 Mercury-Mercury and ethyl mercury are toxic.

Mercury stores in kidney and liver has

affinity for sulphahydryl groups.
 Cadmium causes kidney damage.
 Lead affects renal,gastrointestinal and nervous system.Lead inhibits Hb synthesis and
leads to anaemia.It also affects nervous system leading to encephalomalacia.
Organochlorine and Organophosphate pesticide residues from contaminated sources
enters milk causing ill effects. eg. HCH isomers(Hexachlorocyclohexane) is a commercial
insecticide, endosulfan, malathion, chlorpyrifos, and methyl-parathion

Codex Guidelines for the establishment of a regulatory programme for control of Veterinary
drug residues in foods (CAC GL16-1993) provides useful guidelines on selection of methods of
analysis for veterinary drugs.

Various antibiotics like Ampicillin, Benzylpenicillin, Bacitracin, Cloxacillin, Kanamycin,

Tetracycline in milk can be detected by various microbial inhibition assays.

DELVO MICROBIAL INHIBITION ASSAY IS USED FOR DETECTION of antibiotics and

sulphonamides in milk.The higher concentration of cleaning agents and disinfectants in milk
may give false positive results.The preservatives used to conserve milk for later analysis usually
make the milk unsuitable for testing.

LEGAL AND BIS STANDARDS

Milk and Milk Products

 The Government of India has put forward definite guidelines for producer/exporters of
milk and milk products which have been made mandatory vide the Milk and Milk
Product Order (MMPO) 1992 As per the provisions of this order, any person/dairy plant
handling more than 10,000 liters per day of milk or 500 MT of milk solids per annum
needs to be registered with the registering authority appointed by the Central
Government.
 The main objective of the order is to maintain and increase the supply of liquid milk of
desired quality in the interests of the general public and also for regulating the
production, processing and distribution of milk and milk products. For more details
regarding the standards that need to be followed during milking, processing and
exporting milk and milk products from India visit e-library.

National standards for milk and milk products

 In India, the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MOH&FW), dealing with the
subject of food quality and safety at the national level, has been designated the nodal
ministry for maintaining food standards. The instrument for ensuring food quality and
safety at the national level is through a legislation titled Prevention of Food Adulteration
Act, 1954 (PFA) and Rules made thereunder as amended from time-to-time.

Legal and BIS of milk and milk products

Type of Cream Type of Count Level in cfu/ml or Grade

g
Raw Cream Standard < 4 lakhs Very good
4-20 lakhs Plate count / ml or g Good
20-100 lakhs Fair
>100 lakhs Poor
Coliform Count / ml or Not more than 100 Satisfactory
g
Pasteurized cream Standard plate count / ml Not more than Satisfactory
or g 60,000
Coliform count / ml or Not more than 10 Satisfactory
g

BUTTER

PFA Standards

 Milk Fat - not less than 80% by weight

 Common Salt - not more than 3% by weight
 Curd - not more than 1.5% by weight
 Diacetyl - 4 ppm
 Moisture - not more than 16%

Microbiological Standards (BIS)

Yeast & Mold Quantity

count/ml
< 20 Good
21-50 Fair
51-100 Poor
> 100 Very Poor

SPC. No standard has been suggested.

Coliform count should not be more than 10/ ml for satisfactory quality butter.

GHEE

AGMARK Standards

S.NO. Tests All-India Winter Summer

1. Baudouin Negative Negative
2 Phytosterol acetate Negative Negative
3. B.R. reading 40.0-43.0 41.5-44.0 42.5 – 45.0

(40 ºC )
4. R.M. Value Not less than Not less than Not less than
28.0 23.0 21.0
5. P Value 1.0-2.0 0.5-1.2 0.5-1.0
6. Moisture (%) Not more than 0.3
7. Free fatty acid (% oleic)
a. Special grade Agmark Red Not more than 1.4
label
b. General Grade Agmark Not more than 2.5
Green label

R.M. Value in Tamil Nadu : 24

ICE CREAM

BIS Standards

Chemical

Characteristics Requirements
Weight (g/Litre) (min) 525
Total solids (% wt) (min) 36.0
Milk fat (%wt) (min) 10.0
Acidity (% lactic acid) (max) 0.25
Stabiliser / emulsifier (%wt) 0.5
(max)
Sucrose (%wt) (max) 15.0

Microbiological

Test Limit
Standard plate count (per not more than 2,50,000
 g)
Coliform count (per g) not more than 90
Phosphatase negative

MIK POWDER

BIS Standards

Chemical

Whole Milk Powder Skim Milk Powder

Flavour and odour Good Good
Moisture (%wt.) (max) 4.0 5.0
Total milk solids (%wt.) 96.0 95.0
Solubility
a. Solubility index (max) ml 15.0 15.0

(if roller dried) ( if roller dried)

2.0 2.0

(if spray dried) (if spray dried)

b. Solubility (%wt.) (min) 85.0 ml (if roller dried) 85.0 ml (if roller dried)
98.5 ml (if spray dried) 98.5 ml (if spray dried)
Total ash (on dry basis) % wt 7.3 9.3
(max)
Fat (% wt) Not less than 26 Not more than 1.5
Titratable acidity (% lactic) 1.2 1.5

Microbiological standards

Types WMP & Extra Grade Standard Grade

SMP SMP
Total bacterial count, max, cfu/g 40,000 50,000
Coliform count Absent in 0.1 g Absent in 0.1 g
Salmonella Absent in 25 g Not specified
 Staph. aureus (coagulase Absent in 0.1 g Not specified
positive)
Shigella Absent in 25 g Not specified

CHEESE

BIS Standards

Characteristics Natural Cheese Processed Processes cheese Cheese

(hard variety) cheese spread Powder
1. Moisture % by mass. 43 47 60 5
Maximum
2. Milk fat (on dry basis) % by 42 40 40 40
mass. Minimum
3.Salt (added NaCl) % by mass 3 3 3 5.5
maximum
4. Coliform count, per gram - - - 10
maximum
5. Stabilizer / 0.1% 4%
6. Sorbic acid / Nisin 0.1% 0.1%

