bridge appli-
cation, then the moving load causes stress reversal in the
members and slip-critical joints must be used. When sev-
eral truss members frame together, the line of action for the
force should preferably meet at a common work point. Gus-
set plates must be sized for buckling under compression,
tension yielding, tension rupture, block shear rupture and
Whitmore section buckling and yielding.
On the steel sculpture Truss B7 is framed into the north Figure 7-14. Misc Connections: Shear studs.
Girder B1 / Shear Studs
face of Column C2 using gusset plates.

7-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure7-12
Figure 7-15 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Cold Formed Z Purlin
Misc. Connection: Cold Formed Z Purlin
Truss B7 / Purlin B9
Truss B7 / Purlin B9 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Bolt Tension

Notes

• Truss B7 supports cold formed Z roof purlin B9

• Z purlins have point symmetry and have a tendency to rollover on inclined slopes (such
as those attached to a roof truss). To prevent the Z purlins from rolling over, the upper
flange should be installed in facing up slope.

• Consult American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) "Cold Formed Steel Design Manual"
for connection design requirements and specifications.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 7-7

 Figure7-14
Figure 7-16 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Shear Studs
Misc.
GirderConnections: Shear Studs
B1 / Shear Studs
Girder B1/ Shear Studs Stud Shear
Weld Strength

Notes

• Girder B1 has several headed shear studs welded to the top flange.

• The studs transfer horizontal shear force between a concrete slab and a steel beam.
With the shear studs embedded in the concrete, the slab and the steel girder act as a
composite member.

• Consult section I5 of the AISC Specification for shear stud design requirements and
specifications.

Figure 7-17. Misc. Connection: Truss Figure 7-18. Misc Connection: Truss
Column C2 / Truss B7 Column C2 / Truss B7

7-8 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Figure7-17
Figure 7-19 Limit States
Misc. Connection: Truss
Misc.
ColumnConnection:
C2 / Truss B7Truss
Column C2 / Truss B7 Bolt Bearing
Bolt Shear
Plate Buckling
Tension Yielding
Weld Strength
Whitemore

East Elevation (Top) East Elevation (Bottom)

Notes

• Column C2 supports Truss B7 by gusset plates welded to the column and bolted to the
truss. All-welded gusset plate connections join the interior members of the truss.

• The support gussets have been shop welded to the supporting column and field bolted to
the supported truss.

• Trusses assembled with unequal leg double-angle struts should have the long legs back
to back.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 7-9

 CHAPTER 8
Closing Remarks

The importance of proper connection design cannot be drastically affect the strength and/or performance of the
overstated. Connection design requires satisfying several, connections. In general, connections have many limit
sometimes conflicting, design requirements thereby making states, many of which are based on relatively complex
them less tolerant to changes in design parameters. Slight behavior, which need to be considered.
adjustments in the design parameters of connections may

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-1

 APPENDIX A
MathCAD Worksheets User’s Guide

A series of MathCAD® shear connection analysis work- SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

