Math 15 | Calculus III

Planes and Lines in 𝑅 3

 Definition 1. Plane
If 𝐍 is a nonzero vector and 𝑃0 is a given point, then the set of all points 𝑃 for which 𝐕 𝑃0 𝑃
and 𝐍 are orthogonal is defined to be a plane through 𝑃0 having 𝐍 as a normal vector.

Note

Figure 1 shows a portion of a plane

through the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and the
representation of the normal vector 𝑁
having its initial point at 𝑃0

.
Theorem 2.

.
If 𝑃0 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 is a point in a plane and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is a normal vector to the plane then an equation
.
of the plane is
𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0 + 𝑏 𝑦 − 𝑦0 + 𝑐 𝑧 − 𝑧0 = 0
.
 Example 1.
Find an equation of the plane containing the point 2,1,3 and having
3𝐢 − 4𝐣 + 𝐤 as a normal vector.

Solution:
From Theorem 2 where the point 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 is 2,1,3 and the vector
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is 3, −4,1 , the equation of the required plane is
3 𝑥−2 −4 𝑦−1 + 𝑧−3 =0
. 3𝑥 − 6 − 4𝑦 + 4 + 𝑧 − 3 = 0
.
3𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 𝑧 − 5 = 0
.

.
 Theorem 3.
If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are not all zero, the graph of an equation of the form
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
is a plane and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is a normal vector to the plane.

Example 2.
Find an equation of the plane through the points 𝑃 1,3,2 , 𝑄 3, −1,2 and
𝑅 2,1,3 .

Solution:
. From Theorem 3, the graph of the linear equation
. 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 (1)
.
is a plane. If this equation is satisfied by the coordinates of points 𝑃, 𝑄 and
.
𝑅, the plane will contain the points. Replacing 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 in (1) by the
.

.
coordinates of the three points we have the equations
 Example 2. (Continuation)
𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
3𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0
2𝑎 + 𝑏 + 3𝑐 + 𝑑 = 0

Solving this system of equations for 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 in terms of 𝑑, we obtain

𝑎 = −59𝑑 𝑏 = −29𝑑 𝑐 = 19𝑑
Replacing 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 in
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 (1)
by these values, we have
5 2 1
− 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
9 9 9
.

. Multiplying on both sides of this equation by −𝑑9 , we get

.

5𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 9 = 0
.

.
 Definition 4. Angle Between Two Planes
An angle between two planes is defined to be the angle between normal
vectors of the planes.

Note

There are two angles between two

planes. If one of these angles is 𝜃, the
other is the supplement of 𝜃. Figure 7
shows two planes and the two angles
.

.
between them.
.

.
 Example 3.
Find the radian measure of the acute angle between the planes
5𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 − 12 = 0 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 7𝑧 + 11 = 0

Solution:
Let 𝐍1 be a normal vector to the first plane and 𝐍2 be a normal vector to the second plane. Then
𝐍1 = 5𝐢 − 2𝐣 + 5𝐤 and 𝐍2 = 2𝐢 + 𝐣 − 7𝐤

From Definition 4, an angle between the two planes is the angle between 𝐍1 and 𝐍2 . Thus, from
Theorem 5 (in Dot Product), if 𝜃 is the radian measure of this angle,
𝐍1 ∙ 𝐍2
cos 𝜃 =
𝐍1 𝐍2
5, −2,5 ∙ 2,1, −7
=
52 + −2 2 + 52 22 + 12 + (−7)2
10 − 2 − 35
.
=
. 54 54
1
. =−
2
.
2 1
. Therefore, 𝜃 = 𝜋. The acute angle between the two planes is the supplement of 𝜃 which is 𝜋.
3 3
.
 Definition 5. Parallel Planes
Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors are parallel.

Note
• Two vectors are parallel if and only if one of
the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other
• From Definition 5, if one plane is a normal
vector 𝐍𝟏 and another plane is a normal
vector 𝐍𝟐 , then the two planes are parallel if
and only if
𝐍𝟏 = 𝑘𝐍𝟐
•
.
Figure 8 shows two parallel planes and
.

.
representations of some of their normal
vectors
.

.
 Definition 6. Perpendicular Planes
Two planes are perpendicular if and only if their normal vectors are
orthogonal.

Note
From Definition 6 and the fact that the two vectors are orthogonal if and
only if their product is zero, two planes having normal vectors 𝐍1 and 𝐍2
are perpendicular if and only if
𝐍𝟏 ∙ 𝐍𝟐
=0 (3)
.

