Chapter

Characteristics of Lif

• organization

• energy us

• maintenance of internal constancy (homeostasis

• reproduction, growth, development

• evolution

Chapter
Elements Are Fundamental Types of Matte

• element: pure substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into other
substances

• bulk element: required in large amounts because make up vast majority of every living cell

• trace element: required in small amounts

Atoms Are Particles of Elements

• atom: smallest possible piece of an element that retains characteristics of the element
- composted of 3 particles
protons = + charge

neutrons = no charge

electrons = - charged (surround nucleus

- atomic # = # of protons in nucleus

• ion: an atom that has gained or lost electrons

Isotopes Have Different Numbers of Neutrons

• an atoms mass = # of protons and neutrons in nucleus

- atomic # - atomic mass = neutrons

 • all atoms of an element have same # of protons but not necessarily neutrons

• isotope: any of these different forms of a single element

- 99% of carbon isotopes are 12C & 1% are 13C or 14
• most elements have stable (non radioactive) & radioactive isotopes

• radioactive isotopes: emits energy as rays or particles when they break down into more stable
form

- every radioactive isotope has a characteristic half life which is the time it takes for half of
atoms to emit radiation or decay to a different more stable form

Chemical Bonds Link Atom

• mostly composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen

• atoms not arranged randomly - organized into molecules

• molecule: 2+ chemically joined atom

• compound: molecule composed of 2+ different elements

Electrons Determine Bonding

• orbitals: where electrons can hold up to 2 electron

• energy shell: group of electron orbitals that share same energy level
- rst shell holds up to 2 elections and rest can hold up to
- # of protons = # of electron
• atoms valence shell is its outermost occupied energy cell & atoms are most stable when full

• electrons stolen/shared, transfer electrons from one atom to another creates a chemical bon

• chemical bond: attractive force that holds atoms together

0 (Na) 1 1.5 2 (H) 2.5 (C) 3 (N) (Cl) (O) 3.5

electronegativity

(increase electronegativity strips electrons

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 Tyoe Chemical Basis Strength Example

Ionic Bond 1 atom donates 1 or strong but easily breaks table salt (NaCl)
more electrons to in water
another atom, forming
oppositely charged ions
that attract each other

Covalent Bond two atoms share pairs strong O—H bond within H2O
of electrons molecule

Hydrogen Bond atom w/ partial negative weak attraction b/w adjacent

charge attracts atom w/ water molecules
partial positive charge -
hydrogen bonds form b/
w adjacent molecules or
b/w different parts of a
large molecule

Ionic Bond Covalent Bond

• atoms that share 2 electrons form a double covalent bon

• polar covalent bond: lopsided union in which one nucleus exerts a much stronger pull on the
shared electrons than does the other nucleus

- form whenever a highly electronegative

atom such as O shares elections -
unequally- with a less electronegative
partner

• non polar covalent bond: 2 atoms exert

approx equal pull on shared electrons, bond
b/w 2 atoms of the same element, such as a

 carbon carbon bond, is non polar; after all a bond b/w 2 identical atoms must be electrically
balanced

Partial Charges on Polar Molecules Create Hydrogen Bonds

• when covalent bond is polar, negatively charged electrons spend more time around the
nucleus of the more electronegative atom than around its partner

- electron hogging atom = partial negative charge and other = partial positive charg
• in hydrogen bond, opposite partial charges on adjacent molecules or w/i a single large
molecule - attract each other (atom w/ partial positive charge is H

Water is Essential to Life

• cohesion & adhesion - ex: water moves from plants roots to it’s leave

• dissolves substances - ex: salt dissolves in wate

• regulates temperatures - ex: coastal climates = more mild than inland climate

• expands as it freezes = ex: ice oats on lakes surface

• chemical reactant & product = ex: photosynthesis reactions require water molecule

Water is Cohesive and Adhesive

• cohesion: tendency of water molecules to stick together

- without it, water would evaporate instantly
- also contributes to observation that you can sometimes ll a glass to a bit past the rim, yet
it doesn’t overlook unless disturbe

• surface tension: liquid to hold together at it’s surface (not all liquids exhibit it

• adhesion: tendency to form hydrogen bonds w/ substances other than water

- ex: when water soaks into a paper towel, its adhering to the molecules that make up pape

Many Substances Dissolve in Wate

• solvent: a chemical in which other substances called solutes, dissolve

• solution: consists of one or more solutes dissolved in a liquid solvent

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 • polar solvents dissolve polar molecules & non polar solvents dissolve non polar substances

• hydrophilic substances: either polar or charged so they readily dissolve in wate

• hydrophobic (non polar molecules): do not dissolve in or form hydrogen bonds with wate

Water Participates Life Chemicals Reaction

• chemical reaction: 2 or more molecules swap their actions to yield different molecules; that is,
some chemical bonds break and new ones form