sheets have been developed as part of the Steel sculpture (RECOMMENDED MINIMUMS)
Teaching tool kit. Currently the worksheets are only for the
analysis of six simple shear connections. The have been HARDWARE:
designed as teaching tools to give students a sense of the
level of intricacy involved in designing steel shear connec- • Pentium II 300 mHz w/64 MB
tions. The worksheets follow the design and analysis provi- • 10 MB hard disk space
sions outlined in the AISC Manual. The software is for
educational purposes only, and while every effort has been SOFTWARE:
made to ensure correctness, there is no guarantee against
either computational or procedural errors. • MathCAD® 2000 or later
• Windows 95, Windows NT 4.0, or later
FEATURES:
• Simple to use. INSTALLATION
• Complies with AISC-LRFD Manual of Steel Con- These worksheets can be installed anywhere on the hard
struction, 2nd Edition drive as long as the relative directory structure remains con-
• Over 25 limit states (including bolt and weld group stant. The required relative file and directory structure is as
eccentricity) are checked. follows:
• Six shear connection modules (Double-angle, Shear
End-plate, Extended End-plate, Single-angle, Tee, and \ Connection Modules
Unstiffened Seated Connection) are included. \ Double-Angle Connection \Double-Angle.mcd
• Capable of analyzing a virtually unlimited number of \ Shear End-Plate Connection \ Shear End-Plate.mcd
connection geometries. \ Single-Angle Connection \ Single-Angle.mcd
• Design/Feasibility/Serviceability checks are per- \ Single-plate Connection \ Single-plate.mcd
formed. \ Tee connection \ Tee.mcd
• Ply independent analysis (i.e. the software can handle \ Unstiffened Seat Connection \ Unstiffened Seat.mcd
any combination of bolts and weld sizes and strengths \ Libraries
between the supporting and supported plies). \ Definitions \ Definitions.mcd
• The software is customizable (i.e. users can define and \ Design Checks \ Design Checks.mcd
write custom functions). \ Miscellaneous \ Miscellaneous.mcd
• Other features of the software (i.e. it is capable of han- \ Phi Factors \ Phi Factors.mcd
dling copes, vertical alignments, and column or beam \ Section Properties \ Section Properties.mcd
support). \ User \ User.mcd
• Bolted connections HUB.mcd
• ASTM A325 or A490 bolts
• Supports all bolt sizes permitted by the AISC- To install the worksheets simply decompress the zip file
LRFD Manual of Steel Construction, 2nd Edition in the desired directory. The above directory structure will
• Supports all thread conditions (iNcluded, automatically be created.
eXcluded, Slip-Critical)
• Supports all bolt hole types (STD, OVS, SSLP, USING THE WORKSHEETS
SSLT, LSLP, LSLT)
• Welded connections
• Any matched, under-matched, or over-matched • Launch MathCAD® 2000 or later.
weld can be specified • Units are not labeled in the worksheets; however, the
• Supports four weld processes SMAW, GMAW, fundamental unit values are the in. and kip.
FCAW, and SAW

8-2 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 CONNECTION ANALYSIS connection does not apply, the heading will be subdued with
a gray font and “**Not applicable to this connection**” will
• Open the preferred connection module.
be written below.
• Input values for all input parameters (MathCAD®
Areas are a MathCAD® feature that allows sections of a
does not handle null values).
worksheet to be collapsed and/or locked. Areas can be rec-
• Output is registered in the two tables (Summary 1 and
ognized as either a gray or yellow colored stripe with an
Summary 2 at the end of the worksheet.
arrow and heading at the left margin. Grey areas indicate
• Expand the collapsed yellow areas for additional,
regions of internal calculations that are either the extensive
more detailed connection data.
connection property calculations or sorting/organizational
in nature. These regions are typically unnecessary for
COMPARATIVE STUDIES
expansion and viewing. (The gray areas have been locked
Change any of the input values and the worksheets will by default. No password is required to unlock these areas.)
automatically update the output values. The yellow areas are either output, or calculations that may
be of interest to the user. To expand or collapse an area,
FUNCTION INVESTIGATION double click on the arrow near the left margin. (See Math-
CAD® documentation for more information on areas.)
• To see how particular functions are defined, open the
The placement of the headings within the worksheets has
appropriate library
some significance. Each ply and/or member of a particular
connection is organized into a “column” in the connection
**NOTE: There is no active worksheet protection. Use
modules. The columns are arranged left to right for a right-
caution when modifying and saving worksheets.
hand connection. For example the first column represents
the supporting member; the middle column represents the
HOW IT WORKS
connection element and the last column represents the sup-
Although extensive knowledge of MathCAD® is not ported member. The idea of independent plies is extended
required, most users will find it helpful to understand the even further by making use of an extensive subscripting
basic structure of how the software application works. convention. Most variables have subscript text describing
There are essentially two main types of worksheets: which ply or connection side they are associated.
libraries and connection modules. Connection modules are
the front-side, input-output part of the software. Libraries Libraries
are lists of functions and/or definitions that are referenced
The second type of worksheet is the library. Libraries are
by the connection modules.
simply worksheets that contain nothing but globally defined
functions or definitions. The above mentioned connection
Connection Modules
module worksheets reference all the libraries so that the
These are the MathCAD® worksheets that the user will module can have access (call upon) a particular function.
work with to perform a particular connection analysis. There are several libraries available to each module. These
There is one connection module for each type of shear con- libraries are characterized by the purpose of the functions
nection (Double-angle, Single-angle, Tee, etc.) The user that they contain.
will enter the load, the section and connection geometries, Currently, there are seven library worksheets. Each
the joint type and other properties, in the connection mod- library is referenced by the HUB worksheet. The HUB
ule. At the end of the worksheet are two output tables sum- worksheet is in turn referenced by each connection module
marizing the analysis results. The first output table worksheet. Thus, each connection module has access to
(Summary 1) lists the limit states and their applicability or each library. A description of each library and an example
strength. The second table (Summary 2) lists serviceability function or definition for most libraries follows:
and/or other design checks and whether the required design
criteria have been met. • Definitions.mcd
Each connection module is organized in a similar fashion. This library lists the definitions used in the connection
The various input and output sections are arranged in the modules. Text-based input parameters are assigned
same manner from module to module. In addition, the con- integer values so they will work properly inside of
nection modules take advantage of the organizational fea- functions and programs. All text based input parame-
tures of MathCAD® including colors, fonts, and areas. ters are written in all capital letters. The origin is
Most descriptive text and headings are in a black Arial font. defined as one (ORIGIN=1) in all worksheets and for
Functions, definitions, variables, etc. are in a blue Times all functions.
New Roman font. Whenever a particular property of the

