L T P Credits Total Marks

SECA2305 ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS LAB

0 0 2 2 100

LAB MANUAL FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS 3RD SEM MECHATRONICS

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Study of circuit components and equipments (Component identification, colour coding, checking diode,
BJT, FET, study of CRO, Audio Oscillator, Multimeter, LCR meter)
2. Characteristics of Semiconductor diode and Zener diode
3. Characteristics of CB configuration
4. Characteristics of JFET
5. Characteristics of UJT
6. Characteristics of SCR
7. Characteristics of DIAC
8. Characteristics of LDR
9. Clippers and Clampers
10. Hartley Oscillator.
11. Colpitts Oscillator.
12. Class C Power Amplifier using PSPICE

NAME :
REGISTER NO. :
DEPARTMENT :
 PRE LAB BASICS
PASSIVECOMPONENTS: Components which do not require power supply for its operation are called
Passive components. Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors are the important passive components used in
electronics. None of these elements (except electrolytic capacitor) has polarity.

Resistors: Resistors restrict the flow of electric current

Resistor symbol

(or) View of the resistor

Example: Resistance is measured in ohms; the symbol for ohm is mega . 1 is quite
small so resistor values are often given in k and M .1k = 1000 1 M =1000000 .

Resistor values are normally shown using colored bands. Each color represents a number as shown in
table. Most resistors have 4 bands:

 The first band gives the first digit.

 The second band gives the second digit.
 The third band indicates the number of zeros or Multiplier
 The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance

Colour 1 Band 2 Band 3 Multiplier Tolerance

Band

Black 0 0 NIL 1Ω ± 1%
Brown 1 1 1 10 Ω ±2%
Red 2 2 2 100 Ω
Orang 3 3 3 1KΩ
Yellow 4 4 4 10K Ω
Green 5 5 5 100K Ω ± 0.5%
Blue 6 6 6 1 MΩ ±0.25%
Violet 7 7 7 10 MΩ ±0.10%
Gray 8 8 8 ±0.05%
White 9 9 9
Gold ±5%
Silver ±10%
This resistor has yellow, violet, orange and gold bands.

So itsvalueis47×10K Ω= 47K .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 47K±5%
Capacitors:
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time
for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as are savoir of
charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they
block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance: This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are
used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, µ (micro), n (nano) and p (pico)
-6
 µ means 10 (millionth),so 1000000µF =1F
-9
 n means 10 (thousand-millionth), so1000nF= 1µF
-12
 p means10 (million-millionth), so1000pF = 1nF
There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarized and un polarized. Each
group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarized capacitors or Electrolytic Capacitors (large values, 1µF +)

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their
leads will be marked+ or-.They are not damaged by heat when soldering.

There are two design so f electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220µF in
picture)
and radial where both lead share at the same end (10µFinpicture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little
smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board.

It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance
and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6Vfor example) and it should always be checked
when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a
capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum
for most battery circuits.

Unpolarized capacitors Polarized capacitors

Capacitor symbol
 capacitors (small values, up to 1 µF )

Small value capacitors are un polarized and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged
by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene).It can be difficult to find the values of
these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labeling systems.

:
Capacitor component view

For example 0.1 means 0.1µF=100nF.

104 means 0.1 µF
103 means 0.01 µF
102 means 0.001 µF
204 means 0.2 µF

0.001µF
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point

For example:

4n7means 4.7 nF.

ACTIVE COMPONENTS: Components which requires power supply for its operation are called active
components. Diode, Transistor, UJT, FET, IC’S etc. are the important active components used in electronics.

Diodes:
Diode is two terminal devices. Anode and Cathode are the two electrodes (denoted by A and K
respectively) and the later is indicated by any distinct mark on the body of the component. Diodes allow
electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the
current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. In
figure [diode component view] the ring side of the diode terminal is called cathode and other terminal is
anode.

Diode symbol Diode component view

Transistors

Function: Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current
from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a
resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to
amplify voltage. A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off
with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).

