COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN AND DRAFTING

COMPUTER GRAPHICS OVERVIEW

In computer graphics we are generally concerned with images drawn on display screens. (Hard copies can
then be made of these images if needed, using various types of plotting device.) There are several ways in
which these images can be constructed and different types of display device use a range of imaging
techniques to achieve acceptable visual representations.
In modem industry, the computer supports all the design and manufacturing functions. The concept of a
common database has effectively integrated these engineering functions and requires the engineer to be
aware of the ramifications of changes anywhere in the design and manufacturing process. The link
between the area of drawing and design and analysis is very strong. Computer aided design and drawing
systems provide the means to generate 3D models with the computer and from those models generate
drawings for manufacturing. Computer aided drawing is a technique to produce engineering drawings
with the assistance of a computer.
1.2. COMPUTER AIDED DRAWING (CADD)
Designers generally use drawings to represent the object which they are designing, and to communicate
the design to others. Of course they will also use other forms of representation — symbolic and
mathematical models, and perhaps three-dimensional physical models — but the drawing is arguably the
most flexible and convenient of the forms of representation available. Drawings are useful above all,
obviously, for representing the geometrical form of the designed object, and for representing its
appearance. Hence the importance in computer-aided design (CAD) of the production of visual images
by computer, that is computer graphics.
In the process of design, technical drawings are used. Drawings explain the design and also establish the
link between design and manufacture. During the stage of design and detailing depend on the designers ’
skill and experience. Changes in previous designs take a long time because the drawings have to be
produced again. Computer-aided drawing is a technique where engineering drawings are produced with
the assistance of a computer and, as with manual drawing, is only the graphical means of representing a
design. Computer aided design, however, is a technique where the attributes of the computer and those of
the designer are blended together into a problem-solving team. When the term CAD is used to mean
computer-aided design it normally refers to a graphical system where components and assemblies can be
modelled in three dimensions. The term design, however, also covers those functions attributed to the
areas of modelling and analysis. The acronym CADD is more commonly used nowadays and stands for
computer-aided drafting and design; a CADD package is one which is able to provide all drafting
facilities and some or all of those required for the design process.
Two-dimensional (2D) computer drawing is the representation of an object in the single-view format
which shows two of the three object dimensions or the mutiview format where each view reveals two
dimensions. In both cases, the database includes just two values for each represented coordinate of the
object. It can also be a pictorial representation if the database contains X, Y coordinates only.
Three-dimensional (3D) computer drawing is the coordinate format. Three dimensional computer aided
drawing allows the production of geometric models of a component or product for spatial and visual
analysis. The variety of drawings that are utilized in engineering are too numerous to illustrate
individually here. A few examples from engineering disciplines will demonstrate the versatility of
modern CAD systems.
 Aerospace: Layout drawings, part drawings, subassemblies, assemblies.
  Chemical: Process schematics, process plant layout drawings.
 Civil, Construction: Structural detail drawings, site plan drawings, construction drawings, road -
use plans.
 Electrical, Computer: Circuit board design, very large system integration (VLSI) design.
 Industrial and Manufacturing: Manufacturing plant layout drawings, subassemblies, assemblies.
 Mechanical : part drawing, subassemblies, assemblies.
In the near future, CAD will become an important part of engineering activities. But we will still have to
know the rules of engineering drawing. In other words, as the computer does not poses the ability to
design a component, without knowing these rules we cannot draw, even with the help of a computer. But
drawing has been made simpler with the aid of computers.