Cells Have an Optimum P

• one of the most important substances dissolved in water is one of the simplest: H+ ion
- each H+ is stripped of its electro
• one source of H+ is pure wate
- at any time, about 1 million water molecules breaks into 2 pieces —> one hydrogen ion H+
and one hydroxide ion OH- H2O —> H+ (+) OH

• neutral solution contains same H+ as it does OH

- some substances alter balance
- acid: chemical that adds H+ to a solution
- base: makes concentration of OH- exceed H+ by adding OH- or absorbing H
• pH scale ranges 0-14 (acid to base

• buffer system: allows organisms to maintain pH w/i certain limits; pairs of weak acids & bases
consume or release H+, adding acid or base therefore doesn’t affect pH of buffered solutio

Cells Contain 4 Major Types of Organic Molecule

• organisms composed mostly of water and organic molecules, chemical compound that contain
both carbon & hydrogen

• 4 organic molecules are

- carbohydrates
- protein
- nucleic acid
s

 - lipids

Large Organic Molecules Composed of Smaller Subunits

• proteins, nucleic acids, & some carbohydrates are polymers

• polymer: chains of small molecular subunits called monomers

Nam

Hydroxyl group

Carboxyl grou

Amino grou

Phosphate grou

• cells use chemical reactions called dehydration synthesis to link monomers

- dehydration synthesis: formation of covalent bond b/w 2 molecules by loss of water
- in this reaction, protein called an enzyme removes OH- (hydroxyl group) from one
molecule & a hydrogen atom from another forming H2O, and a new covalent bond b/w the
2 smaller components

• hydrolysis: breaks covalent bonds that link monomers

- enzymes use atoms from water to add hydroxyl group to one molecule and a hydrogen
atom to another

Molecule Chemical Structure Function

Carbohydrates monosaccharides & provide quick energy

—> simple sugars disaccharides

Complex carb polysaccharides (polymers of support cells & organisms

—> starch monosaccharides) (cellulose & chitin); store energy
(starch & glycogen)

Proteins polymer of amino acids carry out nearly all work of cell

Nucleic Acid (DNA/RNA) polymer of nucleotides store/use genetic info & transmit
to next generation

Lipids glycerol + 3 fatty acids store energy

—> triglycerides (fat)
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 Molecule Chemical Structure Function

Phospholipids glycerol + 2 fatty acids + from major part of biological

phosphate group membranes

Steroids four fused rings, mostly C & H stabilize animal membranes; sex
hormones

Carbs Include Sugars and Polysaccharides

• carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (1:2:1

• simplest of 4 main types of organic compounds

• 2 types: sugars and complex carb

Sugar

• smallest carb, the monosaccharides (sugar molecule), contain 5-6 carbon atoms

• disaccharide: 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis

Complex Carb

• chains of monosaccharides collectively called complex carb

• polysaccharide: huge molecules consisting of hundred or thousands of monosaccharide

monomers

• most common polysaccharide = cellulose, chitin, starch, and glycogen

• cellulose forms part of plant cell walls, humans cannot digest BUT make up much of ne

• chitin is found in cell walls of fungi, and exible exoskeletons of insects, spiders and
crustacean

• starch and glycogen both act as storage molecules that readily break down into their glucose
monomers when cells need burst of energy (most plants store starch, while glycogen occurs
in animal & fungi cells

Proteins are Complex and Versatil

• proteins do most work in cel

• protein: chain of monomers called amino acid

• each amino acid has central carbon atom bonded to 4 other atoms or groups of atom
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 • one is a hydrogen atom; another is a carboxyl group; a third is an amino group, a nitrogen
atom single bonded to 2 hydrogen atoms (-NH2); & fourth is a side chain or R group which
can be any of 20 chemical groups

• R groups distinguish amino acids from one another (some are acidic or basic, some are
hydrophilic or hydrophobic

- dehydration synthesis reaction connects amino acids to each other; a peptide bond is the
resulting covalent bond that links each amino acid to its neighbour

• 2 linked amino acids form a dipeptide; 3 form tripeptide, and long chains are called
polypeptide

• polypeptides called a protein once it folds into its functional shape; protein may consist of 1+
polypeptide chain

• most amino acids synthesized from scratch in humans BUT 8 are considered essential
because must come from protein rich foods; digestive enzymes catalyze hydrolysis reactions
that release them from foods, the body then uses these monomers to build polypeptides



Protein Foldin

• unlike polysaccharides most proteins don't exist as long chains inside cells, instead the
polypeptide chain folds into a unique 3D structure determined by the order & kinds of amino
acid

• conformation of protein at 4 levels

1. primary structure: amino acid sequence of polypeptide chain (determines all subsequent
structural levels

2. secondary structure: “structure” w/ de ned shape, resulting from hydrogen bonds b/w
parts of polypeptide, these interactions fold chain of amino acids into coils, sheets and
loops (each protein can have multiple areas of secondary structure

3. tertiary structure: overall shape of polypeptide, arising primarily through iterations b/w R
groups and water - inside a cell water molecules surround each polypeptide. The
hydrophobic R groups move away from water towards proteins interior. Hydrogen and
ionic bonds form b/w peptide backbone and some R groups. Covalent bonds b/w sulphur
atoms in some R group further stabilize the structure these disulphide bridges are
abundant in structural proteins such as keratin