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-3

Example: Simple integer values are assigned to variables • User.mcd
for thread condition definition. The user library is a blank/empty worksheet library for
that is available for user-defined functions.
• Design Checks.mcd
The design checks library contains functions that SUBSCRIPTING
determine if general design criteria have been met.
The worksheet variables use an extensive subscripting con-
These functions also make sure that there is no geo-
vention to indicate which element or ply the variable is
metric interference between the connection elements
applicable. For purposes of this manual the subscript posi-
given their size and position.
tion in variable definitions and explanations is indicated by
“…” where “…” represents the actual subscript
Example: Minimum factored load function. This func-
tion requires only one argument, Pu, and does a sim-
Subscript: Associated Element or Ply:
ple check to see that the argument is greater than 10
kips. The function returns the caption “Minimum fac- Supporting Element: Supporting member.
tored load is 10 kips if the criteria is not met, or “OK” Supported Element: Supported member.
otherwise. Beam_Web Ply: Supported member web.
T Element: Shear tee.
• Limit States.mcd Tee_Stem Ply: Shear tee stem.
The functions in the limit states library are from the Tee_Flange Ply: Shear tee flange.
AISC-LRFD Manual of Steel Construction. These are A Element: Angle or double-angle.
the main functions to calculate the strength for a given Leg1, Legs1 Ply: Out-of-plane angle leg(s).
limit state. Leg2, Legs2 Ply: In-plane angle leg(s).
Outstanding_Leg, Ply: Outstanding angle leg
Example: Shear yielding limit state function. This (seat connection).
function requires two arguments, Ag and Fy, and cal- Vertical_Leg Ply: Vertical angle leg
culates the nominal shear yielding strength. (seat connection).
PL Element: Plate.
• Miscellaneous.mcd
The miscellaneous library contains those functions
that do not fall neatly within one of the other libraries. FUNCTIONS, INPUT, OUTPUT, LIMITATIONS
Many of these functions reproduce chart and table val-
ues found in the AISC-LRFD Manual of Steel Con-
Functions
struction.
Most calculations in the worksheets are done by functions.
Example: Function to return the effective throat of the Functions are essentially subroutines that have arguments
weld, based on the size of the weld and the process passed to them, perform calculations on the arguments and
used. This function requires two arguments: Process then return results. The advantage of functions is that they
and w. can be used repeatedly to perform the same operation using
different argument values. Functions can be identified in
• Phi Factors.mcd the worksheets by the prime “ ‘ “ notation that precedes the
The phi factors library defines the resistance factors name of every function. Most functions are defined in one
for different categories of limit states from the AISC- of the previously mentioned libraries.
LRFD Manual of Steel Construction.
Input
Example: Definition that assigns the value 0.90 to the
The input region should be evident in the worksheets. All
phi factor based on shear yielding.
input parameters are essentially the same from module to
module. Values are required for each variable under the
• Section Properties.mcd
Input Parameters heading. This is true regardless of the
The section properties library contains only two func-
bolting and welding combination. MathCAD® cannot have
tions. The first returns section properties for a W
null values for variables.
shape, the second returns section properties for a WT
shape.

