Pulp and Paper: Non-wood Sources 2.

Agricultural Residues
Agricultural residues generally tend to have slender,
The bulk of the world’s paper is produced from wood- fragile fibers with an average length of 0.5–1.5 mm
based raw materials. Although paper was first pro- (Fig. 1). Wood fibers, however, have coarser (thicker-
duced from nonwoods, and still is in countries having walled) and stronger fibers with an average length of
scarce forest resources, wood has been traditionally 0.8–6 mm (Fig. 2). Residue fibers also have high
viewed as producing paper with better end properties contents of extraneous materials such as fines, silica,
and lower cost. Environmental concerns about the and pith, which can cause processing problems and
preservation of forests, combined with speculation on their drainage rate is usually much lower than for
possible wood shortages from increasing demands for wood pulps. Even with these inferior properties,
paper, have served to increase the interest in nonwood agricultural residues have attractive advantages as raw
sources for paper, even in countries with extensive material for papermaking, including:
forest resources. However, the processing and fiber $ growing and some harvesting costs of agri-
characteristics of nonwood materials tend to be cultural residues are covered by the principal crop, a
different from those of wood, offering significant significant cost advantage;
challenges to their use. $ they are abundantly available as residues from
grain processing in various regions of many countries;
$ in some developing countries the feasibility and
technology is established for their use in papermaking;
1. Definition of Nonwood Fiber Sources and
In general, nonwood fibers are obtained from annual $ in some areas there are more residues available
plants which are planted and harvested within one than can be returned to the soil or used for livestock
growing season. They can be categorized in two groups feed, leading to burn-offs, land filling, or other
that differ in fiber properties and how they are grown, environmentally objectionable disposals.
harvested, and used. Table 1 lists typical physical and
chemical characteristics for some common nonwood
fiber sources.
3. Fiber Crops
Unlike agricultural residues, fiber crops must yield an
1.1 Agricultural Residues economic return based solely on fiber value, with
concern about competitiveness with wood. The quality
These are materials remaining after the principal crop of fiber crop pulps tends to be good, with fiber length
(usually cereal or grain) has been harvested. Examples and coarseness, strength, and drainage often matching
include rice and wheat straw, corn stalks, flax straw, and exceeding that of softwood pulp. However, many
and sugar cane (bagasse). of the more popular varieties—such as kenaf and
industrial hemp—are dicotyledons, with a different
physiology that must be considered. Instead of uni-
form, normal fiber length distribution as found in
1.2 Fiber Crops
hardwoods and softwoods, they have two very
These are materials from crops planted specifically to different fiber types. Bast fibers, in the outer bark, are
yield fiber. Examples include industrial hemp, kenaf, long and tough, with an average fiber length of
sisal, abaca, and jute. 2.5–20 mm (Fig. 3), with high cellulose and low lignin

Table 1
Typical properties of some nonwood and wood fiber raw materials.
Fiber Alpha
Fiber length diameter cellulose Lignin Pentosans
Material (mm) (µm) (%) (%) (%)
Rice straw 1.4 8 28–36 12–16 23–28
Wheat straw 1.5 13 49–54 16–21 23–32
Kenaf bast 2.7 20 47–57 15–19 19–23
Kenaf core 0.60 30 33–37 14–18 23–29
Hemp bast 20 22 63–67 3–5 6–9
Hemp core 0.55 22 33–37 18–22 16–19
Softwoods 3.0 30 40–45 26–34 7–14
Hardwoods 1.3 25 38–49 23–30 19–26
Source: HurterConsult Incorporated.

1
Pulp and Paper: Non-wood Sources

significant differences in chemical makeup, present

serious challenges in both pulping and papermaking.
Bast and core fibers can be separated prior to pulping,
but the extra processing increases raw material cost. If
the two fibers are pulped together, differences in
chemical composition usually causes an improper
treatment of one fraction.

4. Issues Confronting the Use of Nonwoods

It would appear that nonwood raw materials—
especially agricultural residues—have some charac-
teristics which make them attractive as alternatives to
wood for papermaking. However, not only is wood
still the preferred raw material for papermaking, but
the paper industry has shown great reluctance towards
even the partial use of nonwoods, based on a number
of issues.

Figure 1
Wheat straw, photomicrograph i65 (reproduced by 4.1 HarŠesting and Storage
permission of Pulp & Paper Technical Association of In most regions trees can be harvested throughout the
Canada from Atchison J 1987 Pulp and Paper
Manufacture, Vol. 3 : Secondary Fibers and Non-Wood year, independent of season. Wood is thus stored ‘‘on
Pulping, 3rd edn.). the stump,’’ meaning that paper mills need to maintain
few production days of storage to assure continuous
operation. Nonwoods, however, must be removed in a
limited period after harvest before fields get too wet
for access and to prevent decomposition. The yearly
raw material becomes available at one time, requiring
an extensive system of storage and retrieval, increasing
the cost and making it susceptible to attack from
microbes, pests, and fire.

