Math for everyone: A friendly way to learn

An introduction to

Propositional Logic
and
Set Theory

César R. Gallo P.
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 6
CHAPTER I: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC ............................................................................... 7
DEFINITION OF PROPOSITION .................................................................................................. 7
Notation.......................................................................................................................................... 8
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES ............................................................................................................. 9
Negation....................................................................................................................................... 10
Conjunction ................................................................................................................................. 11
Inclusive disjunction ................................................................................................................... 13
Exclusive disjunction .................................................................................................................. 14
Conditional................................................................................................................................... 15
Biconditional ................................................................................................................................ 16
PROPOSITIONAL FORMULAS ................................................................................................... 19
Atomic Formulas......................................................................................................................... 20
Molecular Formulas ................................................................................................................... 20
Truth tables ................................................................................................................................. 21
Tautology ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Contradiction ............................................................................................................................... 23
Indeterminate .............................................................................................................................. 24
Logically Equivalent Formulas.................................................................................................. 25
EXERCISES I ................................................................................................................................. 26
THE CONDITIONAL ...................................................................................................................... 33
EXERCISES II ................................................................................................................................ 34
IMPLICATION ................................................................................................................................. 35
NECESSITY AND SUFFICIENCY ............................................................................................... 37
DOUBLE IMPLICATION ............................................................................................................... 38
FORMAL TRUTH AND EMPIRICAL TRUTH ............................................................................ 39
LOGICAL INFERENCE ................................................................................................................. 40
LAWS OF LOGIC ........................................................................................................................... 41
 Conditional Syllogisms .............................................................................................................. 42
Disjunctive Syllogisms ............................................................................................................... 45
Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) ..................................................................................................... 47
Conjunctive-Disjunctive Syllogism (CDS) ............................................................................... 48
Double negation (DN) ................................................................................................................ 50
Simplification (S)......................................................................................................................... 50
Conjunction (C) ........................................................................................................................... 51
Addition (A).................................................................................................................................. 51
LAWS OF EQUIVALENCE ........................................................................................................... 51
EXERCISES III ............................................................................................................................... 57
MATHEMATICAL PROOFS ......................................................................................................... 58
The Direct Proof Method ........................................................................................................... 59
The Indirect Proof Method ........................................................................................................ 62
The method of Proof by Contradiction .................................................................................... 66
Proof by Counterexample ......................................................................................................... 69
EXERCISES IV ............................................................................................................................... 69
ANSWERS TO THE EXCERSICES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER I......................................... 72
EXERSICES I ............................................................................................................................. 72
EXERCISES II ............................................................................................................................ 73
EXERCISES III ........................................................................................................................... 74
EXERCISES IV ........................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY ............................................................. 76
NOTATION ...................................................................................................................................... 76
SET OF SETS................................................................................................................................. 77
DESCRIBING SETS ...................................................................................................................... 78
QUANTIFIERS................................................................................................................................ 80
Universal quantifier .................................................................................................................... 80
Existential quantifier ................................................................................................................... 81
THE UNIVERSAL SET .................................................................................................................. 82
THE EMPTY SET ........................................................................................................................... 83
THE SINGLETON SET ................................................................................................................. 83
EXERCISES I ................................................................................................................................. 85
VENN DIAGRAMS ......................................................................................................................... 87
EQUALITY OF SETS..................................................................................................................... 88

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 Properties of equality of sets .................................................................................................... 89
RELATION OF SET INCLUSION ................................................................................................ 90
Properties of set inclusion ......................................................................................................... 92
Complement of a subset ........................................................................................................... 94
Properties of the complement of a subset .............................................................................. 97
SET OF PARTS OF A SET .......................................................................................................... 98
EXERCISES II .............................................................................................................................. 100
SET OPERATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 103
Intersection ................................................................................................................................ 103
Union .......................................................................................................................................... 109
Difference .................................................................................................................................. 117
Symmetric Difference .............................................................................................................. 120
Intersections and unions of family of sets ............................................................................ 125
PARTITION OF A SET ................................................................................................................ 128
EXERCISES III ............................................................................................................................. 129
NUMBER SETS ............................................................................................................................ 139
The number line ........................................................................................................................ 141
Intervals ..................................................................................................................................... 147
EXERCISES IV ............................................................................................................................. 152
ANSWERS TO THE EXERSICES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER II ........................................ 155
EXERSICES I ........................................................................................................................... 155
EXERSICES II .......................................................................................................................... 156
EXERCISES III ......................................................................................................................... 157
EXERCISES IV ......................................................................................................................... 160
CHAPTER III: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM ................................................................. 162
BOUNDS OF SETS ..................................................................................................................... 165
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUN OF SETS ....................................................................................... 168
SUPREMUM AND INFIMUM...................................................................................................... 170
Supremum axiom ..................................................................................................................... 171
EXERCISES I ............................................................................................................................... 174
INEQUELITIES ............................................................................................................................. 174
EXERCISES II .............................................................................................................................. 179
EXERCISES III ............................................................................................................................. 182
ABSOLUTE VALUE ..................................................................................................................... 183

4
 NEIGHBOURHOOD .................................................................................................................... 190
EXERCISES IV ............................................................................................................................. 192
ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER III ....................................... 193
EXERCISES III ......................................................................................................................... 193
EXERCISES IV ......................................................................................................................... 193
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 194

5
INTRODUCTION

Mathematics has always been regarded as a difficult subject by most students of any age. It is
a common belief that accessing mathematical knowledge requires special skills. Nothing is
further from reality. What happens is that the more this false belief spreads, the more it tends
to be accepted as a fact . It is not special skills that are required to access mathematical
knowledge, but willingness and desire to learn it. Actually, everyone can success in lear ning
mathematics. Once students learn to logically reason, the rest of the knowled ge flows easily.
In this way students discover that the process of learning mathematics can be even fun and
they will want to learn more. Consequently, to achieve this goal teaching must begin by
familiarizing students with propositional logic. This explains why the beginning of this book
focuses on introducing students to this topic.
This book is especially useful to students who are about to finish high school and want to
properly prepare in mathematics to start college or university. The book is also suitable for
those students who have already started higher education . Many of them still face barriers in
learning more complex mathematical concepts and their adequate application. A flaw in
understanding basic concepts is what makes them reluctant to learn more.
Since the objective is to help students achieve an adequate understanding of basic concepts,
this book wa s written in a plain and simple language in order to make the process of
acquiring the mathematical knowledge a friendly, enjoyable and accessible one, even for
those students who dislike mathematics. However, the simplicity of language does not
sacrifice the rigor or depth of the study offered in the next pages, which guarantees an
adequate management of concepts. Students are not required to have math skills; the only
requirement is to be interested in learning.
In the three chapters that make up this te xt, we address the building blocks of Calculus or
Mathematical Analysis. We start with Propositional Logic, which provides the language, the
logical reasoning, and training on how to properly address mathematical proofs. This chapter
is followed by an in troduction to Set Theory where we develop a body of concepts that are
used in the definition of many fundamental concepts of Calculus such as Function. This
book ends with the study of the real number system which is addres sed from an axiomatic
approach. Throughout the study we offer examples to illustrate all the concepts that we
discuss. Additionally, we propose several sets of exercises to be solved by the students. The
answers to those exercises are offered at the end of each chapter. Thus, the students can check
their progress in learning the concepts discussed. The level of difficulty of such exercises
varies from the most elementary level to a moderate level, since the main objective of this
book is to help students to properly learn these basic conc epts and not to test their
mathematical skills. Once the students have completed the study of all the concepts discussed
in this book, they will be able to approach with a solid base, and with confidence, the study of
the concepts of Calculus such as funct ions, limits, continuity, derivation, and integration,
which will be discussed in upcoming books by this same author.
CHAPTER I: PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Logic is the science that studies forms, structures or schemes of formal reasoning. It
establishes the fundamental principles and provides methods to determine what makes certain
reasoning valid or not. The part of Logic that deals specifically with propositions is called
Propositional Logic, to which this chapter is devoted.

In general, any language is characte rized by being a set of symbols with a certain meaning
that we use to establish a certain type of communication. Through these symbols (words,
signs, musical notes, etc.) we can, based on a previous organization, construct determined
types of expressions (sentences, operations, musical phrases, etc.). In some cases, ordinary
language can be translated into symbolic language just as some symbolic expressions can be
simplified or given some meaning in ordinary language.

Propositional logic is interested only in those expressions that we call pr opositions, which
constitute its basic object.

DEFINITION OF PROPOSITION

A proposition is a statement or sentence that can be unequivocally verified as true or false

According to this definition, propositions are only those declarative expressions that affirm
something, for which there is some cr iterion that allows establishing, without a doubt, if such
affirmation is true or false. These values ( true or false ) are called the truth values of
propositions.

Examples

a) 17 is an odd number
b) Shakespeare was born in Japan
c) What time is it?
d) Damn it!

Expressions a) and b) are propositions since they can be verified as true or false. In the case
of a) the definition of what is an odd number is availa ble while in the case of b) there is
historical information about the birthplace of Shakespeare. In contrast, expressions c) and d)
are not propositions since they are a question and an exclamation resp ectively that affirm
nothing so that they cannot be described as true or false.

The existence of a n explicit and clear criterion to determine unequivocally the truth values is
fundamental. It is not enough for a declarative sentence to be defined as a proposition
because the truth or falsity of some affirmations is relative. That is, depending on the context,
the particular moment in which the affirmations are made, and the criterion used, the same
expression may be true in some cases a nd false in others. The following example helps to
clarify this. Let us have the statement: “North Korea is a developed country ”. In order to say
if this statement is true or false, we first need to establish what it is understood by “developed
country”. There is a long and unfinished debate about development. Many variables
intervene in the discussion which makes it difficult to achieve a unique definition. Therefore,
some people will regard that statement as true while for others it will be false. On the
contrary, when there is unification of criterion there is no room for ambiguity as it is the case
with the statement "4 is an even number" since there is a well -known and universally
accepted definition of even number.

In conclusion, if there is a unique criterion that allows assigning unambiguously truth values
to a given declarative s entence, then this sentence is a propo sition. In the absence of such
unique criterion, the sentence must be accompanied by a qualifying criterion for it to be
considered as a proposition.

All of the above is summarized in the following principle:

Any proposition is either true or false. There is not a third possibility

Notation

Propositions are usually represented by lowercase letters. The most frequently used letters are
p, q, r, t, etc. However, sometimes it is convenient to use just one letter with subscripts, such
as p1, p 2, p 3, etc. The use of notations makes it easier to work with propositions as it avoids
repeating the whole statement every time we need to make reference to it. For example, let us
have the following proposition: “Parallel lines do not intersect”. By making the association
between letter p and this statement, it would be enough to say “let’s have p”. Notations are
very useful when we need to refer to indeterminate propositions and not to a particular
sentence. Thus, in pointing out "let p be any proposition", we are saying that p represents any
statement. That is, p is of variable content the reason why is known as a propositional
variable. Symbols or letters that are used to represent specific statements whose truth values
are not determined are also considered as propositional variables. For example,

p: “x is an even number”

8
Only when we say which number x is, p can be assigned a truth value and in this way p will
become a proposition. Otherwise, while x is kept as a variable p will be a propositional
variable.

As for the truth values a capital T is used to indicate "true" and a capital F is used to indicate
"false". It is also common to encode the use of numbers 1 and 0 to indicate "true" and "false"
respectively.

LOGICAL CONNECTIVES

Logical connectives are operators that allow obtain ing a new proposition from given
propositions which are called component propositions and whose truth values are
known. The new proposition is called the resulting proposition with truth value being
determined by the truth values of the component propositions and the definition of the
logical connective used by the operation.

The above definition is illustrated in Figure 1.1:

Logical connective

p *q Resulting proposition

Component propositions

Figure 1.1

From the logic point of view , we must study how propositions are connected to give rise to a
resulting proposition and fundamentally the relations between the different combinations of
truth values of the components and that of the resulting one. This corresponds to the
definition of each logical connective. That is, such a defi nition consists of describing the
resulting proposition in terms of the component propositions, indicating the truth value of the
new proposition in terms of the truth values of the components.

The logical connectives that are applied to two prop ositions are called binaries while those
applied to a single proposition are known as unitary. We will study six different types of
connectives:

Unary Negation

Conjunction
Inclusive disjunction
Binaries Exclusive disjunction
Conditional
Biconditional

9
Negation

Negation is a logical connective that applied to a proposition gives rise to a new proposition
whose value of truth is opposite to that of the original proposition. That is, if the given
proposition is true, then the resulting proposition is false and vice versa.

To denote the negation of a given proposition p we can use indistinctly any of the following
notations:

~p, p, p, p 

In all cases we read them as “no p”.

The relations between the truth values of the component proposi tions and those of the
resulting proposition can be schematized in a table that is known as the truth table. For the
case of negation, that table is as follows:

p ~p
T F
F T

Negation is the only unary logical connective that we will study.

In ordinary language the negation of a given proposition can be obtained in various ways
depending on the statement of the original proposition . In some cases , the negation can be
obtained by placing the word "no t" in the grammatically appropriate place. In other cases, it
may be more convenient to add the expression " it is not true that" at the beginning of the
statement of the original proposition . Sometimes it is also possible to change some words or
expressions in the original statement by others with opposite meaning.

Examples

1. Given the proposition

p: “8 is an odd number”

Any of the following expressions can be a negation of p:

~p : “8 is not an odd number” or

~p : “It is not true that 8 is an odd number” or

~p : “8 is an even number”

10
 2. Let’s q be the following proposition:

q : “Second degree equations always have two solutions”

The following are negations of q:

~q : “Second degree equations do not always have two

solutions”

~q : It is not true that second degree equations always have

two solutions”

Conjunction

The conjunction is a logical connective that applied to two propositions gives rise to a new
proposition which is true when the components are both true and it is false in the rest of the
cases. It is assigned the symbol “⋀”. This way, the conjunction of p and q can be written as

pq

and it is read as “p and q”.

The conjunction is a binary connective like the rest of the connectives that we are going to
study in the next sections.

In order to construct the corresponding truth table, it must be taken into account that each
proposition has two possible truth values (T or F) so that there are four possible combinations
and thus the following table is formed:

p q p⋀q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

The table above shows the possible combinations of truth values of the given propositions p
and q. As indicated in the above definition, the proposition resulting from a conjunction of
two given propositions is true only when both propositions are true, which is reflected in the
first row of the table. In all other cases, the resulting proposition is false. In ordinary language
the conjunction of two propositions is obtained by joining them with the word "and".

11
Example 1

Given the following propositions:

p: “6 is an even number”

q: “5 is a prime number”

The conjunction of the two propositions is

p  q : “6 is an even number and 5 is a prime number”

Given the fact that both p and q are true and according to the definition, we can conclude that
the resulting proposition is also true.

Example 2

Let’s have the propositions:

p: “3 is an even number”

q: “6 is an even number”

The conjunction of both propositions is

p  q : “3 is an even number and 6 is an even number”

We can also write this conjunction as

p  q : “3 and 6 are both even numbers”

In this case , we have that p is false while q is true and according to the previous definition,
the conjunction p  q is false.