Types of transistor

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters
refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today
are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to
start by learning how to use NPN transistors. The leads are labeled base (B), collector(C) and emitter
(E). These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in
understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels.

Transistor symbol

NP N Transistor PNP Transistor

Transistor component view

BJT,FET, MOSFET all comes under the category of transistor. But in normal usage transistor straight away
means BJT. Some of the commonly used transistors’ package details are illustrated in the below figure.
(Using this we can identify the terminals only-not its type)

Transistor leads for some common case styles

Oscilloscopes (CROs)

An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows you to look at the 'shape' of electrical signals by
displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the valuable extra
function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A reticule with a 1cm grid enables you to take
measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a
beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or
blue. This is similar to the way a television picture is produced.
Setting up an oscilloscope
Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to set up and
use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are set wrongly! There is
some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls so the following instructions may
need to be adapted for your instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace
across the middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright,
sharp trace.
The oscilloscope is now ready to use! This is what you should see after setting up, when there is no
input signal connected

Obtaining a clear and stable trace

Once you have connected the oscilloscope to the circuit you wish to test you will need to adjust the
controls to obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen:
• The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace. Choose a setting so
the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does not disappear off the screen.
• The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot sweeps across the
screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle of the signal across the screen.
Note that a steady DC input signal gives a horizontal line trace for which the timebase setting is
not critical.
• The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.
If you are using an oscilloscope for the first time it is best to start with an easy signal such as the
output from an AC power pack set to about 4V.

Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is
determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph, there is
frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these
properties apply to any signal with a constant shape.
The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls stated correctly

Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts, V.

• Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.

• Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it
is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
• Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (μs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1μs = 0.000001s.
• Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies
tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz)are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Voltage

Voltage= distance in cm × volts/cm

Example: peak-peak voltage =4.2cm×2V/cm =8.4V amplitude (peak voltage) = ½ × peak-peak voltage
= 4.2V Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one cycle of the
signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second, frequency = 1/time period. Ensure that the
variable time base control is set to 1 or CAL (calibrated) before attempting to take a time reading.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

Example: time period = 4.0cm × 5ms/cm = 20ms and frequency = 1/time period = 1/20ms = 50Hz

Breadboards
The physical diagram of a typical breadboard is shown in Fig. one. This board can be divided into 4
regions. The top and bottom regions marked by red and blue lines represent horizontal short. In these
regions, all the pins in a row are shorted internally. In regions 2 and 3 each column is shorted
internally. IC should be placed in between the regions 2 and 3.

Fig.One
 Fig.Two

Fig. two clearly shows the vertically and horizontally shorted regions. Breadboards are used to test
circuits. Wires and components are simply pushed into the holes to form a completed circuit and power
can be applied. One of the main advantages of using a breadboard is that the components are not
soldered and if they are positioned incorrectly they can be moved easily to a new position on the
board. On the breadboard (diagram 1) seen opposite, letters are used to identify vertical columns and
numbers to identify horizontal rows The red lines on diagram 2 show how some vertical columns and
horizontal rows are internally connected. When power is applied to the breadboard current flows along
these internal connections Diagram 3 shows how a 380 ohm resistor and an LED are setup on a
breadboard. When a 9 volt battery is attached the LED lights. Try replacing the resistor with a higher
value such as a 680 ohm resistor. The resistance will be
greater and the LED should shine less bright.
Expt. No:1 Date:
STUDY AND CHECKING OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
(Identification, color coding, symbols, and checking of electronic components)

AIM: 1) To know about the symbols used to specify electronic components.

 To understand the color coding scheme used in resistors and capacitors.
 To identify the given electronic components
 To acquire the thorough knowledge about checking of the electronic components

1. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS: Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is
connected together. The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the
circuit diagram. To build a circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of the parts
on. Here we have to discuss some important component and its symbol.

