Vector Formulas as(b x) = b+ (eX a) = e+ (a xb) ax (b x 6) ob ~ (a+ bjc (a b+ (ex d) = (a- eb +d) — (@-dylb-o) Vx ven 0 Vey xay=0 Vx (Vx a) = (Fea) Va Vos uvea VX (ya) = Ve xat uv xa lab) = (ae Vyb + (be Wa tax (VCR) Hx XA) Ve(axb) = b-(¥ xX a)—a-(¥ Xb) Vx (a xb) = a(V +b) — b(V +a) + (b+ Va — (a Vb Iris the coordinate of a pot with respect to some origin, with magnitude = |xhon =r is a unit radial vector, and (7) is a welkbehaved function of r, then vexed vxx=0 vege =2 9+ + Fv x ingen} = 0 (a= Vafe) - fa nia n)) + a(am) L Vix ray = a+ (ea) +L 8) 1 where L = > (x x ¥) is the angular-momentum operator.Theorems from Vector Calculus In the following #, #, and A are well-behaved scalar or vector functions, Vis a three-dimensional volume with volume element dix, S is a closed wwo- dimensional surface bounding V, with area element da and unit outward normal mat da. [vena [aceu (Diese esr) f Vu dPx = I, um da [vxaes= [nx au [ (Vy + Vb - Vy) dx = f on- Vida (Green's first identity) [ere ema [ cave oe) mde (Greens orem In the following S is an open surface and C is the contour bounding it, with line clement dl. The normal n to S is defined by the right-hand-screw rule in relation to the sense of the line integral around C. fe x A)-pda= fa vdt {Stokes’s theorem) [nx veda =f oaClassical ElectrodynamicsClassical Electrodynamics Third Edition John David Jackson Professor Emeritus of Physics, University of California, Berkeley ® Joun Witey & Sons, Inc.“Thic hook was set 19 on 12 Times Ton by UG and printed and Wound by Hamilion Pring Company, “This book i printed om ecidrce paper. OO “The paper inthis book was manufacrueed by 4 mill whowe forest management programs include sustained yolé harvesting ofits Gaberlands.Sustsinedyickd harvesting principles ensue tha The fumbers of trees cut each your dows mol exceed the seta of mow Broth. Copyright © 1999 John Davia Jackson. Al rights reserve, [Nop of tis publiccon may be epedaced stored in sev spate a waned inany for or by any means, eacrnic,mechonica.poeseepyngrecanng scanning ‘orethersins scot a pei ue Sections ex 08 of te 1976 Unie Sates [Copyright witht ier the sos weiten prmlsin of te Publier, ox -2uthorzon tough paymsa ofthe ppeorsate percep ee othe Copyright (Clesance Cems, 222 Rosewood Drive, Darver, MA 01923, (87) 750-8400, fx (98) 10-4470. Rogues to he PuDb ser or perms sould beaded the Permissions Depstmen: Jn Wily & Sons ne, 11H Rives Sueet, Hoboken, 07030, (201) 728-601, fx (201) 743.6008, E-a PERMREQG WILEY COM, “To on books o foreusumer sevice plete, eal [email protected] MILEY (225.5945), Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Juels toh David. HES ‘Clases cevtrodynamies John David Jackson.—3 pom Includes index. ISBN 0.571-4992-x loth ¢ alk. paper) LEleewodyamics. 1 TWe, Oca 1988 5374 de2l 97-6873 Prinod in the Unived Stator of America wsTo the memory of my father, Walter David JacksonPreface It has been 36 years since the appearance of the first edition of this book, and 23 years since the second. Suck intervals may be appropriate for a subject whose fundamental basis was completely established theoretically 134 years ago by Maxwell and experimentally 110 years ago by Hertz, Still. there are changes in emphasis and applications. This third edition attempts to address both without ‘any significant increase in size. Inevitably, some topics present in the second edition had to be eliminated to make room for new material, One major omission is the chapter on plasma physics, although some pieces appear elsewhere. Read- ers who miss particular topics may, I hope, be able to avail themselves of the second edition. ‘The most visible change is the use of SI units in the first 10 chapters. Gaussian units are retained in the later chapters. since such units seem more suited 10 relativity and relativistic electrodynamics than SI. As a reminder of the sys- tem of units being employed, the running head on each left-hand page carries “SI” or "—G" depending on the chapter. My tardy adoption of the universally accepted SI system is a recognition that almost all undergraduate physics texts, as well as engineering books at all {evels, employ ST units throughout. For many years Ed Purcell and I had a pact to support each other in the use of Gaussian tnits, Now I have betrayed him! Al- though this book is formally dedicated to the memory of my father, I dedicate this third edition informally to the memory of Edward Mills Purcell (1912-1997), a marvelous physicist with deep understanding, a great teacher, and a wonderful man, Because of the increasing use of personal computers to supplement analytical work oF to attack problems not amenable to analytic solution, I have included some new sections on the prizeiples of some numerical techniques for clectro- statics and magnetostaties, as well as some elementary problems. Instructors may use their ingenuity to create more challenging ones. The aim is to provide an understanding of such methods before blindly using canned software or even ‘Mathematica or Maple, ‘There has been some rearrangement of sopics—Faraday’s law and quasi- static fields are now in Chapter 5 with magnetostatics, permitting a more logical iseussion of energy and inductances, Another major change is the consolidation of the discussion of radiation by charge-current sources, in both elementary and ‘exact multipole forms, in Chapter 9. All the applications to scattering and dif- fraction are in Chapter 10. ‘The principles of optical fibers and dielectric waveguides are discussed in two new sections in Chapter 8. In Chapter 13 the treatment of energy loss has been shortened and strengthened. Because of the increasing importance of synckro- tron radiation as a research tool, the discussion in Chapter 14 has been aug: mented by a detailed section on the physics of wigglers and undulators for syn- cchroton fight sources, There is new material in Chapter 16 on radia and models of classical charged particles, as well as changed emphasis ‘There is much tweaking by small amounts throughout. { hope the reader will viiVili Preface ‘not notice, of will notice only greater clarity. To mention but a