12
Inclusive disjunction

The inclusive disjunction is a logical connective that applied to two propositions gives rise to
a new proposition which is false only when both components are false and it is true in the rest
of the cases. It is assigned the symbol “⋁”. This way, the inclusive disjunction of p and q can
be written as

pq

and it is read “p or q”

In ordinary language , the inclusive disjunction of two propositions is obtained by joining

them with the word "or".

The relationship between t he truth values of the resulting proposition p  q and that of the
components is shown in the following truth table:

p q p⋁q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example

Let’s have the propositions:

p : “15 is a multiple of 3”

q : “15 is a multiple of 2”

The inclusive disjunction of them is:

p  q : “15 is a multiple of 3 or 15 is a multiple of 2”

The resulting proposition is true, since, according to the definition, it is enough that one of
the propositions is true.

Inclusive disjunction indicates alternation and simultaneity, since, according to its definition ,
it is true if both components are true (simultaneity) or if only one of them is true (alternation).

13
With relation to the previous example , it is convenient to show that there are other ways of
writing the inclusive disjunction of the given propositions. For example, it would be easier to
write:

p  q : “15 is a multiple of 3 or a multiple of 2”

Another way is:

p  q : “15 is a multiple of 3 or 2”

Exclusive disjunction

The exclusive disjunction is a logical connective that applied to two propositions gives rise to
a new proposition which is true only when one of the components is true and the other is
false. Therefore, the resulting proposition is false when both propositions have the same truth
value. In other words, the ex clusive disjunction is true if one and only one component is true
but not both. It is assigned the symbol “ ⋁”. This way, the ex clusive disjunction of p and q
can be written as

p⋁q

In ordinary language the exclusive disjunction of two propositions is obtained by writing the
word “either” before the first preposition and the word "or" before the second one . Then, it
will be read as “either p or q”.

The exclusive disjunction indicates alternation but not simultaneity since it has been said that
the resulting proposition is true only when one component is true and the other is false. That
is, the resulting proposition is true only when the truth values of the components are different.

The following table summarizes the definition of the exclusive disjunctive connective:

p q p⋁q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

Example

Given the propositions

14
 p : “4 is an even number”

q : “3 is an odd number”

The exclusive disjunction is

p ⋁ q : “either 4 is an even number or 3 is an odd number”

According to the definition, in this example p ⋁ q is false because both components are true.

Conditional

To facilitate the understanding of the definition of this important logical connective , let us
start with the symbol assigned to it and how to use it. The conditional is represented by the
symbol “→”. Thus, given the propositions p and q we can write

p→q

The first proposition (p) is called “antecedent” and the second (q) is known as “consequent”.

Then, the conditional is a logical connective that applied to two propositions gives rise to a
new proposition which is always true except when the antecedent is true and the consequent
is false. The corresponding truth table is as follows:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

In ordinary language the conditional of two propositions is obtained by writing the word “if”
before the first preposition and the word "then" before the second one. Thus, it will be read as
“if p, then q”.

It is necessary to emphasize that the order in which the component propositions are written is
very important in the case of this connective. That is, exchanging the antecedent and the
consequent will produce different resulting propositions. In other words, the conditional is
not commutative.

To help understand the definition of the conditional, we rely on the following example:

15
Example

Given the following propositions:

p : “I study”

q : “I pass the exam”

Let’s form the conditional

p → q : “If I study, then I pass the exam”

Let us examine each possibility that we can have. We start by assuming that both p and q are
true. In this case , the commitment to pass having studied for the exam , has been fulfilled.
Therefore, the resulting proposition is considered as true. In the case of p being true and q
false, the process is broken. This means that the commitment to pass having studied for the
exam has not been fulfilled. For this reason, in this case, the resulting proposition is
considered false. Another possibility is that p is false while q is true. In this situation it can be
said that the commitment to pass the exam has been fulfilled even though the student did not
study. That is, the objective was fulfilled even though the antecedent failed to be true. In this
way the resulting proposition is considered as true. The last possibility to be considered is
when both p and q are false. In other words, this situation corresponds to that in which the
student did not study and as a consequence he or she did not pass the exam. This would be an
expected situation and the resulting proposition is also considered as true.

Note that in the last two cas es the antecedent, which is the condition, is not fulfilled. For this
reason, fulfilling the commitment is not obligatory. It can be fulfilled or not. The whole
explanation given through this example wa s only for illustrativ e purposes. We try to convey
an intuitive idea of a logical connective that is not as obvious as the previous ones. In fact ,
this part could have been omitted, but it was considered useful for the student's
understanding, and any attemp t like this is welcome as long as it does not undermine the
rigorous definitions of the concepts.

Biconditional

The biconditional is a logical connective that applied to two propositions gives rise to a new
proposition which is true only when both components have the same truth value . Otherwise,
it is false. The biconditional connective is represented by the symbol “ ↔”. Thus, given the
propositions p and q we can write

p↔q

16
and it is read “p if and only if q”.

In ordinary language the biconditional of two propositions is obtained by writing “if and only
if” between the first and the second proposition.

The truth table for the biconditional connective is

p q p↔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Examples

1. Let us have the following propositions:

p : “Water does not freeze at any temperature”

q : “17 plus 7 is greater than 20”

The biconditional of p and q is the following proposition:

p ↔ q : “water does not freeze at any temperature, if and only if , 17 plus 7 is greater
than 20”.

Since p is false and q is true the resulting proposition p ↔ q is false, according to the
definition (see the corresponding truth table).

2. Given the propositions:

p : “The real number zero has multiplicative inverse”

q : “ The square root of a negative real number is also a

real number”

The corresponding biconditional is

17
 p ↔ q : “ The real number zero has multiplicative inverse , if and only if , the square
root of a negative real number is also a real number”

The resulting proposition is true since both components have the same truth value
(both are false).

It is interesting to note that the logical connectives studied above are enough to cover all
possible cases of combinations of two given propositions. This can be v erified by a table that
shows all possible combinations of truth values that a resulting proposition can have from the
combination of two given propositions by a single connective. Such combinations are shown
on the following table:

p q 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
T T T T T T T T T T F F F F F F F F
T F T T T T F F F F T T T T F F F F
F T T T F F T T F F T T F F T T F F
F F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F T F

It can be seen that columns 9 through 16 correspond to the negations of columns 1 through 8.
Thus, 16 is the negation of 1, 15 is the negation of 2 and so on with 9 being the negation of 8.
Columns 1 through 8 correspond as follows:

1. Proposition always true (Tautology)

2. pq
3. q→p
4. p
5. p→q
6. q
7. p↔q
8. pq

It can be noted the absence of the combination that corresponds to the exclusive disjunction.
However, this can be considered the negation of the biconditional (column 7) whose
combination is included in column 10 . In addition, it can also be noticed that there are two
possibilities that correspond to the conditional (3. and 5.). This is due to the fact that this is
the only non -commutative logical connective that we have studied here . That is, when the
antecedent and the consequent are exchanged in their positions the corresponding truth table
changes.

18
PROPOSITIONAL FORMULAS

Propositional formulas are expressions generated by combining a finite number of

propositional variables, logical connectives and grouping symbols. Some examples are:

pq

p→q

(~p ⋁ ~q) → ( p  q )

~ (p ↔ q)

[p ⋁ ( q ⋀ r)] → q

In the previous formulas we have included propositional variables, logical connectives and
grouping symbols by using the appropriate conventional notation in such a way that they
express a complete meaningful content. These are the formulas that are considered well-
constructed, which are simply called formulas. This clarification is made because there are
poorly constructed expression s which are incomplete and do not express any content or are
nonsense expressions like

(~ p ⋁ q ) →

It is also important to emphasize the role played by the grouping symbols in the construction
of formulas. They allow indicating the correct process for constructing formulas and avoiding
all possible ambiguities. For example, let us have the following expression

p⋁q⋀r

This is an ambiguous, poorly constructed expression because it can be interpreted in two

different ways

(p ⋁ q) ⋀ r or p ⋁ (q ⋀ r)

Those formulas lead to two resulting different propositions since they produce different truth
tables.

Additionally, grouping symbols allow us to determine or give evidence about what we could
consider as the hierarchical position of each connective involved in the formula . That is, it

19
allows visualizing which connective occupies the main position and which ones occupy
secondary positions in the same formula. Thus, for example, in the following formula:

[(p ⋁ q) ⋀ r] → (~ p)

We can easily see that the main connective is the conditional "→" which is not enclosed by
any grouping symbol while the rest is. The correct placement of the grouping symbols makes
it clear that the previous formula is a conditional in which both the antecedent and th e
consequent are formed by a suitable groupin g of propositional variables. Then, we can see
that the main connective within the formula is the one enclosed by the least number of
grouping symbols or by none. In other words, the hierarchical position of each connective
within a formula is in inverse relation to the number of grouping symbols that encloses it.

According to their structure, the propositional formulas are classif ied into two types namely:
atomic and molecular.

Atomic Formulas

This is the type of formula in which only one propositional variable is involved as the unique
element of the formula . There is not logical connective or grouping symbol involved. For
example, p is an atomic formula

Molecular Formulas

These formulas are those in which at least one logical connective intervenes. Examples of
molecular formulas are:

~p

pq

(p ⋁ q) ⋀ r

When it comes to propositional formulas the most widely used denotation is through capital
letters, such as P, Q, R, etc. According to the definition, we can say that

1) Any propositional variable is a formula.

2) If P and Q are formulas, then ~P, P ⋀ Q, P ⋁ Q, P ⋁ Q, P → Q and P ↔ Q are

formulas.

3) Only the expressions obtained by 1) and 2) are formulas.

20
Propositional formulas constitute the structure of logical reasoning which is one of the main
objectives of analysis in propositional logic. Hence the interest is addressed to analyze the
truth values of a given molecular formula in terms of the truth value s of the component
propositions. For this reason, it is necessary to make a more extensive exposition of the
schema called truth table which constitutes the main support tool in this analysis.

Truth tables

To construct a truth table we must start from the principle that every propositional variable
has only two possib le truth values: true or false and also that the truth value of a molecular
formula depends on the truth values of its propositional variables.

We consider the table divided into two part s: one part on the left side that we call the margin
and the other one on the right side that we call the body. We must place the truth values of
the propositional va riables involved in the formula in the margin . While i n the body , we
gradually form the partial structures of the formula until reaching the complete final structure.
This will be clarified later with an example.

The number of propositional variables involved in the molecular formula determines the
number of possible combinations of truth values that will appear in the margin of the table.
This total number of combinations is equal to 2n where the base of this power indicates the
number of possible truth values for each propositional variable . T he exponent indicates the
number of propositio nal variables involved in the formula. Thus, for example, if a certain
molecular formula involves three propositional variables, say p, q, and r, the total
combinations will be 23. Therefore, we will have eight possibilities that will be distributed in
the margin of the table as shown below:

p q r
T T T
T T F
T F T
T F F
F T T
F T F
F F T
F F F

We can obtain in this way the different combinations of truth values of the propositional
variables that intervene in any formula. This is how the margin of the table can be
mechanically constructed. What follows in the constru ction of the table is to determine the
truth values of the partial structures of the formula . They are progressively obtained until
getting the truth values of the final s tructure that correspond to each combination of truth
values of the propositional variables written in each row of the margin. This is done based on
the definitions of the logical connectives that intervene in the formula. The whole process is
captured in the body of the table.

21
The best way to understand the construction process of a truth table described above is
through examples which are shown below.

Examples

Let us get the truth tables corresponding to the following formulas:

1. ~ [p → (q ⋀ r)]
2. r ⋀ ~ (p → q)

The corresponding truth tables are as follows:

1.

p q r q ⋀ r p → (q ⋀ r) ~[p → (q ⋀ r)]
T T T T T F
T T F F F T
T F T F F T
T F F F F T
F T T T T F
F T F F T F
F F T F T F
F F F F T F

2.

p q r p → q ~ (p → q) r ⋀~ (p → q)
T T T T F F
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
T F F F T F
F T T T F F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
F F F T F F

The propositional formulas can also be classified according to the truth values they assume.
According to this criterion , we have formulas that are tautologies, contradictions or
indeterminate. Let us have a look at each case.

22
Tautology

A propositional formula constitutes a tautology, if and only if, it is always true no

matter what the truth values of its components are.

Example

Let us have the following formula:

(p → q) → (~ q → ~ p)

The corresponding truth table is

p q ~ p ~ q p → q ~ q → ~ p (p → q) → ( ~ q → ~ p)
T T F F T T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T

We can see that in the last column of the truth table there are only true values. Therefore, this
formula is always true regardless of the combination of the truth values of the component
propositions. In conclusion, according to the definition it is a tautology.

A tautology is a formally true proposition. That is to say, a tautology is always true as a result
of its logical form. In other words, it is always true because of the way in which the
component propositions are combined regardless of their truth values. Tautologies are also
known as logical principles or universally true propositions. The role of tautological
propositions is crucial in the analysis of logical reasoning precisely because they are not false
under any circumstance.

Contradiction

A propositional formula constitutes a contradiction, if and only if, it is always false no

matter what the truth values of its components are.

Example

Given the following formula:

23
 ~ [p → (q → p)]

The corresponding truth table is

p q q → p p → (q → p) ~ [p → (q → p)]
T T T T F
T F T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F

In fact, we can observe that the table shows only false values in its last column. Therefore,
the corresponding formula is always false regardless of the combination of the truth values of
its component propositions. In conclusion, according to the definition it is a contradiction.

A contradiction is always false as a result of its logical form. This is because of the way the
component propositions are combined regardless of the ir truth values . Contradictions are
universally false propositions . It is obvious that the negation of a tautology leads to a
contradiction and vice versa. This has also been shown by this example. The formula

p → (q → p)

is in fact a tautology (see the fourth column in the truth table) and its negation

~ [p → (q → p)]

ends up in a contradiction (fifth column). Like tautologies, contradictions play an important

role in the analysis of logical reasoning and also in mathematical proofs as we will see later.

Indeterminate

A propositional formula is indeterminate, i f and only if, it is false for some

combinations of truth values of its component propositions and true for other
combinations, no matter in what proportions these truth values are present.

Example

Given the following formula:

(p → q) ⋀ (q ⋁ p)

24
The corresponding truth table is

p q p → q q ⋁ p (p → q) ⋀ (q ⋁ p)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T T T
F F T F F

This formula is indeterminate since the last column of its truth table shows both true and false
values.

Logically Equivalent Formulas

Two propositional formulas are logically equivalent , if and only if, they involve the
same propositional variables and the columns corresponding to these formulas in their
respective truth tables are identical.

Given the propositional formulas denoted by P and Q. If they are logically equivalent we
write

P≡Q

this is read as

“Formula P is logically equivalent to formula Q”

When the formulas are not logically equivalent we write

P≢Q

and it is read

“Formula P is not logically equivalent to formula Q”

Example

Given the formulas

~p → ~q p ⋁ ~q ~p ⋀ q

25
Their truth tables are shown below. They are summarized in a single one since the same
propositional variables intervene in all of them.

p q ~p ~q ~p → ~q p ⋁ ~q ~p ⋀ q
T T F F T T F
T F F T T T F
F T T F F F T
F F T T T T F

The formulas in columns (5) and (6) are logically equivalent because they have identical truth
value distributions for the same combinations of truth values of the component propositions.
Then, we can write

(~p → ~q) ≡ (p ⋁ ~q)

(~p → ~q) ≢ (~p ⋀ q)

(p ⋁ ~q) ≢ (~p ⋀ q)

Examples

1. It can be verified that ( p ⋀ q) ≡ ~ (~ p ⋁ ~ q). This means that we can write a

conjunction in terms of negation and inclusive disjunction.