8-4 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

Input Parameter: Explanation: inches

Pu Connection shear loading in kips. Only

Joint_… Joint condition. This variable takes a
gravity loads are permitted. Minimum
text-based input value. Determines
load (based on AISC-LRFD Manual of
whether the joint is bolted (BOLTED) or
Steel Construction) is 10 kips.
welded (WELDED).

Support Support condition. This variable takes a

y_… Vertical alignment in inches Alignment
text-based input value. Determines
is measured from the mid-depth of the
whether the girder web (WEBG), col-
connection element to the mid-depth of
umn web (WEBC), or column flange
the beam or girder.
(FLANGE) supports the connection.

dct Depth of top cope in inches Enter 0 for

m. Mean slip coefficient. Value of slip no top cope. Copes must be deeper than
coefficient between faying surfaces. the flange thickness.

Setback Beam setback in inches Shortest dis- dcb Depth of bottom cope in inches Enter 0
tance from face of support to the web of for no bottom cope. Copes must be
supported beam Fy_… Yield strength of deeper than the flange thickness.
particular member in ksi. Fu_… Ulti-
mate strength of particular member in
c Length of cope(s) in inches Both top and
ksi.
bottom copes must be the same length.

D_… Member designation, nominal depth in

FEXX_… Weld metal strength in ksi.
inches, for supporting and supported
member. AISC wide flange members
only (WT members available as connec- Process_… Welding process. This variable takes a
tion element for the Shear tee connection text-based input value. Determines
module). whether the weld is made by the shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW), flux core
arc welding (FCAW), gas metal arc
W_… Member designation, nominal weight
welding (GMAW), or submerged arc
per linear foot in pounds, for supporting
welding (SAW) process.
and supported member. AISC wide
flange members only (WT members
available as connection element for the weld_… Weld size in inches
Shear tee connection module).
dweld_… Length (Height) of vertical weld in
Leg1_… Outstanding leg (or vertical leg for inches
seated connection) length in inches
bweld_… Length (Width) of horizontal weld seg-
Leg2_… In-plane leg (or horizontal leg for seated ments in inches (Both top and bottom
connection) length in inches horizontal weld segments must be the
same length).
W_… Width of plate in inches
db_… Bolt diameter in inches.
L_… Length of plate in inches

t_… Thickness of connection element in

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-5

 ASTM_… ASTM Bolt designation. Determines required strength. The output table only provides a listing
whether the bolts are A325 (325) or of the applicable limit states and their respective strengths.
A490 (490). If a limit is not applicable for given the connection parame-
ters, “NA” is returned.
Threads_… Bolt group thread condition. This vari-
able takes a text-based input value.
Limit State: Explanation:
Determines whether the bolt threads are
iNcluded (N), eXcluded (X), or Slip-crit-
Slip Slip resistance based on factored load. If
ical (SC).
the connection is bearing, then resistance
to slip is 0 kips.
s_… Bolt spacing in inches (spacing is meas-
ured parallel to direction of load).
Shear Yielding Shear yielding for each applicable ply of
material. This limit state applies to the
g_… Bolt gage in inches (gage is measured
connection element and the supported
normal to direction of load).
member if it is double coped.

Rows_… Number of bolt rows on a given side of

the connection (rows are normal to direc- Shear Rupture Shear rupture for each applicable ply of
tion of load). material. This limit state applies to the
connection element and the supported
member if it is double coped.
Columns_… Number of bolt lines on a given side of
the connection (columns are parallel to
direction of load). Block Shear Rupture
Block shear rupture for each applicable
ply of material. This limit state applies to
Columns_Supporting_HF
the connection element if it is bolted and
Number of bolt lines per flange of a dou- to the supported member if it is bolted
ble-angle or shear tee connection. and top coped.

