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 Urbanisation: Trends, Causes and Effects: View as single page

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Study Session 5  Urbanisation: Trends, Causes and Effects

Introduction
More than half of the world’s population lives in urban areas. Due to the ongoing urbanisation and growth of the world’s population, there will be about 2.5 billion more people
added to the urban population by 2050, mainly in Africa and Asia. The world’s urban areas are highly varied, but many cities and towns are facing problems such as a lack of jobs,
homelessness and expanding squatter settlements, inadequate services and infrastructure, poor health and educational services and high levels of pollution.

In this study session, you will learn about the trends in urbanisation and the causes of urban growth. You will also learn about the demographic, health, environmental and social
consequences of urbanisation.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5

When you have studied this session, you should be able to:

5.1  Define and use correctly all of the key words printed in bold. (SAQs 5.1 and 5.2)

5.2  Describe the global and local trends in urbanisation. (SAQ 5.3)

5.3  Explain the main causes of urban growth. (SAQs 5.1 and 5.2)

5.4  Describe the main positive and negative impacts of urbanisation. (SAQ 5.4)

5.1  Urbanisation trends
In Study Session 2 you learned about the overall trend in global population growth. Most of this increase is taking place in urban areas. Urbanisation is an increase in the number
of people living in towns and cities. Urbanisation occurs mainly because people move from rural areas to urban areas and it results in growth in the size of the urban population
and the extent of urban areas. These changes in population lead to other changes in land use, economic activity and culture. Historically, urbanisation has been associated with
significant economic and social transformations. For example, urban living is linked with higher levels of literacy and education, better health, lower fertility and a longer life
expectancy, greater access to social services and enhanced opportunities for cultural and political participation (UNDESA, 2014). However, urbanisation also has disadvantages
caused by rapid and unplanned urban growth resulting in poor infrastructures such as inadequate housing, water and sanitation, transport and health care services.

5.1.1  Global trends in urbanisation

In 1960, the global urban population was 34% of the total; however, by 2014 the urban population accounted for 54% of the total and continues to grow. By 2050 the proportion
living in urban areas is expected to reach 66% (UNDESA, 2014). Figure 5.1 shows the change in the rural and urban populations of the world from 1950 through to projected
figures up to the year 2050.

Figure 5.1  Urban and rural population of the world, 1950–2050.

(UNDESA, 2014)

From Figure 5.1, in which year did the number of people living in urban areas first exceed the number living in rural areas?

Reveal answer

The process of urbanisation affects all sizes of settlements, so villages gradually grow to become small towns, smaller towns become larger towns, and large towns become cities.
This trend has led to the growth of mega-cities. A mega-city is an urban area of greater than ten million people. Rapid expansion of city borders, driven by increases in population
and infrastructure development, leads to the expansion of city borders that spread out and swallow up neighbouring urban areas to form mega-cities. In 1970, there were only
three mega-cities across the globe, but by the year 2000, the number had risen to 17 and by 2030, 24 more mega-cities will be added (see Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2  The top mega-cities in the world in 1970, 2000 and 2030.
(UNDESA, 2014)

From Figure 5.2, in Africa how many mega-cities are predicted to exist by 2030 and how many have already existed since the year 2000?

Reveal answer

The global trend in urbanisation is not the same in all parts of the world. Asia and Africa currently have the highest rates of urbanisation. Figure 5.3 shows a comparison of trends
in more or less developed regions of the world.
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Figure 5.3  Trends in urban population growth, comparing more and less

developed regions. The graph shows the proportion of the total
population living in urban areas.

In Figure 5.3, how would you describe the trends in urban growth in more and less developed regions during this century?

Reveal answer

5.1.2  Urbanisation in Ethiopia
Ethiopia is one of the least urbanised countries in the world today, and only 18% of its population lives in urban areas (JMP, 2014). In common with many other developing
countries, however, this pattern is changing (Figure 5.4). Ethiopia’s urban growth rate is more than 4.0% per year, which places it among the highest in Africa and the world
(MWUD, 2007).

Figure 5.4 Changing proportion of urban and rural population in Ethiopia

from 1950 to 2050 (estimated from 2014 onwards). (UNDESA, 2014)

The rapid increase in urban populations has meant that peri-urban areas are growing much more quickly than formal urban centres. Peri-urban areas are those areas immediately
around a town or city. They are areas in transition from countryside to city (rural to urban), often with undeveloped infrastructure, where health and sanitation services are under
pressure and where the natural environment is at risk of degradation.