- polypeptide shap
4. quaternary structure: shape arising from interactions b/w multiple polypeptide subunits of
same protein. Protein consists of 2 polypeptides; similarly the oxygen toting blood protein
hemoglobin is composed of 4 polypeptide chains
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 - only proteins consisting of multiple polypeptides have quaternary structure

- protein shap

Denaturation: Loss of Functio

• major categories of protein function: structural support, contraction, transport, storage,

enzymes and antibodies

• function of protein = direct consequence of its shap

• proteins are therefore vulnerable to conditions that alter their shapes

- heat , excessive salt, or wrong pH can denature protein, changing its shape so that it can
no longer carry out its functio

Nucleic Acids Store & Transmit Genetic Information

• how does a cell “know” which amino acids to string together to form particular protein? Each
proteins primary structure is encoded in the sequence of nucleic acid (polymer consisting of
monomers called nucleotides

• 2 types of nucleic acid: DNA and RN

• each nucleotide monomer consists of 3 components

- at centre, its 5 carbon sugar ribose in RNA & deoxyribose in DNA, attached to one of
sugars carbon atoms is at least 1 phosphate group (PO4), attached to opposite side of
sugar is nitrogenous base: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T) and cytosine (C) or uracil
(U). DNA contains AGTC and RNA contains ACG

• dehydration synthesis links nucleotides together, in this reaction a covalent bond forms b/w
sugar of one nucleotide and phosphate group of its neighbour

• DNA’s main function it store genetic info; its sequence of nucleotides “tells” a cell which amino
acids to string together to form each protei

• RNA = single stranded & DNA = double stranded helix

- RNA enables cells to use protein encoding info in DNA
• if DNA encodes only protein where do the rest of molecules in cells come from? answer
relates to diverse functions of proteins, some of them synthesize the carbohydrates, nucleic
acids & lipids that are essential to cells function
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 Lipids Are Hydrophobic and Energy Ric

• lipids: organic compounds, that don’t dissolve in wate

- hydrophobic bc contain large areas dominated by non polar carbon carbon carbon &
carbon hydrogen bond

- not polymers consisting of long chains of monomers instead have diverse chemical
structures

• 2 groups of lipids: triglycerides and steroids

Triglycerides

• consist of 3 long hydrogen chains called fatty acids bounded to glycerol, a 3 carbon molecule
that forms the triglycerides backbon

• do not consist of long strings of similar monomers, cells nevertheless use dehydration
synthesis to produce them

• enzymes link 3 fatty acids to one glycerol molecule, yielding 3 H2O molecules per triglycerid

• saturated fatty acid: single bond b/w all carbon atom

• unsaturated fatty acid: at least 1 double bond b/w carbon atom

• trans fat: unsaturated fat w/ straight fatty acid tails

Steroids

• 4 interconnected carbon rings

- ex: cholesterol
- cholesterol is also used as a starting material to make other lipids such as testosterone &
estrogen

 Chapter
Cells Are Units of Life

• cell theor

1. all organisms are made of 1 or more cells

2. cells are fundamental units for life

3. all cells come from pre existing cell

All Cells Have Features in Commo

• all cells contain DNA and RN

• ribosomes: manufactures protein

• cell membrane: boundary b/w cells and environment

• cytoplasm: enclosed by membrane, includes cell contents

• small cell size maximizes ratio of surface area to volume

Different Cell Types Characterize Life’s 3 Domain

• 2 categories of life
- prokaryotes: lack a nucleus
- eukaryotes: contains nucleus and organelles further divided into bacteria, archaea and
eukarya

• bacteria: prokaryotic, no nucleus/organelles, fatty acid

• archaea: prokaryotic, no nucleus/organelles, non fatty acid lipid

• eukarya: eukaryotic, nucleus/organelles, fatty acid

Domains Bacteria and Archaea Contain Prokaryotic Organisms

• bacterial cells contain nucleiod: where DNA is located and not bound by membrane
- located near DNA in cytoplasm are enzymes, RNA and ribosomes to make protein
- agella: tail helps bacteria swim/mov
- rigid cell wall surrounds cell membrane to prevent bursting if absorbs too much wate
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 • archaean cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells and lack nucleus and organelles
- most have cell walls and agella
- archaea have own domain bc build cells out of biochemicals that are different from
eukaryotes and bacteria

- like bacteria, one celled organism

- closest relatives of eukaryotes

Domain Eukarya Contains Organisms w Complex Cell

• plant cells have chloroplasts and a cell wall which animals lac

• cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells divided into organelles that have specialized functions

Membrane Separates Each Cell From Surrounding

• cell membrane (common to all cells) separates cytoplasm from cells surrounding

• cells surface transports substances in and out of cells and receives/responds to external
stimuli