ADVNTAGES OF CADD SYSTEMS

The advantages of using CADD systems are listed as follow:
i. Constant quality drawing: the quality of lines, dimensions, symbols, notes, etc., are
independent of the individual skill of the draftsman;
ii. Creation of database, which is the collection of useful information that may be retrieved by
draftsmen and accessed by other processors;
iii. Creation of library of commonly used electrical, hydraulic, welding, etc., symbols standard
components such as nuts, bolts, screws, bearings, etc., projection symbols, parts of drawings, etc.,
can be stored in the memory and recalled when needed and additionally they can be positioned
anywhere on the screen and redrawn to any scale and angle of inclination.
iv. Use of layers the drawings may be drawn on any one of a number of available layers, which may
be considered as a stack of transparent sheets and any separate sheet can be selected for drawing
construction lines, grids, dimensions, notes, hatching, etc., but to make up together a complete
drawing when required.
v. Saving on repetition repetitive work on similar features or drawings and the resulting tiredness
and boredom is replaced by automatic redrawing, hence attention and interest are maintained with
the consequent marked increase in speed and productivity;
vi. Greater accuracy due to computer mathematical accuracy, a high level of dimensional control is
obtained with reduction in the number of mistakes resulting in accurate material and cost
estimates;
vii. Multicolour drawings visualisation of drawings relates directly to the projection used, pictorial
projections are easier to understand than orthographic projection and the different colours
obtainable by computers enhance the understanding even further;
viii. Editing functions the powerful editing functions of correcting mistakes, deleting and inserting
new features, copying, moving, translating and rotating features, scaling, etc., is only made
possible with the use of computers.
History and Background of CADD
The first important step in the development of computer-aided draughting was made at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1963 where a system called Sketchpad was developed and
demonstrated. It consisted of a cathode ray tube (CRT) driven by software running on a Lincoln TX2
computer which was able to create, modify and graphically display a drawing on the screen using a light
pen as a pointing device (Figure 1).
Figure 1 Early CADD hardware, i.e. Sketchpad
The first computer aided drawing system was introduced by IBM. With the development of computer
hardware and software, many changes have been made in CADD systems. By using computer, learning of
drawing can be easier than conventional methods. With CADD systems, drawings can be formed,
mistakes can be corrected, stored and restored. CAD systems can also be used together with
manufacturing techniques, numerical control and robotics technology.
In modern systems the light pen has been replaced by more effective pointing hardware, that is a digitizer
tablet, a mouse or both as shown in Figure 2. The design of hardware is a key factor in easing the
communication between the user and the software functions and a vital part of the software which makes
use of the peripheral hardware to give the operator a usable interface to the functionality of the software is
called the user interface.

Figure 2 Typical modern CADD hardware

CAD system and Hardware
Computers are being used at an increasing rate for both engineering design and drawing purposes. There
are many CAD systems on the market which are being continually developed and refined. There are three
main types of computer: (a) the mainframe computer; (b)the minicomputer;(c) the microcomputer.
The workstation, which is similar in appearance to a personal computer, is generally of higher
performance and typically four to five times more expensive. Computer-aided engineering software
available for workstation platforms is normally capable of carrying out the more demanding numerical
analysis required of sophisticated design systems with acceptable performance in speed. A mainframe
computer system is capable of supporting the functional demands of complex software packages, and for
CADD systems these are accessed and presented to the user via a graphics terminal. The mainframe
performs the relevant mathematical modelling and sends the results in graphical form to the terminal,
which has some computing power to interpret the data received, manipulate it and display it in graphical
form.
Input Devices
The input devices are used for making selections from a menu, which is a layout of a variety of
commands
and functions required to operate the system. Sending these commands into the computer produces
complete engineering drawings. The choice of optional commands on the screen menu is made by
indicating the required position with the cursor cross-hairs or by typing a required code.
Output Devices
The output devices receive data from the computer and provide an output, hard copy. There are two main
types of output devices, namely printers and plotters. The printers may be impact, where images are
formed by a striking action or non-impact:
(a) impact printers for drawing reproduction are of the dot matrix type and form shapes by the
appropriate selection of small dots from the printhead;
(b) non-impact printers include electrostatic, ink-jet and laser printers, viz.:
i) electrostatic printers create shapes by burning away a thin metallic coating on the
special printing paper;
ii) the ink-jet printers use a printhead which directs a jet of ink at the paper to create the
required shapes;
iii) the laser printers use a fine beam of laser light to create the required shapes.
Plotters
There are two basic types of plotter, i.e. flatbed and drum:
(a) flatbed plotters have a flat area on which the paper of any type and thickness is placed and the
pens of various thicknesses and ink colours are free to move in any direction with plothead
providing all the motion;
(b) drum plotters have a rotating drum over which the paper can move in two directions and pens
are limited to move only across the drum and, with a combination of pen movement and drum
rotation, provides the required motion. Drawings of longer length but sometimes of lower
precision are produced when compared with flatbed plotters.