2. We can also verify that (p → q) ≡ ~ (p ⋀ ~q). Therefore, the conditional can be

written in terms of negation and conjunction.

3. An important equivalence is (p ↔ q) ≡ [(p → q) ⋀ (q → p)]. This equivalence allows

writing the biconditional in terms of the conjunction and the conditional. This
equivalence is very helpful in proofs.

4. Another important equivalence is ( p ⋁ q) ≡ ~ (p↔ q) which means that the exclusive

disjunction can be written in terms of the negation and the biconditional.

EXERCISES I

1. Determine whether or not the following statements are propositions. Write

symbolically (using symbols) those which are proposit ion, identify the atomic
propositions and the logical connectives that intervene.

a) This year our College will be better than in previous years.

26
 b) If the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) keeps on decreasing, then the economic
growth will be negative this year in our country.

c) We don’t know if it will happen.

d) Peter, Frank and Tony were admitted in college this year.

e) If your expenses are less than your income, then your net savings are positive
and your assets increase.

f) The high cost of living and the housing problem.

g) Real wages decrease with inflation.

h) How old are you?

i) If n is an even number and the product n x m is odd, then m is an odd number.

j) If the income from exports starts to decrease, then we must either reduce
expenses or increase domestic production.

2. Given the propositions:

p : “Inflation hurts people with fixed income”

q : “Inflation destroys the purchasing power ”

r : “The less the government’s expenses, the lower the risk of inflation”

Write in words the following propositions which are given in symbols:

a) p→q
b) (p ⋀ q) → r
c) (r ⋁ q) ⋀ p
d) ~ q → (r ⋀ ~p)
e) ~r ⋁ ( p ⋀ q )
f) ~(p⋀q)
g) p↔(q⋀r)
h) ~[p →( q ⋁ r )]

27
3. Given the propositions p, q and r, write the statements provided in each case by using
the appropriate symbols.

a) p : “The supply increases”

q : “The demand decreases”
r : “prices are stable”

“It is not true that if supply increases and the demand does not decrease, then
prices do not remain stable”

b) p : “Prices are high”

q : “Prices increase”
r : “The cost of living becomes more expensive”

“If the cost of living becomes more expensive , then it is not true that either prices
do not rise or that prices are high”

4. By observing the following truth tables, determine how p and q are connected.

a)
p q ( )
T T F
T F F
F T F
F F T

b)
p q ( )
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F T

c)
p q ( )
T T F
T F T
F T F
F F F

28
5. Determine which of the followi ng statements are proposition s. Write those that are
propositions by using symbols and determine their truth value.

a) If 4 and 5 are even numbers, then 20 is an odd number.

b) Inflation hurts people with fixed income and if it destroys their purchasing power,
then it deteriorates real wages.

c) If 3 and 7 are odd numbers, then either 3 is less than 7 or 7 is less than 3.

d) Either the sum of 7 and 2 is an odd number or 7 and 2 are even numbers.

e) If even numbers are divisible by 2 and odd numbers are divisible by 3 , then the
sum of an even number and an odd number is divisible by 6.

6. Knowing that

i) Galileo was born before Descartes.

ii) Descartes was born in the XVI century.
iii) Newton was not born before Shakespeare.
iv) Racine was not a compatriot of Galileo.

Determine the truth value of the following statements:

a) If Galileo was born before Descartes, then Newton was born before Shakespeare.

b) If Racine was a compatriot of Galileo or Newton was born before Shakespeare,

then Descartes was born in the XVI century.

c) If Racine was not a compatriot of Galileo, then Descartes was not born in the XVI
century or Newton was not born before Shakespeare.

7. Say which of the following are propositions:

a) If x is greater than 2, then x2 is greater than 4.

b) Two congruent triangles are similar.
c) Two similar triangles are congruent.
d) Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are (0, 0), (1, 0) and (0, 1).
e) a(b + c) + 3
f) You can never divide by zero.

8. Translate the following statements into symbolic language:

29
 a) Either the fire was intentionally produced or it was produced by internal
combustion.

b) If John testifies and tells the truth, he will be found guilty and if he does not
testify, he will be found guilty.

c) If there are more cats than dogs, then there are more horses than dogs and there
are fewer snakes than cats.

9. Answer the following questions:

a) If for any proposition q, p ⋁ q is true. What can you say about the truth value of
p?

b) If for any proposition q, p ⋀ q is false. What can you say about the truth value of
p?

c) If p ↔ q is true. What can you say about the truth value of p ⋁ ~ q?

d) If p → q is true. What can you say about the truth value of p ⋁ q?

e) If p → q is false. What can you say about the truth value of p ⋁ q?

10. For each of the following situations prove what is asked.

a) Assuming that the proposition q is false, prove that:

i. p ⋀ q is a contradiction.
ii. p → q is logically equivalent to ~p.
iii. p ⋁ q is logically equivalent to p.
iv. ~p → q is logically equivalent to p.

b) Assuming that the proposition p is true, prove that:

i. p ⋁ q is a tautology.
ii. ~p ⋀ q is a contradiction.
iii. ~p ⋁ q is logically equivalent to q.

11. Given the propositions p, q, r, s and t such as that both q and r are true while p, s and t
are false, determine the truth value of the following:

30
 a) p → (q → p)

b) [r → (~q)] → (t ⋁ q)
c) (p ⋁ q) → (~p → r)

d) p → (s→ t)
e) q → (q ⋁ s)

f) (p ⋁ s) → s

12. Determine which of the following propositions are tautologies:

a) p→ (p ⋁~ p)

b) p→ [q→ (q→ p)]

c) (p → q) ↔ (~q→ p)

d) p↔ (p ⋀~ p)
e) [(p ⋀ q) → (p ⋀ ~p)] → (q ⋁~ q)

f) (p → q) ↔ (~q→ ~p)
g) (p → q) → (q→ p)

h) [(p → q) → p]→ p
i) (p → q) → r

j) [(p ⋀ q) → r ] ↔[(p → (q → r)]

13. Determine which of the following propositional formulas are tautologies,

contradictions or indeterminates:

a) (p ⋁ r) ⋀ (p → q)

b) (p → q) ⋀ (r ↔ p)
c) (p ⋁ q) ↔ (q ⋁ r)

d) (p ↔ q) → (r → q)
e) (~p ⋁ ~q) → [p ⋀ (~q ↔ ~p)]

f) [q → (~p ⋀ ~q)] → [~p ⋁ (q ↔ ~p)]

g) p → {[(p ⋁ q) ⋀ r] ↔ [(~p ⋁ ~q) ⋀ ~r]}

31
 h) p ⋀ [(q ⋁ r) → (~p ⋁ ~r)]

i) [(p ⋀ q) ⋁ r] ↔ [p ⋁ (~r → ~ q)]

j) [~ (q ⋁ r)] → [(p ⋀ q) ⋁ (p↔ r)]

k) [(p ⋁ q) ⋀ (q ⋁ r)] ↔ [~(q→ p)]

l) r ⋀ ~ (p → q)

m) ~[p → (q ⋀ r)]

14. Determine whether or not the following equivalences are true:

a) [p → (q ⋁ r) ] ≡ [(p ⋁ q) → (p ⋁ r)]

b) [p → (q ⋁ r) ] ≡ [(p → r) ⋁ (p → q)]
c) [(p ⋀ q) → r] ≡ [(p → r) ⋀ (q→ r)]

d) [(p→ q) ⋀ (q→ p)] ≡ (q↔ p)

e) [ ~ (~p ⋁ ~ q)] ≡ (p ⋀ q)

f) [p ⋀ (q ⋁ r)] ≡ [(r ⋀ p) ⋁ (p ⋀ q)]

g) (p ⋁ q) ≡ [ ~ (q ↔ p)]

h) [(q ⋁ p) ⋀ r] ≡ [r ⋀ (p ↔ q)]

15. Prove the following properties by using truth tables:

a) Associative: [(p ⋀ q) ⋀ r] ≡ [p ⋀ (q ⋀ r)]

[(p ⋁ q) ⋁ r] ≡ [p ⋁ (q ⋁ r)]

b) Distributive: [(p ⋀ q) ⋁ r] ≡ [(p ⋁ r) ⋀ (q ⋁ r)]

[(p ⋁ q) ⋀ r] ≡ [(p ⋀ r) ⋁ (q ⋀ r)]

c) Absorption: [p ⋀ (q ⋁ p)] ≡ p

[p ⋁ (q ⋀ p)] ≡ p

32
THE CONDITIONAL

Given the fact that the conditional plays an important role in the development of
mathematical concepts, definitions and proofs, this section is devoted to study ing this logical
connective in detail.
First we are going to focus our attention on what we call the derived forms of a conditional.
These are the different conditionals that can be obtained from a given conditional. The most
important derived forms are:

a) The statement (also called the direct form)

This is the conditional given originally: P → Q

b) The converse
It is obtained by exchanging the antecedent and the consequent in the given
conditional: Q → P

c) The inverse (also called the contrary of the direct)

This form is obtained by the negation of both the antecedent and the consequent of the
original conditional: ~ P → ~ Q

d) The contrapositive
It is obtained by the negation of both the antecedent and the consequent of the
converse form: ~ Q → ~ P

The corresponding truth tables are summarized as follows:

P Q ~P ~Q P → Q Q → P ~P → ~Q ~Q → ~P
T T F F T T T T
T F F T F T T F
F T T F T F F T
F F T T T T T T

From the table we can see that

(P → Q) ≡ (~Q → ~P)

(Q → P) ≡ (~P → ~Q)

This also confirms that the conditional is not commutative. The statement or direct form and
the converse are not logically equivalent neither are the contrapositive and the inverse.

Figure 1.2 shows the relationships between the forms derived from a given conditional.

33
 P→Q Converses Q→P

Inverses Contrapositives Inverses

~P → ~Q Converses ~Q → ~P

Figure 1.2.

Example

Given the conditional

“If an integer ends in zero, then it is an even number”

The derived forms are:

Statement (or given): “If an integer ends in zero, then it is an even number”
Converse: “If a number is even, then it ends in zero”
Inverse: “If an integer doesn’t end in zero, then it is not an even number”
Contrapositive: “If an integer is not even, then it doesn’t end in zero”

The above example illustrates a good way of verifying the equivalences between the derived
forms of the conditional. We can observe that the statement and the contrapositive forms are
both true while the converse and the inverse forms are both false. We can also verify with this
example that the conditional is not commutative. In fact, the statement form is true but the
converse is false whereas the inverse is false and the contrapositive is true. Therefore,
knowing the truth value of a given conditional and the equivalences between its derived
forms makes it easy to determine the truth value of any of them.

EXERCISES II

1. Write the derived forms of the following conditionals:

a) If a and b are both odd numbers, then a – b is an even number.

b) If inflation destroys the purchasing power, then the living cost increases with
inflation.

c) If n is divisible by 3, then n is divisible by 9.

34
 d) If a country’s exports are greater than its imports, then its balance of payments is
negative.

e) If the labor market is perfectly competitive, then wages in the same type of job are
the same.

f) If an integer number is divisible by 5, then it ends in 5.

g) If ABC is an isosceles triangle, then ABC is an equilateral triangle.

h) If a2 is an even number, then a is even.

i) If his net savings are positive and his assets increase, then his expenses are less
than his income.

2. With reference to the particular cases indicated , determine the truth values o f the
derived forms of the following conditionals:

a) If a is an integer ending in 4, then a is an even number (a = 12).

b) If a is an odd number, then a is multiple of 5 (a = 13).
c) If a is an integer multiple of 4, then a is an even number (a = 2).
d) If a and b are even numbers, then a + b is an even number (a = 5 and b = 7).

IMPLICATION

At the beginning of this chapter we stated that logic studies the forms, structures or schemes
of formal reasoning a nd that it focuses on what makes it valid or not. In general, any
reasoning is stated in the following way:

“If P, then Q”

This means that the reasoning can usually be symbolized by a conditional

“P → Q”

Therefore, the reasoning validity is associated with the truth of the conditional. This is why
special attention will be given to those conditionals which are always true. As discussed
earlier, these types of conditionals are tautologies that we call implications. To distinguish an
implication from the usual conditional the symbol “ ⇒” will be used . Thus, given the
propositions P and Q we write

35
 P⇒Q

and it is read:

“P implies Q”

The formal definition is as follows:

Given the propositions P and Q, we say that P implies Q, and we write

P⇒Q

if the conditional P → Q is a tautology.

Like the conditional, in the implication P is also called the antecedent and Q the consequent.

According to this definition, an implication occurs as long as the given conditional is true.
This means that the combination of a true antecedent and a false consequent is excluded from
all possible combinations of truth values of the conditional components. Thus, by recalling
the truth table of the conditional, the following shows the cases in which an implication can
occur:

P Q P⇒Q
T T T
F T T
F F T

According to what was discussed earlier , there are two ways for an implication to be
constituted. One way is when the conditional is always true because of the structure of the
formula no matter what the specific statements of the component propositions are. The other
way is when it is a tautology because of the specific statements or contents of the componen t
propositions.

Examples

1. Let us have the following formula:

[(p → q) ⋀ p] → q

The main connective is a conditional. The corresponding truth table is

36
 p q p → q (p → q) ⋀ p [(p → q) ⋀ p] → q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Since this conditional is a tautology, we can say that it constitutes an implication and
we can write

[(p → q) ⋀ p] ⇒ q

We can see that this conditional is always true because of the structure of the formula.
It does not matter what the specific statements of p and q are. They can say anything
and the resultant proposition will be always true. The truth of this conditional depends
only on the way the formula was constructed.

2. Let us now consider the following statements:

“If today is Saturday, then tomorrow will be Sunday”

“If a number is multiple of 25, then it will be multiple of 5”
“If a number is less than 1, then it is less than 3”

Those statements constitute conditional s which are always true because there is no
way for the consequent to be false if the antecedent is true. Therefore, they are
implications. Note that these conditionals are always true because of the specific
statements of the component propositions. They are implications because of the
content of the component propositions. This type of implicat ion plays a very
important role in Mathematics as we will see later. In Mathematics , this type of
implications is called theorem and the antecedent is known as the hypothesis while the
consequent is called the thesis. Thus, given the theorem

P⇒Q

P is the hypothesis and Q is the thesis.

NECESSITY AND SUFFICIENCY

Let us recall the truth table that shows when the conditional becomes an implication.

37
 P Q P⇒Q
T T T
F T T
F F T

We are going to focus the attention on how the truth of one component relates to the truth of
the other for the conditional to be true . We can observe from the table that when P is true Q
must be true as well for the conditional to be true. There is not any other option. This happens
only in the first row. If Q was false being P true, then the conditional would be false, a
situation that is not possible in this case since we are considering an implication. This is why
we say that it is sufficient that P be true for Q to be true. On the other hand, it is not necessary
that P be true for the conditional to be true P is false Q can be either true or false and the
conditional is true in both cases (second and third rows) . However, it is necessary that Q be
true for P to be true. If Q was false, then P must be false as well for the conditional to be true
(third row). Even if Q is true, this condition is not sufficient for P to be true since P could be
false and the conditional would still be true (second row).
The analysis above supports the following definition:

Given the implication

P⇒Q

We say that P is a sufficient condition for Q and that Q is a necessary condition for P.