Suggested bacteriological standards

S. Product Yeast and Coliform Aerobic Anaerobic

No. Mold Count spore count spore count
1. Processed 60 Nil 200 100
cheese/gm
2. Processed cheese 60 Nil 200 100
spread/gm

CONCENTRATED MILK

BIS Standards

Characteristics Full Cream Skim Milk

Total milk solids (% by wt., minimum) 31.0 26
 Fat (% by wt.) min 9.0 max 0.5
Sucrose (% by wt., minimum) 40 40
Acidity (% lactic acid, maximum) 0.35 0.35
Bacterial count (cfu/g, maximum) 500 500
Test for Coliforms Negative Negative
Yeast and Mold count (cfu/g, 10 10
maximum)
ORGANIC DAIRY PRODUCTS

 Processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic

ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the food's total plant and animal
ingredients must be organic and any non-organically produced ingredients are subject to
various agricultural requirements.
 Foods claiming to be organic must be free of artificial food additives, and are often
processed with fewer artificial methods, materials and conditions, such as chemical
ripening, food irradiation, and genetically modified ingredients. Pesticides are allowed so
long as they are not synthetic.
 Cow's milk or indeed the milk of any creature is an ideal environmental indicator for
registering the level of pollutants and pesticides in the environment. Why? Because what
goes in the mouth of a cow gets processed into large quantities of milk. If its on the grass
it's going to end up in your pint of milk.
 Beyond this four main factors have led to the increasing interest by farmers and
consumers in organic dairy farming:
o consumer concerns about food safety and animal welfare
o overproduction of food (perceived as low in quality)
o the environmental effects of intensive farming
o the premium milk price and expanding market for organic milk products
 As milk is a major contributor to our diet in the guises of butter, cheese, yoghurt and
iceream many peploe are now concerned about the quality of this staple foodstuff.
 Milk is one of the most important components of our daily diets and is vital to healthy
bones, teeth, and general growth and development. Now through organic farming there
is a new breed of dairy products widely available.
 Organic milk has been found to be even healthier than traditional milk, and demand for
organic brands has been on the rise. While many may be skeptical, a recent study
conducted in Wales supports the increased benefits, including high content of
conjugated linoleic acid, also known as CLA9, and higher levels of vitamin E, beta
carotene, antioxidants, and the presence of more omega-3 fatty acids.
 There are strict legal parameters around the diets of cows on organic farms which are
granted independent certification. Organic milk is produced by cows that are fed all-
natural foods by grazing and eating fresh grass, forage, and clover. Non-organic farms
are allowed to use pesticides and fertilizer for the growth of fodder, and feed hormones
and antibiotics to their cows. The excessive uses of these have resulted in some health-
conscious consumers preferring organic milk.
 The study released by the Nafferton Ecological Farming Group found that the summer
months lead to the biggest gap between organic and non-organic milk, because of the
 wider discrepancy in feeding techniques. Gillian Butler, who led the study, stated that 84
percent of food for cows on organic farms in the summer was provided through natural
grazing, and only 37 percent for non-organic farmed animals.
 Some farms are not located in areas that allow for cows to graze year round, because of
the harsh winter weather and rainy seasons requiring them to keep cows inside and use
food supplements, such as previously cut grasses and assorted cereals or grains. This
doesn't remove the value of non-organic milk, but all naturally grazing fed cows seem to
allow for even more nutritional benefits and value than non-organic, based on the recent
study.
 Organic farms are more costly to operate because there is less milk produced for each
unit of land. This also causes organic milk to be more expensive.
 The study was conducted to survey milk quality and ways to minimize the use of
antibiotics in dairy products. Some of the most significant finds of the new released
study were the differences in organic and non-organic milks compared seasonally.
Researchers and scientist plan to take their research and use it to help improve the
nutritional composition of milk while cows are kept indoors and fed mostly conserved
grasses.
 Though organic milk is double the cost of non-organic milk there are many people who
have reasons that they prefer the organic milk over non-organic. Whether it be the taste
or the health benefits, yearly there are more and more people who or switching over to
the even more healthy dairy drink. Non-organic milk is still very healthy for you, so if
you are one of those who's budget or conscious won't allow you to pay double for the
organic product, know that you are still benefiting from drinking a very healthy and
necessary product when you choose to drink non-organic milk.

PACKAGING, TRANSPORTATION, STORAGE AND

DISTRIBUTION OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Learning outcomes

At the end of this module the learner will be able to understand the followings:

 Packaging,    
 Packaging containers (forms) for milk and dairy products,
 Packaging Materials for milk and dairy products,
 Milk transport,
 Storage and distribution of milk.

PACKAGING

 Packaging is the technique of using the most appropriate containers and components to
protect, carry, identify and merchandise any product. It constitutes a vital link between
the manufacturer and eventual consumer for the safe delivery of the product through the
various stages of manufacture, storage, transport, distribution and marketing. In order
to deliver fresh, sound and convenient form of milk and to minimize the losses protective
packaging is necessary to withstand the hazards of climatic changes, transportation,
handling etc. The criteria by which a package is judged are usually the following:
o It must protect and preserve the commodity from the time it is packed to the
point of consumption.
 o It must be suitable for the chosen selling and distribution system.
o It must be attractive to the consumer, easy to open, store and dispose.
o It must cost no more than the market can bear.
 Definition
o Packaging means placing a commodity into a protective wrapper or container for
transport or storage.
 Functions
o Package has a three fold functions of containing, protecting and merchandising:
 To contain the product
o Package should be large one with proper constructional features so as to avoid
leakage and spoilage. It should be as compatible as possible with the product and
finally it should have enough strength to withstand handling, transportation and
storage hazards.
o To protect the product
o Protection of the product against contamination or loss and damage or
degradation due to microbial action, exposure to heat, light, moisture and
oxygen, evaporation etc.
o To help in selling the product
o The shape of the package should be favourable to dispensation and reclosure, and
to its disposal and reuse.
 Present status of the packaging industry
o In developed countries packaging industry has met tremendous advances. With
newer marketing systems like super markets, self services stores etc packaging
technology in these countries has risen to great heights. Newer and better
packaging materials, development of packaging machinery and appliances have
all advanced in an integrated manner. In developing countries like India,
packaging is still in its infancy.