few minor addi- tions: estimating sell-inductances, Poynting's theorem in lossy materials, polar- ization potentials (Hertz vectors}, Goos-Hanchen effect, attenuation in optical fibers, London penetration depth in superconductors. And moze problems, of course! Over 110 new problems, a 40% increase, all aimed at educating. not discouraging. In preparing this new edition and making corrections, Ihave benefited from questions, suggestions, criticism, and advice from many students colleagues, and newfound friends. | am in Gebt to al. Particular thanks for help in various ways xo to Myron Bander, David F. Bartlett, Robert N. Cahn, John Cooper, Joha L. Gammel. David J. Griffiths, Leroy T. Kerth, Kwang J. Kim, Norman M. Kroll, Michael A. Lee, Harry J. Lipkin, William Mendoza, Gerald A. Miller, William A, Newcomb, Ivan Otero, Alan M. Portis, Fritz Rohrlich, Wayne M, Saslow, Chris Schmid, Kevin B, Schmidt, and George H. Trilling J, David Jackson Berkeley, California, 1998, 2001Preface to the Second Edition In the thirteen years since the appearance of the first edition, my interest in classical electromagnetism has waxed and waned, but never fallen to zero. The subject is ever fresh There are always important new applications and examples. ‘The present edition reflects two efforts on my part; the refinement and improve ment of material already in the first edition; the addition of new topics (and the ‘omission of a few}. ‘The major purposes and emphasis are still the same, but there are extensive changes and additions. A major augmtencation is the “Introduction and Survey” at the beginning, Topies such as the present experimental limits on the mass of the photon and the status of linear superposition are treated there. The aim is to provide @ survey of those basics that are often assumed to be well known when ‘one writes down the Maxwell equations and teins to solve specific examples. ‘Other major changes in the first half of the took include a new treatment of the derivation of the equations of macroscopic electromagnetism from the micro- scopic description; a discussion of symmetry properties of mechanical and elec- tromagnetic quantities; sections on magnetic monopoles and the quantization condition of Dirac; Stokes's polarization parameters, a unified discussion of the frequency dispersion characteristics of dielectrics. conductors, and plasmas, 2 di cussion of causality and the Kramers-Kronig dispersion relations; a simplified, but stil extensive, version of the classic Sommerfeld—Brillowin problem of the arrival of a signal in a dispersive medium (receatly verified experimentally); an ‘unusual example of a resonant cavity; the normal-mode expansion of an arbitrary field in a wave guide; and related discussions of sources in a guide or cavity and the transmission and reflection coetficients of flat obstacles in wave guides. Chapicr 9, on simple radiating systems and diffraction, has been enlarged to include scattering at long wavelengths (the blue sky, for example) and the optical theorem. The sections on scalar and vectorial diffraction have been improved, Chapters LJ and 12, on special relativity, have been rewritten almost com- pletely. The old pseudo-Euclidean metric with x, = ict has been replaced by gh (vith g@ = +1," = —Li= 1, 2, 3). The change of metric necessitated a complete revision and thus permitted substitution of modern experiments and concerns about the experimental basis of the special theory for the time-honored aberration of starlight and the Michelson-Morley experiment. Other aspects have been modernized, too. The extensive treatment of relativistic kinematics of the first edition has been relegated to Uke problems. In its stead is a discussion of the Lagrangian for the electromagnetic fields. the canonical and symmetric stress-energy tensor, and the Proca Lagrangian for massive photons. Significant alterations in the remaining chapters include a new section on transition radiation, a completely revised (and much more satisfactory) semi- classical treatment of radiation emitted in collisions that stresses momentura transfer instead of impact parameter. and a better derivation of the coupling of multipole fields to their sources. The collection of formulas and page references to special functions on the from and back flyleaves is a much requested addition, (Of the 278 problems, 117 (more than 40 per cent} are new.X Preface fo the Second Edition ‘The one area that remains almost completely unchanged is the chapter on magnetohydrodynamics and plasma physics. | regret this. But the book obviously has growa tremendously, and there are available many books devoted exclusively to the subject of plasmas or magnetohydrodynamics. ‘OF minor note is the change from Maxwell’s equations and a Green’s fume- tion to the Maxwell equations and a Green function. The latter boggles some minds, but is in conformity with other usage (Bessel function, for example). tis still Green’s theorem, however, because that's whose theorem itis. Work on this edition began in earnest during the first half of 1970 on the occasion of a sabbatical leave spent at Clare Hall and the Cavendish Leboratory in Cambridge. I at grateful to the University of California for the leave and indebted toN. F. Mott for welcoming me as a visitor to the Cavendish Laboratory and to R. J. Eden and A. B. Pippard for my appointment as a Visiting Fellow of Clare Hall, Tangible and intangible evidence at the Cavendish of Maxwell. Ray- leigh and Thomson provided inspiration for my task; the stimulation of everyday activities there provided necessary diversion This new edition has benefited from questions, suggestions, comments and criticism from many students, colleagues, and strangers. Among those to whom, Lowe some specific debt of gratitude are A.M. Bincer, L.S. Brown, R. W. Brown, E, U, Condon, H. H. Denman, S, Deser. A. J. Dragt, V.L, Fitch, M. B. Halpern, A, Hobson, J. P. Hurley, D. L. Judd, L. T, Kerth, E. Marx, M. Nauenberg, A. B. Pippard, A. M, Portis, R. K. Sachs, W. M. Saslow, R. Schleif, V. L. Telegei. T. Tredon, E. P. Tryon, V. F. Weisskopf. and Dudley Williams. Especially