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Wire To pass current very easily from one
part of a circuit to another.
A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined),but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires Wires connected at' cross roads' should be
joined staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
In complex diagrams it is often
necessary to draw wires crossing even
though they are not connected. I prefer
the 'bridge' symbol shown on the right
Wires not because the simple crossing on the left
joined may be misread as a join where you
have forgotten to add a 'blob'!
Supplies electrical energy.
Cell The larger terminal (on the left) is positive
(+).
A single cell is often called a battery,
but strictly a battery is two or more cells

Battery Supplies electrical energy. A battery is

more than one cell. The larger terminal
(on the left) is positive (+).

DC supply
Supplies electrical energy. DC = Direct
Current, always flowing in one
direction.
Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up
Transformer (increase) and step down (decrease) AC
voltages. Energy is transferred between
the coils by the magnetic field in the core.
There is no electrical connection
between
the coils.
 Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

Earth A connection to earth. For many

(Ground) electronic circuits this is the 0V (zero
volts) of the power supply, but for mains
electricity and some radio circuits it really
means the earth. It is also known as
ground.

A resistor restricts the flow of current, for

example to limit the current passing
Resistor through an LED. A resistor is used with
a capacitor in a timing circuit. Some
publications still use the old resistor
symbol:

A capacitor stores electric charge. A

Capacitor capacitor is used with a resistor in a
timing circuit. It can also be used as a
filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.

A capacitor stores electric charge. This

Capacitor type must be connected the correct way
polarized round. A capacitor is used with a resistor
in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC
signals.
Diode A device which only allows current to
flow in one direction.

A special diode which is used to

Zener Diode maintain a fixed voltage
across its terminals.

Transistor A transistor amplifies current. It can be

NPN used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.

Transistor A transistor amplifies current. It can be

PNP used with other components to make an
amplifier or switching circuit.
Component Circuit Function of Component
Symbo
l

Field effect transistor. [FET] is a semiconductor device

that outputs current in proportion to its input voltage.
FETs use a small amount of control current to regulate a
FET larger output current.

Unijunction transistor [UJT] is a voltage-controlled switch

that controls current. It has only one junction. The UJT
having three terminals an emitter (E) and two bases (B1
UJT and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar
of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at
its
ends.

A silicon-controlled rectifier is a four-layer solid state

device that controls current. An SCR consists of four
layers of alternating P and N type semiconductor
materials (PNPN) with three terminals: an input control
terminal (gate), an output terminal (anode), and a
SCR
terminal common to both the input and output (cathode).

Diode Alternating AC switch [DIAC] is a semiconductor device

that can conduct current in either direction, but not until
DIAC breakdown voltage has been exceeded.

A transducer which converts sound to electrical energy.

Microphone

A transducer which converts electrical energy to sound.

Loud
speaker

A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o' on the output
means' not'. The output of a NOT gate is the inverse(opposite)
of its inputs the output is true when the input is false. A NOT
NOT gate is also called an inverter.
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

AND An AND gate can have two more inputs .The output
of an AND gate is true when all its inputs are true.

NAND An NAND gate can have two or more inputs. The

output of an NAND gate is true when all its inputs
are true.

OR An OR gate can have two or more inputs. The

output of an OR gate is true when at least one of its
inputs is true

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs. The 'o'

NOR on the output means 'not' showing that it is a Not
OR gate. The output of a NOR gate is true when
none of its inputs are true.

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs. The

EX-OR output of an EX-OR gate is true when its inputs are
different (one
true , one false).

It is abbreviated as LDR Light Dependent Resistor is

Light Dependent used to convert light into its corresponding resistance.
Resistor(LDR) Instead of directly measuring height, it senses the
heat content and converts it on to resistance.

OBSERVATION:-

To under stand the color coding scheme used in resistors and capacitors.