PACKAGING CONTAINERS (FORMS) FOR MILK AND DAIRY

PRODUCTS

 Bottle
o The glass bottle still continues to be used for packaging of milk in some parts of
the world. However in several developed countries and some of the developing
countries it has lost ground to single service containers for packing milk.
 Carton
o The cartons are the preferred medium or form for packaging milk. They are also
used for packaging liquid, frozen and coagulated milk products. Cartons are
commonly made of food grade paper coated on the inside with wax or plastics; or
lined with paper, plastic films or aluminium foil; or made of laminates.
o The merits include maximum space utilization in vehicles, and storage; ability to
carry attractive printing and convenience as a means for stacking milk at super
market shelves.
o Retailers in the developed countries consider it the best available package for
self-service selling. Cartons also play a role in the bulk packaging of milk. Cartons
are commonly available either as preformed containers or as pre cut blanks ready
to be formed in to containers. The carton systems in common use are as follows.

Perga (preformed) U.K

 Pure pak (precut) USA
Zupack, Blockpak (precut) Germany
Tetra pak (precut) Sweden

 Sachet / Bag / Pouch

o Flexible waterproof plastic bags are commonly used for packaging milk and
liquid dairy products. Since it is difficult to pour from these, a jug is usually also
provided. The popular laminate for such bag is black or dark brown (to exclude
UV light) or white.
o The bags may be formed from either a reeled or flat film. Generally it is a form-
fill-seal system. Generally, ultra violet light is used to sterilize the films. The bags
are heat-sealed and cut, the common sequence being to bottom seal, fill, move
down on sachet length, top seal and cut off.
 Can
o This is commonly used for packaging all types of solid, semi solid and powdered
dairy products. Cans are traditionally made of soldered tin plate steel, generally
lacquered on the inner surface to prevent corrosion.
o Aluminium cans have now become famous. Cans are the most convenient for gas
packing.
 Box / Tub
o It may be made up of wood or paper board. White wooden boxes / tubs are used
for bulk packing of butter and butteroil with butter paper / plastic liners,
paperboard boxes are generally used as over-wraps.
 Barrel / Cask
o Commonly made up of wood and coated with wax on the inner surface. Used for
bulk packaging of sweetened condensed milk, semi solid butter milk / whey,
butteroil etc.
 Cup
o They are generally made up of paper with wax or plastic coating on the inside.
Used for packing frozen dairy products such as ice cream and coagulated milk
products.
 Collapsible tube
o They are made up of aluminium and lacquered on the inside. Low cost,
lightweight, ease of handling and dispensing, product protection are its
advantages. Used for packing semi fluid products such as sweetened condensed
milk, processed cheese spread etc.

A summary of packaging materials / containers used in Dairy Industry

S.N Product Packaging Material

o
1. Liquid milk Glass bottles (obsolete)
LDPE film in combination with LLDPE or octane / butane
based films.
Paper laminates for tetra packs
2. Milk Powder Tin plate containers, nitrogen packed, and lacquered from
 outside.
Flexible laminates such as metallized PET / BOPP / Aluminium
foil / Poly laminates.
Refill packs; lined cartons laminated with BOPP / PET,
varnished on the outside. Paper laminated film is also used.
Bag-in-box; Powder filled in laminate and packed in cartons.
3. Butter Duplex board with vegetable parchment paper
Tin plate containers
Aluminium foil
4. Cheese / Tin plate containers lacquered from inside
Cheese spread First packed in aluminium foil and then in duplex board carton
Injection moulded PP / HDPE container
5. Ghee Tin plate containers lacquered from inside
Glass bottles
HDPE film pouches
6. Ice cream Thermoformed / Injection moulded plastic containers
Duplex board carton (poly laminated)
Laminates of BOPP(Biaxially Oriented Polypropylene) / PET
7. Indian Dairy Injection moulded / thermoformed containers (shrikhand,
Products gulab jamun)
Stand up laminated pouches
PACKAGING MATERIALS FOR MILK AND
DAIRY PRODUCTS