Example

Given the implication

“If it is raining, then it is cloudy”

We can say that it is sufficient that it is raining for it to be cloudy while it is necessary that it
is cloudy for it to be raining. Of course, it is not sufficient that it is cloudy to be raining.

DOUBLE IMPLICATION

Given the propositions P and Q, if it happens that

P⇒Q and Q⇒P

Then we can say that there is a double implication between P and Q, and we can write
38
 P⇔Q

We can read the double implication as follows:

“P if and only if Q”

When there is a double implication between P and Q, we have that P ⇒ Q which means that
P is a sufficient condition for Q and also we have that Q ⇒ P which means that also P is a
necessary condition for Q. The same is true for Q with respect to P. Therefore, we can state
the following definition:

Given the double implication

P⇔Q

We say that P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q and vice versa.

Example

Let us have the following implications:

“If a number is even, then it is divisible by 2”

“If a number is divisible by 2, then it is an even number”

Obviously, they constitute a double implication that can be written as

“A number is even, if and only if, it is divisible by 2”

Therefore, we can say that it is necessary and sufficient that a number is divisible by 2 for
that number to be even and also that it is necessary and sufficient that a number be even for
that number to be divisible by 2.

FORMAL TRUTH AND EMPIRICAL TRUTH

We have stated many times earlier that any propositional formula is either true or false.
However, we must distinguish those propositions whose truth value s are the result of their
logical form or structure , like tautologies and contradictions, fro m those wh ose truth values

39
depend on the variations of the statements. These are indeterminations. The truth of the
former is what we call formal truth because it depends only on the way the component
propositions are connected regardless of the particular statements. The truth o f
indeterminations is relative and to prove it we must check the particular statements with facts
or experience. This is why the truth of indeterminations is called empirical truth. Therefore,
to determine if a formula is formally t ruth we only need to analyze its form or structure. On
the contrary, to decide if a formula is empirically truth we need to compare the statements
with facts of reality.
Logic is not a science that allows determining if a given formula is empirically truth. This is
the objective of factual sciences which are interested in studying the facts of reality. Logic is
devoted to the study of formal truths, their structures and law s which allow determining
whether a given formula is formally true or not.
What have been said highlights the importance of tautologies for the logic. Even more, we
can say that

Logic is the study of tautologies

LOGICAL INFERENCE

Logic provides the principles of reasoning. It establishes a theory of inference . Making

inferences consists of obtaining from a set of propositions called premises, which are
accepted as being true, another proposition called conclusion that will also be true.
Premises can be of the following types:

a) Truths obtained from the experience as it happens in the factual sciences.

b) Accepted truths which are called axioms.
c) Previously proven truths known as theorems.

To get a conclusion from given premises, it is necessary to apply a set of rules which are
called rules of inference. The procedure for getting a truth conclusion from premises that are
accepted as being true, by applying rules of inference , is known as deductive reasoning .
Thus, logic provides the criteria which allow us to establish the validity of deductive
reasoning. These criteria pay attention only to the form through which they are presented,
regardless of the particular statements of their component propositions. This is why our
interest is focused on the rules that we are allowed to use in deductive reasoning.
Recalling that tautologies are always true just due to the form in which the component
propositions are combined and not because of their specific statements , what has been said
above evidences the important role that tautologies play in inference. This important role is
precisely given by the fact that tautologies do not have empirical content.

40
LAWS OF LOGIC

Any formula that is a tautology constitutes a law of the propositional logic

These laws constitute the theoretical basis that underlies the rules of reasoning correctly .
These rules are what we have called rules of inference. Every time we reason correctly , we
are applying certain rules that are supported by laws of logic. That is, each law of logic
allows making an inference which is associated to a rule. According to this, every tautology
originates a rule of infere nce and since there are an infinite number of tautologies we also
have infinite rules of inference available. This would constitute a serious inconvenience
during the deductive process since it would be necessary to verify in each step of the
procedure which rule of inference has been used. Therefore, the greater the number of rules
the more difficult the verification will be. Fortunately, only a reduced number of inference
rules are necessary in deductive reasoning.

The link between the laws of logic (tautologies) and the rules of inference is evidenced as
follows. A deductive reasoning can be represented by a conditional in which the conjunction
of the premises constitutes the antecedent and the conclusion is the consequent. Since it is
assumed that all premises are true, to show that the conclusion is also true it is necessary and
sufficient that this conditional be a tautology. In other words, that conditional must be an
implication.

In this way, we get the following definition:

Given the deductive reasoning constituted by the premises P1, P 2… Pn and the
conclusion C, we say that this reasoning is valid or correct when

(P1⋀ P2 ⋀ … ⋀ Pn) ⇒ C

We can also write the deductive reasoning symbolically as follows:

P1
P2
⋮
Pn
∴C

The symbol ∴ can be read either “Then” or “Therefore”.

41
It was said earlier that although there are infinite rules of inference, only a few of them are
necessary in deductive reasoning. We are going to discuss some of them below. The most
commonly used rules are those that are called Syllogisms which are compound by two
premises and a conclusion. One of the premises is considered as the major and the other is
regarded as the minor. The first two rules we are going to discuss are called Conditional
Syllogisms because one of the two premises is a conditional (the major), while the other is a
single proposition (the minor) that affirms or denies either the antecedent or the consequent.

Conditional Syllogisms

Modus Ponendo Ponens (MPP)

From Latin w e could translate this as “The method that affirms by affirming”. Its form is as
follows:

P→Q
P
∴Q

Any reasoning structured in that way is valid since it is true that

[(P → Q) ⋀ P] ⇒ Q

This implication can be proven by building its truth table

P Q P → Q (P → Q) ⋀ P [(P → Q) ⋀ P] ⇒ Q
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T F T
F F T F T

Thus, the rule is: “If a conditional is true and so is its antecedent , then we can conclude that
its consequent is true ”. This is equivalent to accepting as true the antecedent of a conditional
that has been accepted as true. Therefore, the consequent must be true (see again the truth
table). Then, we affirm the consequent as a conclusion.

Example

Let us have the following reasoning:

42
“If the exam is too long, then the students get tired and stop thinking properly. The exam is
too long. Then, the students get tired and stop thinking properly”

To symbolize this reasoning we must first identify the component propositions as follows:

p : “The exam is too long”

q : “The students get tired”
r : “The students stop thinking properly”

Thus, the given reasoning can be expressed in symbols as

1) p → (q ⋀ r)
2) p

∴ q⋀r

We can see that this reasoning has been given according to the MPP rule which allows us to
affirm that it is valid. Therefore, assuming that premises 1) and 2) are both true we are
allowed to conclude that the conjunction of q and r

q ⋀ r: “The students get tired and stop thinking properly”

is also true.

Modus Tollendo Tollens (MTT)

The corresponding translation would be “The method that denies by denying” and its form is
as follows:

P→Q
~Q

∴~P

This is a valid way of structuring a reasoning since it is true that

[(P → Q) ⋀ ~ Q] ⇒ ~ P

Implication that can be confirmed by its truth table

43
 P Q ~ P ~Q P → Q (P → Q) ⋀ ~ Q [(P → Q) ⋀ ~ Q] ⇒ ~ P
T T F F T F T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T F T
F F T T T T T

The rule that we get from this tautology can be expressed in words such as: “If a conditional
is true and so is the negation of its consequent , we can conclude that the negation of its
antecedent is true”. This is equivalent to accepting as false the consequent of a conditional
that has been accepted as being true. Therefore, the antecedent must be false as well for the
conditional to be true (see again the truth table). Then, the negation of the antecedent is the
conclusion.

Example

Let us see the reasoning:

“If it is raining, I don’t go out. I go out. Then, it is not raining”.

We identify the propositions with symbols as follows:

p: “It is raining”
q: “I don’t go out”

Therefore, in symbols the reasoning looks like this

1) p → q
2) ~ q

∴~p

Obviously, this reasoning has been given according to the MTT rule which allows us to
affirm that it is valid. Therefore, assuming that premises 1) and 2) are both true we are
allowed to conclude that the negation of p

~ p: “It is not raining”

is also true.

44
Disjunctive Syllogisms

This type of syllogism has a disjunction as its major premise. Depending on whether the
disjunction is inclusive or exclusive we can have different forms. Let us see.

Modus Tollendo Ponens (MTP)

The translation is “ The method that affirms by denying”. This m ethod can be presented in
any of following forms:

P⋁Q P⋁Q P⋁Q P⋁Q

~P ~Q ~P ~Q

∴Q ∴P ∴Q ∴P

The corresponding implications are

[(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ ~ P] ⇒ Q [(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ ~ Q] ⇒ P

[(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ ~ P] ⇒ Q [(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ ~ Q] ⇒ P

We invite the student to prove these implications by building the corresponding truth tables
as it was done for the previous cases. Also, as an exercise, the student can do the same for
the next cases where these proofs will be omitted.
The following rule is derived from those implications: “If an inclusive (exclusive) disjunction
of two propositions is true and so is the negation of one of its components, then we can
conclude that the other component is true”.

Example

Given the reasoning

“Water boils at 50oC or 100oC. Water does not boil at 50oC. Then, water boils at 100oC”

Making the association with symbols

p: “Water boils at 50oC”

q: “Water boils at 100oC”

45
The symbolic expression of this reasoning is

1) p ⋁ q
2) ~ p
∴q

Therefore, assuming that both 1) and 2) are true, according to the MTP rule the proposition

q : “water boils at 100oC”

is also true.

Modus Ponendo Tollens (MPT)

This is the “method that denies by affirming”. The major premise in this method is an
exclusive disjunction. The possible forms are as follows:

P⋁Q or P⋁Q
P Q

∴~Q ∴~P

The corresponding implications are

[(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ P] ⇒ ~ Q and [(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ Q] ⇒ ~ P

The rule is that “if an exclusive disjunction of two propositions is true and so is one of them ,
then we can conclude that the other proposition is false”

Example

Let us have the following reasoning:

“John is either in Paris or in London today. He is in London today. Then, John is not in Paris
today”

Identifying the propositions as follows:

46
 p: “John is in Paris today”
q: “John is in London today”

The given reasoning expressed in symbols is

1) p ⋁ q
2) q

∴~p

Therefore, assuming that premises 1) and 2) are both true and according to the MPT rule, we
can conclude that the negation of p

~ p: “John is not in Paris today”

is also true.

Hypothetical Syllogism (HS)

In this type of syllogism both the premises and the conclusion are conditionals. The
conditionals taken as premises are such that the consequent of one is the antecedent of the
other while the conclusion is a conditional such that its antecedent is the antecedent of the
former and its consequent is the consequent of the later. In symbols, it looks like this

P→Q

Q→R

∴P→R

The corresponding implication is

[(P → Q) ⋀ (Q → R)] ⇒ (P → R)

The derived rule is: “If two conditional s are both true, and the consequent of one of them is
the antecedent of the other , then we can conclude that the conditional formed with the
antecedent of the first one as its antecedent and the consequent of the second one as its
consequent is also true”. This is transitivity.

47
Example

Let us have the reasoning

“If n is an integer that ends in zero, n is divisible by 2. If n is divisible by 2, n is even. Then,

if n is an integer that ends in zero, n is even”

The identification of each proposition with symbols is as follows:

p: “n is an integer that ends in zero”

q: “n is divisible by 2”
r: “n is even”

Then, the symbolic expression is like this

1) p → q

2) q → r

∴ p→r

Therefore, since 1) and 2) are true, we conclude , according to the HS rule, that the
conditional

p → r : “If n is an integer that ends in zero, n is even”

is also true.

Conjunctive-Disjunctive Syllogism (CDS)

This is a special type of syllogism in which the major premise is a conjunction of two
conditionals while the minor premise is an inclusive disjunction. The form is like this

(P → R) ⋀ (Q → S)
P⋁Q

∴R⋁S

48
It can also be presented in the following form

(P → R)
(Q → S)
P⋁Q

∴R⋁S

The corresponding implication is

[(P → R) ⋀ (Q → S) ⋀ (P ⋁ Q)] ⇒ (R ⋁ S)

The rule that we obtain from this implications is the following: “If two conditionals are both
true and so is the inclusive disjunction of their antecedents, we can conclude that the
inclusive disjunction of their consequents is also true”

Example

Given the reasoning

“If a number n is even, then that number is divisible by 2 and i f it is an integer that ends in 5,
it is divisible by 5. The integer n is even or ends in 5. Then, it is divisible by 2 or 5”.

Let us identify the component propositions with symbols as follows:

p: “n is even”
q: “n is divisible by 2”
r: “n is an integer that ends in 5”
s: “n is divisible by 5”

Thus, the symbolic expression is

1) (p → q) ⋀ (r → s)
2) p⋁r

∴q⋁s

49
Therefore, accepting 1) and 2) as premises, according to the CDS rule, we are allowed to
conclude that the inclusive disjunction

q ⋁ s: “n is divisible by 2 or 5”

is also true.

The following rules are very useful in mathematical proofs as we will see later on. Therefore,
although they seem to be fairly obvious rules , it is worth presenting them here to complete
this section.

Double negation (DN)

P
∴ ~ (~ P)

The corresponding implication is

P ⇒ ~ (~ P)

In words the rule is: “If a given proposition is true , we can conclude that it s double negation
is also true”. Another way of stating this rule is: “If a given proposition is true, we can
conclude that it is not true that its negation is true”

Simplification (S)

P⋀Q or P⋀Q
∴P ∴Q

The rule: “If the conjunction of two propositions is true , we can conclude that any of its
components is also true”. The respective implications are:

(P ⋀ Q ) ⇒ P and (P ⋀ Q) ⇒ Q

50
Conjunction (C)

P
Q

∴P⋀Q

The implication is

(P ⋀ Q ) ⇒ (P ⋀ Q)

The rule: “If two given propositions are both true , we can conclude that their conjunction is
also true”

Addition (A)

∴P⋁Q
The implication

P ⇒ (P ⋁ Q)

The rule: “If a given proposition is true, we can conclude that its inclusive disjunction with
any other proposition is also true”

LAWS OF EQUIVALENCE

We have said earlier that two propositional formulas are logically equivalent if the columns
corresponding to the formula in their respective truth tables are identical to each other.
Moreover, if we recall that the resulting proposition fr om connecting two propositions by a
biconditional is true when the two components have equal truth values, we can then conclude
that connecting two propositional formulas which are logically equivalent by a biconditional
generates a tautology. These tautologies are called Laws of Equivalence. They are as useful
for deductive reasoning as the laws discussed above and additional rules of inference can also
be obtained from them . In t his way, we are allowed to substitute a formula by another
logically equivalent in any deductive reasoning without altering the conclusion.
The following are the most commonly used laws of this type:

51
Identity (I)

P ⋁ F ≡ P (F is a Contradiction)
P ⋀ T ≡ P (T is a Tautology)

Idempotence (Idem)

P⋁P≡P
P⋀P≡P

Commutative (Comm)

P⋁Q≡Q⋁P

P⋁Q≡Q⋁P
P⋀Q≡Q⋀P

Associative (Assoc)

(P ⋀ Q) ⋀ R ≡ P ⋀ (Q ⋀ R)
(P ⋁ Q) ⋁ R ≡ P ⋁ (Q ⋁ R)

(P ⋁ Q) ⋁ R ≡ P ⋁ (Q ⋁ R)

Distributive (Distr)

[P ⋀ (Q ⋁ R)] ≡ [(P ⋀ Q) ⋁ (P ⋀ R)]

[P ⋁ (Q ⋀ R)] ≡ [(P ⋁ Q) ⋀ (P ⋁ R)]

De Morgan (De M)

~ (P ⋀ Q) ≡ ~ P ⋁ ~ Q
~ (P ⋁ Q) ≡ ~ P ⋀ ~ Q

Exportation (Exp)

[(P ⋀ Q)] → R] ≡ [(P → (Q → R)]

52
After having studied all these laws of logic and their respective rules of inference , we
need to see how they can be used to prove the validity of reasoning. The following
examples show how to do that.