• cell membrane composed of phospholipids that resemble triglycerides

- in triglycerides, 3 fatty acids attach to 3 carbon glycerol molecule but in phospholipids
glycerol bonds to only 2 fatty acids; the third carbon binds to phosphate group attached to
additional atom

- chemical structure gives phospholipids unusual properties in water, the phosphate “head”
end w/ it’s polar covalent bonds is attached to water (hydrophilic) and the other end
consisting of 2 fatty acid “tails” is hydrophobic

- in water, molecules arrange into phospholipid bilayer

- hydrophilic head groups exposed to watery medium outside and inside the cell and
hydrophobic tails face each other on inside of “sandwich” actually a 3D spher

- hydrophobic middle portion allows selective permeability of the phospholipid bilayer

• membrane is often called uid mosaic bc many of the molecules drift laterally within bilaye
- uid mosaic: 2D structure of movable phospholipids and proteins that form biological
membranes
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 • steroid molecules maintain membranes uidity as temperature uctuates

• cells have multiple types of membrane protein

- transport proteins: transport proteins embedded in phospholipid bilayer create
passageways through which ions, glucose, and other polar substances pass into or out of
cel

- enzymes: proteins facilitate chemical reactions that otherwise would proceed too slowly to
sustain life

- recognition proteins: carbohydrates attached to cells surface proteins serve as “name

tags” that help body’s immune system recognize its own cell

- adhesion proteins: membrane proteins enable cells to stick to one another

- receptor proteins: bind to molecules outside the cell and trigger response inside cel


Eukaryotic Organelles Divide Labour

• eukaryotic cells have organelles that have specialized functions that carry out the work of the
cel

- each organelle has distant set of proteins and molecules

- “walls” of cellular membrane are folded to increase surface area where chemical reactions
occur

• cells internal membranes form coordinated endomembrane system: nuclear envelope, ER,
golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and cell membran

- connected by vesicles: small membranes spheres that transport materials inside cel
- these “bubbles” of membrane, which can pinch off from 1 organelle travel w/i cell and fuse
w/ another

Nucleus, ER & Golgi Interact to Secrete Substance

• process of milk production and secretion begins in nucleus

- function of DNA is to specify ‘recipe’ for every protein cell can mak
- cell copies genes encoding proteins into another nucleic acid, messenger RNA (mRNA
- mRNA exits nucleus through nuclear pores: holes in double membrane nuclear envelope
that separates nucleus from cytoplasm and highly specialized channels composed of
dozens of types of proteins
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 • inside nucleus is nucleolus: dense spot that assembles components of ribosomes

- ribosomal subunits leave nucleus through nuclear pores and come together in cytoplasm
to form complete ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus

• cytoplasm includes cytosol: watery mixture of ions, enzymes, RNA and other dissolved
substance

• organelles part of cytoplasm, as are arrays of protein rods & tubules called cytoskeleton

• once in cytoplasm, mRNA coming from nucleus binds to ribosome which manufactures
proteins

- free oating ribosomes produce proteins that remain in cells cytosol

- but many proteins are destined for organelles, for cell membrane or for secretion
- in these cases, entire complex of ribosome, mRNA and partially made proteins anchors to
membrane of E

• ER: network of sacs & tubules composed of membranes

• originates at nuclear envelope and winds throughout cel

• close to nucleus, membrane surface studded w/ ribosomes making proteins that enter inner
compartment of ER; proteins destined to be secreted from cell, section is called rough ER: b/c
ribosomes give these membranes rough appearance

• adjacent to rough ER is smooth ER: synthesizes lipids and other membrane components and
also houses enzymes that detoxify drugs and poisons

- lipids and proteins made by ER exit organelle in vesicles, loaded transport vesicles
pinches off from tubular endings of ER membrane and takes contents to Golgi apparatus

• Golgi apparatus: stack of at, membrane enclosed sacs that functions as a processing centre
- proteins from ER pass through series of Golgi sacs where complete intricate folding and
become functional

- enzymes in Golgi also manufacture and attach carbohydrates to proteins or lipids forming
“name tags” recognized by immune system

- Golgi sorts & packages materials into vesicles which move to cell membrane, some
proteins received from ER become membrane surface proteins; other substances are
packaged for secretion from cell
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 • in milk production vesicles fuse with cell membrane and release proteins outside cell, the fat
droplet stay suspended in watery milk bc retain later of surrounding membrane when leave
cel

Lysosomes, Vacuoles and Peroxisomes are Cellular Digestion Centre

• besides producing molecules for export, eukaryotic cells break down molecules in specialized
compartment

• lysosomes: organelles containing enzymes that dismantle and recycle food particles, captured
bacteria, worn out organelles and debris (their enzymes cut apart substrates

- enzymes in lysosomes originate in rough E

- Golgi detects enzymes by recognizing a sugar attached to them, then packages them into
vesicles that eventually become lysosomes

- lysosomes fuse with transport vesicles carrying debris from outside of from within cel
- lysosomes enzymes break down large organic molecules into smaller subunits by
hydrolysis, releasing them into cytosol for cell to use