 The packaging materials include paper and paper based products (coated or lined), glass,
tin plate, aluminium foil, timber (wood), plastics and laminates ( Tetra packs)
o Paper and paper based products
 The paper and paper based products form an excellent packaging material
for milk and milk products. They may be kraft paper, grease proof paper,
vegetable parchment paper, glassine paper, wax coated paper, plastic
coated paper, paper boards, solid fibre boards, liner boards, box boards
etc.
 The papers are used in the form of boxes, bags, wrappers, cartons, cups
etc. The advantage of using paper is that it is weightless, capability for
printing on the surface, low cost and easy disposability. The
disadvantages include low wet and tear strength.
o Glass
 The glass may be transparent or opaque. Glass is used in the form of
bottles, tumblers, jars, jugs etc.
 The advantages cited for glass as a packaging material include its
strength, rigidity, ability to have a barrier for water and gas and inertness
to chemical substances. The disadvantage is its heavy weight, and
fragility.
o Tin plate
  It may be made up of a thin sheet (0.025 mm thick) of mild steel coated
on both sides with a layer of pure tin. It is desirable to have an internally
lacquered can, which provides better resistance to corrosion.
 The advantages cited for tin containers as a packaging material are their
good strength and excellent barrier properties. The disadvantages are
their high cost, heavy weight, difficulty in closing the lid of the container,
and disposal. The containers are mostly used in the form of can.
o Aluminium foil
 The common thickness of the foil used is 0.012 – 0.015 mm. To increase
corrosion resistance, it may be lacquered (coated with lacquer) or a thin
film of plastic can be applied for packing dairy products.
 The advantages of these containers are good barrier properties, grease
proof, non-absorption, shrink proof, odourless, tasteless, hygienic, non
toxic, opaque to light, bright in appearance etc. The demerits are its low
tear strength, susceptibility to strong acids and alkalis. It is mostly used in
the form of wrapper, carton and box.
o Timber
 The required qualities for the timber to act as a packaging material are it
should be free from odour, have an attractive appearance, and required
mechanical strength. It may be treated with casein formalin, or sprayed
with paraffin wax or plastics or to make it more water resistant and to
avoid the passage of timber taint to butter. It is generally used in the form
of a box, tub, cask or barrel.
o Plastics
 The use of plastics in packaging has made tremendous progress in recent
years all over the world. A wide variety of plastics can be used as
thermoformed, injection moulded or blow moulded containers, such as
bottles, cartons, cups, boxes etc. The merits of rigid plastic containers are
its low cost and ease of fabrication.
 The demerits cited are lack of product compatibility, low barrier
properties, plastic deterioration, lack of resistance to high heat and
fragility at lower temperatures. Flexible plastic packaging films are used
as wrappers or sachets or bags or pouches for packaging milk and dairy
products. The flexible plastics can be classified in to two types.
o Low polymers
 They include cellophane (coated with plain or nitrocellulose / saran /
polyethylene), treated with cellulose etc.
o High polymers
 Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, poly vinyl chloride, poly
vinyledene chloride (cryovac), rubber hydrochloride (pliofilm), polyester,
polyamide (nylon), saran (a mixed polymer), etc. form good packaging
materials.
 The merits cited for flexible packaging films are they can be easily applied
and the packaging process can be readily mechanized; loss of moisture
from the dairy product is practically nil; it confers protection to dairy
products against attack by microorganisms, insects etc. The demerits are:
not all technical problems in film packaging have been solved; failure to
obtain a perfect seal and removal of all air before packaging may lead to
spoilage; the most careful attention to detail is necessary, else faulty
production will result; etc. Care has to be exercised in selecting food grade
 plastics for packaging of milk and dairy products; otherwise toxicity, if
any, from the package will be transferred to the products.
o Laminates
 They are formed by combining the complete surfaces of 2 or more webs of
different films with the primary object of overcoming the defects of single
films.
 Usually laminations are made to strengthen the film material, to improve
barrier properties, to improve grease resistance, to provide a surface that
will heat seal, etc. Some of the typical laminates available for packaging
are paper-polythene, cellophane-polythene, aluminium foil-polythene,
paper aluminium foil-polythene, polyester-polythene, etc.
 Tera pack has Internal polyethylene layer seals in the liquid,
 Polyethylene layer needed for lamination process
 Aluminium foil provides a barrier to oxygen, flavours and light
 Polyethylene adhesion layer needed for lamination process
 Paperboard gives stability and strength
 Polyethylene layer protects food from external moisture

MILK TRANSPORT 

 The milk transportation company shall be responsible for maintaining the tank and milk
contact surfaces of a milk tank truck clean and in good repair. Milk or milk products
shall not be placed in such tanks unless the tanks have been properly cleaned and
sanitized at a milk plant, receiving station, transfer station, or other licensed milk tank
truck cleaning facility.
  Suitable facilities for cleaning and milk contact surfaces of the milk tank trucks shall be
provided and the washing and sanitizing of the tanks shall be carried out by the receiving
milk plant, transfer station, receiving station, or other licensed milk tank truck cleaning
facility. The milk transportation company representative or the bulk milk
hauler/sampler shall be responsible for cleaning the hose, pump, and valves. After the
cleaning and sanitizing operation is completed, a representative of the milk tank truck
cleaning facility shall provide a suitable record identifying who washed the milk tank
truck, the license or permit identification number of the milk tank truck, the date, and
the location of the facility. The milk transportation company representative or the bulk
milk hauler/sampler, after inspection of the tank, shall indicate on the record that the
tank has been cleaned to that person's satisfaction. A copy of this record shall be kept
with the vehicle until it is washed and sanitized again.
  A bulk milk hauler/sampler operating a bulk milk pickup tanker may make more than 1
trip daily without cleaning and sanitizing the bulk milk pickup tanker. The bulk milk
pickup tanker shall be cleaned and sanitized after the final trip of the day, each day of
use.
  A milk transport tank shall be cleaned and sanitized each time the tank is emptied.
  Milk may be picked up in the milk tank truck on the return trip to the bulk milk
hauler/sampler's home if the milk tank truck is cool enough to maintain the milk placed
in it at or below the legal storage temperature and if the pickup hose and pump are
washed and sanitized at a licensed wash facility or at a cleaning facility approved in
writing by the director on a case-by-case basis.
  A milk tank truck may be used to haul potable water, or other wholesome liquid food
products, if the milk contact surfaces are properly cleaned and sanitized prior to picking
up raw milk. Certain pasteurized products, as specified in the pasteurized milk
 ordinance, must be transported in milk tank trucks dedicated to hauling pasteurized
products.
  A milk transfer station or receiving station shall keep daily records identifying which
farm loads of milk have been commingled in each milk transport tank. These records
shall be kept at the transfer station or receiving station for not less than 30 days.
  Producer samples shall accompany the milk transport tank holding the largest amount
of the farm bulk milk pickup tanker's milk unless the samples are transferred or held for
testing at other locations.