Defining the boundaries of urban, peri-urban and rural areas is not straightforward. They do not neatly separate themselves by lines on a map. On the contrary, the sprawling
nature of urban development means that the areas merge into each other. The lack of a clear boundary can make it difficult to assess the size of towns by their population or
geographical area. However, judgements have to be made and, for planning and administrative purposes, data on population size are collected. Table 5.1 shows the number of
towns and cities in Ethiopia by population in 2007, the most recently published data.

Table 5.1  Numbers and sizes of urban settlements in Ethiopia. (Adapted from MWUD, 2007)

Population of urban settlement Number

Up to 2,000    171

2,000 to 4,999    339

5,000 to 19,999    310

20,000 to 49,999      79

50,000 to 99,999      14

100,000 to 200,000        8

Above 200,000        4

Total    925

Of the four cities with a population of more than 200,000, by far the largest is Addis Ababa. In 2007, the population of Addis Ababa was more than 3 million, which amounted to
about 25% of Ethiopia’s urban population (MWUD, 2007). The next-largest city, Dire Dawa, had only 293,000 occupants at that time. The impacts of urbanisation are generally
much more evident in the capital than in other towns and cities.

5.2  Causes of urbanisation
Urbanisation in the developing world occurs for two main reasons: the natural increase of population and rural to urban migration.

5.2.1  Natural increase of population

From Study Session 2 you will know that the population is increasing in developing countries. This natural increase is a significant cause of the growing urban population.

Explain what is meant by natural increase of population.

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Reveal answer

As birth rates decline over time, according to the demographic transition model, the role of natural increase in determining the pace of urban population growth becomes less
important in comparison to migration.

5.2.2  Rural to urban migration

In developing countries, urbanisation usually occurs when people move from villages to settle in cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. The movement of people from
one place to another is called migration. Migration is influenced by economic growth and development and by technological change (Marshall et al., 2009) and possibly also by
conflict and social disruption. It is driven by pull factors that attract people to urban areas and push factors that drive people away from the countryside.

Employment opportunities in cities are one of the main pull factors. Many industries are located in cities and offer opportunities of high urban wages. There are also more
educational institutions providing courses and training in a wide range of subjects and skills. People are attracted to an urban lifestyle and the ‘bright lights’ of city life. All of these
factors result in both temporary and permanent migration to urban areas.

Poor living conditions and the lack of opportunities for paid employment in rural areas are push factors. People are moving away from rural areas because of poor health care and
limited educational and economic opportunities as well as environmental changes, droughts, floods, lack of availability of sufficiently productive land, and other pressures on rural
livelihoods.

Rural to urban migration can be a selective process, as some types of people are more likely to move than others. One of the factors involved is gender, because employment
opportunities vary greatly with different jobs for men and women. Another factor is age. Young people are more likely to move to towns, with more elderly people and children left
in rural areas. Selectivity in migration affects the population in both the rural and the urban areas. If more men move to towns and cities than women, this leaves a predominantly
female society in rural areas.

5.3  Impacts of urbanisation
Although people are pulled towards the advantages of cities, the impacts of urbanisation are mixed. First we will look at the many positive impacts of urbanisation before going on
to describe some of the challenges created by rapid unplanned urban growth.

Thriving towns and cities are an essential element of a prosperous national economy. The gathering of economic and human resources in one place stimulates innovation and
development in business, science, technology and industry. Access to education, health, social services and cultural activities is more readily available to people in cities than in
villages. In cities, child survival rates are better than in rural areas because of better access to health care (Mulholland et al., 2008). The density of urban populations makes it
easier and less costly for the government and utilities to provide essential goods and services (Brockerhoff, 2000). For example, the supply of basic facilities such as fresh water
and electricity can be achieved with less effort and less cost per person.

Schools, colleges and universities are established in cities to develop human resources. A variety of educational courses are available, offering students a wide choice for their
future careers. People of many classes and religions live and work together in cities, which creates better understanding and harmony and helps break down social and cultural
barriers. Cities also have advanced communication and transport networks.

However, these many benefits of urban life do not apply to all. Rapid population increases and unplanned growth create an urban sprawl with negative economic, social, and
environmental consequences. In Ethiopia, the rate of urban growth often strains the capacity of local and national government to provide urban residents with even the most basic
services of housing, water supply, sewerage and solid waste disposal (MWUD, 2008).

5.3.1  Housing
In developing countries, about a third of urban inhabitants live in impoverished slums and squatter settlements (UN-Habitat, 2012). Slums are urban areas that are heavily
populated and have sub-standard housing with very poor living conditions, creating several problems.

In Addis Ababa, a report in 2008 found that 80% of the houses in the city were classed as slums due to the physical deterioration of its housing, overcrowding, high density, poor
access and lack of infrastructure services (Tolon, 2008) (Figure 5.5).