Basic Elements of a CAD System

Generic CAD Process

CADD Software Structure

The database for a CADD package contains data defining the two- or three-dimensional geometry of the
drawing or design. It can be viewed as a mathematical model which is a precise geometrically accurate
representation of the component or assembly. The input to this is the addition to and modification of the
model by the designer or draughtsman and includes the addition of geometric and detail entities such as
lines, curves, points, notes or dimensions and modification to correct errors and enhance productivity.
These additions and modifications should immediately be seen on the graphical display, which is the
main
interactive output medium of the software and therefore needs to be very effective. In the case of
draughting one needs to be able to add a drawn feature with as much or greater ease than one would be
able to do on a drawing board.
The User Interface
CAD systems may be considered as comprising a large number of functions for creating or manipulating
the design model. For example a function might create a line in the database parallel to another line at a
given distance. The general sequence of operation of a CAD program is for the user to select the function
to be applied, and the particular way it is to be operated, and then for the program to apply this function
using data provided by the user. Traditionally, there are two ways in which this is achieved:
Command-based systems
Command-based systems operate by reading a command and its parameters entered by the user, carrying
out the required actions, then waiting for the next command. The commands themselves may often
comprise English-like words. The main commands are indicated by the permitted major words, and the
options relating to the command by minor words. Many systems also allow commands to be abbreviated,
either through the use of an alternative form (for example ‘dimension’ might be abbreviated by ‘dim’), or
by allowing the user to type only those characters of the command required for its unique identification .
The command is itself sometimes followed by the name of an object on which to carry out the command.
The general form of command may thus be summarized as: command (optional parameters , target
object)
Menu-driven systems
The menu-driven approach contrasts markedly with the command approach. The basic principle is that
the user is at any time presented with a list or menu of the functions that are available to be selected. The
user selects from the list, and then perhaps from further lists of available sub -functions until the function
is specified fully, at which point data is entered, or items selected for the operation. In many systems the
menus may be regarded as forming an inverted tree, with the main command groupings at the first level
(e.g. in a CAD context, construct, modify, delete, move), and more specific functions at lower levels.
There are a number of rules which should be adopted in designing a user interface the adherence to which
should be investigated when choosing a software package for a particular task. The most important of
these rules are:
 A clear, well presented screen layout.
 Easy function selection by a well-structured menu system.
 Meaningful function names.
 Meaningful and helpful prompts to the user.
 Easily accessible and clearly written help information.
CADD FUNCTIONALITY
The main benefits of a computerized drafting and design system over those of manual methods is this
ability to represent the design of a component or assembly in a geometrically accurate format so that the
same model can be used for other modelling, analysis and manufacturing work.
The ease of use of a CADD system is centred mainly around good user interface design and the
performance around function availability. The number and range of functions in a typical CADD system
are normally extensive even for the simplest drafting and line modelling systems for use on PCs. To
ease the discussion and understanding of CADD system operation the functions can be said to fall into
three categories:
(a) Synthesis type functions are concerned mainly with the creation of geometric features and drawing
details.
(b) Modification functions include those which allow for the deletion and editing of existing geometry
or detail.
(c) Management functions are concerned with how the drawing is presented both on the screen and
eventually on paper.
CADD SOFTWARE SELECTION
There is a large variety of different CADD packages available on the market these days and the design
manager is faced with the enormous problem of selecting a package to suit the demands of the company
and its product range.
Computer aided drawing software exists in many forms and is available in a wide range of prices, again
depending upon the application. Most of packages have both a 2D and 3D component or have an
integrated 2D and 3D modeling system. The newer versions of drawing software operate under a menu
system which can be accessed through keyboard input or mouse manipulation. The size of the company
and the amount of investment capital available will be one of the main deciding factors but there are
many
other questions to be considered:
Mainframe or PC/workstation platform
A small company will not normally be able to invest in a mainframe installation unless it can be justified
in terms of its use by other departments. The choice of personal computers may impose a restriction on
how far the company can expand the system using its present hardware. The technological life of a PC is
generally much shorter than that of more powerful systems such as minicomputers, workstations and
mainframes.
Two dimensions or three; Lines, surfaces or solids
A large proportion of computer assistance in the design office is still restricted to pure drafting in two
dimensions. A small company may find significant benefits in this but may soon find the need to expand.
Most modular CADD or CAE packages have an inexpensive 2D drafting module which can be fully
integrated with its geometric modelling and analysis modules. Line modelling is suitable only for limited
spatial design problems— is this enough? Depending on the type of products the company produces,
surface modelling, solid modelling or both may be appropriate and worth the capital outlay.