Example 1:Fora Carbon 22000 Ohms or 22Kilo-Ohms also known as 22K at 5% tolerance
Band1 =Red,1stdigit
Band2 =Red,2nd digit
Band3 =Orange,3rd digit, multiply with zeros, in this case 3 zeros
Band4 =Gold,Tolerance,5%
Example 2:For a Precision Metal Film 19200Ohms or 19.2Kilo-Ohms(19K2)
at1%tolerance. Band1 =Brown,1stdigit
Band2 =White,2nddigit
Band3 =Red,3rddigit
Band4 =Red,4thdigit,multiply with zeros, in this case2 zero's
Band5 =Brown,Tolerance,1%
Band6 =Blue, Temperature Coefficient,6
rd
Note: If the 3 band is gold it means multiplying by 0.1.Example,1.2ohm@5% would be brown-
red-gold-gold.12 multiplied by 0.1 gives 1.2ohms.Don't get confused by gold as a resistance or a tolerance
value. Just watch the location/position of the band.

Sl. Resistor Color Code Number

VALUE
No.
I II III IV
BAND BAND BAND BAND
1
2
3
4
5

TO MEASURE VOLTAGE ANDTIME PERIOD IN CRO

Voltage [VM]= Distance in cm (Y axis +ve peak)X Volts/cm

(OR)
VM=½XDistance in cm(Y axis peak-peak) X Volts/cm

Time[T] =Distance in cm (X axis ON Time +OFF Time period) X Time/Division in ms or

µs

S.NO WAVE FORM TIME FREQUENCY AMPLITUDE

PERIOD T F IN HERTZ (VM) IN
IN VOLTS
SECONDS
1 SINE WAVE

2 TRIANGULAR
WAVE

3 SQUARE
WAVE
To identify the given electronic components
1) The transistor can be considered as two diodes ie The base emitter junction forms one diode and
the collector base junction forms the other.
2) Individually check both the junctions and confirm both are OK.
3) Also there must not be any collector emitter short.
4) If we know the type and terminals of the transistor exactly then it can be straight away inserted in the
slot provided in the digital multi meter (and the rotary switch of the meter pointing hfe) and read the value
.If the hfe value is in between 50 and 300 the transistor is OK.

To acquire the thorough knowledge about checking of the electronic components

Diode:
1) Keep the Multi meter in resistance or continuity mode.
2) Connect the two test probe on either side of the diode.
3) Either it read slow resistance or shows high resistance.
4) Reverse the probe connections
5) Now the meter should read opposite to that of the step
3 i) If it is so then the diode is OK,
ii) In this case while showing the low resistance the electrode connected to the positive probe is anode.
6) If the meter reads in the same way for both the connections then the diode is
useless.
I )If it is low resistance, the diode is said to be
shorted. ii) If it is high then the diode is open.

Passive components:
1) For measuring resistors multi meters can be used.
2) For measuring capacitors and inductors RLC meters, bridges are available.
3) i)For Electrolytic capacitor connect the two probes of the multi meter to the either end of the device. The
meter immediately flash to low resistance and slowly returns to the high value. Remove one end of the
probe for an instant and reconnect it .There must not be any change.
ii) Reverse the connection and the meter re-shots. If it is so then the electrolytic capacitor is working

Result: Thus we understood to identify the Equipments and Components in Electronic Devices
Laboratory.
Expt. No: 02 (A) Date:
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE

AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of a PN junction diode in both forward and reverse biased condition to
calculate its cut in voltage, forward resistance and reverse resistance. ( VLAB)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

S.No Description Range/Number Qty

1 Regulated (0-30)V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 DC (0-30)mA,(0- Each
Ammeters 250/500)μA one
4 DC Voltmeter (0-1)V, (0-30)V Each
5 Resistor 1KΩ Each
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:-
A PN junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuits
open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When
P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n-type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the supply
voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward biased
condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing
through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with
increasing forward voltage. When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is
connected to the –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier
across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current
(reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state .The reverse bias
current is due to minority charge carriers.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:-
 MODEL WAVEFORM:-

PROCEDURE:-

FORWARD BIAS:-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the silicon diode and RPS–ve is connected
to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and a graph is plotted between voltage and
current.
 REVERSE BIAS:-

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the silicon diode and RPS –ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and graph is plotted between voltage and current.