Figure 5.5  Urban slum in Addis Ababa .

Slum areas typically suffer from:

poor housing with small, overcrowded houses built very close together using inadequate materials and with uncertain electricity supply

restricted access to water supplies

little or no sanitation/latrine facilities and no solid waste disposal, which leads to a polluted and degraded local environment

inadequate health care facilities which, coupled with the poor living conditions, increases sickness and death rates

insecure living conditions – slum dwellers may be forcibly removed by landowners or other authorities.

Many low-income families gravitate to these informal settlements that proliferate in and around towns. Poverty is one of the most critical issues facing urban areas. Urban poverty
degrades both the physical and social environment. This then makes it more difficult for people to escape from poverty and they fall victim to the ‘vicious cycle’ that you read about
in Study Session 2.

5.3.2  Water supply and sanitation

The provision of water and sanitation services to growing urban settlements, peri-urban and slum areas presents critical challenges. The increased demand for water from the
growing population can place added stress on already stretched resources. In and around cities, water is commonly in short supply and subject to increasing competition by
different users. Urban growth leads to increasing demand for water for industrial and domestic use, which conflicts with agricultural demands.
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It is especially difficult to provide water and sanitation services to deprived areas and the poorest people. Many people in these areas live without access to safe drinking water
and proper sanitation. Even where adequate water supplies are available, sanitation and wastewater disposal are often inadequate or missing. Pit latrines and septic tanks are the
usual methods for human waste disposal but they have limited capacity and are not always adequate to cope with the quantity of waste produced by many people living close
together. Overflowing latrines and septic tanks contaminate surface water and create a serious health risk.

The lack of these essential services threatens not only the health and the environment of people in slum areas, but also that of people living in formal urban areas. In Africa and
Asia most of the urban centres have no sewers at all, which affects rich and poor alike. This is true of many cities with a million or more inhabitants, as well as smaller cities and
towns.

5.3.3  Wastes and pollution

Urbanisation affects land, water, air and wildlife because of the number of people, the amount of buildings and construction, and the increased demands on resources. It has
impacts on the physical environment in several ways.

Water quality

In developing countries, including Ethiopia, many rivers in urban areas are more like open sewers (Figure 5.6). The lack of sanitation and sewerage systems has a dramatic impact
on urban watercourses. People use the rivers to dispose of all their wastes from homes, industries and commercial businesses. Wastewater from human settlements contains
organic material and nutrients; industrial wastewater contains many different types of toxic pollutant. These make the water unsafe for humans to use for many purposes including
drinking and irrigation, as well as harming the fish and other animals and plants living in the water. Any changes to the quality of surface water also affects groundwater because
they are linked by the processes of the water cycle so pollutants from the surface will infiltrate down and contaminate soil and groundwater as well.

Figure 5.6  Urban rivers contain wastes from many sources.

Solid waste

In many towns and cities solid waste management is inefficient or non-existent. Solid waste management means the proper collection, transfer, recycling and disposal of all the
solid material we throw away, including plastics, paper and cardboard, food wastes, electrical waste, etc. It also includes industrial, hospital and institutional wastes which often
contain pathogens as well as hazardous and toxic chemicals, which need special care.

Urban waste often ends up in illegal dumps on streets, open spaces, wastelands, drains or rivers. This is frequently a problem in peri-urban areas, which are convenient for
dumping wastes because of the availability of open space and ease of access from central urban areas. This can lead to the pollution of groundwater and surface waters which
may be used as a source for drinking water. Sometimes the wastes are collected and taken to legalised waste disposal sites but these are not always properly managed to protect
water bodies and groundwater.

The combustion of solid waste creates yet another environmental problem. People want to get rid of the wastes and they will burn them in their backyards if there is no collection
system (Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7  Burning waste in an urban area.

Air quality

Air quality in towns and cities is frequently very poor as a result of air pollution from many different sources (Figure 5.8). These include:

vehicle exhausts

smoke from domestic fires

outputs from factory chimneys

diesel-powered generators

dust from construction works and city streets.

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Poor air quality has a significant impact on the health of many urban residents as well as leaving a damaging and unsightly layer of dust on plants, buildings and other surfaces.

Figure 5.8  The brown colour of the air near the ground shows how
polluted the air in Addis Ababa can be.

5.3.4  Health
Urbanisation can have both positive and negative effects on health. The main benefits are associated with easier access to hospitals, clinics and health services in general. If you
live close to these services you can reach a doctor in minutes rather than hours or days, so this improves emergency care and general health. There are also benefits from easier
access to sources of information such as radio and television which may be used to communicate information about health to the general public. For example, women living in
towns and cities are more likely to be informed about family planning, which results in reduction in family size and less frequent childbirth, with consequent benefits to general
health.