Other analysis tools needed

Does the company become involved in complex analytical design work such
as stress or heat transfer analysis or the design of kinematic, dynamic or control systems? Will the ability
to transfer the geometry to these modelling and analysis systems be needed?
Drawing details in producing a drawing either with a pure drafting package or from a 3D design in a
CADD system the software needs to be able to provide facilities for details or annotation on the drawings
namely: notes, labels, dimensions, tolerances, arrows and cross-hatching. Each will use text, geometric
entities or a mixture of the two. The user will need to be able to draw text of varying height, width, angle
and text style or font. Dimensioning needs to be automatic so that only the feature to be dimensioned and
the position of the dimension line or text needs to be specified. Some packages use associative
dimensioning so that, when the size of a feature is changed, the dimension and its text automatically
changes.
Compatibility with other systems needed
If the company carries out a lot of contract work with other companies who use CADD it does not wish to
be constrained to use the same systems as those other companies. As no two CADD packages define and
store models on backing store identically a procedure of conversion to and from other CADD formats will
nearly always be required. There are mainly two standards that allow CADD geometry to be defined in a
neutral format for conversion to models in other CADD systems. DXF or drawing exchange format has
been developed by Autodesk Inc. for use with AutoCAD and many other CADD suppliers have included
DXF conversion utilities in their packages. The other system is the ANSI standard IGES (or its successors
PDES and STEP) and is a more comprehensive system of geometry transfer. IGES does tend, in many
cases, to be unreliable because of the many ways it specifies the definition of some geometric entities.
How good is the maintenance and support from the suppliers?
Bad maintenance and support from the software suppliers can reduce the productivity exis ting even prior
to acquiring the CADD system thereby nullifying the many benefits that the system may offer. If the
software requires a lot of maintenance and support then it is generally of poor design. Many vendors of
CADD packages offer hot-line support facilities where a designer can phone in with a problem
concerning the use of the package and speak to an expert.
How much, how good and how long is the training
Many software suppliers provide their own training in using their packages. Often the purchase price
includes training for one or two potential users with further trainees being paid for additionally. In some
circumstances the software suppliers may offer the option of an in-house course and send one of their
trainers to the company to give instruction on the company’s hardware using relevant design problems.
How easy is it to expand the system
Once a company starts down the CADD path then it rarely looks back. There will always be the need to
expand both the size and capability of the system. As discussed previously a CADD system which is
designed in a modular fashion will allow greater scope for expansibility
COMPUTER AIDED DRAWING SYSTEMS
CAD systems are available for a number of computer platforms: laptops, personal computers (PCs),
workstations, and mainframes. Among the more widely used CAD systems are AutoCAD, CATIA,
SolidWorks, I-DEAS, and ProEngineer.

AutoCAD R.14
AutoCAD, offered to the public in late 1982, was one of the first PC based CAD software products. Using
AutoCAD gives you the highest probability of being able to share CAD files and related data and
information with others and the highest possibility that you can share CAD files and related data with
your colleagues, vendors, and clients. Compatibility of hardware and software is an important issue in
industry.
Maintaining compatible hardware and software allows you the highest probability for sharing data and
information with others as well as offering you flexibility in experiment ing with and utilizing the latest
technological advancements.
Learning AutoCAD gives you a higher probability of using your skills in industry. In addition, learning
AutoCAD as a first CAD system gives you a good foundation for learning other CAD packages because
many concepts and commands introduced by AutoCAD are utilized by other systems. AutoCAD’s main
window comprises the components shown in Figure 3. The graphics window is where AutoCAD
displays your drawing and where you work on your drawing.