OBSERVATION:-

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

Vf If Vr Ir
Sl.No. Sl.No.
in Volts in mA in Volts in µA

RESULT: Thus the forward and reverse characteristics of the semiconductor diode has been
plotted and the resistances in both forward and reverse biased condition is given as

The forward resistance of the diode =------------Ω

The cut-in voltage of the diode =-------------V
The reverse resistance of the diode =-------------Ω
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION (Only for reference no need to draw in your note book)
Expt. No: 02 (B) Date:
V- I CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE

AIM:- To plot the VI characteristics of a ZENER diode in both forward and reverse biased
condition ( V LAB )

APPARATUS REQUIRED–

S Description Range/Number Qty

1 Regulated Power (0-30)V 1
2 Zener Diode FZ5.1V 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-30)mA,(0- Each one
250)μA
4 DC Voltmeter (0-1)V, (0-30)V Each one
5 Resistor 1KΩ 1
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

Theory:-
A zener diode is heavily doped PN junction diode, specially made to operate in
the sharp break down voltage. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when
reverse biased .But a zener diode is always reverse connected i.e it is always reverse-
biased. When forward biased, its Characteristics are just those of ordinary diode. In
reverse bias, if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Breakdown Voltage. The zener diode is not immediately
burnt just because it has entered the break down region. As long as the external circuit
connected to the diode limits the diode current to less than burnt out value, the diode
will not burnt out. It is mainly used in voltage regulators.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:-

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

 PROCEDURE-
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (lz),and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the
tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) and zener voltage (Vz).
5. Do the above steps for forward as well as reverse bias connections as shown in the
circuit diagrams.

MODEL WAVEFORMS:-

OBSERVATION:-

FORWARD BIAS REVERSE BIAS

Vf If Vr Ir
Sl.No. Sl.No.
in Volts in mA in Volts in µA
RESULT:-
Thus the V-I Characteristics of the Forward and Reverse biased Zener Diode and the
Zener Break Down Voltage from the Characteristics are Observed.
Zener Breakdown Voltage =-------------V.
Forward Bias Resistance =--------------Ω
Reverse Bias Resistance =--------------Ω

BREAD BOARD CONNECTION (only for reference)

Expt.No:03 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR UNDER COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION

AIM: To determine the input & output characteristics of the transistor when operated on common
base configuration.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Description Range/Number/Value Qty

1 Regulated (0-30)V 1
Power supply
2 Transistor BC107 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-30) mA 2
4 DC Voltmeter (0-2)V, (0-30)V 1
5 Resistor 1KΩ 2
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:

As its name suggests, in the Common Base or grounded base configuration, the base connection is common to both
the input signal and the output signal with the input signal being applied between the base and the emitter
terminals. The corresponding output signal is taken from between the base and the collector terminals as shown with
the base terminal grounded or connected to a fixed reference voltage point. For normal operation, the E-B junction is
forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. The input current flowing into the emitter is quite large as its the sum
of both the base current and collector current respectively therefore, the collector current output is less than the emitter
current input resulting in a current gain for this type of circuit of "1" (unity) or less, in other words the common base
configuration "attenuates" the input signal.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :
PROCEDURE:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2.For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at 0V and
for different values of VEB note down the values of IE.
3.Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V, 4V, and 6V.All the readings are tabulated.
4.A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1.Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2.For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE iskept constant at 10m A and for different
values of VCB, note down the values of IC.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 20 mA, 40 mA, and 60 mA, all the readings are tabulated.
4.A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VCB = 1V VCB = 5V

VEB IE VEB IE
(V) (mA) (V) (mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO IE = 5mA IE = 10mA

VCB IC VCB IC
(V) (mA) (V) (mA)
MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT: Thus the input and output characteristics of transistor under common base configuration has
been plotted.