.
 Example 4.
Find an equation of the plane containing the point 𝑃(4, 0, −2) and perpendicular to each of the planes
𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 5 = 0

Solution: Let 𝑀 be the required plane and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑎 ≠ 0, be a normal vector of

𝑀 . Let 𝑀1 be the plane having the equation 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 . By
Theorem 3, a normal vector of 𝑀1 is 1, −1, 1 . Because 𝑀 and 𝑀1 are
perpendicular, then from (3), that is, 𝐍1 ∙ 𝐍2 = 0, we have
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∙ 1, −1, 1 = 0
𝑎−𝑏+𝑐 = 0 (4)

Let 𝑀2 be the plane having the equation 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 5 = 0. A normal

vector of 𝑀2 is 2, 1, −4 . Because 𝑀 and 𝑀2 are perpendicular,
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∙ 2, 1, −4 = 0
2𝑎 + 𝑏 − 4𝑐 = 0
. Solving this equation and (4) simultaneously for 𝑏 and 𝑐 in terms of 𝑎, we get 𝑏 = 2𝑎 and 𝑐 = 𝑎.
.
Therefore, a normal vector of 𝑀 is 𝑎, 2𝑎, 𝑎 . Because 𝑃(4, 0, −2) is a point in 𝑀, then from Theorem 2,
an equation of 𝑀 is
.
𝑎 𝑥 − 4 + 2𝑎 𝑦 − 0 + 𝑎 𝑧 + 2 = 0
. Because 𝑎 ≠ 0, we divide by 𝑎 and combine terms to obtain
. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 − 2 = 0
.
Figure 9 shows the three planes and the point 𝑃.
 Parametric Equations of the Line 𝑳
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐 (5)
where 𝑡 is any real number, 𝑃0 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 is a point on 𝐿

Illustration 3

From Equations (5), parametric equations of the line 𝐿, parallel

to the representation of the vector 𝐑 = 11, 8, 10 and containing
the point (8,12,6), are
𝑥 = 8 + 11𝑡 𝑦 = 12 + 8𝑡 𝑧 = 6 + 10𝑡

. Figure 15 shows the line and the position representation of 𝐑.

.

.
 Symmetric Equations of the Line 𝑳
If none of the numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, or 𝑐 is zero, we can eliminate 𝑡 from Equations (5) and obtain
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0 𝑧−𝑧0
= 𝑏 = 𝑐 (6)
𝑎
and is equivalent to
𝑏 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦0
𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑎 𝑧 − 𝑧0
𝑐 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑏(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )

Note
• Vector 𝐑 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 determines the direction of the line having symmetric equations (6)
• 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are called direction numbers of the line
• Any vector parallel to 𝐑 has either the same or the opposite direction as 𝐑
• Any set of three numbers proportional to 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 also can serve as a set of direction numbers of
. the line because the components of any vector parallel to 𝐑 are proportional to the components of 𝑅
. • So, a line has an unlimited number of sets of direction numbers
.
• A set of direction numbers of a line is written in brackets as [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]

.
 Illustration 4
If [2, 3, −4] represents a set of direction numbers of a line, other sets of direction numbers of the same
2 3 4
line can be represented as 4,6, −8 , 1, 32, −2 , 29 , 29 , − 29 .

Illustration 5
A set of direction numbers of the line of Illustration 3 is [11,8,10], and the line contains the point 8,12,6 .
Thus, from (6), symmetric equations of this line are
𝑥 − 8 𝑦 − 12 𝑧 − 6
= =
11 8 10
.

.
 Example 6
Find two sets of symmetric equations of the line through the points (−3,2,4) and (6,1,2).

Solution:
Let 𝑃1 be the point −3,2,4 and 𝑃2 be the point 6,1,2 . Then the required line is parallel to the
representations of the vector 𝐕 𝑃1 𝑃2 , and so the components of this vector constitute a set of direction
numbers of the line. 𝐕 𝑃1 𝑃2 = 9, −1, −2 . Taking 𝑃0 as the point (−3,2,4) we have, from (6), the
equations
𝑥+3 𝑦−2 𝑧−4
= =
9 −1 −2

Another set of symmetric equations of this line,

obtained by taking 𝑃0 as the point (6,1,2), is
𝑥−6 𝑦−1 𝑧−2
= =
9 −1 −2
.

.
Figure 16 shows this line and the points 𝑃1 and
𝑃2 on line.
.

.
 Note

If one of the numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, or 𝑐 is zero, we cannot use

symmetric equations (6). Suppose, however, that 𝑏 = 0 and
neither 𝑎 nor 𝑐 is zero. Then equations of the line are
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑧−𝑧0
= and 𝑦 = 𝑦0
𝑎 𝑐

A line having these symmetric equations lies in the plane

𝑦 = 𝑦0 and hence is parallel to the 𝑥𝑧 plane. Figure 17
. shows such a line.
.

.
 Example 7
Given the two planes
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 − 9 = 0 and 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 3 = 0
For the line of intersection of these two planes, find
(a) A set of symmetric equations;
(b) A set of parametric equations;
(c) The direction cosines of a vector whose representations are parallel to it.