• what keeps lysosome from digesting cell

- lysosome membrane maintains pH of organelles interior at 4.8, more acidic than neutral
pH of cytoplasm

- if one lysosome were to burst, liberated enzymes would no longer be at optimum pH so

could not digest rest of cel

- some cells have more lysosomes (ex: liver so it can process cholesterol
• vacuoles: contain watery solution of enzymes that degrade and recycle molecules and
organelles

- most plants lack lysosomes but vacuoles serve similar function

- most plant growth comes from increase in volume of vacuole
- as it acquires water, it exerts presume (turgor pressure) against cell membrane and helps
plants stay rigid and upright

- vacuoles also contain variety of salts, sugars, and weak acids (solution is somewhat
acidic

- some protists (single cell) have vacuoles but have different functions (ex: pump excess
water out, digest nutrients
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 • peroxisomes: houses enzymes that break down fatty acids and dispose of toxic chemicals
- all eukaryotic cells contain the
- originate at ER and contain different enzymes

Mitochondria Extract Energy From Nutrients

• growth, cell division, protein production, secretion and many chemicals reactions in cytoplasm
require energy

• mitochondria: use cellular respiration to extract needed energy from food

- w exception of few types of protists; all eukaryotic cells have it
- mitochondria has 2 membrane layers: 1) outer membrane 2) intricately folded inner
membrane that encloses mitochondrial matrix

- within matrix is DNA that encodes proteins essential for mitochondrial function; ribosomes
occupy matrix to

• cristae: folds of inner membrane and add tremendous surface area to inner membrane which
houses enzymes that catalyze reactions of cellular respiration

Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts

• plants and many protists carry photosynthesis

- photosynthesis: use energy from sunlight to produce glucose and other food molecules
• chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis in eukaryotes
- each contains multiple membrane layers
- 2 outer membrane layers enclose enzyme rich uid called strom
- w/i a stroma is a 3rd membrane system folded into attened sacs called thylakoids, which
are stacked like pancakes to form structures called grana

- photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll embedded in thylakoid membranes

• chloroplast is one representative of larger category of plant organelles called plastids
- some plastids synthesize lipid soluble red, orange and yellow pigments
- plastids that assemble starch molecules important in cells specialized for food storage (ex:
potatoes and corn

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 - like mitochondria, all plastids contain DNA and ribosomes

Mitochondria Chloroplasts

DNA & Ribosomes? yes yes

Inner uid matrix stroma

Internal Membrane Structures cristae thylakoids

Function produce ATP (cellular respiration) produce sugars (photosynthesis)

Location Nearly all eukaryotic Eukaryotic cells that carry out

photosynthesis

Chapter
Energy Allows Cells To Do Life’s Work

• energy: ability to do work

- life depends on rearranging atoms and traf cking substances across membranes in
precise ways and these movements represent work and require energy

• total energy in any object is sum of energy’s 2 forms

1. potential: stored energy available to do work (ex: chemical energy

2. kinetic: energy of motion

- all chemical reactions that sustain life rely on collisions b/w moving molecules
- colder the object, slower the movement of atoms and molecules and many die if
conditions are too chilly

• calorie: units used to measure energy

- energy content of food measured in kilocalories kCa
- kilocalorie: measure energy content of food; equal to 1000 calories or one food calorie

Life Requires Energy Transformation

• 1st Law - Energy of Law Conservation: energy cannot be created or destroyed, although it can
be converted to other forms

• most important energy transformations are photosynthesis and cellular respiration

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 • photosynthesi
- plants and some microbes use carbon dioxide, H2O, and kinetic energy in sunlight to
produce sugars that are assembled into glucose and other carbohydrates and these
molecules contain potential energy in their chemical bonds

• cellular respiration
- energy rich glucose molecules change back to carbon dioxide and H2O, liberating energy
necessary to power life, cells translate some potential energy in glucose into the kinetic
energy of molecular motion and use that kinetic energy to do work

• 2nd Law of Energy Conservation: all energy transformations are inef cient because every
reaction loses some energy to surroundings as heat

- cells cannot use energy that has been converted to hea

• heat energy is disordered bc results from random molecular movements
- bc heat is disordered and all energy eventually becomes heat, it follows that all energy
transformations must head toward increasing disorder

- entropy: measure of the randomness (the more disordered the system is, the higher the
entropy

• even though organisms are organized (may seem to defy entropy always increases) they're
not isolated form surrounding

- instead, a constant stream of incoming energy and matter allow organisms to maintain
organization and stay alive using info in DNA

- organisms can increase in complexity as long as somethings else decreases in complexity

by greater amount

- ultimately life remains ordered and complex bc sun is constantly supplying energy to Earth

Network of Chemical Reactions Sustain Life

• # of chemical reactions in a cell is staggering, thousands of reactants and products from

interlocking pathways (like roadmaps

• metabolism: encompasses all these chemical reactions in cells, including those that break
down existing ones