BREAD BOARD CONNECTION (Only for reference)

Expt.No:04 Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF JFET

AIM: To obtain the drain and transfer characteristics of JFET.( VLAB)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:–

Sl.No. Description Range/Number Qty

1 Regulated (0-30)V 2
2 FET BFW10 1
3 DC (0-30) mA 1
4 DC (0-5)V, (0-30)V 2
5 Resistor 1KΩ 2
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:
In the FET current flows along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel, there
is an electrode called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an electrode called the drain. The
physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective electrical diameter can be varied by the application
of a voltage to a control electrode called the Gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications.
These are known as the Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET) and the Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field
Effect Transistor (MOSFET).The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-channel)
or P-type semiconductor(P-channel) material; the gate is made of the opposite semiconductor type. In P-type
material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type
material, the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary between the
channel and the gate. Normally, this P-N junction is reverse-biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that no
current flows between the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions there is a small current
through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has some advantages and some
disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. Consider an n channel device. The gate(p material) is
diffused. At zero gate voltage there is no reverse voltage at the channel. So as V ds (drain source voltage)
increases, current Ids also increases linearly. As the voltage is increased, at a particular voltage, pinch off
occurs. This voltage is known as pinch off voltage. After pinch off drain current remains stationary .If we apply
a gate voltage (negative voltage) the pinch off occurs early.

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keeping VGS as0V,varyVDS in stepsof0.1Vfrom0 to1Vandinstepsof2V from1 to15V.
3. Note down the drain current Id for each step.
4. Now set VGS to -1V,-2Vand-3Vandrepeat the above steps for each VGS value, record the readings in the
table.
5. Keep VDS at 4V and vary VGS instepsof-5Vtill the drain current Id is 0.NoteIdvalueforeachvalueof VGS.
6. With VDS at 8V repeat the above step and record the readings in the table.
7. Plot the drain and transfer characteristics from tabulated readings.

MODELGRAPHS:

Drain Characteristics: Transfer Characteristics

OBSERVATIONS:-

Drain Characteristics:
S.N0 VGS=-1V VGS=-2V
VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS ID(mA)
(V)
 Transfer Characteristics:

VDS=10 V
Sl.No
-VGS(V) ID(mA)

CALCULATIONS:

CALCULATION OF rd :

Construct a Triangle on one of the output characteristic for a particular VGS in

the active region and find ΔVDS and ΔID
Now rd = ΔVDS/ ΔID (VGS = constant)

CALCULATION OF gm :

Construct a Triangle on one of the Transfer characteristics for a particular VDS find
ΔVGS and ΔID.
Now gm = ΔID/Δ VGS (VDS = constant).

CALCULATION OF μ :

μ = gm x rd.

RESULT: Thus the drain and transfer characteristics of JFET has been plotted.

The Drain Resistance of JFET(rd) =--------------Ω

The Trans conductance of JFET(gm) =-------------mho
The Amplification Factor of JFET(µ) = -------------
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION(Only for reference)
Expt.No: 05 Date:
CHARACTERISTICS OF UJT

AIM: To determine the emitter characteristics of a UJT (VLAB)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:-

Sl.No. Description Range/Number Qty

1 Regulated (0-30)V 2
2 UJT 2N2646 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-30)mA 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-30)V 2
5 Resistor 560Ω,1KΩ Each
one
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:-

THEORY:
A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT
Unijunction Transistor (UJT) has three terminals an emitter (E) and two bases(B1andB2). The base is formed
by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of
p type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1and B2, when the emitter is open-circuit is called
inter base resistance. The original unijunction transistor, or UJT is a simple device that is essentially a bar of
N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length. The
2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT.
The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the
length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at
the point where the P diffusion (emitter)is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region.
Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current(actual charges in the base region)
causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter
junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward
biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter
terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. When the emitter voltage
reaches Vp, the current starts to increase and the emitter voltage starts to decrease. This is represented by
negatives lope of the characteristics which is referred to as the negative resistance region, beyond
thevalleypoint,RB1reaches minimum value and this region, VEB proportional to IE.
PROCEDURE:-

1. Connection is made as per circuit diagram.

2. Output voltage is fixe data constant level and by varying input voltage corresponding emitter
current values are noted down.
3. This procedure is repeated for different values of output voltages.