STORAGE OF MILK

 Milk storage vats or silos are refrigerated and come in various shapes and sizes. Milk is
stored on farm at 4 degrees Celsius and less for no longer than 48 hours. 
 Vats and silos are agitated to make sure that the entire volume remains cold and milkfat
does not separate from the milk.
 After milk has been collected, storage vats and stainless steel pipes are thoroughly
cleaned before the farmer milks again

DISTRIBUTION OF MILK

 Because milk spoils so easily, it should, ideally, be distributed as quickly as possible. In

many countries milk used to be delivered to households daily, but economic pressure has
made milk delivery much less popular, and in many areas daily delivery is no longer
available. People buy it chilled at grocery or convenience stores or similar retail outlets.
Prior to the widespread use of plastics, milk was often distributed to consumers
in glass bottles, and before that in bulk that was ladled into the customer's container.
 In rural India, milk is delivered daily by a local milkman carrying bulk quantities in a
metal container, usually on a bicycle; and in other parts of metropolitan India, milk is
usually bought or delivered in a plastic bags or cartons via-shops or supermarkets.
 Milk preserved by the UHT process is sold in cartons often called a "brick" that lack the
peak of the traditional milk carton. Milk preserved in this fashion does not need to be
refrigerated before opening and has a longer shelf life than milk in ordinary packaging. It
is more typically sold unrefrigerated on the shelves in Europe than in America.
 Glass milk containers are now rare. Most people purchase milk in bags, plastic jugs or
waxed-paper cartons. Ultraviolet light from fluorescent lighting can destroy some of the
proteins in milk so many companies that once distributed milk in transparent or
highly translucent containers are now using thicker materials that block the UV light.
Many people feel that such "UV protected" milk tastes better.
 India: Commonly sold in 500 mL plastic bags. It is still customary to serve the milk
boiled, despite pasteurization. Flavored milk is sold in most convenience stores in waxed
cardboard containers. Convenience stores also sell many varieties of milk (such as
flavored and ultra-pasteurized) in different sizes, usually in Tetra-Pak cartons.

SANITATION IN MILK PLANT

Learning outcomes

At the end of this module the learner will be able to understand the followings:
  Definitions for Sanitizing terms,
 Principles of cleaning and sanitization and
 Sanitizers.

SANITATION IN MILK PLANT

Sanitation implies the destruction of all pathogenic and almost all non athogenicmicro organism

Definitions for Sanitizing Terms

 Antiseptic - an agent used against sepsis or putrefaction in connection with human

beings or animals.
 Disinfectant - an agent that is applied to inanimate objects; it does not necessarily kill
all organisms.
 Sanitizer - an agent that reduces the microbiological contamination to levels
conforming to local health regulations.
 Germicide - an agent that destroys microorganisms.
 Bactericide - an agent that causes the death of a specific group of microorganisms.
 Bacteriostat - an agent that prevents the growth of a specific group of microorganisms
but does not necessarily kill them.
 Sanitization - the process of reducing microbiological contamination to a level that is
acceptable to local health regulations.
 Sterilization - the process of destroying all microorganisms.

The premises surrounding the dairy plant shall be kept in a clean and orderly condition, and
shall be free from strong or foul odors, smoke, or excessive air pollution. Construction and
maintenance of driveways and adjacent plant traffic areas shall be of cement, asphalt, or similar
material to keep dust and mud to a minimum.

A suitable drainage system shall be provided which will allow rapid drainage of all water from
plant buildings and driveways including surface water around the plant and on the premises,
and all such water shall be disposed of in such a manner as to prevent an environmental or
health hazard.

The immediate surroundings shall be free from refuse, rubbish, overgrown vegetation, and
waste materials, to prevent harborage of rodents, insects, and other vermin.

Detergent should have the following desirable properties :

 Wetting and penetrating power

 Emulsifying power
 Saponifing power
 Deflocculating power
 Sequestrating and chelating power
 Quick and complete solubility
 Should be non corrosive to metal surfaces.
 Free rinsing.
 Economical
 Stability during storage
  Should be mild on hands
 Should possess germicidal action.

Dairy detergents broadly classified into 4 different groups:

 Alkalies :Sodium hydroxide, Sodium bi carbonate, Sodium phosphates, Sodium

silicate/sulphite etc.
 Acids :Mild-Phosphoric, Tartaric, Citric, Gluconic. Mild acids can be used for milk stone
removal. Strong-Nitric.
 Polyphosphates and chelating chemicals :These are used together withacids and alkalis.
Examples Tetraphosphate, Hexa meta phosphate, Tri poly phosphate, Pyrophosphate etc
 Surface active/Wetting agents: These are used either alone or in conjunction with acids
or alkalies. Examples-Teepol, Acinol N, Idet-10, common soaps etc.

Principles of cleaning and sanitization

 Cleaning or washing of dairy equipment implies the removal of soil from the surface of
each machine.

Sanitization or sterilization

 Implies the destruction of all pathogenic and all most all non pathogenicmicro
organisms from the surface of the equipment.
 Detergent s are the substances capable of assisting cleaning.
 Sanitizers are substances capable of destroying all pathogenic and almost all non
pathogenicmicro organisms.

Principles of cleaning and sanitization

 In the selection of any particular detergent consideration should be given to type of soil,
quality of water supply, material of surface and the equipment to be cleaned and method
of cleaning viz., soaking, brushing, spraying and or re circulation
 Heat is most reliable sanitizer especially when both temperature and time are controlled.
Thus effective sanitization can be done by steam (15psi / 5 minutes or 0 psi / 15 minutes)
or scalding water (90 – 950C/10 minutes)
 Drainage: To remove any residual loose milk and any other matter
 Pre rinsing: With cold or hot tap water to remove as much milk residue and other
matters as possible
 Warm to hot detergent washing: With detergent solution of 0.15 to 0.60% alkalinity to
remove the remaining milk solids.
 Hot water rinsing: To remove traces of detergents
 Sanitization: To destroy all the pathogenic and almost all the non pathogenic MO.
 Drainage and drying: To prevent bacterial growth and corrosion. Drying readily
accomplished by heat and ventilation.