Examples

1. Let us have the following reasoning:

“If n is an integer divisible by 8, n is divisible by 4. If n is divisible by 4, n is even.

The integer n is not even. Therefore, n is not divisible by 8”

Let us now identify the propositions that intervene in the given reasoning as
follows:

p: “n is an integer divisible by 8”
q: “n is divisible by 4”
r: “n is even”

Thus, the symbolic expression of the given reasoning is:

a) p → q

b) q→ r
c) ~ r
∴ ~p

To formally prove whether this reasoning is valid or not we only have to analyze
its structure no matter what the specific statements or contents of the propositions
are. What we have to do is to indicate the laws or rules which lead us to justify
the conclusion. In this case, we can see that applying the Hypothetical Syllogism
(HS) to premises a) and b) we can get

b’) p → r

Then, applying the Modus Tollendo Tollens (MTT) to premises b’) and c), leads
us to the conclusion ~ p.

The above analysis can be presented schematically as follows:

53
 a) p → q

b) q→ r
b’) p → r (by SH to a and b)
c) ~ r
∴ ~p (by MTT to b’ and c)

This way we have proven that the given reasoning is valid. Note that we only say
whether the reasoning is valid or not. In the case of reasoning we do not say that
they are true or false.

2. Let us now analyze the following reasoning:

“If North Korea is a democratic country, then the people are free and the
government is elected by the majority. If North Korea is not a democratic country,
then the North Korean government has been imposed. The North Korean people
are not free or the North Korean govern ment is not elected by the majority.
Therefore, the North Korean government has been imposed”.

Let us identify the propositions that intervene in the given reasoning as follows:

p: “North Korea is a democratic country”

q: “The North Korean people are free”
r: “The North Korean government is elected by the majority”
s: “The North Korean government has been imposed”

Thus, the symbolic expression of the given reasoning is:

a) p → (q⋀ r)
b) ~ p → s
c) ~ q ⋁ ~ r
∴ s

The De Morgan (De M) law allows substituting premise c) by

c’) ~ (q ⋀ r)

54
 According to the Modus Tollendo Tollens ( MTT) from premises a) and c’) we
get

c’’) ~ p

Finally, applying the Modus Ponendo Ponens ( MPP) to b) and c’’) lead us to
conclusion s. We can summarize the analysis described above as follows:

a) p → (q⋀ r)
b) ~ p → s
c) ~ q ⋁ ~ r
c’) ~ (q ⋀ r) (De M to c)
c’’) ~ p (MTT to a and c’)
∴ s (MPP to b and c’’)

Therefore, the given reasoning is valid.

3. Let us see the following reasoning only given in symbolic form

a) p ⋁ q
b) ~ p
c) r → ~ q
∴r

Applying the corresponding rules of inference as we did in the previous examples

lead us to the following summary of the analysis:

a) p ⋁ q
b) ~ p
b’) q (MTP to a and b)
c) r → ~ q

∴~r (MTT to c and b’)

We can see that the application of the rules of inferences is telling us that the
correct conclusion is ~ r instead of r. Therefore, the given reasoning is not valid.

55
The validity of a given deductive reasoning can also be proved by using truth tables. It is
enough to prove that the conjunction of all premises implies the conclusion. We do this in
the following examples:

4. Let us see again the reasoning given in Example 1.

a) p → q

b) q→ r
c) ~ r
∴ ~p

The corresponding conditional is

[(p → q) ⋀ (q → r) ⋀~ r] → ~ p

And the respective truth table is

p q r ~ p ~ r p → q q → r (p → q) ⋀ (q → r) ⋀~ r
T T T F F T T F
T T F F T T F F
T F T F F F T F
T F F F T F T F
F T T T F T T F
F T F T T T F F
F F T T F T T F
F F F T T T T T

(p → q) ⋀ (q → r) ⋀~ r ~ p [(p → q) ⋀ (q → r) ⋀~ r] → ~ p
F F T
F F T
F F T
F F T
F T T
F T T
F T T
T T T

In fact, the corresponding conditional is a tautology which means that it is an

implication and this proves that the given reasoning is valid.

56
 5. Let us now consider the reasoning given in Example 3.

a) p ⋁ q
b) ~ p
c) r → ~ q
∴r

With the premises and the conclusion, let us form the conditional

[(p ⋁ q) ⋀ (~ p) ⋀ (r → ~ q)] → r

The corresponding truth table is the following:

p q r ~ p ~ q p ⋁ q r → ~ q [(p ⋁ q) ⋀ (~ p) ⋀ (r → ~ q)]
T T T F F T F F
T T F F F T T F
T F T F T T T F
T F F F T T T F
F T T T F T F F
F T F T F T T T
F F T T T F T F
F F F T T F T F

(p ⋁ q) ⋀ (~ p) ⋀ (r → ~ q) r [(p ⋁ q) ⋀ (~ p) ⋀ (r → ~ q)] → r

F T T
F F T
F T T
F F T
F T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

The fact that the corresponding conditional do es not constitute an implication

proves that the given reasoning is not valid.

EXERCISES III

1. By using symbols write and analyze the validity of the following reasoning:

a) If n is an integer divisible by 8, n is divisible by 4. If n is divisible by 4, then n is

even. The integer n is not even. Therefore, n is not divisible by 8.

57
 b) If n is an integer divisible by 12, then n is divisible by 6. If n is divisible by 6, then
n is divisible by 3. The integer n is not divisible by 12. Therefore, n is not
divisible by 3.

c) If n is an integer divisible by 3, then n is odd. The integer n is even. Therefore, n

is not divisible by 3.

d) If n is less than or equal to 4 and m is less than or equal to 3, then n + m is less

than or equal to 7. n + m is greater than 7. Therefore, n is greater than 4 and m is
greater than 3.

e) If n is a prime number, then n is not divisible by 2. If n is not divisible by 2, then n

is not even. n is an odd number. Therefore, n is a prime number.

2. Prove the following inferences:

a) p → ~ q
r↔q
r
∴~p

b) p → q
p⋀r
∴q

c) p
r
(q ⋁ p) → ~ r

∴q

d) p → q

r→~q
∴r→~p

MATHEMATICAL PROOFS

Assuming that we want to proof that a given conditional, let us say

58
 P→Q

is in fact a theorem and that it constitutes an implication, by recalling the definition, what we
must do is to verify that the situation in which P is true and Q is false is not possible. To do
so, we can start the analysis from either P or Q. If we start from P, we will be following what
is called the Direct Proof Method while starting from Q means that we are following the
Indirect Proof Method. In general, the process is to ch ain from an initial proposition a series
of true propositions whose truths hav e been previously proven which leads us to prove the
truth of the final proposition.

The Direct Proof Method

To apply this method we must start from P. Let us recall the truth table of an implication

P Q P⇒Q
T T T
F T T
F F T

We can observe that when P is false, then Q can be either true or false (see second and third
row in the table ). Therefore, this possibility does not require proof. As a consequence, the
attention must be focused on the combination giv en in the first row. This is, by starting from
the truth of the antecedent, we must establish the truth of the consequent.

The process can be represented schematically as follows:

P
P ⇒ P1
P1 ⇒ P2

P2 ⇒ P3
⋮

Pn ⇒ Q

∴Q

Where P1, P2, P3,⋯ , Pn represent the propositions whose truth has been previously proven.

By observing the schematic representation, we realize that the Direct Proof Method is a valid
reasoning supported by the Hypothetical Syllogism and the Modus Ponendo Ponens. The
chaining of propositions from P until Q is a successive application of SH that in a
summarized way can be represented as follows:

59
 P
P⇒Q

Then, according to the MPP, the above is a valid reasoning.

Example

By using the Direct Method, let us prove the following theorem:

“If a, b and c are natural numbers such that a is a divisor of b and b is a divisor of c, then a is
a divisor of c”

Let us use the symbol “ ∣ ” to denote that a number is a divisor of another so that if we write
“x ∣ y”, this can be read as “x is a divisor of y”.

Thus, what we have to proof is the following implication:

[(a ∣ b) ⋀ (b ∣ c)] ⇒ a ∣ c

According to the Direct Proof Method , we should start from accepting the truth of the
antecedent, in this case

(a ∣ b) ⋀ (b ∣ c)

and then to chain a series of propositions that we know are true either by definition or
because they have been previously proven and so on until proving the truth of the consequent.

We are going to explain first the procedure for reasoning step by step and later on we will
present a schematic summary of it which is the usual way to proceed.

Thus, by definition we know that

a ∣ b ⇒ b = a . a’ (a’ is a natural number) (1)

b ∣ c ⇒ c = b . b’ (b’ is a natural number) (2)

By replacing (1) in (2) we get

c = (a . a’) . b’ (3)

60
By applying the associative property of multiplication in (3) we get

c = a . (a’ . b’) (4)

Since a’ and b’ are both natural numbers, their product is also a natural number which we can
call c’ and replace it in (4). This is

c’ = a’ . b’ (5)

Replacing (5) in (4) leads to

c = a . c’ (6)

Thus, since c’ is a natural number, by definition we get that

c = a . c’ ⇒ a ∣ c

This is what we wanted to prove.

In summary, what we have done above is that from accepting the truth of

(a ∣ b) ⋀ (b ∣ c)

we have proven the truth of

a∣c

supported by the definition and properties previously proven.

The whole procedure that we have followed above can be schematically represented as it is
shown below:

(a ∣ b) ⋀ (b ∣ c)

[(a ∣ b) ⋀ (b ∣ c)] ⇒ (b = a . a’) ⋀ (c = b . b’) by definition, being a’ and b’

natural numbers

61
[(b = a . a’) ⋀ (c = b . b’)] ⇒ [c = (a . a’) . b’] substitution of b

[c = (a . a’) . b’] ⇒ [c = a . (a’ . b’)] Associative Property

[c = a . (a’ . b’)] ⇒ c = a . c’ being c’= a’. b’ natural number

(c = a . c’) ⇒ (a ∣ c) by definition

∴a∣c

Students may use any of the forms presented above to proceed with the mathematical
demonstration as long as each step in the chain of propositions is well justified.

The Indirect Proof Method

Let us assume again that we want to prove that the conditional

P→Q

is a theorem.

As it was said above, to apply the Indirect Proof Method we should start from the proposition
Q. Let us recall one more time the truth table of an implication:

P Q P⇒Q
T T T
F T T
F F T

If Q is true, the antecedent P may be either true or false as it is shown by the two first rows of
the table. Therefore, these two cases do not need demonstration. However, if Q is false, then
P must be also false f or the conditional to be true (t hird row of the table). This is the case
that must be proven. Thus, applying the Indirect Method requires that starting from the
assumption that Q is false we must prove that P is also false. Note that this is equivalent to
proving that the conditional

~Q→~P

constitutes an implication. This equivalence should not surprise us, since we earlier learned
that

(P → Q) ≡ (~ Q → ~ P)
62
This shows that the both methods are equivalent. Therefore, the procedure is the same but
starting from ~ Q and it can be schematically represented in a similar way as follows:

~Q
~ Q ⇒ Q1

Q1 ⇒ Q2
Q2 ⇒ Q3

Qn ⇒ ~ P

∴~P

Examples

1. Let us prove the following theorem by using the Indirect Method:

“If a, b and c are naturals numbers such that a + c is less than b + c, then a is less than
b”

The relationship “less than” is denoted by the symbol “<”. Thus, what we have to
prove is that

(a + c < b + c) ⇒ (a < b)

According to the Indirect Proof M ethod, we must start by stating that the consequent
is false and prove that the antecedent is also false. Since the negation of the
relationship “less than” is “greater than or equal to”, which is denoted by the symbol
“≥”, we must start by stating that it is true that:

a≥b

This is a very easy and short demonstration since we know that axiomatically if a ≥ b
and c is any natural number, then it is true that

a+c ≥ b+c

This denies the antecedent of the given conditional which proves that it constitutes a
theorem.

Schematically the representation is as follows:

63
 a≥b

(a ≥ b) ⇒ (a + c ≥ b + c) by axiom, being c any natural number

∴a+c≥b+c

What we did was to apply the equivalence:

[(a + c < b + c) ⇒ (a < b)] ≡ [~ (a < b) ⇒ ~ (a + c < b + c)]

≡ [(a ≥ b) ⇒ (a + c ≥ b + c)]

2. Let us now consider the following theorem:

“Being a an integer, if a2 is odd, then a is odd”

According to the Indirect Proof method, by following the same reasoning as in the
previous example, we should start from:

“a is even”

Thus, being k an integer, by definition we can write

a = 2k (1)

Therefore

a2 = (2k)2 (2)

From (2) we get

a2 = 4k2 (3)

By applying the Associative Property of multiplication in (3) we get

64
 a2 = 2(2k2) (4)

Being k an integer, then 2 k.k = 2k2 is also integer which we call k’. Thus in (4) we
have

a2 = 2k’

Therefore, by definition a2 is even.

The procedure can be schematically represented as follows:

a is even
a is even ⇒ a = 2k by definition, k integer

a = 2k ⇒ a2 = (2k)2
a2 = (2k)2 ⇒ a2 = 4k2

a2 = 4k2 ⇒ a2 = 2(2k2) Associative Property

a2 = 2(2k2) ⇒ a2 = 2k’ k’ integer such that k’ = 2k.k = 2k2

a2 = 2k’ ⇒ a2 is even by definition

∴ a2 is even

Note that we have proven that

a is even ⇒ a2 is even

We earlier saw that this implication is equivalent to

~ (a2 is even) ⇒ ~ (a is even)

Which in turn is equivalent to

(a2 is odd) ⇒ (a is odd)

This is the given theorem that we wanted to prove.