helpful were D. G. Boulware, R.N. Cahn, Leverett Davis, Jr. K. Goitiried, C. K. Gra- ham, E. M, Purcell, and E. H. Wichmana, I send my thanks and fraternal greet- ings to all of these people, (0 the other readers who have writien to me, and the countless students who have struggled with the problems (and sometimes written, asking for solutions to be dispatched before some deadline!). ‘To my mind, the book is better than ever. May each reader benefit and enjoy! J.D, Jackson Berkeley, California, 1974Preface to the First Edition Classical electromagnetic theory, together with classical and quantum mechanics, Sorms the core of present-day theoretical training for undergraduate and grad- uate physicists. A thorough grounding in these subjectsis a requirement for more advanced or specialized training. ‘Typically the undergraduate program in electricity and magnetism involves two oF perhaps three semesters beyond elementary physics, with the emphasis fon the fundamenial laws, laboratory verification and elaboration of their con- sequences, circuit analysis, simple wave phenomena, and radiation. The maihe- ‘matical tools utilized include vector calculus, ordinary differential equations with constant coefiicients, Fourier series, and perhaps Fourier or Laplace transforms, partial differential equations, Legendre polynomials, and Besse! functions. Asa general rule, a two-semester course in electromagnetic theory is given to beginning graduate students. tis for such a course that my book is designee. My aim in teaching a graduate course in electromagnetism is at least threefold. ‘The first aim is to present the basic subject matter as a coherent whole, with emphasis on the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena, both in their physical basis and in the mode of mathematical description. The second, concurrent aim is to develop and utilize a number of topies in mathematical physics which are taseful in both electromagnetic theory and wave mechanics. These incinde Green's theorems and Green’s functions, orthonormal expansions, spherical har- ‘monies, cylindrical and spherical Bessel functions. A third and perhaps most important purpose is the presentation of new material, especially on the inter= action of relativistic charged particles with electromagnetic fields. In this last area personal preferences and prejudices enter strongly. My choice of topics is gor cerned by what I feel is imporlant and useful for students interested in theoretical physics, experimental nuciear and high-energy physics, and that as yet ill-defined Feld of plasma physics ‘The book begins in the traditional manaer with electrostatics. The first six chapters are devoted to the development of Maxwell's theory of electromagne- tism. Much of the necessary mathematical apparatus is constructed along the way, especially in Chapter 2 and 3, where bourdary-value problems are discussed thoroughly. The treatment is initially in (erms of the electric feld E and the magnetic induction B, with the derived macroscopic quantities, D and HF. intro- duced by suitable averaging over ensembles of atoms or molecules. In the dis- cussion of dielectsies, simple classical models for atomic polarizability are de- scribed, but for magnetic materials no such attempt to made. Partly this omission was a question of space, hut truly classical models of magnetic susceptibility are not possible, Furthermore, elucidation of the interesting phenomenon of ferro- ‘magnetism needs almost a book in itself The next three chapters (7-9) illustrate various electromagnetic phenomena, mostly of a macroscopic sort, Plane waves in different media, including plasmas, as weil as dispersion and the propagation of pulses, are treated in Chapter 7. The discussion of wave guides and cavities in Chapter 8 is developed for systems of arbitrary cross section, and the problems of attenuation in guides and the Q of xixi Preface to the First Edition a cavity are handled in a very general way which emphasizes the physical pro- cesses involved. The elementary theory of multipole radiation from a localized source and diffraction occupy Chapter 9. Since the simple scalar theory of dif fractioa is covered in many opties textbooks, as well as undergraduate books on electricity and magnetism, I have presented an improved, although still approx- ‘mate, theory of diffraction based on vector rather than scalar Green's theorems. The subject of magnetohydrodynamics and plasmas receives increasingly more attention trom physicisis and astrophysicsts. Chapter 10) represents a sur- ‘vey of this complex field with on introduction to the main physical ideas involved. ‘The first nine or ten chapters constitute the hasic material of classical clee- tricity and magnetism, A graduate student in physies may be expected to have ‘been exposed to much of this material, perhaps ai a somewhat lower level, as an undergraduate. But he obtains a more mature view of ii, understands it more deeply, and gains a considerable techoicat ability in analytic methods of solution ‘when he studies the subject at the levet of this book. He is then prepared to go ‘on to more advanced lopies. The advanced topics presented here are predomi- nantly thase involving the interaction of charged particles with each other and with electromagnetic fields, especially when moving relativistically. ‘The special theory of relativity had its origins in classical electrodynamics. And even after almost 60 years, classical electrodynamics sill impresses and de- lights as a beautiful example of the covariance of physical laws under Lorentz transformations, The special theory of relativity is discussed in Chapter [1, where all the necessary formal apparatus is developed. various kinematic consequences ave explored, and he covariance of electrodynamics is established. The next chapter is devoted to relativistic particle kinematics and dynamics. Although the dynamics of charged particles in electtomagnetic fields can properly be consid. cred electrodynamics, the reader may wonder whether such things as kinematic ‘wansformations of collision problems can, My reply is that these examples