Dairy detergents
Alkalies Acids Polyphosphates and Surface active or
chelating agents wetting agents
 NaOH  Tartaric,
 Na2CO3, phosphoric,  Tetraphosphate  Teepol
 Sodiumphosphate citric, gluconic  Hexametaphosphate  Acenol – N
 Sodium bi carbonate, and nitric  Tripolyphosphate  Idet – 10
Sodium silicate acids  Pyrophosphate  Common soap
 Strongalkalies  Mild acids  All are used along with  Used alone or
saponify the fat used to acids and alkalies in conjunction
 Weak alkalies dissolve remove milk with acids and
protein stone alkalies
 Strong acids
should not be
used at more
than 1%

Sanitizers

 Non toxic
 Quick acting
 Relatively non corrosive to hands and equipment
 Easily and quickly applied
 Relatively in expensive

The commonly used dairy sanitizers are steam, hot water and chemicals like chlorine
compounds, iodophor and quaternary ammonium compounds. The methods of chemical
sanitization broadly consists of flushing, spraying, brushing, fogging and submersion

Name of the sanitizer Mode of action

Chlorine compounds like chlorine gas, Cl2 + H2O ------ à HOCl + H+ + CH-
chloramines-T, hypochlorites, hexachlorophenol,
dichloroisocyanic acid and trichloroisocyanic acid HOCl is highly bactericidal

Nascent H+ destroys microbes by inhibiting enzymic

reactions and glucose oxidation

Iodophors like iodine Acts through halogenation and oxidation of sulphhydral

groups. Dissociation of iodine from the surfactant is
responsible for bactericidal action

Quaternary ammonium compounds like Acts on cell membrane causes disintegration and

acetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide denaturation of proteins essential for growth and
metabolism. Inactivates special enzyme system essential
for respiration of cells.
Methods of cleaning dairy equipment: These include hand washing, mechanical washing
and Clean – in – place or CIP method.

Hand washing

 Prepare 0.8 to 1.0% of detergent mixture in tap water so as to give a minimum alkalinity
of 0.5% in a wash up tank and maintain the temperature at about 50 0C
 Thoroughly rinse the utensils with clean cold water
 Introduce the detergent solution in to the equipment thoroughly brush the equipment
surface, inside and out side with a clean can brush
 Wash the utensils with enough fresh cold water using a clean brush again if needed to
remove all traces of detergents
 Allow the equipment to drain thoroughly and let it dry for at least one or two hours
 Sanitize the equipment surface by steam or hot water after cleaning and or by rinsing
with chlorine solution (200 ppm available chlorine) just before using

Mechanical washing: This consists mainly of can and bottle washing

 Can washing
o Drainage stage for liquid milk residue
o Pump-fed pre rinsing with cold or Luke warm water
o Drainage stage
o Pump fed jetting with detergent at not less than 700C
o Drainage stage
o Rinsing stage – Pump fed or by steam and water ejector at not less than 88 0C
o Final fresh water rinsing with steam and water ejector at 88 – 93 0C
o Live steam injection
o Hot air drying at 95 – 1150C
 Bottle washing
o Pre rinse using water at 32 – 380C
o Detergent wash usually with 1 – 3 % caustic soda together with chelating and
wetting agents, given preferably in two stages at different temperatures with in
60 – 750C. Sanitize the bottles as well
o Warm water rinse: To remove all traces of detergents. Reduce the bottle
temperature for next stage. Water temperature varies from 25 – 45 0C and is
usually re circulated.
o Cold water rinse: Normally re circulated chlorinated water (containing 35 to 50
ppm available chlorine) is used to prevent re contamination of bottles
o Draining after the bottles come out of the machine

Cleaning – in – place: This refers to that system of cleaning and sanitization which does not
require the daily dismantling of dairy equipment.

 Pre rinse with cold water till discharge water runs clear
 Acid rinse with phosphoric acid solution of 0.15 to 0.60% acidity, re circulated at 65 to
710C for 20 to 30 minutes (wetting agent may be added to increase cleaning ability)
 Drain out acid solution
 Hot water rinse with water at 65 to 71ºC for 5 to 7 minutes. Rinse water should drain out
 Alkali rinse with alkali detergent solution of 0.15 to 0.60% alkalinity, re circulated at 65
to 710C for 20 to 30 minutes (wetting agent may be added to increase cleaning ability)
  Drain out alkali solution
 Final hot water rinse with water at 71 to 820C till the whole system has been heated.
Rinse water should be drained out.

Merits of CIP system

 Ensure that all equipment receives uniform heat treatment day after day by eliminating
the human factor
 Less damage to equipment
 Saving of total clean up costs and in man hours
 Reduces possibility of contamination through human error
 Improved plant utilization and appearance

Success factors

 Proper selection of pipes and fittings, installation and development of circuits

 Proper temperature of cleaning solution
 Adequate velocity of cleaning solution
 Use of detergents designed specifically for re circulation cleaning
 Proper concentration of detergent solution
 Sufficient cleaning time

Merits

 Eliminates the human factor

 Less damage to equipment
 Time saving
 Reduces the possibility of contamination through human error
 Improved plant utilization and appearance

Types of CIP systems

 Manual control
 Automation
o Low level
o Medium level
o High level

Cleaning is the process of removing food and other types of soil from a surface, such as a dish,
glass, or cutting board. Cleaning is accomplished using a cleaning agent that removes food, soil,
rust stains, minerals, or other deposits.

SAMPLING OF MILK AND PLATFORM TESTS

Sampling of milk

 Milk and its products are subjected to chemical analysis more frequently than any other
food product.
  Thus every lot of milk received for processing has to be examined for its chemical,
microbiological and physical quality before processing or when mixed with the lot.
 A sample from the bulk should give a true picture of the bulk. Thus the sample should be
a representative portion of the milk supplied.
 Errors in collecting the sample may under value or over value the bulk leading to heavy
losses. Thus sampling of milk should be done methodologically in a proper way.
 The sampling and associated equipments should be sanitized and rinsed with the milk to
be sampled

SAMPLING EQUIPMENTS

Plunger

 It is an equipment used to mix the milk or cream to make it uniform in composition

throughout the container in which milk or cream is kept.
 It is made up of metal either stainless steel or any metal, which will not react with milk.
It consists of a disc with several perforations. A long handle is fixed to it at the centre
with which it can be worked.

Dipper

 It is used to take the sample from the container. It consists of a small cup fitted to one
end of a long handle. It’s capacity is usually 50 ml.