- each reaction arranges atoms into new compounds, and each reaction either absorbs or
releases energ

• endergonic reaction: require energy input

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 - products contain more energy than reactants

- reaction that build complex molecules from simpler components
- ex: glucose (product of photosynthesis) has more potential energy than CO2 and H2O
(reactants

• exergonic reactions: release energy

- reactants contains more energy than products
- such reactions break large complex molecules into their smaller simpler component
- ex: cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose to CO2 and H2

Linked Oxidation and Reduction Reactions Form Electron Transport Chains

• electrons can carry energy

• most energy transformations in organisms occur in oxidation - reduction (redox) reactions

which transfer energized electrons from one molecule to another

- oxidation reduction reaction: one reactant is oxidized and other is reduced

- oxidation: loss of electrons and corresponding loss of energy from a molecule, an atom or
an ion

- reduction: gain of electrons and their energy

• group of proteins that are electron shuttling specialists often align in membranes
- in an electron transport chain, each protein accepts an electron from molecule before it
and passes to next

- electron transport chain: membrane bound molecular complex that shuttles electrons to
slowly extract their energ

 - as result, each protein in chain is rst reduced then oxidized, small amounts of energy are
related at each step and cell uses energy in other reactions

ATP is Cellular Energy Currency

• all cells contain maze of interlocking chemical reactions, some releasing energy and others
absorbing i

• covalent bonds of ATP temporarily store much of released energy

- cells then use the energy in ATP to power reactions that require energy input
- this is how cells indirectly use food energy to fuel muscle contractions and all other energy
requiring processes

• in eukaryotic cells, organelles called mitochondria produce most of cells AT

- mitochondria uses potential energy in the bonds of one glucose molecule to generate
dozens of ATP molecules in cellular respiration

Energy in ATP Critical To Cell Lif

• ATP: type of nucleotide

- components are nitrogen containing base adenine, 5 carbon sugar ribose and 3 phosphate
groups (PO4

- negative charges on neighbouring phosphate groups repel one another, making molecule
unstable an therefore releases energy when covalent bonds b/w phosphates break

• when cell requires energy for a chemical reaction, it “spends’ ATP by removing endmost
phosphate group

- products of hydrolysis reaction are adenosine diphosphate (ADP), the liberated phosphate
group and a burst of energy

- in reverse situation, energy can be temporarily stored by adding a phosphate to ADP

forming ATP and water ADP + P + energy —> ATP + H2

• reactions are fundamental to biology bc ATP is the “go between” that links reactions that
require energy input w/ those that release energ

• coupled reactions: simultaneous reactions which one provides energy that drives the other

• ATP hydrolysis is coupled to reactions requiring energy input, such as those that do work or
synthesize new molecules
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• how does coupling work

- cell uses ATP as energy source by transferring its phosphate group to another molecule
and this transfer may have either of 2 effects

1. presence of phosphate may energize target molecule, making it more likely to bond
w other molecule

2. change in shape of target molecul

ATP energizes target molecule, making it more likely to bond with other molecule

• ex: ATP provides energy to build large molecules out of small subunits

ATP donates phosphate group that changes shape of target molecul

• ex: phosphate group changes shape of membrane transport protei

s

 ATP Represents Short Term Energy Storage

• organisms require huge amounts of AT

- recycle ATP at furious pace, adding phosphate groups to ADP to reconstitute ATP, using
ATP to drive reactions and turning over entire supply every minut

• ATP high energy phosphate bonds make molecule too unstable for long term storage

Enzymes Speed Reaction

• enzyme: organic molecule that catalyses (speeds) a chemical reaction w/o being consumed
(most are proteins, some made of RNA

• many organelles (mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, and peroxisomes) are specialized

sacs of enzymes

- enzymes copy DNA, build proteins, digest food, recycle cells worn out parts, and catalyze
oxidation reduction reaction

Enzymes Bring Reactants Togethe

• enzymes speed reactions by lowering activation energy

- activation energy: amount of energy required to start a reaction
• enzymes brings reactants (substrates) into contact so less energy required to proceed
(reactions occur faster if activation energy is low

• most enzymes catalyze one or few chemical reactions

- enzyme that dismantles fatty acid, cannot break down starch in energy ba
- this speci city lies in shape of enzymes active site, where substrates bind and t like
puzzle pieces

- once reactions occurs, enzyme releases product

- reaction doesn’t consume/alter enzyme, instead after the protein releases products, its
active site is empty and ready to pick more substrates

Many Factors Affect Enzyme Activity

• one way to regulate metabolic pathway is by negative feedback: which a change triggers an
action that reverses the change
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 - as reactions products accumulate, they inhibit enzyme catalyzing reaction; reaction rate
slows or stops, but when concentration of reaction product falls, block on enzyme lifts and
cell can one again carry out reactio

• negative feedback works in 2 ways to prevent much of substance from accumulating

- non-competitive inhibition: product molecules binds to enzyme at a location other than
active site in a way that alters enzymes shape so it can no longer bind the substrate