occur naturally once one has established the four-vector character of a particle's mo- ‘mentum and energy, (hat they serve as useful practice in manipulating Lorentz ‘wansformations, and that the end results are valuable and often hard to find elsewhere Chapter 13 on collisions between charged particles emphasizes energy loss ‘and seattering and develops concepts of use in later chapters, Here for the first, ime in the book I use semiclassical arguments based on the uncertainty principle to obtain approximate quantum-mechanical expressions for energy loss, et, from the classienl results. This approach, so fruiful in the hands of Niels Bohr and E. J. Williams, allows one to see clearly how and when quantum-mechanical effects enter to modify classical considerations ‘The important subject of emission of radiation by accelerated point charges 's discussed in detail in Chapters 14 and 15. Relativistic effects are stressed, and expressions for the frequency and angular dependence of the emitted radiation are developed in sufficient generality for all applications, The examples treated ange from synchrotron radiation to bremsstrahlung and radiative beta processes. Cherenkov radiation and the Weizsicker—Williams method of virtual quanta ate also discussed. In the atomic and nuclear collision processes semiclassical argu- ments are again employed to obtain approximate quantunt-mechanicat results, [ lay considerable stress on this point because I feel that jt is important for the student to see that radiative effects such as bremsstrahiung are almost entirelyPrefuse to the Fist Edition xii classical in nazure, even though involving small-scale collisions. A student who meets bremsstratung for the first time as an example of a calculation in quantum field theory will not understand its physical basis. Multipote fields form the subject matter of Chapter 16, The expansion of scalar and vector fields in spherical waves is developed from first principles with ‘no restrictions as {o the relative dimensions of source and wavelength, Then the properties of electric and magnetic multipole radiation fields are considered, Once the connection {0 the multiple moments of the source has been made, examples of atomic and nuclear multipoie radiation are discussed, as well as a macroscopic source whose dimensions are comparable to a wavelength, The scat tering of a plane electromagnetic wave by a spherical object is treated in some detail in order to illustrate a boundary-value problem with vecior spherical waves. In the last chapter the difficult problem of radiative reaction is discussed. ‘The treatment is physical, rather than mathematical, with the emphasis on delim- iting the areas Where approximate radiative corrections are adequate and on finding where and wity existing theories fail. The original Abraham—Lorent the ‘ory of the selF-force is presented, as well as more recent classical considerations. ‘The book ends wilh an appendix on units and dimensions and a bibliography. In the appendix I have attempted to show the logical steps involved in setting up a system of units, without haranguing the reader as to the obvious virtues of my choice of units. I have provided two tables which 1 hope will be useful, one for converting equations and symbols and the other for converting a given quantity of something from so many Gaussian units to so many mks units, and vice versa. ‘The bibliography lists books which T think the reader may find pertinent and useful for reference or additional study. These books are referred to by authors name in the reading lists at the end of each chapter. “This book is the outgrowth of a graduate. course in classical electrodynamics which I have taught off and on over the past eleven years, at both the University of Ilinois and MeGill University. | wish to thank my colleagues and students at both institutions for countless helpful remarks and discussions, Special mention must be made of Professor P. R. Wallace of McGill, who gave me the opportunity and encouragement to teach what was then a ratker unorthodox course in elec- tromagnetism, and Professors H.W. Wyld and G. Ascoli of {linois, who have been particularly free with many helpful suggestions on the tceatment of various topics, My thanks are also extended to Dr. A. N, Kaufman for reading and com menting on a pretiminary version of the manuscript, and to Mr. G, L. Kane for his zealous help in preparing the index. J.D, Juckson Urbana, Ilinois, January, 1962Contents Introduction and Survey 1 Chapter 1.1 Maxwell Equations in Vacuum, Fields, and Sources 2 1.2 Inverse Square Law, or the Mass of the Photon 5 1.3. Linear Superposition 9 14 Maxwell Eyuations in Macroscopic Media 13 [5 Boundary Conditions at Intertaces Between Different Media 16 [6 Some Remarks on Idealizations in Electromagnetism 19 References and Suggested Reuding — 22 1/ Introduction to Electrostatics 24 11 Coulomb’s Law 24 12 Electric Field 24 13 Gaus’ Law 27 14 Differential Form of Gauss's Law 28 1.5. Another Eguation of Blectrostaties and the Scalar Potential 29 16 Surface Distributions of Charges and Dipoles and Discontinuities in the Blectric Field and Potential 31 1.7 Poisson and Laplace Equations 34 1.8 Green's Theorem 35, 1.9 Uniqueness of the Solution with Dirichlet or Neumann Boundary Conditions 37 1.10 Formal Solution of Blectrostatie Boundary-Value Problem with Green Function 38 LIL Electrostatic Potential Energy and Energy Density: Capacitance 40 1.12 Variational Approach to the Solution of the Laplace and Poisson Equations 43 1.13 Relaxation Method for Two-Dimensional Electrostatic Problems 47 References and Suggested Reading 50 Problems 30 Chapter 2 / Boundary-Value Problems in Electrostatics: 1 57 21 Method of Images 57 22 Point Charge in the Presence of a Grounded Conducting Sphere 58 23. Point Charge in the Presence of a Charged, Insulated, Conducting Sphere 60 24 Point Charge Near a Conducting Sphere at Fixed Potential — 61 25 Conducting Sphere in a Uniform Blectric Field by Method ‘oflmages 62 26 — Green Function for the Sphere; General Solution for the Potential 64 27 Conducting Sphere with Hemispheres at Different Potentials 65 xyXvi Contents 28 Orthogonal Functions and Expansions 67 2.9 Separation of Variables; Laplace Equation in Rectangular Coordinates 70 2.10 A Two-Dimensional Potential Problem; Summation of Fourier Series 72 211 Fields and Charge Densities in Two-Dimensional Corners and Along Edges 75 2.12 Introduction to Finite Element Analysis for Electrostatics 79 References and Suggested Reading 84 Problems — 85 Chapter 3 / Boundary- Value Problems in Electrostaties: I 95 31 Laplace Equation in Spherical Coordinates 95 3.2 Legendre Equation and Legendre Polynomials. 