Hole_… Hole type for a given ply of material: Bolt Shear Bolt shear limit state for sides of the con-
Standard (STD), Oversized (OVS), nection that are bolted.
Short-slotted/load transverse (SSLT),
Short-slotted/load parallel (SSLP),
Long-slotted/load transverse (LSLT), or Bolt Bearing Bolt bearing limit state for sides of the
Long-slotted/load parallel (LSLP) connection that are bolted.

Lev_… Vertical edge distance, in inches, for a

Weld Weld strength for sides of the connection
given ply of connection element.
that are welded based on the strength of
the weld or the base material.
Leh_… Horizontal edge distance, in inches, for a
given ply of connection element.
Flexural Yielding of Beam
Flexural yielding limit state for sup-
Output
ported beams that are coped.
Primary results (limit state strengths and design checks) are
returned in two tables at the end of the connection modules.
The first table (Summary 1) returns the connection loading
and strengths of applicable limit states. No flags or warn-
ings are issued if the strength of a limit state is less than the

8-6 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 Local Web Buckling of Beam
Local web buckling limit state for sup-
Homogeneous Fastener Use
ported beams that are top or double
coped. Checks that the bolts are common to
both sides of the connection for an all-
bolted connection (i.e. both sides have
Local Web Yielding of Beam same grade, same diameter, etc.)
Local web yielding limit state for
Girder Alignment
unstiffened seat connections.
Checks that there is no geometric inter-
ference between the girder and the con-
Web Crippling of Beam nection element based on the vertical
alignment of the members.
Web crippling limit state for unstiffened
seat connections.
Beam Alignment
Prying Action Prying action limit state for shear tee
Checks that there is no geometric inter-
connections with a bolted flange.
ference between the beam and the con-
nection element based on the vertical
The second table (Summary 2) returns common design alignment of the members.
checks. “Design check” is a general term that relates to the
serviceability, erectability, or connection performance
issues. The design checks return either an “OK” meaning Cope Length Checks that the cope is long enough to
all required criteria for a particular design check has been accommodate the girder flange.
met, or a short caption describing the issue for non-compli-
ance.
There are two kinds of design checks. Some checks are Interference Checks that there is no geometric inter-
specific to a particular connection type (e.g. single plate ference between the beam and the girder
connection). Other checks are common to each shear con- based on the vertical alignment of the
nection (e.g. minimum weld size). If the design check is members.
specific to a particular connection, its function is included
inside the connection module worksheet. Only general
design check functions are written in and thus called from Beam vs. Girder
the design checks worksheet library. Also, the general
Checks that the depth of the supported
design checks for the different connection modules are not
beam does not exceed the “T” dimension
all-inclusive; the checks included tend to represent the most
of the girder.
common concerns and issues.

Design Check: Explanation:

Beam vs. Column Web
Checks that the width of the supported
Minimum Factored Load
beam does not exceed the “T” dimension
Checks whether or not the user has input
of the column.
a design load of at least 10 kips.

Element vs. Beam

Minimum Size of Cope(s)
Checks that the length of the connection
Checks that the cope(s) extend past the element is compatible with the beam.
flange thickness of the supported beam.

Element vs. Column

Checks that the width of the connection
element is compatible with the column.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-7