- competitive inhibition: product of a reaction binds to enzymes active site, preventing it from
binding substrate (competitive bc product competes w substrate to occupy active site

• pH, salt concentration, temperature and some pharmaceutical drugs can in uence enzyme
activity

Membrane Transport May Release Energy or Cost Energy

• a biological membrane is a phospholipid bilayer studded w proteins and has selective

permeability

• thanks to regulation of membrane transport, interior of cell is chemically different from outside
- concentrations of some dissolved substances higher inside cell than outside an others are
lowe

• gradient: any such difference between 2 neighbouring regions

• concentration gradient: solute more concentrated in one region than neighbouring region
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 Mechanism Characteristics

Passive Transport net movement is down concentration gradient and

does not require energy input

- simple diffusion substance moves across membrane w/o

assistance from transport proteins (area of high
concentrations to area of low concentration)

- osmosis water diffuses across selectively permeable

membrane

- facilitated diffusion substance moves across membrane w/ assistance

from transport proteins

Active Transport net movement against concentration gradient;

requires transport proteins and energy input, often
from ATP

Transport Using Vesicles vesicles carries large particles in or out cell;

requires energy input

- endocytosis membrane engulfs incoming substance, enclosing

it in a vesicle

- exocytosis vesicles fuses w cell membrane, releasing

substances outside a cell

• if substances move from area more concentrated to less concentrated area its said to be
following its concentration gradient

- as solute moves, it disappears

- any concentration gradient eventually dissipates unless energy is expended to maintain
if…… why?

random molecular motive increases amount of disorder and costs needy to counter
this tendency toward disorder, however an existing concentration gradient represents
form of potential energy cells therefore spend ATP to create some types of
concentration differences which can be “cashed” in to do work

Passive Transport Doesn’t Require Energy Input

• passive transport: substance moves across membrane w/o direct expenditure of energy
- all forms of passive transport involve diffusion: spontaneous movement of substance from
more concentrated region to a less concentrated region

- diffusion represents dissipation of chemical gradient and loss of potential energy - doesn't
require energy input

 • 3 forms of passive transport:

1. simple diffusion

2. osmosis

3. facilitated diffusion

• simple diffusion: substance moves down its concentration gradient w/o use of transport protein
- substances may enter or leave cells by simple diffusion it can pass freely through
membran

• osmosis: diffusion of water across selectively permeable membran

- 2 solutions of different concentrations may be separated by selectively permeable
membrane through which water, but not solutes, can pass

- water will diffuse down its own gradient toward side w high solute concentration
• human red blood cells demonstrates effects of osmosis
- cell interior is isotonic to surrounding blood plasma
- isotonic: solute concentration is same on both sides of semipermeable membrane
- hypotonic environment: solute concentration lower than it is inside the cell, water moves by
osmosis into blood cell placed into hypotonic surroundings (membrane may burst since no
cell wall

- hypertonic environment: surroundings have higher concentration of solutes than the cells
cytoplasm, a cell loses water, shrivels and dies

• facilitated diffusion: membrane protein assists movement of polar solute down its
concentration gradient

- ions and polar molecules cannot freely cross hydrophobic layer of a membrane, instead
transport proteins form channels to help cross

- releases energy bc solute moves from more concentrated to less concentrated region

Active Transport Requires Energy Input

• simple and facilitated diffusion dissipate existing concentration gradient, however, a cell needs
to do the opposite: create and maintain concentration gradient

• active transport: cell uses transport protein to move substance against its concentration
gradient - from less concentrated to more concentrated
)

 - bc gradient represents form of potential energy, cell must expend energy to create it
(comes from ATP

• cells must contain high concentration of Potassium and low concentrations of sodium to
perform many function

• one active transport system in membranes of most animals cells is protein called sodium
potassium pump, which uses ATP as energy source to expel 3 sodium for every 2 potassium it
admits

Endocytosis and Exocytosis Use Vesicles To Transport Substances

• large particles must enter and leave cells with help of transport vesicle - small sac that can
pinch off of, or fuse with a cell membrane

• endocytosis: cell membrane engulfs uids and large molecules to bring them into the cell
when cell membrane indents, a “bubble” of membrane closes in on itself and resulting vesicle
traps incoming substance

• 2 forms of endocytosis
- pinocytosis: cell engulf small amounts of uid and dissolved substances
- phagocytosis: cell captures and engulfs large particles (ex: debris, cell
• vesicle fuses w lysosome where hydrolytic enzymes dismantle carg

• exocytosis: uses vesicles to transport uids and large particles out of cell
- inside cell, Golgi produces vesicles lled with substances to be secreted, vesicle moves to
cell membrane and joins with it, releasing substance

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 Chapter
Life Depends on Photosynthesis

• plants are autotrophs: uses inorganic substances such as H2O & CO2 to produce organic
compounds

• heterotroph: organism that obtains carbon by consuming pre existing organic molecules

• photosynthesis: process where plants, algae, and some bacteria harness solar energy &
convert it into chemical energy