9% 3.3. Boundary-Value Problems with Azimuthal Symmetry 101 3.4 Behavior of Fields in & Conical Hole or Neur a Sharp Point 104 35. Associated Legendre Functions and the Spherical Harmonies ¥,A8.6) 107 3.6 Addition Theorem for Spherical Harmonies 110. 3.7 Laplace Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates: Bessel Functions 11 3.8 Boundary-Value Problems in Cylindrical Coordinates. 17 4.9 Expansion of Green Functions in Spherical Coordinates 149) 3.10 Solution of Potential Problems with the Spherical Green Function Expansion 112, S11 Expansion of Green Fusctions in Cylindrical Coordinates 125 3.12 Bigenfunction Expansions tor Green Functions 127 3.13 Mixed Boundary Conditions, Conducting Plane with a Circular Hole 129 References and Suggested Reading 135 Problems — 135 Chapter 4/ Multipoles, Electrostatics of Macroscopic Media, Dielectrics 145 4.1 Multipole Expansion 145 42 Multipole Expansion of the Energy of a Charge Distribution inan External Field 150 43 Elementary Treatment of Electrostatis with Ponderable Media 151 44 Boundary-Value Probiems with Dielectrics 154 45. Molecular Polarizabiliy and Electric Susceptibility 159 46 Models for Eleetrie Poiarizability 162 47 Elecirostatic Energy in Dielectric Media 165, References and Suggested Reading 168 Problems — 109 Chapter 5 / Magnetostatics, Faraday’s Law, Quasi-Static Fields 174 S41 Introduction and Definitions 174 52 Biot and Savart ww 17533 34 35 36 310 31 S12 513 sd 515 5.16 S17 S18, Contents Xvi Differential Equations of Magnetostatics and Ampére’s Law 178 Vector Potential 180 ‘Vector Potential and Magnetic Induction for a Circular Current Loop 181 Magnetic Fiekis of a Localized Current Distribution, Magnetic Momeme 184 Force and Torque on and Energy of a Localized Current inan External Magnetic Induction 188 Macroscopic Equations, Boundary Conditions on Band H 191 Methods of Solving Boundary-Value Problems in Magnetostatics 194 Uniformly Magnetized Sphere 198 Magnetized Sphere in an External Field: Permanent Magnets 199 Magnetic Shielding, Spherical Shell of Permeable Material ina Uniform Fiekl 201 Effect of a Circular Hole ia a Perfectly Conducting Plane with an Asymptotically Uniform Tangential Magnetic Field on One Side 203 Numerical Methods for Two-Dimensional Magnetic Fields 206 Faraday’s Law of Induction 208 Energy in the Magnetic Field 212 Energy and Self- and Mutual Inductanees 215 Quasi-Static Magnetic Fields in Conductors; Eddy Currents: Magnetic Diffusion — 218 References and Suggested Reading 223 Problems 225 tribution, Chapter 6 / Maxwell Equations, Macroscopic Electromagnetism, Conservation Laws 237 6.1 Maxwell's Displacement Current: Maxwell Equations 237 62 Vector and Scalar Potentiais 239 63 Gauge Transformations, Lorenz Gauge, Coulomb Gauge 240 64 — Green Functions for the Wave Equation 243 6.5 Retarded Solutions for the Fields: Jefimenko’s Generalizations ‘of the Coulomb and Biot-Savart Laws; Heaviside Feynman Expressions for Fields of Point Cherge 246 6.6 Derivation of the Equations of Macroscopic Electromagnetism 248 6.7 Poynting’s Theorem and Conservation of Energy and Momentum for a System of Charged Particles and Electromagnetic Fields 258, 68 — Poynting’s Theorem in Linear Dissipative Media with Losses 262 68. Poynting’s Theorem for Harmoaic Fields: Field Definitions of Impedance and Admittance 264 6.10 Transformation Properties of Electromagnetic Fields and Sources Under Rotations, Spatial Reflections, and Time Reversal 267 6.11 On the Question of Magnetic Monopoles 273 6.12 Discussion of the Dirac Quantization Condition 275 6.13 Polarization Potentials (Hertz Vectors) 250 Referenices and Suggested Reading 282 Problems 283avi Contents Chapter 7 / Plane Electromagnetic Waves and Wave Propagation 295 71 Plane Waves in a Nonconducting Medium 295 7.2 Linear and Cireusler Polarization: Stokes Parameters 299 73. Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic Waves at a Plane Interface Between Two Dielectrics 302 74 Polarization by Reflection, Total Internal Reflection; Goos-Hinchen Effect 306 75. Frequeney Dispersion Characteristics of Dielectrics, Conductors, and Plasmas 308 7.6 Simplified Model of Propagation in the lonosphere tand Magnetosphere 316 7.7 Magnetohydtodynamic Waves 319 7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension: Group Velocity 322 7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse As It Propagates in a Dispersive Medium 326 7.10 Causality ia the Connection Between D and E; Kramers-Kronig Relations 330 TIL Anzival of a Signal After Propagation Through a Dispersive Medium 335 References and Suggested Reading 339 Probleras 340 Chapter 8 / Waveguides, Resonant Cavities, and Optical Fibers 352 8.1 Fields at the Surface of and Within a Conductor 352 82 Cylindrical Cavities and Waveguides 356 83 Waveguides 359 84 Modes ina Rectangular Waveguide 361 85 Energy Flow and Attemuation in Waveguides 363, 86 Perturbation of Boundary Conditions 366 87 Resonant Cavities 368 88 Power Losses in a Cavity: Q of « Cavity 371 89 Barth and lonosphere as a Resonant Cavity Schumann Resonances 374 8.10 Multitode Propagation ia Optical Fibers 378 3.11 Modes in Dielectric Waveguides 385 8.12. Expansion in Normal Modes; Fields Generated by a Localized Souree in a Hollow Metallic Guide 389 References and Suggested Reading 395 Problems 346 Chapter 9/ Radiating Systems, Multipole Fields and Radiation 407 9.1 Fields and Radiation of « Localized Oscillating Source 407, 9.2 Blecttic Dipole Fields and Radiation 410. 