4.2 Transportation and Mill Size

Wood has a high bulk density, even as chips, and can
be economically transported over great distances,
giving paper mills flexibility in obtaining raw
materials. Nonwoods, even after high-density baling
and cubing, have much lower bulk density and
therefore a more limited transportation distance,
limiting the size of a given mill. Depending on crop
yield, it is estimated that the maximum feasible
production rate for a typical nonwood pulp mill is
Figure 2 200–400 t dV". These nonwood ‘‘mini-mills’’ face a
Monterey pine, photomicrograph i65 (reproduced by significant disadvantage in scale of economy when
permission of Pulp & Paper Technical Association of compared with modern wood pulp mills that produce
Canada from Atchison J 1987 Pulp and Paper up to 4000 t dV".
Manufacture, Vol. 3 : Secondary Fibers and Non-Wood
Pulping, 3rd edn.).

4.3 Capital Cost

content. Core fibers, in the woody inner stem, are
shorter, with an average fiber length of 0.5–1 mm, The open, fibrous nature of most nonwoods causes
having low cellulose and high lignin content. The significant problems (roping, plugging) when they are
bimodal fiber length distribution, combined with the processed using wood chip processing equipment.

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 Pulp and Paper: Non-wood Sources

system represents a large fraction of the capital cost

for the entire mill, which is justifiable for only large-
scale wood pulp mills. In addition, many nonwoods,
unlike wood, have a high silica content, which rapidly
fouls evaporators and other heat transfer surfaces.
Recovery systems for these nonwoods must include
some form of desilication.

4.6 Papermaking
Very few nonwoods have fibers with the same
characteristics found in short-fiber hardwoods and
long-fiber softwoods. Fibers from most agricultural
residues are short and thin walled. While these fibers
are well suited for making a smooth, printable sheet,
they produce significantly lower paper strength than
do hardwood fibers. They also have poorer drainage
properties. Bast fibers are often much longer and
thicker walled than softwood fibers; such fibers can
Figure 3 often be 10–20 times longer than the maximum length
Kenaf bast, photomicrograph i65 (reproduced by permitted for properly formed paper. Core fibers, in
permission of Pulp & Paper Technical Association of contrast, are much shorter than for hardwoods, and
Canada from Atchison J 1987 Pulp and Paper have inferior strength and drainage. The use of
Manufacture, Vol. 3 : Secondary Fibers and Non-Wood nonwood fibers in a paper sheet, whether partially or
Pulping, 3rd edn.). totally, requires careful consideration of the paper
formulation.
Nonwoods require either separate pulping facilities or
the extensive modification of existing wood pulp See also: Papermaking; Paper: Pulping and Bleaching;
equipment, which is costly and not attractive to the Pulp and Paper : Wood Sources
paper industry.

Bibliography
4.4 Raw Material Separation China Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
(CTAPI), United Nations International Development Organi-
With the exception of external debarking, wood zation (UNIDO) 1988 Proc. Int. Nonwood Fiber Pulping and
requires no mechanical separation of undesirable Papermaking Conf. CTAPI, Beijing
components prior to pulping. Many nonwoods, such China Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry
sugar cane bagasse, have a high content of nonfibrous, (CTAPI) 1992 Proc. 2nd Int. Nonwood Fiber Pulping and
parenchymatic pithy tissue that must be removed since Papermaking Conf. CTAPI, Beijing
it causes problems in processing and final pulp Kocurek M J (ed.) 1987 Pulp and Paper Manufacture. Vol. 3:
properties. Other nonwoods, such as kenaf or indus- Secondary Fibers and Non-Wood Pulping, 3rd edn. Joint
Textbook Committee of the Paper Industry of the United
trial hemp, contain very different bast and core States and Canada, Atlanta, GA\Montreal, Canada
components, which might require pulping separately. Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
The mechanical processes for both pith removal and 1998 Proc. North American Nonwood Fiber Symp. English
bast\core separation add to the capital and operating TAPPI Press, Atlanta, GA
costs of the nonwood mill, and they can have adverse Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
effects on pulp quality and yield. 1998 Proc. Pulping Conf. (Book 1–3). TAPPI Press, Atlanta,
GA
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI)
1999 Proc. Pulping Conf. (Book 1–3). TAPPI Press, Atlanta,
4.5 Chemical RecoŠery GA
Zhong X, China Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
The economy of wood pulp processing is centered on Industry (CTAPI) 1996 3rd Int. Nonwood Fiber Pulping and
the chemical recovery system in which the dissolved Papermaking Conf. CTAPI, Beijing
wood components are burned for mill energy and
inorganic cooking chemicals are regenerated. This M. V. Byrd Jr

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Pulp and Paper: Non-wood Sources

Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

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Encyclopedia of Materials : Science and Technology
ISBN: 0-08-0431526
pp. 7910–7913