Figure 3. AutoCAD’s main window

The crosshairs are controlled by your pointing device (usually a mouse) and are used to locate points and
select objects in your drawing. The status bar displays the coordinate location of your crosshairs and the
current settings of grid,snap, and other drawing aids.
The text window displays a history of the commands and options you have entered. You can see the text
activity that occurred at the command prompt. Pressing the F2 key activates the AutoCAD Text window,
sometimes called the command history (Figure 4).
Figure 4. AutoCAD text window
How to Access Commands
You use AutoCAD by running commands using one of these methods: Choosing a menu item; Clicking a
tool on toolbar ; Entering a command. Most commands that can be entered on the command line can be
found on a menu or a toolbar, and most commands have additional choices, or options. Some commands
display these options on the command line, while others display them in a dialog box. You enter
command line options by typing at least the capitalized portion of the option name and then pressing
ENTER. You set command options in a dialog box by clicking the option with the pointing device and
then choosing OK.
The last-used settings of most command options are “remembered” in system variables, which are stored
in the drawing file. System variables determine the behavior and default values for a command the next
time you run it. At the Command prompt, you can invoke the last-used command by pressing ENTER.
You can exit any command by pressing ESC.

Introduction to various CAD commands with simple examples

The function Keys
F1------------------------------------------------------------------------------------HELP
F2------------------------------------------------------------------------------------AUTOCAD TEXT WINDOW
F3------------------------------------------------------------------------------------OBJECT SNAP
F4------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3D OBJECT SNAP
F5------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ISOMETRIC SNAP
F6------------------------------------------------------------------------------------DYNAMIC UCS
F7------------------------------------------------------------------------------------GRID ON/OFF
F8------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ORTHO
F9------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SNAP
F10-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------POLAR
F11-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------OBJECTSNAP TRACKING
F12-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------DYNAMIC INPUT

Starting a new drawing: Click on the Auto Cad icon on the top left corner on the screen, select
new->drawing->Sheet Sets->select any of the files in the folder.