9.3. Magnetic Dipole and Electric Quadrupole Fields 413 94 Center-Fed Linear Antenna 416 9.5 Multipole Expansion for Localized Source or Aperture in Waveguide 419Contents 96 Spherical Wave Solutions of the Scalar Wave Equation 425 9.2 Multipole Expansion of the Electromagnetic Fields 429 98 Properties of Multipole Fields. Energy and Angular Momentum of Multipole Radiation 432 98 Angular Distribution of Multipole Radiation 437 9.10 Sources of Multipole Radiation; Multipole Moments 430 9.1L Muitipole Radiation in Atoms and Nuclei 442 9.12 Multipole Radiation from a Linear, Center-Fed Antenna 444 References and Suggested Reading 448 Problems 449 Chapter 10 / Scattering and Diffraction 456 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelengths 456 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering, Rayleigh’s Explanation of the Blue Sky, Scattering by Gases and Liquids, Attenuation in Optical Fibers 462 10.3 Spherical Wave Expansion of a Vector Plane Wave 471 IOA Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves by 2 Sphere 473 105 Scalar Diffraction Theory 478 10.6 Vector Equivalents of the Kirchhoff Integral 482 10.7 Vectorial Diffraction Theory 485 10.8 Bubinet’s Principle of Complementary Screens 488 109 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture: Remarks an Small Apertures 490 10,10 Scattering in the Short-Wavelength Limit 495, 10.11 Optical Theorem and Related Matters 500 References and Suggested Reading 506 Problems S07 Chapter 11 / Special Theory of Relativity 514 JI... The Situation Before 1900, Einstein’s Two Postulates S15 HQ Some Recent Experiments 518 11.3. Lorentz Transformations and Basic Kinematic Results of Special Relativity 524 114 Addition of Velocities: 4-Velocity $30. JS Relativistic Momentum and Energy of a Particle $33 }16 Mathematical Properties of the Space-Time of Special Relativity $39 17 Matrix Representation of Lorentz Transformations, Infinitesimal Generators 543 11.8 Thomas Precession 548 JU9 Invariance of Electric Charge; Covariance of Electrodynamics 553 11.10 Transformation of Electromagnetic Fiek’s $58 ILI Relativistic Equation of Motion for Spin in Unitorm or Slowly Varying External Fields 561 J1.12 Note on Notation and Units in Relativistic Kinematics 565 References and Suggested Reading 566 Problems 568XX Contents Chapter 12 / Dynamics of Relativistic Particles and Electromagnetic Fields 579 121 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian for a Relativistic Charged Particle in External Electromagnetic Fields $79 122 Motion in a Uniform. Static Magnetic Field 585 12.3. Motion in Combined, Uniform, Static Electric and Magnetic Fiells 586 124 Particle Deifts in Nonuniform, Static Magnetic Fields $88 125 Adiabatic Invariance of Flux Through Orbit of Particle 592 126 Lowest Order Relativistic Corrections to the Lagrangian for Intereeting Charged Particles: The Darwin Lagrangian 596 12.7 Lagrangian for tiie Electromagnetic Field $98 128 Proce Lagrangian: Photon Mass Effects 6010 129 Effective “Photon” Mass in Superconductivity: London Penetration 1210 124 Depth — 608 Canonical and Symmetric Stress Tensors; Conservation Laws 605, Solution of the Wave Equation ia Covatiant Form; Invariant Green Functions 612 References and Suggested Reading 615 Problems 617 Chapter 13 / Collisions, Energy Loss, and Scattering of Charged Particles, Cherenkov and Transition Radiation 624 4 Energy Transfer in Coulomb Collision Between Heavy Incident Particle and Free Electron; Energy Loss in Hard Collisions 625 13.2. Energy Loss from Soft Collisions; Total Energy Loss 627 133 Density Effect in Collisional Energy Loss 631, 134 Cherenkov Radiation 637 13S Elastic Scattering of Fast Charged Particles by Atoms 64) 136 Mean Square Angle of Scattering: Angular Distribution of Multiple Scattering 643 13.7 Transition Radiation 646 References and Suggested Reading 654 Problems 635 Chapter 14 / Radiation by Moving Charges 661 141 _Lignard-Wiechert Potentials and Ficlds for a Point Charge 661 142 Total Power Radiated by an Accelerated Chatge: Larmor's Formula and Its Relativistic Generalization 665 143 Angular Distribution of Radiation Emitted by an Accelerated Charge 668 144 Radiation Emitted by a Charge ia Arbitrary, Extremely Relativistic Motion 671 145 Distribution in Frequency and Angle of Energy Radiated by Accelerated Charges: Basic Results 673146 147 148 Contents xxi Frequency Spectrum af Radiation Emitted by 2 Relativistic Charged Particle in Instantaneously Cirewlar Motion 676 Undulators and Wigglets for Syachrotron Light Sources 683, ‘Thomson Scattering of Radiation 694 References and Suggested Reading 697 Problems — 698 Chapter 15 / Bremsstrahlung, Method of Virtual Quanta, Radiative Beta Processes 708 184 15.2 134 134 155 156 189 Rusliation Emitied During Collisions 709 Bremssttuhlung in Coulomb Collisions 714 Screening Effects; Relativistic Radiative Energy Loss 721 Weizsticker-Wilkams Method of Virtual Quanta 724 Bremsstrablung as the Scattering of Virtual Quanta 729 Radiation Emitted During Beta Decay 730 Radiation Emitted During Orbital Electron Capture: Disappearance of Charge and Magnetic Moment 732 References and Suggested Reading 737 Problems — 737 Chapter 16 / Radiation Damping, Classical Models of Charged Particles 745 16.1 Introductory Considerations 745, 162 Radiative Reaetion Force from Conservation of Energy 747 163. Abvaham-Lorentz Evaluation of the SeliForce 750 1644 Relativistic Covariance; Stability and Poincaré Suesses 755 165 Covariant Definitions of Electromagnetic Energy and Momentum 757 16.6 Covasiant Stuble Charged Panicle 759 167 Level Breadth and Level Shift of a Radiating Oscillator 763 16.8 Scattering and Absorption of Radiation by an Oscillator 766 References and Suggested Reading 768 Problems 769 Appendix on Units and Dimensions 775 J Units une Dimensions, Busie Units and Derived Units 775 2 Electromagnetic Units and Equations 777 3 Various Systems of Electromagnetic Units 779 4 Conversion of Equations and Amounts Between 81 Units and Gaussian Units 782 Bibliography 785, 7mIntroduction and Survey Although amber and lodestone were known to the ancient Greeks, electro- dynamics developed as a quantitative