However, urban life can also damage your health. Poor environment, housing and living conditions are the main reasons for poor health in urban areas. Contamination of water
sources can cause epidemics of waterborne disease. Close proximity to other people can make the spread of many types of infectious disease more likely. The polluted air can
also cause respiratory disease and contribute to premature deaths among more vulnerable sections of the population such as older people and children.

5.3.5  Food
Population movements also put pressure on food supplies and on food distribution. As people migrate to the cities, they tend to use purchased food instead of their own crops and
this makes them more vulnerable to changes in food prices. As the population grows and the demand for water and land increases, it becomes difficult to increase food production
in a sustainable way. The increase in urban demand, combined with a loss of agricultural land, means more pressure on rural people to produce food for the growing number of
urban people.

Furthermore, pollution from urban areas can disrupt food supply. For example, fisheries are often damaged by urban domestic wastes and liquid effluents from city-based
industries. (Effluent is another word for wastewater that flows out from a source.) In several Ethiopian cities, such as Bahir Dar, Hawassa, Bishoftu and others, untreated wastes
are dumped into nearby lakes, which can damage the fish stocks (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9  Many people living in towns and cities near lakes rely on local fish for food, but this may be contaminated by urban waste.

5.3.6  Economic and social systems

The process of urbanisation has positive as well as negative economic and social changes. The positive effects include economic development, and education. However,
urbanisation places stresses on existing social services and infrastructure. Crime, prostitution, drug abuse and street children are all negative effects of urbanisation. Also there
tends to be a lack of social support for children in school and home by their hard-working, usually poor, parents. Inadequate income, overcrowded housing and poor living
conditions create a fertile ground for the development of violence. Violent crime is more visible in the cities than in rural areas and it affects people’s everyday life, their movements
and the use of public transport. Crime in the city can create a sense of insecurity in its inhabitants. This unsafe feeling in city streets separates residential areas into higher-income
and lower-income groups, which reduces the sense of community and forms areas with dissimilar incomes, costs and security levels.

In the next study session we will look at some of the ways in which these problems and challenges can be addressed by considering the future demands for urban living and by
taking a planned approach to the development of new urban areas.

Summary of Study Session 5

In Study Session 5, you have learned that:

1. Urbanisation is a global trend reflecting the growing population of the world. The urban populations of less-developed countries are currently increasing at a faster rate than
those of more-developed countries.

2. Urbanisation results from a natural increase in the population and rural to urban migration.

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3. People migrate to towns and cities in hope of gaining a better standard of living. They are influenced by pull factors that attract them to urban life, and push factors that make
them dissatisfied with rural living.

4. Urban living is associated with better employment and education opportunities, better health, greater access to social services and opportunities for social and cultural
activities.

5. Uncontrolled migration and rapid urban growth are associated with increasing urban poverty and inequality and rises in slum and squatter populations. These people usually
have inadequate water supply and sanitation services.

6. Urbanisation affects the physical environment through the impacts of the number of people, their activities and the increased demands on resources.

7. Urbanisation has negative consequences on health due mainly to pollution and overcrowded living conditions. It can also put added pressure on food supply systems.

8. The pressures of urban living may lead to crime and other consequences of social deprivation.

Self-Assessment Questions (SAQs) for Study Session 5

Now that you have completed this study session, you can assess how well you have achieved its Learning Outcomes by answering these questions.

SAQ 5.1 (tests Learning Outcomes 5.1 and 5.3)

Rewrite the paragraph below using terms from the list provided to fill the gaps.

increase, mega-cities, peri-urban, rural to urban migration, slums.

Urbanisation is an ……………… in the number of people living in towns and cities. The two causes of urbanisation are natural population increase and ………………
Urbanisation affects all sizes of settlements from small villages to towns to cities, leading up to the growth of ……………… which have more than ten million people. Rapid
urbanisation often means that ……………… areas immediately around a city grow more rapidly than urban centres and this can lead to development of ………………

Reveal answer

SAQ 5.2 (tests Learning Outcomes 5.1 and 5.3)

Both push and pull factors drive the migration that leads to urbanisation. What is meant by the terms ‘push and pull factors’? In your answer you should state one push factor
and one pull factor.

Reveal answer

SAQ 5.3 (tests Learning Outcome 5.2)

Is urbanisation increasing faster in developed or developing countries? How does the rate of urbanisation in Ethiopia compare with other countries?

Reveal answer

SAQ 5.4 (tests Learning Outcome 5.4)

Do you think that urbanisation is a bad thing or a good thing? Justify your answer by giving two examples of the impacts of urbanisation.

Reveal answer

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