The UNITS : Command

In AutoCAD it is suggested that you draw everything at full scale or 1: 1 scale, and plot the
drawing at the required scale factor later. Once you have chosen your desired units from the
startup menu, you then use the UNITS command to set your readout only. The type of units
chosen determines how AutoCAD interprets coordinate and angle command entries. The
'Insertion scale' area indicates again your base units. AutoCAD offers various types of units of
measure for use on your drawings. Before setting up the parameters of the drawing, first set up
the units so that the readout displays the required units. Decimal mode may be used for metric
units as well as for imperial units. Be sure you have set up your file correctly for the units that
you require.
The decimal unit type will display one millimeter for one unit. Specify the number of decimal
places for your readout using precision. The engineering and architectural modes assume that
one drawing unit equals one inch. Fractional and scientific settings will give readout in those
specific units. Again, the UNITS command only sets the readout. If you are setting your UNITS
in inches, but your 'Insertion scale' is millimeters, then you will have problems later. The UNITS
command can be accessed either through the command line or through the UNITS dialog box
from the Format pull-down menu at the top of your screen.
The LIMITS Command
LIMITS set a flexible general size for your drawing. LIMITS set the size of your screen and the
area covered by the screen grid. Unlike drawing on paper, you can change the LIMITS size at
any time. It simply gives you a place to start and helps provide a visual size that you can identify
with. The command line equivalent is LIMITS. Setting LIMITS does not limit your model; it
merely lets you determine how big the finished product might be. You can reset the LIMITS at
any time simply by picking new points on the screen. ZOOM All (Z enter A enter) allows you to
view the size you have chosen. Setting LIMITS, SNAP and GRID LIMITS set an overall size for
your design. SNAP sets an increment that the cursor will move by. GRID sets a visual aid to help
you place objects, and is often set to twice the SNAP value. The grid will extend over the area
given by the LIMITS command.
LIMITS enter specify the lower left corner as origin (0,0), specify the upper right corner as (
paper size) Paper Size:
A0:841x1189 mm
A1:594x841 mm
A2:420x594 mm
A3:297x420 mm
A4:210x297 mm
Using the function keys F7 (grid) and F9 (snap)
Using the line command , F3(Osnap), F8 (ortho) and F10(polar)
DRAWING TOOLS:
Goto menu bar->select tools->tool bars->Autocad->select Draw
i. Line: command (L) Creates straight line segments.
ii. Construction line (XL) Creates a construction line of infinite length. Xlines are useful
for creating construction and reference lines, and for trimming boundaries.
iii. Poly line (PL) Creates a 2D polyline, a single object that is composed of line and arc
segments. A 2D polyline is a connected sequence of segments created as a single planar
object. You can create straight line segments, arc segments, or a combination of the
two.
iv. Circle: command (C) Creates a circle. Center Point Draws a circle based on a center
point and a diameter or a radius. Radius Defines the radius of the circle. Enter a value,
or specify a point. For example: Diameter Defines the diameter of the circle. Enter a
value, or specify a second point.
v. Polygon ( POL) Creates an equilateral closed polyline. You can specify the different
parameters of the polygon including the number of sides. The difference between the
inscribed and circumscribed options is shown.
vi. Rectangle (REC) Creates a rectangular polyline.
vii. Arc (A) Creates an arc. To create an arc, you can specify combinations of center,
endpoint, start point, radius, angle, chord length, and direction values. Arcs are drawn in
a counterclockwise direction by default. Hold down the Ctrl key as you drag to draw in a
clockwise direction.
viii. Spline (SPL) Creates a smooth curve that passes through or near a set of fit points, or
that is defined by the vertices in a control frame. SPLINE creates curves called
Non Uniform Rational B-splines (NURBS), referred to as splines for simplicity. Splines
are defined either with fit points, or with control vertices. By default, fit points coincide
with the spline, while control vertices define a control frame. Control frames provide a
convenient method to shape the spline. Each method has its advantages.
Tools->Tool bar->AutoCad->Modify
i. Erase (E) Removes objects from a drawing. You can erase selected objects from the
drawing. This method does not move objects to the Clipboard, where they can then be
pasted to another location. If you are working with 3D objects, you can also erase
subobjects such as faces, meshes, and vertices. (Not applicable to AutoCAD LT.) Instead
of selecting objects to erase, you can enter an option, such as L to erase the last object
drawn, p to erase the previous selection set, or ALL to erase all objects. You can also
enter ? to get a list of all options.
ii. Copy (CO) Copies objects a specified distance in a specified direction.
iii. MOVE (M) Moves objects a specified distance in a specified direction. Use coordinates,
grid snaps, object snaps, and other tools to move objects with precision.
iv. MIRROR (MI) Creates a mirrored copy of selected objects. You can create objects that
represent half of a drawing, select them, and mirror them across a specified line to
create the other half.
v. OFFSET (O) Creates concentric circles, parallel lines, and parallel curves. You can
offset an object at a specified distance or through a point. After you offset objects, you
can trim and extend them as an efficient method to create drawings containing many
parallel lines and curves.
vi. ARRAY (AR) Creates copies of objects arranged in a pattern.
vii. TRIM (TR) Trims objects to meet the edges of other objects.
viii. EXTEND (EX) Extends objects to meet the edges of other objects. To extend objects,
first select the boundaries. Then press Enter and select the objects that you want to
extend. To use all objects as boundaries, press Enter at the first Select Objects prompt.
ix. FILLET (F) Rounds and fillets the edges of objects. F ENTER R ENTER ENTER THE
RADIUS ENTER , SELECT FIRST EDGE, SELECT THE SECOND EDGE.
x. CHAMFER (CHA) Bevels the edges of objects