subject in less than a hundred years. Cavendish’s remarkable experiments in electrostatics were done from 1771 to 1773. Coulomb's monumental researches began to be published in 1785. This marked the beginning of quantitative research in electricity and magnetism on @ ‘worldwide scale. Fifty years later Faraday was studying the effects of time-varying currents and magnetic fields. By 1864 Maxwell had published his famous paper on a dynamical theory of the electromagactic fick. Twenty-four years later (1888) Herv published his discovery of transverse clectromagnetic waves, which propagated at the same speed as bght. and placed Maxwell's theory on a firm experimental footing. ‘The story of the development of our understanding of electricity and mag- netism and of light is, of course, much longer and richer than the mention of a few names from one century would indicate. For a detailed account of the fis cinating history, the reader should consult the authoritative volumes by Whitaker.” A brieter account, with emphasis on optical phenomena, appeats at the beginning of Born and Wolk, Since the 1960s there has been a true revolution in our understanding of the basic forces and constituents of matter. Now ((4%0s) classical eleetrodynamies rests in @ sector of the unified description of particles and interactions known as the siandard model. The standard model gives a coherent quantum-mechanical description of electromagnetic, weak, and strong interactions based on funda- mental constituents—quarks and leptons—interacting via force carriets—pho- tons, W and Z besons, and gluons. The unified theoretical framework is gener- uted through principles of continuous gauge (really phase) invariance of the forces and discrete symmetries of particle properties. From the point of view of the standard model, classical electrodynamics is limit of quantum electrodynamics (for small momentum and energy transfers, and large average numbers of virtual or real photons). Quantum electrodynamics, in turn, is @ consequence of a spontaneously broken symmetry in a theory in ‘which initially the weak and electromagnetic interactions are unified and the force earriers of both are massless. The symmetry breaking leaves the electro- magnetic force carrier (photon) massless with a Coulomb's law of infinite range, while the weak force carriers acquire mastes of the order of 80-90 GeVic with a weak interaction at low energies of extremely short range (2 x 10"! meter), Because of the origins in a unified theory, the range and strength of the weak interaction are related to the electromagnetic coupling (the fine structure con- stant «= 1/137). siete surnames denote books that are cited felly inthe Bibiography2 Introduetion and Survey Despite the presence of s rather large number of quantities that must be taken from experiment, the standard model (together with general relativity ut large scales) provides a highly accurate deseription of nature in all its aspects, from far inside the nucleus, (o microelectronics, to tables and chairs, tothe most remote galaxy. Many of the phenomena are classical ot explicable with aonrel ativistic quantum mechanies. of course, but the precision of the agreement of the standard model with experinient in atomic and particle physics where telatvistic quantum mechanics rules is truly astounding. Classica! mechanies and classical lectrodynamics served as progenitors of our eurzent understanding, aad still play ‘Important roles in practical fife and at the research frontier. This book is self-contained in that, though some mathematical background (vector calculus, differential equations) is assumed, the subject of clectrodynam- icsis developed from its beginnings in electrostatics. Most reacezs are not coming, to the subject for the first time, however. The purpose of this introduction is, therelore not to set the stage for a discussion of Coulomb's law and other basics, but rather to present a review and a survey of classical electromagnetism. Ques- tions such as the current accuracy ofthe inverse square law of force (mass ofthe Photon). the limits of validity of the principle of lineat superposition, and the effects of discteteness of charge and of energy diflerences are discussed. "Bread aang butter” topies such as the boundary conditions for macroscopic fields at surfaces between different media and at conductors are also treuted. The aim is to set classical electromagnetism in context, to indicate its domain of validity, and to elucidate some of the idealizations tha it contains. Some results {rom later in the book andl sone nonclassical ideas aze used in the course of the discussion. Certainly a reader beginning electromagnetism for the first time will nat foliow all the arguments ot sce their significance, For others, however, this introduction will serve as a springboard into the later parts of the book, heyond Chapter 5, ancl will remind them of how the subject stands as an experimental science. 1 Maxwell Equations in Vacuum, Fields, and Sources ‘The equations governing electromagnetic phenomena are the Maxwell ‘equations, vep a vxn- Day a (a) B v Be xE+ =o v-B=0 where for external sources in vacuum, D = &F and B= dgH. The first two equations ther become V-E = ples e (ib) a vxB- Says * BO a7 HeSect. LI Maxwell Equations in Vacuum, Fields, and Sources 3 Implicit in the Maxwell equations is the continuity equation for charge density and current density, By ye eavetno0 ay ‘This follows from combining the time derivative of the first equation in (I.1a) vith the divergence of the second equation, Also essential for consideration of charged particle motion is the Lorentz force equation, F = q(E + y x BY (3) which gives the force acting on a point charge y in the presence of electromag netic fields, ‘These equations have been written in SI units, the system of electromagnetic units used a the first 10 chapters of this book. (Linits and dimensions are dis- cussed in the Appendix.) The Maxwell equstions are displayed in the commoner systems of units in Table 2 of the Appendix. Essential to electrodynamics is the speed of light in vacuum, given in SU