65
The method of Proof by Contradiction

As before, let us assume that we want to proof that the conditional

P→Q

constitutes an implication. In other wo rds, that it is a theorem. Let us first recall the truth
table of the conditional:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

We have discussed earlier that for the conditional to constitute an implication the
combination of truth values highlighted in the second row cannot happen, since this is the
only combination that makes the conditional false. The method of Proof by Contra diction,
also known as Reduction to Absurdity from Latin Reduction ad absurdum, focuses on proving
that this combination is not possible. The procedure is actually equivalent to prove that the
given conditional may not be an implication, which means that Q may be false while P is
true. This is, that the conjunction

~Q⋀P

may be true. Therefore, the procedure must start by assuming that this conjunction is true
and then chaining a series of propositions as we do when applying the methods previously
explained. If we get any contradiction during the procedure, for example, like this

R⋀~R

Where R can be any proposition, then this means that we had proven that

(~ Q ⋀ P) ⇒ (R ⋀ ~ R)

This implication is confirming that the conjunction ~ Q ⋀ P is always false which proves in
turn that the given conditional is always true, this is that in fact

P⇒Q

66
Being the above implication what we wanted to prove.

The Proof by Contradiction Method is very useful in mathematics especially when we need to
prove theorems which are very difficult, sometimes impossible, to prove applying either the
direct or indirect method. Therefore, the method deserves to be summarized as follows:

The Proof by Contradiction or Reduction to Absurdity Method consists in assuming that

the consequent of a given conditional is false being its antecedent true. Thus, if the
procedure of chaining propositions end s in a contradiction, then this proves that the
given conditional is in fact a theorem.

Example

Let us prove that the following conditional is a theorem:

“If m and n are both integer, such that m.n is odd, then m and n are both odd”

Identifying the propositions as follows:

p: m.n is odd
Q: m and n are both odd

Then, we need to prove that

p⇒Q

To apply the Proof by Contradiction method we must start from

~Q⋀p

This is

“m and n are not both odd and m.n is odd”

Therefore, if we are going to assume that m and n are not both odd, this means that at least
one of them is not odd. Then, let u s assume that n is even. Thus, being k an integer, by
definition we can write:

n = 2k

67
The product of m and n is

m.n = m(2k)

Applying both commutative and associative properties of multiplication we can rewrite this
product as follows:

m.n = 2(km)

Since both k and m are integer, then their product is also an integer which we call k’.

Therefore

m.n = 2k’

This means by definition that m.n is even, which contradicts the initial assumption that m.n
was odd. This contradiction proves that in fact

p⇒Q

The reasoning explained above can be schematically summarized as follows:

~ (m and n are both odd) ⋀

(m.n is odd)

[(m and n are not both odd) ⋀

(m.n is odd)] ⇒ n is even

n is even ⇒ n = 2k by definition, k integer

n = 2k ⇒ m.n = m(2k)
m.n = m(2k) ⇒ m.n = 2(km) by commutative and associative properties

m.n = 2(km) ⇒ m.n = 2k’ k’ integer such that k’ = km

m.n = 2k’ ⇒ m.n is even by definition

∴ (m.n is even) ⋀ (m.n is odd)

The conclusion is a contradiction what proves that the original conditional is in fact a
theorem

68
Proof by Counterexample

The Counterexample method is used to prove that a given conditional is not a theorem. Let
us see how it works. Given the conditional

P→Q

The method consists in finding at least one combination of true antecedent and false
consequent. In this situation the conditional is false which means that it is not an implication.

Example

Given the conditional

“If n is an integer that is divisible by both 6 and 4, then n is divisible by 24”

The symbolic representation is

[(6 ∣ n) ⋀ (4 ∣ n)] → (24 ∣ n)

If we use the example of n = 12, which is divisible by both 6 and 4, we can see that 12 i s not
divisible by 24. This is the integer 12 is a counterexample because it makes the antecedent
true but the consequent is false. Therefore, the given conditional is not a theorem.

EXERCISES IV

1. Applying the methods of mathematical proofs, determine if p is a sufficient, necessary

or necessary and sufficient condition for q in the following cases:

a) p : n + m is even and n is odd

q : m is odd

b) p : n + m is even and n is even

q : m is even

c) p : n . m is even
q : n and m are both even

d) p : n is an integer less than 2 and m is an integer less than 3

q : n . m is an integer less than 6

e) p : a2 is odd
q : a is odd

69
 f) p : a is an integer positive and b is an integer negative
q : a/b is an integer negative

g) p : n is an integer divisible by 4
q : n is an integer divisible by 2

h) p : n2 = 9
q:n =3

i) p : a is even
q : a ends in 6

j) p : n is an integer that ends in 5

q : n is an integer divisible by 5

k) p : a is divisible by 5
q : a is odd

l) p : n + m is odd and n is even

q : m is odd

m) p : n is an integer divisible by 6
q : n is an integer divisible by 3

n) p : n . m is even and n is odd

q : m is even

2. Prove whether the following conditionals are theorems or not:

a) If n is less than 3 and m is less than 6, then n.m is less than 20 ( n and m are both
integer).

b) If n.m and n are both odd, then m is odd.

c) If a and b are both even, then a + b is even.

d) If n.m is less than or equal to 22, then n is less than or equal to 5 and m is less than
or equal to 4 (n and m are integers).

e) If n is less than or equal to 5 and m is less than or equal to 4, then n.m is less than
or equal to 22 (n and m are natural numbers).

f) If n.m is less than 20, then n is less than 3 and m is less than 6 ( m and n are
integers).

3. Prove that the following conditionals are theorems:

70
a) If x and y are both real numbers others than zero, then x.y is a real number other
than zero.

b) If a and b are both odd, then a.b is odd.

c) If x is a real number other than zero, then x-1 is a real number other than zero.

d) If a2 is even, then a is even.

e) 2 is an irrational number.

f) For all c positive, if a + c is less than or equal to b + c, then a is less than or equal
to b (a, b, and c are real numbers).

g) If n is an integer greater than 5, then 3n – 10 is greater than 5.

h) If a is a natural number less than 2, then 2a + 3 is less than 7.

i) If a is even and b is odd, then a.b is even.

j) If a is odd and b is even, then a + b is odd.

k) If a and b are both odd, then a + b is even.

71
ANSWERS TO THE EXCERSICES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER I

EXERSICES I

1. a) It is not prop b) p→ q c) It is not prop d) p ⋀ q ⋀ r

e) p → (q ⋀ r) f) It is not prop g) p h) It is not prop
i) (p ⋀ q) → r j) p → (q ⋁ r)

2.
a) If inflation hurts people with fixed income , then it destroys the purchasing
power.
b) If inflation hurts people with fixed income and destroys the purchasing power,
then the less the government’s expenses the lower the risk of inflation.
c) The less the government’s expenses the lower the risk of inflation or it destroys
the purchasing power and hurts people with fixed income.
d) If inflation does not destroy the purchasing power, then the less the government’s
expenses the lower the risk of inflation and it does not hurt people with fixed
income.
e) Either it is not true that the less the government’s expenses the lower the risk of
inflation or inflation hurts people with fixed income and destroys the purchasing
power.
f) It is not true that inflation hurts people with fixed income and destroys the
purchasing power.
g) Inflation hurts people with fixed income if and only if destroys the purchasing
power and the less the government’s expenses the lower the risk of inflation.
h) It is not true that if inflation hurts people with fixed income, then either it destroys
the purchasing power or the less the government’s expenses the lower the risk of
inflation.

3.
a) ~ [(p ⋀~ q) →~ r] b) r → ~ (~q ⋁ p)

4. a) ~ (p ⋁ q) b) ~ (p ⋀ q)
c) ~ (p →q) or (p ⋀ ~ q) or (~p ⋁ ~q)

5. a) (p ⋀ q) → r, is T b) p ⋀ (q → r), is T
c) (p ⋀ q) → (r ⋁ s), is T d) p ⋁ (q ⋀ r), is T
e) (p ⋀ q) → r, is T

6. a) F b) T c) T

7. a) Yes b) Yes c) Yes d) No e) No f) Yes

8. a) p ⋁ q b) [(p ⋀ q) → r] ⋀ (~ p → r) c) p → (q ⋀ r)

9. a) Either T or F b) Either T or F c) T d) Either T or F e) T

72
 10.

11. a) T b) T c) T d) T e) T f) T

12. a) Yes b) Yes c) No d) No e) Yes f) Yes g) No h) Yes i) No j) No

13. a) Indet b) Indet c) Indet d) Indet e) Indet f) Taut

g) Indet h) Indet i) Indet j) Indet k) Indet l) Indet
m) Indet

14. a) No b) Yes c) No d) Yes e) Yes f) Yes

g) Yes h) No

EXERCISES II

1.
a)
Converse: If a – b is even, then a and b are both odd.
Inverse: If a or b is even, then a – b is odd.
Contrapositive: If a – b is odd, then a or b is even.

b)
Converse: If the living cost increases with inflation, then inflation destroys
the purchasing power.
Inverse: If inflation does not destroy the purchasing power, then the
living cost does not increase with inflation.
Contrapositive: If the living cost does not increase with inflation, then inflation
does not destroys the purchasing power.

c)
Converse: If n is divisible by 9, the n is divisible by 3.
Inverse: If n is not divisible by 3, then n is not divisible by 9.
Contrapositive: If n is not divisible by 9, the n is not divisible by 3.

d)
Converse: If the balance of payments of a country is negative, then its
exports are greater than its imports.
Inverse: If a country’s exports are less than its imports, then its balance
of payments is positive.
Contrapositive: If the balance of payments of a country is positive, then its
exports are less than its imports.

e)
Converse: If wages in the same type of job are the same, then the labor
market is perfectly competitive.
Inverse: If the labor market is not perfectly competitive, then wages in
the same type of job are different.
Contrapositive: If wages in the same type of job are different, then the labor
market is not perfectly competitive.

73
 f)
Converse: If an integer number ends in 5, then it is divisible by 5.
Inverse: If an integer number is not divisible by 5, then it does not end in
5.
Contrapositive: If an integer number does not end in 5, then it is not divisible by
5.
g)
Converse: If ABC is an equilateral triangle, then ABC is an isosceles
triangle .
Inverse: ABC is not an isosceles triangle, then ABC is not an equilateral
triangle
Contrapositive: If ABC is not an equilateral triangle, then ABC is not an
isosceles triangle

h)
Converse: If a is an even number, then a2 is even.
Inverse: If a2 is not an even number, then a is not even.
Contrapositive: If a is not an even number, then a2 is not even.

i)
Converse: If his expenses are less than his income, then his net savings are
positive and his assets increase.
Inverse: If his net savings are negative or his assets decrease, then his
expenses are greater than his income.
Contrapositive: If his expenses are greater than his income, then his net savings
are negative or his assets decrease.

2.
a) Statement: T, Converse: F, Inverse: F, Contrapositive: T
b) Statement: F, Converse: T, Inverse: T, Contrapositive: F
c) Statement: T, Converse: F, Inverse: F, Contrapositive: T
d) Statement: T, Converse: F, Inverse: F, Contrapositive: T

EXERCISES III

1.
a) p→ q b) p→ q c) p→ q
q→ r q→ r ~q
~r ~p ∴~p (Valid)

∴ ~ p (Valid) ∴ ~ r (Not valid)

d) (p ⋀ q) → r e) p→ ~ q
~r ~q→~r
∴ ~ p ⋀ ~ q (Not valid) ~r
∴ p (Not valid)

74
EXERCISES IV

1.
a) Sufficient b) Sufficient c) Necessary d) None
e) Necessary and sufficient f) Sufficient g) Sufficient
h) Necessary i) Necessary j) Sufficient k) None
l) Sufficient m) Sufficient n) Sufficient

2. a) No b) Yes c) Yes d) No e) Yes f) No

75
CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION TO SET THEORY

This chapter is devoted to introduce set theory whose concepts support the formal definition
of many fundamental concepts of Calculus. Set theory is regarded as a branch of
mathematical logic. Therefore, we will see how the concepts learned in the previous cha pter
are used to develop the body of concepts and the language of set theory which in turn are
used in the definitions of many fundamental concepts of Calculus.

Set theory is built based on intuitive and understandable concepts which do not need formal
definitions. In reality there are “things”, “objects”, “entities”, “ elements” which constitute
fully identifiable units that can be either tangible or not . These “elements” can be grouped
according to some criterion forming what we call a set. As a consequence , we say that
elements are members of sets. Thus, set theory is developed upon the base of these three
basic concepts: element, membership, and set.
Although we do not provide formal definitions for the three basic concepts mentioned above,
they must be fully identifiable in order to allow a formal theoretical development. Thus, an
appropriate system of representation and identification must be available.

NOTATION

Sets are usually denoted by capital letter s such as A, B, C, D, etc., while the ir elements or
members are denoted by small letters such as a, b, c, d, etc. Sets that have a finite number of
elements may be described by listing all their elements enclosed in curly braces. For
example, if A is the set of the first five natural numbers, we may write

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

To denote the membership relation between sets and their elements , we use the symbol .
Thus, to denote that an element a is a member of the set A we write

a A

This can be read by using any of the following expressions:

“a is a member of A” or
“a is an element of A” or
 “a is in A” or
“a belongs to A” or
“a lies in A”

The negation of the membership relation is denoted by  such that we can write

a A

And it is read by using the negation of the expressions given earlier. These are:

“a is not a member of A” or
“a is not an element of A” or
“a is not in A” or
“a does not belong to A” or
“a does not lie in A”

When defining a particular set, it is advisable to take into account the following:

1) A set must be defined unambiguously. This allows determining without a doubt

whether or not a particular element is a member of that set.

2) The elements of a given set must be different from one another . No element can be
repeated. If this happens, it is counted only once.

3) The order in which the elements are written in a set does not matter. Changing the
order in which the elements are written does not imply that the given set changes.

SET OF SETS

There are sets whose elements are all sets. These set s are called “set of sets”. For example,
let us say that sets A, B, C, and D in turn form another set P. In this case, we can write:

P = {A, B, C, D}

77
Set of sets is the only case in which its elements are denoted by capital letters since they are
themselves sets. Sometimes we need to write each of the sets that form another set by
explicitly listing all of their elements. For example, let us say that we have the following sets:

A = {a, b, c} B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and C = {r, s, t}

Being the case that A, B and C constitute the set P. Suppose that for any reason we may need
to write P by explicitly listing all the elements of A, B and C. In this case we can write

P = {{a, b, c}, {1, 2, 3, 4}, {r, s, t}}

DESCRIBING SETS

In general, there are two ways of describing a set. One is by enumerating all of its elements
and enclosing them in curly braces as we have done it in the examples given above . This
way is known as description by extension. It can be easily used only when the set is formed
by a finite number of elements as far as it is a small number so that it is possible to write each
element. We can also call this type of description extensional definition.

Another way to describe a set is by comprehension also known as intentional definition. This
way consists in writing and enclosing in curly braces a property or properties that
characterize its members, and only them, so that we can unequivocally establis h whether a
given element is a member of that set or not. For example,

A = {Natural numbers less than 50 and multiples of both 3 and 5}

This set is

A = {15, 30, 45}

In this example it is possible to describe the set A using both ways . However, when the
number of members is infinite it is only possible to describe the set by comprehension. In
these cases, using symbols to describe the sets is very helpful. Many of these symbols are the
same symbols that have already been introduced in Chapter I as well as others such as
quantifiers that will be introduced later. For example, in the case of the set A described
earlier, instead of writing a long statement by using words, we can simplify its description by
writing

A = {x: x  N ⋀ x < 50 ⋀ 3 ∣ x ⋀ 5 ∣ x}

78
Where the symbol “:” is read as “such that” and N represents the set of natural numbers.

In what follows later in this chapter we will be working on definitions of concepts, properties,
theorems, and proofs for which we will need a general description of sets by comprehension.
For this purpose, we will use the symbol P(x) to represent the property that define s a general
set applied to an indeterminate element x. For example, let us assume that w e want to make
reference to the set of even numbers. Then we can write

p(x): x is even

You may recall from Chapter I that the statement “x is even” is not a proposition itself. It will
become a proposition when we assign a specific value to x. Therefore, for each value given
to x we get a different proposition so that we are able to state whether p(x) is true or false. In
the given example we may have

p(4): 4 is even (T)

p(7): 7 is even (F)

Therefore, if we want to describe by comprehension a certain set A as the set of elements x so

that they satisfy a given property P(x), we can write

A = {x: P(x)}

Thus, for a given element a we can state that

a  A ⇔ P(a) is T
a  A ⇔ P(a) is F

In the example

A = {x: x  N ⋀ x < 50 ⋀ 3 ∣ x ⋀ 5 ∣ x}
We have that

P(x): x  N ⋀ x < 50 ⋀ 3 ∣ x ⋀ 5 ∣ x

Thus, we can state that 30  A because P(30) is T, while 10  A because P(10) is F.