 Minimum Fillet Weld
• Only wide flange shapes for beams and girders are
Checks that the fillet weld size satisfies
presently allowed.
the minimum size requirements.
• Some of the design checks that analyze the compati-
bility of certain connection member lengths and
Maximum Fillet Weld
widths (i.e. Beam vs. Girder, Beam vs. Column, Ele-
Checks that the fillet weld size satisfies ment vs. Beam) check the web depth of flange width
the maximum size requirements. of the beam against the T dimension of the girder or
column. In some circumstances these checks are con-
Bolt Hole Check
servative. With careful geometry and alignment it
Checks the proper use of oversized, and may be possible to encroach on the rolling fillet areas
slotted holes. Checks that oversized of girders, beams, and columns.
holes are used only in conjunction with
slip-critical connections. Checks that the • MathCAD® does handle null values for variables
lengths of slotted holes are normal to (there must be a value for every variable in the work-
direction of load in bearing connections. sheet). To facilitate proper logic in the flow of the pro-
Checks that long slotted holes are used in grams, several variables are defined that act as
only one ply of material. switches and tell the programs what variables and
functions to calculate and which ones to ignore. The
best example of this is the BOLTED/WELDED
Bolt Hole Spacing switch. Even if a connection is all-bolted, there must
be values in the variables for welded properties. (e.g.
Checks for adequate bolt hole spacing.
enter 70 ksi welds, ¼ in. weld size, etc.) The text
value definition BOLTED input at the JOINT variable
effectively tells the worksheet to ignore any welded
Weld Length Check
values and functions.
Checks that the element being welded
has a sufficient edge length for the spec-
ified length of weld.

Additional, more detailed output and/or calculations can

been viewed by expanding any or all of the yellow areas.
The gray areas contain sorting functions or extensive inter-
nal calculations that would typically not need to be seen by
the user.

Limitations
Although the worksheets are versatile, some limitations do
exist:

• Only vertical weld lines are permitted on the support-

ing side of a connection. If horizontal welds are to be
used on the supported side, they must be used at both
the top and the bottom, and they must be the same
length. (i.e. No L shaped weld groups are permitted).

• The unstiffened seat connections module is somewhat

unique. It is the only shear connection with no joint at
the web of the supported beam. No provisions exist in
the worksheet for interference design checks or beam
copes.

8-8 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

 APPENDIX B
Sources for Additional Steel Connection Information

MANUALS & SPECIFICATIONS Galambos, T. V., Lin, F. J., and Johnston, B. G., (1996),
Basic Steel Design with LRFD, Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper
American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of Steel
Saddle River, New Jersey.
Construction, Load & Resistance Factor Design, 3rd Ed.
Chicago: AISC, 2001.
Gaylord, E. H., Gaylord, C. N. Jr., and Stallmeyer, J. E.,
(1992), Design of Steel Structures, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill,
American Institute of Steel Construction, Connecting
Inc., New York.
Steel Members, A Teaching Guide, University of Florida
Publication Services, Undated.
Geschwindner, L. F., Disque, R. O., and Bjorhovde, R.,
(1994), Load and Resistance Factor Design of Steel Struc-
American Institute of Steel Construction, Engineering for
tures, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Steel Construction, Chicago: AISC, 1984.
Kulak, G. L., Fisher, J. W., and Struik, J. H. A., (1987)
American Institute of Steel Construction, Hollow Struc-
Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints, John Wiley &
tural Sections Connections Manual, Chicago: AISC, 1997.
Sons, Inc., New York.
American Welding Society, D1.1:2000 Structural Weld-
MacGinley, T. J., (1997), Steel Structures: Practical
ing Code - Steel, Miami: AWS, 2000.
Design Studies, E. & F.N. SPON, London.
Research Council on Structural Connections, Specifica-
McCormac, J. C., (1997), Structural Steel Design: LRFD
tion for Structural Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
Method, HarperCollins.
Chicago: AISC, 2000.
Salmon, C. G., and Johnson, J.E., (1996), Steel Struc-
STEEL TEXTBOOKS
tures: Design and Behavior, 4th Ed., HarperCollins.
Burns, T., (1995), Structural Steel Design: LRFD, Delmar
Publishers, Inc., New York. Segui, W. T., (1999), LRFD Steel Design, 2nd Ed., PWS
Publishing, Pacific Grove, California.
Brockenbrough, R. L. and Merritt, F. S., (1994), Struc-
tural Steel Designer’s Handbook, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill, Smith, J. C., (1996), Structural Steel Design: LRFD
New York. Approach, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York.

Bruneau, M., Uang, C. M., and Whittaker, A., (1998), Spiegel, L. and Limbrunner, G. F. (2002), Applied Struc-
Ductile Design of Steel Structures, McGraw-Hill, New tural Steel Design, 4th Ed., Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle
York. River, New Jersey.