4. All the readings are tabulated and Intrinsic Stand-Off ratio is calculated
using η= (VP-VD)/VBB
5. A graph is plotted between VEE and IE for different values of VBE.

MODEL GRAPH:-

OBSERVATIONS:-
S.No VB1B2=10V VB1B2=15V
VEB1(V IE(mA) VEB1(V) IE(mA)

RESULT: Thus the emitter characteristic of a UJT has been plotted.

S.NO DESCRIPTION VB1B2= 10V VB1B2 = 15V

1 PEAK VOLTAGE (Vp)
2 VALLEY VOLTAGE (Vv)
3 VALLEY CURRENT (Iv)
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION(Only for reference)
Expt.No: 06 Date:

V – I CHARACTERISTICS OF SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) ( VLAB )

APPARATUSREQUIRED
Sl.No. Description Range/Number/V Qty
1 Regulated (0-30)V 2
Power
supply
2 SCR SN104 1
3 DC (0-30)mA , Each
Ammeters (0-250/500)µA , one
(0-50 ) µA
4 DC (0-30)V, (0-5)V Each
Voltmeter one
5 Resistor 1KΩ,5.6KΩ,3.3KΩ Each
one
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:

It is a four layer semiconductor device being alternate of P-type and N-type silicon. It consists of
3 junctions J1, J2, J3 the J1 and J3 operate in forward direction and J2 operates in reverse direction
and three terminals called anode A, cathode K, and agate G. The operation of SCR can be studied
when the gate is open and when the gate is positive with respect to cathode. When gate is open, no
voltage is applied at the gate due to reverse bias of the junction J2 no current flows through R2 and
hence SCR is at cutt off. When anode voltage is increased J2 tends to breakdown. When the gate
positive, with respect to cathode J3 junction is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased .Electrons from
N-type material move across junction J3 towards gate while holes from P-type material moves across
junction J3 towards cathode. So gate current starts flowing, anode current increase is in extremely
small current junction J2 break down and SCR conducts heavily. When gate is open thee break over
voltage is determined on the minimum forward voltage at which SCR conducts heavily. Now most of
the supply voltage appears across the load resistance. The holding current is the maximum anode
current gate being open, when break over occurs.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 MODEL WAVE FORM

PROCEDURE
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Adjust the gate supply voltage to keep the Gate Current at some constant value
3. Vary the anode to cathode supply voltage and note down the readings of FET voltmeter and
ammeter.
4. A graph is drawn between VAK and IA.

OBSERVATION

Forward Bias Reverse Bias

Sl.No
IG = 10 μA Gate open
VAK in V IA in mA VAK in V IA in µA

RESULT: Thus the VI characteristics of a Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR) have been plotted.
The Break Over Voltage of SCR(VBO) =-------------V
The Holding Current of SCR(IH) =--------------mA
The Holding Voltage of SCR(VH) =--------------V
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION(Only for reference)
Expt. No : 07 Date :
V - I CHARACTERISTICS OF DIAC

AIM: To plot the VI characteristics of a DIAC ( VLAB)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No Description Range/Number Qty

1 Regulated (0-50)V 2
Power Supply
2 DIAC DB32 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-50)mA, 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-50)V 1
5 Resistor 5KΩ,5W 1
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:

DIAC is a diode that can work on AC. The DIAC has symmetrical break down characteristics.
The leads are interchangeable. It turns on around 30V. While conducting, it acts like a low
resistance with a drop of around 3V.When not conducting , it acts like an open switch.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig.(a):FORWARD BIAS DIAC SYMBOL

Fig.(b):REVERSE BIAS DIAC COMPONENT VIEW

 MODEL GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Change the voltage V12 in steps till 30V and observe VB01, the start of break over voltage.
Observe the conduction of PNPN
3. Change the voltage V12 in steps in the negative direction till -30V and observe VB02, the
start of break over voltage. Observe the conduction of PNPN
4. The characteristics are tabulated and plotted.