units by ¢ = (j1p6)"V7. As discussed in the Appendix, the meter is now defined in terms of the second (based on a hyperfine transition in cesiam-133) and the speed of light (¢ = 299 792 458 mis, exactly) jons assume that the speed of light isa universal constant, consistent ‘with evidence (see Section 11.2.C) indicating that to a high accuracy the speed of light in vacuum is independent of frequency from very low frequencies to at least v = 1 Hz (4 GeV photons). For most practical purposes we can approx- imate ¢ = 3 x 10 mis or to he considerably more accurate, ¢ = 2.998 x 10* mis. ‘The electric and magnetic fields E and B in ([.1) were originally introduced by means of the force equation (1.3). In Coulomb's experiments forces acting between localized distributions of charge were observed. There jt is found useful (see Section 1.2) to introduce the electric field Eas the force per unit charge. Similarly, in Ampére’s experiments the mutual forces of current-carrying loops were studied (see Section 5.2). With the identification of NAgv as a current ina conductor of cross-sectional area A with N charge carriers per unit volume mov- ing at velocity v, we see that B in (1.3) is detined in magnitude as a force per unit current. Although E and B thus fiest appear just as convenient replacements for forees produced by distributions of charge and current, they have other important aspects. First, their introduction decouples conceptually the sources trom the test bodies experiencing electromagnetic forces. Ifthe fields E and B from two source distributions are the same at a given point in space, the force acting on a test charge or current at that point will be the same. regardless of how different the source distributions are. This gives E and B in (13) meaning in their owa right, independeat of the sources. Second, electromagnetic fields can exist in regions of space where there are no sources. They can carry energy, momentum, and angular momentum and so have an existence totally independent of charges and currents. In fact, though there are recurring attempts to eliminate explicit ref- ‘erence 10 the fields in favor of action-at-a-distance descriptions of the interaction, of charged particles, the concept of the electromagnetic field is one of the most. fruitful ideas of physics, both classically and quantum mechanically, ‘The concept of K and B as ordinary fields is a classical notion. It can be ‘thought of as the classical limit (limit of large quantum aumbers) of a quantum mechanical description in terms of real or virtual photons. Tn the domain of4 Intraduetion and Survey ‘macroscopic phenomena and even some atomic phenomena, the discrete photon aspect of the electromagnetic field can usually be ignored or at lewst glossed over. For exampie. | meter from a 100-watt light bulb, the root mean square electric fieid is of the order of $0 Vim and there are of the order of 10" visble photons? em?-s, Similarly, an isotropic FM antenna with a power of 100 watts at 10° Hz produces an rms electric feld of oaly 0.5 mVim ata distance of 100 kilometers, but this sill corresponds to @ flux of 10" photonsicm*s, or about 10° photons in a volume of | wavelength cubed (27 m') at that distance. Ordinarily an apparatus will not be sensibfe to the individual photons; the cumulative effect of many photons emitted or absorbed will appear as @ continuous, macroscopically ob- servable response, Then a completely classical description in terms of the Maxwell equations is permitted and is appropriate, How is one to decide a priori when a classical description of the electromag- netic fields is adequate? Some sophistication is occasionally needed, but the fol- lowing is usually a sufficient criterion: When the number of pliotons javolved can be taken as large but the momentum carried by an individual photon is small compared co the momentum of the material system, then the response of the ‘material system can be determined adequately from a classical description of the electromagnetic fields. For example, each 10" Hz photon emitted by our FM antenna gives tan impulse af only 2.2 x 10 Nes, A classical treatment issurely adequate. Again, the scattering of light by a free electron is governed by the classical ‘Thomson formula (Section 14.8) at tow frequencies, but by the laws of the Compton effect as the momentum fale of the incident photon becomes sig- nificant compared 10 mec. The photoelectric effect is nonelass system, since the quasi-free electrons im the metal change th ies by amounts equal to those of the absorbed photons. but the photoclectr current can be calculated quentum mechanically forthe electrons using a classical description of the electromagnetic ties. “The quantum nature of the eleciromagnetie felds must, on the other hand, be taken into account in spontaneous emission of radiation by atoms, or by aay ‘other system that initially lacks photons and has only a small number of photons present finally, The average behavior may still he deseribable in essentially clas- sical terms. basically because of conservation of energy and momentum. An ex ample is the classical treatment (Section 16.2) of the cascading of a charged particle down through tie orbits of an actractive potential. At high particle quan- tum numbers, a classical description of particle motion is adequate, and the sec- ular changes in energy and engular momentum can be ealcufated classically from the radiation reaction because the energies of the suceessive photons emitted ace small compared to the kinetic or potential energy of the orbiting particle. ‘The sources in U1) are p(x. 2), the electric charge density, and F(x, #), the electric current density, Ir classical electromagnetism they are assumed t0 be continuous distributions in x, although we consider from time to time localized istributions that can be approximated by points. The magnitudes of these point charges are assumed to be completely arbitrary, but are known to be restricted in reality to diserete values, The basic unit of charge is the magnitude of the charge on the electron, 4.803 206 8(15) x 10? esu 1.602 17 33(49) x 10°" C lal