Tube sampler

 Various types of tube sampler are in use. The advantages of samplers are
o Aliquot portion are secured in proportion to the quantity of milk to be sampled.
o A fairly representative sample regardless of how long the milk has stood / stored
before sampling can be obtained using the sampler.
o By this method a column of milk, which represents the milk from the top to
bottom, is removed from the container.

McKay equity sampler or Mckay sampler

 This is composed of two parts. One is fitted in to the other.

 The principle here is the same as the tube sampler. With this sampler, representative
proportion to the quantity contained in the container can be secured.

METHOD OF SAMPLING OF MILK

 Due to the difference in specific gravity between the milk serum and fat of the milk, the
fat globules are continuously rising towards the surface of milk. So mixing is essential to
make it uniform through out. If the milk is of little quantity, by pouring from the one pail
to other, mixing can be done. When larger volumes of milk are handled plungers are
used to mix it effectively, by moving the same up and down for not less than ten times.
 Another type of plunger (two pounds of weight), which is attached by means of long
linked chain, is also used. Any type of plunger, used, should be sterilized properly. Every
time, before using for a container, plunger is sterilized in antiseptic solutions.
 After through mixing, usually 100-150 ml of milk is taken by means of the dipper and is
transferred to a sample bottle, which is later corked tightly by a rubber stopper. Glass
stoppers will not close the bottle tightly. Cork stoppers absorb fats from samples. They
cannot be sterilized; they get cracked during the process. So the rubber stopper, which is
free from the above two defects is most preferred.
 Bottles are filled leaving a space ¾ inches at the top. If it is half filled, there is the risk of
churning during the transit. If it is filled full, there is no room for efficient mixing by
shaking.
 The shape of the bottle is also important. Bottles with out ankles, where there is a chance
for lodgment of no solids are preferred. It is desirable that the bottle be provided with a
ground area for detailed labeling. One or two sample sites in a bigger lot are preferred for
accurate results. Sampling should be done at a temperature between 60-90 ºF (15.7ºC to
32.3ºC).

SAMPLING OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF MILK

 Sampling of frozen milk or cream

o The frozen product should be melted before sampling. Heating to higher
temperature may lead to “oiling off”.
 Sampling of churned milk or cream
o The sample is heated 100 – 1100F (38 – 480 C) or to a point sufficiently high
enough to melt the churned fat granules and then it is agitated vigorously and the
sample is drawn.
 Sampling of sour milk or cream
o In sour cream, casein is in coagulated form. If the milk is made to stand for a long
time, the cream will rise over the top layer. Hence, before taking the sample, it is
warmed with simultaneous agitation to liquefy the fat, which remains unchanged
in quantity, but is evenly distributed in the milk.
o To this milk, caustic soda or potash is added and the mixture is shaken till it
becomes a complete liquid and then the sample is drawn.

COMPOSITE SAMPLES

 Composite milk sample is one which when properly prepared represents two or more
lots of milk. When payments are made according to quality and not the quantity, quality
control tests are conducted in composite samples to reduce the cost and labor.
 Composite sample is prepared by taking an adequate portion depending on the quantity
of milk from the source for a period of several days. Sample is properly bottled, labeled
and tested after a week.
 The results got from composite sampling, give an average value for the total amount of
milk received during the period covered. This is an accurate simple system by which
labour and time are saved.
 The jar used to prepare the composite sample should be air tight to prevent evaporation
of moisture. Rubber corks are prepared. Composite samples must be kept in a cool place
to minimize the possible amount of preservatives.
 The contents of the jar must be mixed by a gentle rotation every time a daily sample is
added. If the sample shows any churned cream, the sample should be warmed to 105 ºF
to 110ºF before addition.
 Since the composite samples must be kept for longer periods, preservatives are used.
Preservatives are placed in required quantity in the empty bottle before the milk is
added.  
 The following records should accompany the sample
o Time and date of sampling
o Products
o Temperature of product(s) sampled
o Location sampling took place
o Interim transport details if any
o Samplers name and identifier

PRESERVATION OF MILK

 Corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride

o Only a small amount is required, as this chemical is highly poisonous. A dye is
used along with it to identify the sample as the one preserved with mercuric
chloride. Since it is a health hazard, it is not used now a days.
 Formalin
o Formaldehyde 40% by volume; 36% by weight. Add 0.1 ml to 30 ml of sample.
Use this method for samples intended for test of fat. Since it is in liquid form, it is
very convenient to handle.
o Only objection against the use of formalin is that it causes a hardening of casein
in milk, and hence not easily digested by sulfuric acid.
 Potassium dichromate
o It is not a poison and so not dangerous to handle. This is most commonly used. It
is cheap and safe.
o It gives a bright yellow color to milk. Normally, 150 mg of potassium dichromate
is used for 100 ml of milk.
 Bromo – 2-nitro propane-1-3-diol (Bronopol)
o Use one tablet (containing 10 mg of actual ingredient) or 0.05 ml (containing
20% actual ingredient) per 50 ml sample.
o Sample must be transported and stored at 0ºC to 4.4ºC. Life 5 days used in 1
RMA.

SAMPLING FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION

 10 ml of milk is taken in a previously sterilized bottle fitted with a sterlized glass stopper.
 Only sterilized equipments must be used in collecting samples for bacteriological
examination.
 Samples are packed in ice. No antiseptics should be used.
 Since largest number of bacteria is found in the cream layer at the top of the bulk, milk
should be mixed well before collecting the sample.

PLATFORM TESTS

 Platform tests or milk reception tests are the commonly used names for the tests carried
out by the persons responsible for raw milk collection and/or reception. The tests in
question are rapid quality control tests - organoleptic tests being of crucial importance -
whereby the milks of inferior or questionable quality can be screened out before the milk
 leaves its original container and is mixed with bulk milk during milk collection and/or
reception. This is of crucial importance from the point of view of processing and quality
of end products, because one single lot of milk of poor quality can spoil the rest of the
milk it is mixed with. Application of platform tests does not directly involve laboratory
analysis of raw milk samples but in suspected cases a sample from milk should be taken
to the laboratory for further inspections for quality. This lot of milk should be taken aside
and not mixed with bulk milk in order to verify its quality. In case the milk does not pass
the quality tests and does not comply with previously defined quality standards it should
be rejected. It is also very important that the milk producer in question will be contacted
in order to find out the reasons for spoilage of milk and in close co-operation with him to
find ways how to improve the situation in the future and how to eliminate this problem.