Solution:
(a) A set of symmetric equations is of the form (6). To obtain this form, solve for the pair of given
equations for 𝑥 and 𝑦 in terms of 𝑧.
𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 𝑧 − 9 = 0 2𝑥 + 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 − 18 = 0
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 3 = 0 + 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 3 = 0 −
3𝑥 + 3𝑧 − 6 = 0 9𝑦 − 6𝑧 − 21 = 0
𝑥 = −𝑧 + 2 𝑦 = 23𝑧 + 73
.
Solve each equation for 𝑧 and obtain
7
. 𝑥−2 𝑦−3
=𝑧 2 =𝑧
. −1
3

.
Thus, a set of symmetric equations is
𝑥 − 2 𝑦 − 73 𝑧 − 0 𝑥 − 2 𝑦 − 73 𝑧 − 0
. = 2 = ⟹ = =
.
−1 3
1 −3 2 3
 Example 7
(b) A set of parametric equations is obtained by setting each of the ratios in part (a) equal to 𝑡, and we
have
𝑥−2 𝑦 − 73 𝑧−0
=𝑡 =𝑡 =𝑡
−3 2 3
𝑥 = 2 − 3𝑡 𝑦 = 73 + 2t 𝑧 = 3t

(c) From the symmetric equations in part (a), a set of direction numbers of the line is −3,2,3 .
Therefore, the vector −3,2,3 has its representations parallel to the line. Because −3 2 + 22 + 32 =
22, the direction cosines of this vector are
3 2 3
cos 𝛼 = − cos 𝛽 = cos 𝛾 =
22 22 22

.
 Example 8
Find the equation of the line through the point (1, −1,1) perpendicular to the line
3𝑥 = 2𝑦 = 𝑧 (7)

and parallel to the plane

𝑥+𝑦−𝑧 =0 (8)

Solution:
Let 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 be a set of direction numbers of the required line. Equation (7) can be written as
𝑥−0 𝑦−0 𝑧−0
= =
1 1 1
3 2 2
1 1
which are symmetric equations of the line. A set of direction numbers of this line is , ,1 . Because
3 2
1 1
the required line is perpendicular to this line, it follows that the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and , ,1 are
. 3 2

.
orthogonal. So
.
1 1
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∙ , , 1 = 0
3 2
.

.
1 1
. 𝑎+ 𝑏+𝑐 =0
3 2
 Example 8 (Continuation)
A normal vector to the plane (8) is 1,1, −1 . Because the required line is parallel to this plane, it is
perpendicular to representations of the normal vector. Hence the vectors 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 1,1, −1 are
orthogonal; so
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∙ 1,1, −1 = 0
𝑎+𝑏−𝑐 =0

Assuming 𝑐 ≠ 0, we solve this equation and (9) simultaneously for 𝑎 and 𝑏 in terms of 𝑐 and get 𝑎 = 9𝑐
and 𝑏 = −8𝑐. The required line then has the set of direction numbers 9𝑐, −8𝑐, 𝑐 and contains the point
1, −1,1 . Therefore, symmetric equations of the line are
𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧−1 𝑥−1 𝑦+1 𝑧−1
= = ⟺ = =
9𝑐 −8𝑐 𝑐 9 −8 1
.

.
 Example 9
If 𝑙1 is the line through 𝐴(1,2,7) and 𝐵 −2,3, −4 and 𝑙2 is the line through 𝐶(2, −1,4) and 𝐷 5,7, −3 ,
prove that 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are skew lines (lines that do not lie in one plane).

Solution:
To show that two lines do not lie in one plane we demonstrate that they do not intersect and are not
parallel. Parametric equations of a line are
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑡𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑡𝑏 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑡𝑐
where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 is a set of direction numbers of the line and 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 is any point on the line. Because
𝐕 𝐴𝐵 = −3,1, −11 , a set of direction numbers of 𝑙1 is −3,1, −11 . Taking 𝐴 as the point 𝑃0 we have
as parametric equations of 𝑙1
𝑥 = 1 − 3𝑡 𝑦 =2+𝑡 𝑧 = 7 − 11𝑡 (10)
Because 𝐕 𝐶𝐷 = 3,8, −7 and 𝑙2 contains the point 𝐶, parametric equations of 𝑙2 are
𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑠 𝑦 = −1 + 8𝑠 𝑧 = 4 − 7𝑠 (11)
. Because the sets of direction numbers are not proportional, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are not parallel. For the lines to
.
intersect, a value of 𝑡 and a value of 𝑠 must give the same point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 in both sets of Equations
(10) and (11). Therefore, we equate the right sides of the respective equations and obtain
.
1 − 3𝑡 = 2 + 3𝑠
. 2 + 𝑡 = −1 + 8𝑠
. 7 − 11𝑡 = 4 − 7𝑠
.
 Example 9 (Continuation)

Solving the first two equations simultaneously, we

obtain
8 17
𝑠= and 𝑡=−
27 27
This set of values does not satisfy the third equation;
hence the two lines do not intersect. Thus, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2
are skew lines.

Figure 18 shows lines 𝑙1 , through points 𝐴 and 𝐵, and

𝑙2 , through points 𝐶 and 𝐷.
.