79
We can see that propositions play an important role in the definitions of sets. In general
propositional logic provides a fundamental support in developing the set theory. We will see
a clear equivalence between the languages of both the set theory and propositional logic.
Even more, in the formulation of definitions, properties, proofs of both properties , and
theorems we will be applying the laws of logic.

QUANTIFIERS

Quantifiers are symbols used to express the quan tity of elements which belong to certain set
that make a given property or relation true. There are two types of quantifiers: Universal and
Existential.

Universal quantifier

The universal quantifier is used to express that all members of a certain set satisfy a given
property or relation. This quantifier is denoted by the symbol ∀ (a turned A) which can be
read as “for all”. For example, let us suppose that we want to express that all members of a
set A satisfy a given property P(x). Using the universal quantifier we write

∀x  A: P(x)

This means that applying P(x) to each member of the set A we get a resulting proposition that
is true. Therefore, the conjunction of all those propositions is also true. Thus, if the set A is
such that

A = {x1, x2, ⋯, xn}

The following equivalence is verified:

[∀x  A: P(x)] ≡ [P(x1) ⋀ P(x2) ⋀ ⋯ ⋀ P(xn)]

If we wa nt to express the contrary, that is, that no element of another set , let us say B,
satisfies the property P(x), then we can write

∀x  B: ~ P(x)

In other words, the above statement means that all members of the set B make P(x) false.

80
Existential quantifier

While the universal quantifier refers to all members of a given set, the existential is used to
express that at least one of them satisfies a given property. The sym bol to represent the
existential quantifier looks like an inverted E . This is Ǝ which is usually read as “there exists
at least one”, but it also can be read as “there exists” or “for some”. Therefore, when we
write

Ǝ x  A: P(x)

It means that there is at least one member of the set A that makes the property P(x) true. In
other words, when applying the property P(x) to each member of A at least one of the
resulting propositions will be true. Therefore, the inclusive disjunction of all those
propositions will also be true. Thus, in the case of a set A such that

A = {x1, x2, ⋯, xn}

The following equivalence is verified:

[Ǝ x  A: P(x)] ≡ [P(x1) ⋁ P(x2) ⋁ ⋯ ⋁ P(xn)]

If we want to express that no element of A satisfies some other property, let us say Q(x), we
use the symbol ∄ which can be read as “there is not” or “no element” or “for no”, etc. Thus,
we can write

∄x  A: Q(x)

In this case we can read the whole statement as follows: “there is not x in A that makes Q(x)
true” which the same as: “no element in A satisfies Q(x)”.

Notice that the following equivalences are verified:

[∄ x  A: Q(x)] ≡ [∀x  A: ~ Q(x)] ≡ ~ [Ǝ x  A: Q(x)]

Likewise, the following equivalence is verified:

~ [∀x  A: Q(x)] ≡ [Ǝ x  A: ~ Q(x)]

81
These equivalences show that the negation of the universal quantifier can be expressed in
terms of the existential quantifier and vice versa. It will also be useful to know that

[∀x  A: P(x)] ⇒ [Ǝ x  A: P(x)]

However, the converse is not true. This means that

[Ǝ x  A: P(x)] ⇏ [∀x  A: P(x)]

Where the symbol ⇏ is read as “does not imply”

THE UNIVERSAL SET

The universal set is the set that contains all the elements of a given situation of interest. This
set establishes the reference or context in which we are working. It establishes the frontiers
of work. This is why it is also known as the referential set. For example, let us suppose that
we want to conduct a statistical research on education. We could establish the context of our
work by limiting to all students at Harvard University or else we could be interested in
students from all uni versities in the United States. As we can see, the universal set is not
unique. The delimitation depends on the objective of the specific work or research we are
conducting in a given time.
The most usual not ation of the universal set is the capital le tter U. However, sometimes we
can find that the universal set is also denoted by the Greek letter Ω.

By taking advantage of the language we learned in the previous chapter on Propositional

Logic, we can provide a definition for the universal set by using that language. Let us
assume that A is a given set such that

A = {x: P(x)}

Since the universal set has been defined as the set that contains all the elements of a given
situation of interest, this implies that it is formed by both the elements which are members of
A and those which are not members of A within the frontiers of the given situation. In other
words, the universal set of this situation is constituted by those elements that make P(x) true,
but also by those that make it false. Therefore, if we want to describe the universal set of this
situation by comprehension, we can write

U = {x: P(x) ⋁ ~P(x)}

82
Thus, any element x within the frontiers of the established situation makes the inclusive
disjunction P(x) ⋁ ~P(x) true. Since this disjunction will always be true within the
established frontiers, the universal set is thus defined by a tautology.

THE EMPTY SET

The set having no elements is called the empty set. This is a unique set which is usually
denoted by the symbol ∅. Since this set has no elements, any statement that is not true for
all elements within a given situation is suitable to define the empty set. This is the case of the
following contradiction:

P(x) ⋀ ~P(x)

Therefore

∅ = {x: P(x) ⋀ ~P(x)}

Any contradiction is suitable to define the empty set. The fact that the empty set is unique
means that it is the same in any situation. This will be formally proven later on.

Example

Let us have the set

A = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ 7x- 3 = 0}

Z represents the set of integer numbers.

We can easily verify that there is not an y integer number that satisfies the equation 7x- 3 = 0.
Therefore, we conclude that

∄ x ϵ Z: 7x- 3 = 0

This implies that A has no elements and therefore A = ∅.

THE SINGLETON SET

We call singleton s et to a set that contains exactly one element. This type of set is also
known as a unit set.

83
Example

Suppose the set A is such that

A = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ x > 3 ⋀ x < 5}

There is only one integer that simultaneously satisfies that x > 3 and x < 5 which is x = 4.
Before proceeding it is important to point out that the most common way of writing the
statement

x>3⋀x<5

is as follows

3<x<5

In general, given two any numbers a and b such that a < b the statement

x>a⋀x<b

is usually presented as

a<x<b

Returning to the example we have that

A = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ x > 3 ⋀ x < 5} = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ 3 < x < 5} = {4}

Therefore, A is a singleton set.

The definition of a singleton set allows us to highlight important differences to take into
account when working with sets. Thus, for any given element a it is important to know the
differences between the following notations:

a, {a} and {{a}}

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The first one refers to the element a, the second one is the singleton set whose only member
is the element a, and the third one is a singleton set of sets whose only element is in turn the
singleton set {a}. Notice also that, for example

A = {a, a, a} = {a}

A is a singleton set since its only element is a which has been written three times but,
according to what we said earlier, it counts only once.

Also, if we had a set like the following:

A = {{a, b, c}}

We would say that A is a singleton set since it contains only one element which is itself a set
that is not a singleton set.

To conclude this section it is also important to point out that the empty set is not equal to the
set containing only the empty set. This is

∅ ≠ {∅}

EXERCISES I

1. Determine by extension the following sets:

A = {x: x = 2n – 1 ⋀ n ϵ N* ⋀ n ≤ 5}; N*: The set of natural numbers without zero.

B = {x: x = 2n ⋀ n ϵ N* ⋀ x ≤ 10}

C = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ -25 ≤ x3 ≤ 50}; Z: The set of integer numbers.

D = {x: x = 2n + 1 ⋀ n ϵ N* ⋀ n ≤ 9}

E = {x: x ϵ N ⋀ x2 -2x + 8 = 0}; N: The set of natural numbers with zero included.

F = {x: x ϵ N* ⋀ x + 2 ≤ 11}

2. State which of the following expressions are true. Justify your answers.

a) a ϵ {{a}} b) {a, b} ϵ {a, {a, b}} c) {a, {a}} = {a}

d) {a, b, c} = {a, c, a, b} e) {a, a, b, c}≠ {a, b, b, c} f) {a, b, c} = {b, a, c}

85
3. Write in words the meaning of the following expressions:

a) A = {x: x ϵ N ⋀ x ≤ 6}

b) B = {x: x ϵ Q ⋀ (x + ½) ϵ N}; Q: The set of rational numbers.

c) C = {x: x ϵ N ⋀ 5 ≤ 4x - 6 ≤ 30}

d) Being a a straight line in the plane: H = {r: r is a straight line ⋀ r ∥ a}

e) Being a a straight line in the plane: M = {r: r is a straight line ⋀ r  a}

f) E = {x: x ϵ N ⋀ 2 < 2x - 3 ≤ 11}

g) F = {x: x ϵ N ⋀ x  E}

4. Describe by comprehension the following sets:

a) The set of even natural numbers.

b) The set of real solutions of the equation x3 -2x2 – x + 2 = 0.

c) The set of natural numbers that satisfy: -16 < 10x -78 ≤ 3.

5. Describe by comprehension the following sets:

a) A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15}

b) B = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36}

c) C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23}

d) D = {1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64}

6. Suppose that a is an element of the set B and B is an element of the set C. Can we
conclude that a is an element of the set C? Explain.

7. Determine which of the following sets are empty:

a) A = {x: x is odd and divisible by 2}

b) B = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ x + 3 = 3}

c) C = { x: x ϵ R ⋀ x2 = 10 ⋀ 2x = 10} ; R: The set of real numbers

d) D = {∅}

86
VENN DIAGRAMS

Venn Diagrams constitute a graphic system used to illustrate sets, their elements, operations,
and logical relationships between them. They provide an important help in understanding the
concepts that we will study later on. These diagrams are built according to the following
criteria:

a) The universal set is represented by a rectangle containing all other sets referred to the
given situation.

b) The sets within the given situation are represented by circles.

c) When it is possible, the elements which are members of particular sets can be
represented by points inside the corresponding circle that represents the set and then
each point is identified with the corresponding name, letter or number.

Example

Let us represent the following sets by using Venn Diagrams:

A = {x: x ϵ N* ⋀ x < 5} B = {x: x ϵ N* ⋀ 3 ≤ x < 10}

C = {x: x ϵ N* ⋀ 3∣x ⋀ x ≤ 9} D = {x: x ϵ N* ⋀ 12∣x ⋀ x < 25}

We assume that the universal set is N. Described by extension the given sets are:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} C = {3, 6, 9} D = {12, 24}

The corresponding Venn diagram looks like this:

A N
∙1
∙2
∙4 D
∙3
∙5 C ∙6 ∙12
∙9 ∙24
∙7
∙8 B

Figure 2.1

87
EQUALITY OF SETS

Given the sets A and B, we say that they are equal if and only if they contain the same
elements. Therefore, each element of A is also a member of B and vice versa. Using
symbols, this is

(A = B) ⇔ (x ϵ A ⇒ x ϵ B) ⋀ (x ϵ B ⇒ x ϵ A)

Therefore

(A = B) ⇔ (x ϵ A ⇔ x ϵ B)

Let us assume that A and B are both defined by comprehension by P(x) and Q(x) respectively,
such that

A = {x: P(x)} and B = {x: Q(x)}

Also, assume that A = B. Then, following the scheme applied for logical reasoning we can
write
P(x)
P(x) ⇒ x ϵ A

xϵA⇒xϵB Since A = B

x ϵ B ⇒ Q(x)

∴ Q(x)

Therefore

P(x) ⇒ Q(x)

Likewise, we get that

Q(x) ⇒ P(x)

Thus, we have

(A = B) ⇔ [P(x) ⇔ Q(x)] ≡ [P(x) ≡ Q(x)]

As a result we get the following formal definition for equality of sets:

88
 Given the sets A and B such that

A = {x: P(x)} and B = {x: Q(x)}

(A = B) ⇔ [P(x) ≡ Q(x)]

Example

Given the sets

A = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ x2 ≤ 4}

B = {x: x ϵ Z ⋀ -2≤ x ≤ 2}

Since

(x2≤ 4) ≡ (-2≤ x ≤ 2)

These sets are equals, and defined by extension are:

A = {-2, -1, 0, 1, 2} = B

They have the same elements.

Properties of equality of sets

Given the sets

A = {x: P(x)} B = {x: Q(x)} and C = {x: R(x)}

The equality of sets satisfies the following properties:

1) Identity
A=A
Supported by the equivalence

P(x) ≡ P(x)

89
 2) Commutativity

(A = B) ≡ (B = A)

Supported by

[P(x) ≡ Q(x)] ≡ [Q(x) ≡ P(x)]

3) Transitivity

(A = B) ⋀ (B = C) ⇒ (A = C)

Supported by

[P(x) ≡ Q(x)] ⋀ [Q(x) ≡ R(x)] ⇒ [P(x) ≡ R(x)]

RELATION OF SET INCLUSION

Given the sets A and B, if all elements in A are also members of B we say that A is a Subset of
B. We can also say that A is contained in B. This relationship between A and B is called
inclusion. To represent this relationship we use the symbol ⊆ and thus we can write

A⊆B

According to the given definition we have

(A ⊆ B) ⇔ (x ϵ A ⇒ x ϵ B)

The sets A and B may coincide ( A = B) and the above definition is still satisfied. However,
since A is a subset of B, if A and B are not equals, then we call this relationship strict
inclusion and A is identified as a proper subset of B. In this case we use the symbol ⊂ and
write

A⊂B

This is

(A ⊂ B) ⇔ (A ⊆ B ⋀ A≠ B)

If the sets A and B are both defined by comprehension, we can state the following definition:

90
 Given A and B such that

A = {x: P(x)} and B = {x: Q(x)}

(A ⊆ B) ⇔ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)]

If we recall the logical equivalence between an implication and its contrapositive form the
definition given above can also be written as

(A ⊆ B) ⇔ [∼ Q(x) ⇒ ∼ P(x)]

This means that

(A ⊆ B) ⇔ (x  B ⇒ x  A)

By using Venn diagram, the set inclusion A⊂ B is illustrated in Figure 2.2.

U
B
A

Figure 2.2

As an example, the previous Figure 2.1 shows that C ⊂ B.

According to the definitions studied above for set inclusion , and the support from figures 2.1
and 2.2, it can be verified that every set is a subset of the universal set of the given situation.

Example

A good example of a strict inclusion relationship between sets is the one that satisfy the
numerical sets N and Z. Given that any natural number is also an integer, this means that

91
 xϵN⇒xϵZ

and since the converse of that implication is not true, then they satisfy that

N⊂Z

By r epresenting Q and R, the set of rational and real numbers respectively , the following
relationships are also satisfied:

Z ⊂ Q⊂ R

Properties of set inclusion

1) Reflexive

Any set is a subset of itself.