- series of chemical reactions that use light energy to assemble CO2 into glucose C6H12O6
and other carb

- plant uses water in process and releases oxygen gas as byproduct

Photosynthetic Pigments Capture Sunligh

• visible light small sliver of much larger electromagnetic spectrum, range of possible
frequencies of radiation

- all electromagnetic radiation, including light, consists of photons: discrete packets of

kinetic energy

- photons wavelength is distance it moves during complete vibration (shorter it is, more
energy

• sunlight that reaches earth consists of 3 main components

1. ultraviolet radiation: shortest wavelengths, photons damage DN

2. visible light: energy powering photosynthesis and see colours

3. infrared radiation: longer wavelengths, too little energy per photon for use and
converted to heat immediately

• plant cells contain several pigment molecules that capture light energy
- most abundant is chlorophyll (green
- also have several types of accessory pigments: energy capturing pigment molecules other
than chlorophyll (ex: carotenoids

- chlorophyll a (blue green) & b (yellow green) absorb red and blue wavelengths bc they
re ect gree

- carotenoids re ect longer wavelengths so appear red, orange or yellow

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 Chloroplasts Are Sites of Photosynthesis

• leaves are main organs of plants

- expose abundant surface area to sunlight
- roots absorb water which moves up stems into leave
• plants also exchange CO2 and O2 w atmosphere through stomata: tiny openings in epidermis
of leaf of stem

• most photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll: collective term for cells lling leafs interior
- contain abundant chloroplasts (40-200 per cell, 500,000 per square mm
• each chloroplasts contains a lot of surface area for reactions of photosynthesis
- 2 membranes enclose the stroma; chloroplasts uid inner region, that contains ribosomes,
DNA & enzymes

- suspended in stroma are 10-100 grana, each composed of a stack of 10-20 thylakoids
- each thylakoid consists of membrane studded with photosynthetic pigments
• anchored in thylakoid membranes are many photosystems: clustered of pigments and
proteins part of photosynthesis

- each photosystem has 300 chlorophyll & 50 accessory pigments

- photosystem reaction centre includes special pairs of chlorophyll a that use energy in
photosynthetic reactions and other pigments make up light harvesting complex that
surrounds reaction centre

- additional pigments called antenna pigments: capture photon energy and funnel it to
reaction centre

• antenna pigments capture light energy and send it to reaction centre chlorophyll which uses it
for reactions of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Occurs in 2 Stage

• inside chloroplast, photosynthesis occurs in 2 stages

1. light reaction

2. carbon reaction
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 Light Reaction

• light reactions: harvest light energy and store it in molecules of ATP or NADPH
- in chloroplasts thylakoid membranes, pigment molecules in 2 linked photosystems capture
kinetic energy from photons and store as potential energy in chemical bonds of 2
molecules: ATP & NADP

- ATP: nucleotide that stores potential energy in covalent bonds b/w it’s phosphate groups
(forms when phosphate group added to ADP

- NADPH: molecule that carries pairs of energized electron

- in photosynthesis, electrons come from one of the two reaction centre chlorophyll
molecules, once light reactions are underway, chlorophyll in turn replaces its lost electrons
by splitting H2O molecules, yielding O



Carbon Reaction

• carbon reactions: chloroplasts uses ATP, high energy electrons in NADPH & CO2 to produce
sugar molecules

- ATP & NADPH come from light reactions & CO2 comes from atmosphere
- once inside leaf, CO2 diffuses into mesophyll cell and across chloroplast membrane into
stroma, where carbon reactions occur

The Light Reactions Begin Photosynthesis

• thylakoid membranes contain 2 types of photosynthesis, dubbed “I” & “II

• photosynthetic electron transport chain provides both the energy required for ATP synthesis &
electrons required for production of NADP

Light Striking Photosystem II Provides Energy to Produce AT

• photosynthesis begins in clusters of pigment molecule of photosynthesis

- pigments absorb light & transfer energy to a chlorophyll a reaction centre where it boosts 2
electrons to an orbital w higher energy level

- “excited” electrons, now packed w potential energy are ejected from reaction centre
chlorophyll a molecule and begin journey through electron transport chain
s

 - reaction centre chlorophyll a molecule replaces electrons from water, which donates 2
electrons when splits into O2 and 2 protons (H+

- chlorophyll a picks electrons, protons released into thylakoid space and O2 used in plant
respiration or released into environment

• meanwhile, chloroplast uses potential energy in electrons to create proton gradient

- as electrons pass along electron transport chain, energy they lose drives active transport
of proteins from stoma into thylakoid space, the resulting proton (H+) gradient across
thylakoid membrane represents form of potential energy - active transport

• ATP synthase: enzyme complex that transforms the gradients potential energy into chemical
energy in form of AT

- channel in ATP synthase allows protons trapped inside thylakoids space to return to
strom

- as gradient dissipates, energy is release

- ATP synthase enzyme uses energy to add phosphate to ADP = AT
•

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