At milk reception sites - during milk collection and reception at milk plant - the platform tests
can be applied as follows:

Clot-on- boiling test ( COB test)

 This test is used for rapid testing of increased acidity of milk. As stated above heating will
precipitate proteins of milk if it is sour. This method is slower than alcohol test but very
useful where and when an alcohol test is not available.
 This test is performed simply by heating small amount of milk in a test tube over a flame
or immersed in boiling water for five minutes. The result can be seen immediately. If no
coagulation occurs, it indicates that milk can stand heating operations at the time of
testing
 The appearance of the surface of the milk and the lid is observed and inspected instantly
after removing the lid of incoming milk can or container. Any abnormal colour of the
milk, visible dirt and particles, changes in viscosity etc. are observed. Any abnormal
smell is noticed by inhalation of air standing above the milk in the upper part of the milk
can.

Lactometer test

 If the milk appears during organoleptic inspections to be too thin and watery and its
colour is "blue thin" it is suspected that milk contains added water. Lactometer test
serves as a quick method for determination of adulteration of milk by adding water. The
lactometer test is based on the fact that the specific gravity of whole milk, skim milk and
water differ from each others. Alcohol In case there is any reason to suspect that milk is
sour, alcohol test is used as platform test for rapid determination of elevated acidity of
milk. Anyhow, if the result of alcohol test indicates too high acidity in milk a sample from
milk is to be taken to the laboratory for further testing of titratable acidity.

Alcohol test

 It is based on fact that the proteins in milk, which has become sour, e.g. as result of lactic
acid formation by bacteria become susceptible to alcohol precipitation. If the mixing of
equal quantities (e.g. 2 ml) of milk and 68% alcohol in a test tube results in coagulation
of proteins it indicates that milk is sour. This milk is not fit for any processes applying
pasteurisation, because the proteins in milks having increased acidity have also loosed
the stability to the temperatures used for pasteurisation.
 For above reasons it is recommended that alcohol test is applied to every and each
incoming milk can and container if the milk is to be pasteurised.
Other platform tests are

 MBRT
 Resazurin
 Dye Reduction Test
 Direct Microscopic Count (DMC)
 Freezing point Fat/SNF
 Lactometer

ESTIMATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF MILK

 Specific gravity is the ratio of density of any substance to the density of standard
substance (water) at 4ºC.
 Specific gravity of normal milk is 1.028 to 1.032. Specific gravity of water is one. Hence,
addition of water to milk tends to decrease the specific gravity of milk.
 Fat content reduces the specific gravity since fat is the lighter portion.

Specific gravity of different Value

substances
Fat 0.93
Protein 1.346
Lactose 1.666
Salt 4.12
SNF 1.616
Skim milk 1.036

 Specific gravity of milk changes with temperature. It tends to decrease when there is
increase in temperature, probably, the reason may be that the proteins gets hydrated at
high temperature.

Determination of milk specific gravity

 Specific gravity is the relation between the mass of a given volume of any substance and
that of an equal volume of water at the same temperature.
 Since 1 ml of water at 4°C weighs 1 g, the mass of any material expressed in g/ml and its
specific gravity (both at 4°C) will have the same numerical value. The specific gravity of
milk averages 1.032, i.e. at 4°C 1 ml of milk weighs 1.032 g.
 Since the mass of a given volume of water at a given temperature is known, the volume of
a given mass, or the mass of a given volume of milk, cream, skim milk etc can be
calculated from its specific gravity. For example, one litre of water at 4°C has a mass of 1
kg, and since the average specific gravity of milk is 1.032, one litre of average milk will
have a mass of 1.032 kg.

Apparatus
  Lactometer – this is a hydrometer (a device for measuring specific gravity) adapted to
the normal range of the specific gravity of milk. It is usually calibrated to read in
lactometer degrees (L) rather than specific gravity per se. The relationship between the
two is:

( L / 1000 ) + 1 = specific gravity (sp. gr.)

Thus, if L = 31, specific gravity = 1.031.

 A tall, wide, glass or plastic cylinder.

 A thermometer – the lactometer may have a thermometer incorporated.

Procedure

 Heat the sample of milk to 40°C and hold for 5 minutes. This is to get all the fat into a
liquid state since crystalline fat has a very different density to liquid fat, and fat
crystallises or melts slowly.
 Mix the milk sample thoroughly but gently. Do not shake vigorously or air bubbles will
be incorporated and will affect the result.
 Place the milk in the cylinder. Fill sufficiently that the milk will overflow when the
lactometer is inserted.
 Holding the lactometer by the tip, lower it gently into the milk. Do not let go until it is
almost in equilibrium.
 Allow the lactometer to float freely until it reaches equilibrium. Then read the lactometer
at the top of the meniscus. Immediately, read the temperature of the milk.

Determination of total solids (TS) and solids-not-fat (SNF) in milk

 The total solids content of milk is the total amount of material dispersed in the aqueous
phase, i.e.

SNF = TS – % fat

 The only accurate way to determine TS is by evaporating the water from an accurately
weighed sample. However, TS can be estimated from the corrected lactometer reading.
The results are not likely to be very accurate because specific gravity is due to water,
material less dense than water (fat) and material more dense than water (SNF).
Therefore, milk with high fat and SNF contents could have the same specific gravity as
milk with low fat and low SNF contents.
 It should be noted that the relationship between Lc and TS varies from country to
country depending on milk composition. The above formulae are called the Richmond
formulae and were calculated for Great Britain.

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY BY LACTOMETER