OBSERVATIONS:

Forward characteristics Reverse Characteristics

Sl.No Vf(V) If(mA) Sl.No Vr(V) Ir(mA)

RESULT: The VI characteristics of a DIAC have been plotted.

The Break Over Voltage of DIAC (VBO) in forward bias =-------------V
The Break Over Voltage of DIAC (VBO) in reverse bias =-------------V
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION(only for reference)
Expt.No: 08 Date:

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR (LDR)

.
AIM: To determine the resistance of LDR when illuminated and covered. ( VLAB)

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Description Range/Number/Value Qty

1 Regulated Power supply (0-30)V 1
2 LDR ------ 1
3 DC Ammeters (0-30)mA 1
4 DC Voltmeter (0-30)V 1
5 Resistor 1KΩ 1
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) is made of a thin layer of semiconductor material such as cadmium
sulfide or lead sulfide. The semiconductor layer is enclosed in a sealed housing. A glass window in the
housing permits light to fall on the active material of the cell. It exhibits the property that its resistance
decreases in the presence of light and increases in the absence of light . The LDR simply acts as a
conductor whose resistance changes when illuminated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR

(LDR)SYMBOL

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The supply voltage is given.
3. The LDR is covered and voltage and current readings are noted.
4. The voltage applied is further increased and corresponding readings are noted.
5. The experiment is repeated in illuminated conditions and readings are noted.
MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATIONS:

WITH ILLUMINATION:

Sl.No Voltage in V Current in mA

10 10

WITH OUT ILLUMINATION:

Sl.No Voltage in V Current in mA

RESULT: Thus the resistance of LDR when illuminated and covered has been calculated.
BREAD BOARD CONNECTION(Only for reference)
Expt. No : 09 Date
DIODE APPLICATIONS (CLIPPING AND CLAMPING)

AIM:
To construct circuits to function as Clipper and Clamper (Positive and Negative)using diodes. (VLAB)

APPARATUSREQUIRED:
Sl.No. Description Range/Number Qty
1 Diode 1N4007 2
2 Transformer 6-0-6 or12-0-12 1
3 CRO 20MHz 1
4 Resistor 1K 1
5 Capacitor 10µF 1
6 Breadboard and Connecting wires

THEORY:
Clipper is a circuit with which a waveform is shaped by removing or clipping a portion of the applied
wave form above or below a certain waveform. A positive clipper removes the positive half cycles of the
applied input voltage. A negative clipper is one which removes the negative half cycles of the applied input
voltage. The constructional difference between these two clippers is the way in which the diode is connected
in the circuit or the polarities of the PN diode.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
Clamper is a circuit which shifts the positive or negative peak of a signal at a desired DC level. A
clamper essentially adds a DC component to the signal. In a clamper the shape of the original signal is not
changed. Only its vertical shift is taking place. A Clamping circuit should not change the peak to peak value.
The capacitor is used for adding the dc value and the resistor acts as the load.

PROCEDURE:
1. Check for the correct values of the required components.
2. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
3. Apply the source and note the corresponding output.
4. Draw the required graphs.

TABULATION FOR CLIPPER:

Sl.No. Description Time in mS Amplitude in

ON OFF Voltage
Time Time
1 Input waveform

2 Positive Clipper

3 Negative Clipper
TABULATION FOR CLAMPER:

Time in mS
Sl.No. Description Amplitude in Voltage

1 Input waveform

2 Positive Clamper

3 Negative Clamper

RESULT: Thus the required circuits for Clipper and Clamper (Positive and Negative) are constructed and
the required graphs are drawn.