Chen, W. F. and Kim, E., (1997) LRFD Steel Design Tamboli, A. R., Editor (1997), Steel Design Handbook –
Using Advanced Analysis, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton. LRFD Method, McGraw Hill, New York.

Crawley, S. W. and Dillon, R. M., (1993), Steel Build-

ings: Analysis and Design 4th Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New
York.

Englekirk, R., (1994), Steel Structures: Controlling

Behavior Through Design, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York.

Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-9

 AISC ENGINEERING JOURNAL PAPERS Bolts.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 18-
(FROM 1987 TO PRESENT) 28.

Verma, K. K., and Beckmann, F. R., (1992), “High-

BASE PLATES
Strength Bolts for Bridges.” Engineering Journal, AISC,
Chabra, J. S., (1994), “Column Base Plate Design Table.” Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 4-11.
Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 31, No. 1, pp. 12-20.
DOUBLE-ANGLE CONNECTIONS
Drake, R. M., and Elkin, S., (1999), “Beam-Column Base
Kim, Y., and Chen, W., (1998), “Design Tables for Top-
Plate Design – LRFD Method.” Engineering Journal, AISC,
and Seat-Angle with Double Web-Angle Connections.”
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 29-38.
Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 50-75.
Sputo, T., (1993), “Design of Pipe Column Base Plates
Zahn, C. J., and Haaijer, G., (1988), “Effect of Connec-
Under Gravity Load.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 30,
tor Spacing and Flexural Torsional Buckling on Double-
No. 2, pp. 41-43.
angle Compressive Strength.” Engineering Journal, AISC,
Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 190-119.
Thornton, W. A., (1990a), “Design of Small Base Plates
for Wide Flange Columns.” Engineering Journal, AISC,
EXTENDED END PLATE CONNECTIONS
Vol. 27, No. 3, pp. 108-110.
Curtis, L. E., and Murray, T. M., (1989), “Column Flange
Thornton, W. A., (1990b), “Design of Base Plates for Strength at Moment End-plate Connections.” Engineering
Wide Flange Columns- A Concatenation of Methods.” Journal, AISC, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 41-50.
Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 173-174.
Murray, T. M., and Kukreti, A. R., (1988), “Design of 8-
BEAM SPLICES bolt Stiffened End-plates.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol.
25, No. 2, pp. 45-51.
Epstein, H. I., (1996), “Effects of the Latest LRFD Block
Shear Code Change.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 33,
GUSSET PLATE CONNECTIONS
No. 1, pp. 30-33.
Cheng, J. J. R. and Kulak, G. L. (2000), “Gusset Plate
Sheikh-Ibrahim, F. I., and Frank, K. H., (1998), “The Connection to Round HSS Tension Members.” Engineering
Ultimate Strength of Symmetric Beam Bolted Splices.” Journal, AISC, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 133-139.
Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 106-118.
Gross, J. L., (1990), “Experimental Study of Gusseted
Connections.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 27, No. 3,
pp. 89-97.
BOLTS
OTHER CONNECTION RELATED PAPERS
Bowman, M. D., and Betancourt, M., (1991), “Reuse of
A325 and A490 High-Strength Bolts.” Engineering Journal, Ammerman, D. J., (1987), “Behavior of Semi-rigid Com-
AISC, Vol. 28, No. 3, pp. 110-118. posite Connections.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 24,
No. 2, pp. 53-62.
Carter, C. J., (1996), “Specifying Bolt Length for High-
Strength Bolts.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. 33, No. 2, Azizinamini, A., and Prakash, B., (1993), “A Tentative
pp. 43-54. Design Guideline for a New Steel Beam Connection Detail
to Composite Tube Columns.” Engineering Journal, AISC,
Dahl, J. S., Lu, L.-W., and Fisher, J. W., (1996), “Com- Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 108-115.
parative Effectiveness of Tightening Techniques for A490
1¼-in. Diameter Bolts.” Engineering Journal, AISC, Vol. Beedle, L. S. and Christopher, R., (1964), “Tests of Steel
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8-10 • Connections Teaching Toolkit

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Connections Teaching Toolkit • 8-11

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8-12 • Connections Teaching Toolkit