Let A be the set such that

A = {x: P(x)}

According to the logical law

P(x) ⇒ P(x)

By definition, this implication means that

A⊆A

2) Transitive

Given the sets

A = {x: P(x)} B = {x: Q(x)} and C = {x: R(x)}

Then

[(A ⊆ B) ⋀ (B ⊆ C)] ⇒ (A ⊆ C)

Proof:

92
 In propositional language, this property is translated as

[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⋀ [Q(x) ⇒ R(x)] ⇒ [P(x) ⇒ R(x)]

This is the Hypothetical Syllogism law which proves the transitive property.

3) Antisymmetric

[(A ⊆ B) ⋀ (B ⊆ A)] ⇔ (A = B)

Proof:

In propositional language the property is

[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⋀ [Q(x) ⇒ P(x)] ⇔ [P(x) ≡ R(x)]

This is a logical law that involves the definition of both double implication and
logically equivalent propositions. This law proves the antisymmetric property.

After h aving studied the relation of set inclusion , we can now establish two important
characteristics of the empty set.

1) The empty set is a subset of any other set

Given any set A such that

A = {x: P(x)}

Then

∅⊆A

Proof:

Any element x that is not a member of A is not a member of ∅ either, since ∅ has no
elements. This can be written as

xA⇒x∅

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 The above is the definition of set inclusion given in terms of the contrapositive form
of an implication. Therefore, it proves that

∅⊆A

2) The empty set is unique

Let us assume that there are two different empty sets, say ∅ and ∅’. According to
the characteristic 1) proven above, since both ∅ and ∅’ are empty sets we have that

∅ ⊆ ∅’

And also
∅’ ⊆ ∅

Therefore, according to the antisymmetric property

[∅ ⊆ ∅’] ⋀ [∅’ ⊆ ∅] ⇔ [∅ = ∅’]

This proves that the empty set is unique.

Complement of a subset

Given the sets A and B such that A is a subset of B, the complement of A respect to B is the set
of elements of B that are not elements of A. To represent this set , we will use the symbol
ϹBA. Thus, according to this definition it is

ϹBA = {x: x B ⋀ x  A}

In case that A and B are both defined by P(x) and Q(x) respectively, the formal definition is as
follows:

Given the sets A and B such as A ⊆ B and

A = {x: P(x)} and B = {x: Q(x)}

The complement of A respect to B is the set denoted by ϹBA such as

ϹBA = {x: Q(x) ⋀ ∼P(x)}

94
The shaded region in Figure 2.3 illustrates the complement of A respect to B.

U
B
ϹBA

Figure 2.3

In most situations we need to define the complement of a set with respect to the universal set.
We earlier stated that every set is a subset of the universal set. Therefore, for every set there
exists a complement with respect to the universal set. Thus, given the set A the complement
of A respect to the universal set is usually denoted as Ac. However, sometimes we can also
find notations such as A or A . According to the definition and recalling that the universal
set is usually denoted as U, in this case we have that

Ac = {x: x U ⋀ x  A}

When A is defined by comprehension, the formal definition in this case is as follows:

Given the set A such that

A = {x: P(x)}

and the universal set U such that A ⊆ U. The complement of A respect to U is the
set denoted by Ac and such that

Ac = {x: ∼ P(x)}

95
Figure 2.4 illustrates this definition. The shaded area corresponds to Ac.

U
Ac

Figure 2.4

Examples

1. Given the sets

A = {x: x N ⋀ x < 20}

B = {x: x N ⋀ x ≤ 50}

We can verify that A ⊆ B. Therefore, there exists a complement of A respect to B

denoted by ϹBA such that

ϹBA = {x: x N ⋀ 20 ≤ x ≤ 50}

2. By considering A and B defined as in the previous example and N the universal set, let
us define their respective complements Ac and Bc.

Ac = {x: x N ⋀ x ≥ 20}
Bc = {x: x N ⋀ x > 50}

3. The special cases of both the universal and empty set in relation to their respective
complements are very interesting.

By recalling that the empty set can be defined by any contradiction such as

∅ = {x: P(x) ⋀ ~P(x)}

96
 While the universal set can be defined by a tautology, then , according to both the
definition of the complement set and the De Morgan law, we have that

∅c = {x: ~ [P(x) ⋀ ~P(x)]} = {x: [~ P(x) ⋁ P(x)]} = U

Likewise, it is very easy to prove that

Uc = ∅

Properties of the complement of a subset

1) Involution

Given any set A, it is verified that

(Ac)c = A

Proof:

Assuming that A is defined by P(x), and according to both the definition of

complement and the double negation law, we have that

(Ac)c = {x: ∼ [∼P(x)]} = {x: P(x)}= A

2) Assuming that the sets A and B are defined by P(x) and Q(x) respectively, it is verified
that

A ⊆ B ⇔ Bc ⊆ Ac

Proof:

Recalling the definition

(A ⊆ B) ⇔ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)]

We have that

(Bc ⊆ Ac) ⇔ [∼Q(x) ⇒ ∼P(x)]

Therefore

97
 [A ⊆ B ⇔ Bc ⊆ Ac] ≡ {[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⇔ [∼Q(x) ⇒ ∼P(x)]}

This is the law of equivalence between the statement of an implication and its
contrapositive form which proves this property.

SET OF PARTS OF A SET

We call set of parts of a given set A, denoted by P(A), the set of all possible subsets of A.
This means that P(A) is a set of sets that can be defined as follows:

P(A) = {X: X ⊆ A}

According to the reflexive property of inclusion, every set is a subset of itself. Therefore

A P(A)

Also, since the empty set is a subset of any other set, then

∅ P(A)

Example

Let us have the set

A = {1, 2, 3}

In this case P(A) is the following set:

P(A) = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, A}

It is not difficult to get a formula that allows us to know the total number of elements of the
set of parts of a given set. We can do this by using combinatorial numbers. Let us suppose
that the given set A has n elements. There is only one subset with no element which is the
empty set. This can be represented by

n
   1
0

98
There are n subsets with only one element. This is represented by

n
   n
1 

For subsets with two elements we use

n n!
  
 2  2! (n  2)!

Similarly, for subsets with three elements we have

n n!
  
 3  3! ( n  3)!

And so on until we get the number of subsets with n elements which is only the set A itself
and that number is represented by

n
   1
n

Therefore, the total number of subsets of the set of parts is equal to the sum of all thos e
numbers. That sum is

n n n n n n n

            ...         2 n
 0  1   2   3   n  i 0  i 

In the previous example the set A has three elements. By applying this formula, we get that
the total number of elements of P(A) is

23 = 8

That is to say, there are 8 possible subsets of A which form the set P(A) as we saw it earlier.

99
EXERCISES II

1. Determine whether the following pairs of sets are equal or not:

a) A = {x: x N ⋀ 5 ∣ x ⋀ x < 20}

B = {10, 5, 15}

b) C = {even numbers}
D = {x: x N ⋀ 2 ∣ x}

c) E = {x: x N ⋀ x + 5 ≤ 15}
F = {x: x N ⋀ x < 10}

2. Determine whether the following equalities are true or false. Explain your answers.

a) {p} = {p, 0} b) {p} = {p, ∅} c) {∅} = { }

d) { } = ∅ e) ∅= {∅} f) {x: x R ⋀ x2 < 0} = ∅

3. Determine the inclusion relationships that are verified between the following sets:

A = {1, 2, a, f} B = {2, f} C = {1, f, 3} D = {1, f}

4. Given the following diagrams, properly place within them each element according to
the information given on the right side.

a) A B aA, aB, aC

bA, bB, bC
cA, cB, cC
dA, dB,dC
C eA, eB, eC

b) A B aA, aB, aC

bA, bB, bC
c  A , c B , c  C
dA, dB,dC
C eA, eB, eC
fA, fB, fC
100
 c) A B aA, aB, aC
bA, bB, bC
cA, cB, cC
dA, dB, dC
C eA, eB, eC
fA, fB, fC

5. Determine the inclusion relationships that are verified between the following sets:

F: The set of four-digits numbers with at least two of the digits equal to zero.
G: The set of four-digits numbers with at least one of the digits equal to zero.
H: The set of four -digit numbers with two of the digits equal to zero and the
others different from zero.

6. Given the following set:

A = {a, b, c}

Determine whether the following propositions are true or false. Explain.

aA c⊂A {b} A {b}⊂ A {a, b, c}  A {a, b, c} ⊆ A

7. Let A and B be any two sets. Write the definition for

A ⊈ B (A is not a subset of B)

8. Given the following sets:

A = {r, s, t, u, v, w} B = {u, v, w, x, y, z}
C = {s, u, y, z} D = {u, v}
E = {s, u} F = {s}

Also, let X be an unknown set.

Determine which of the sets given above is equal to X based on the information
provided in each of the following cases:

a) X ⊂ A ⋀ X ⊂ B b) X ⊄ B ⋀ X ⊂ C

c) X ⊄A ⋀ X ⊄ C d) X ⊂ B ⋀ X ⊄ C

101
 9. Is it true or false that every set contains at least two subsets? Why?

10. Given the set

K = {500, 934, 1000}

Determine all possible sets L such that

{500}⊂ L ⋀ L ⊂ K ⋀ L ≠ K

11. Assume that the universal set is constituted by the letters that form the word
“administración”1. Determine the complement of each of the following sets:

a) A = {o, m, i, t, a, s} B = {m, i, n, i, s, t, r, o}

C = {n, o, c, t, r, a, s, m, i, d}

a) The empty set.

b) {1, 3, z}

12. Determine the set of parts of each of the following sets:

A = {a, 3, p} B = {5, x} C = {x: x  N ⋀ x is odd ⋀ x < 3}

D = {x: x  N ⋀ 5 ≤ x ≤ 8}

13. Given the set

B = {EARTH, WIND, FIRE}

Determine the set of parts of B. Explain why the following propositions are true:

a) ∅  P(B) ⋀ ∅  B
b) {B}  B ⋀ {B} ⊈ B ⋀ B  P(B)
c) B is an element not a subset of P(B).
d) {EARTH}  B ⋀ {EARTH} P(B)

1
This word is the Spanish translation of the word “Administration” in English.

102
 14. Let A, B and C be any three sets. Determine the truth value of each of the following
statements. Prove statements that are true and provide a counterexample for those
which are false.

a) If x A and B ⊂ A and B ⊂ C, then x  C.

b) If A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C, then A ⊂ C.

c) If A ⊂ B and A ⊂ C, then A = C.
d) If x C and C ⊂ A, then x A.

e) If x A and A ⊂ B and x C, then C ⊂ B.

SET OPERATIONS

Set operations are specific ways of combining sets to build new ones. In other words , they
constitute a logical system for building new sets from known ones. We will be studying the
following operations: Intersection, Union, Difference and Symmetric Difference.

Intersection

Given two any sets A and B, the intersection of A and B is a new set formed by all elements
that belong to both A and B but not other elements. In other words, the intersection of A and
B is the set formed only by all elements that A and B have in common. The symbol used to
represent the intersection of sets looks like an upside down U. Thus, according to this
definition, the intersection of A and B is the set

A∩B = {x: x A ⋀ x  B}

Therefore, this definition establishes that

x  A∩B  (x A ⋀ x  B)

Being A and B defined by the rules P(x) and Q(x) respectively we can write also that

x  A∩B  [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)]

103
In this case , an element x belongs to the intersection of A and B, if and only if, it makes the
conjunction of P(x) and Q(x) true. If we recall the truth table for the conjunction of two
propositions presented in Chapter I and make the association with sets A and B and their
intersection, the combination of truth values that defines the intersection of A and B can be
identified.

P(x) Q(x) P(x) ⋀ Q(x)

(A) (B) (A∩B)
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

We can observe that the intersection of A and B corresponds to the first row of the table
which determines the shaded region in the Venn diagram shown in Figure 2.5 below.

Figure 2.5

The formal definition for the intersection of two sets is as follows:

Given the sets A and B such that

A ={x: P(x)} and B ={x: Q(x)}
A∩B = {x: P(x) ⋀ Q(x)}

Example

Let A and B be sets such that

A = {x: x  Z ⋀ x ≥ -5}

B = {x: x  Z ⋀ x < 4}

104
The intersection of A and B is the set A∩B such that

A∩B = {x: x  Z ⋀ -5 ≤ x < 4}

According to the simplification law studied in Chapter I, we know that

P(x) ⋀ Q(x) ⇒ P(x)

And also

P(x) ⋀ Q(x) ⇒ Q(x)

Therefore, based on this law of logic and the respective definitions of inclusion and
intersection, we conclude that

(A∩B) ⊆ A and (A∩B) ⊆ B

In words, this conclusion says that the intersection of two any sets is a subset of each of them.
These relationships are always true regardless of any condition.

Disjoint sets

Given the sets A and B, we say that they are disjoint, if and only if, they have no common
elements. Therefore, the intersection of disjoint sets is the empty set. Thus, we state that

A and B are disjoint sets  A∩B = ∅

Example

Given the following sets:

A = {x: x  Z ⋀ x ≥ 5}
B = {x: x  Z ⋀ x < 4}

105
Since A∩B = ∅ we say that A and B are disjoint sets.

Properties of intersection of sets

Given the sets A, B and C such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)} C ={x: R(x)}

The following properties are satisfied:

1. Idempotent

Every set A satisfies that

A∩A = A

This property is supported by the idempotent law of logic

P(x) ⋀ P(x) ≡ P(x)

2. Commutative

A∩B = B∩A

Supported by the commutative law of conjunction

P(x) ⋀ Q(x) ≡ Q(x) ⋀ P(x)

3. Associative

A∩ (B ∩ C) = (A∩B) ∩C

Supported by the associative law of logic

P(x) ⋀ [Q(x) ⋀ R(x)] ≡ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)] ⋀ R(x)

106
 4.
(A⊆ B)  [(A∩ B) = A]

Proof:

Let us prove first that

(A⊆ B) ⇒ [(A∩ B) = A]

By a pplying the antisymmetric property of inclusion to the conseque nt, the above
implication can be rewritten as

(A⊆ B) ⇒ {[(A∩ B) ⊆ A] ⋀ [A ⊆ (A ∩ B)]}

Since it was shown earlier that

(A ∩ B) ⊆ A

We only need to prove now that

(A⊆ B) ⇒ [A ⊆ (A ∩ B)]

Let us proceed as follows:

A⊆ B
(A⊆ B) ⇒ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] By definition of inclusion
[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⇒ {P(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)]} (Logical equivalence)2
{P(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)]} ⇒ [A ⊆ (A ∩ B)] By def of both incl and intersect

 A ⊆ (A ∩ B)

Let us now prove the converse form

[(A∩ B) = A] ⇒ (A⊆ B)

This is

The logical equivalence (P  Q) ≡ [P  (P ⋀ Q)] can be proven by building the corresponding truth table.
2

107
 (A ∩ B) = A
[(A ∩ B) = A] ⇒ [A = (A ∩ B)] By commutativity of equality

[A = (A ∩ B)] ⇒ [A ⊆ (A ∩ B)] By reflexive prop of inclusion

[A ⊆ (A ∩ B)] ⇒ {P(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)]} By def. of both incl. and inter

{P(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)]} ⇒ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] By simplification law of conjunc

[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⇒ (A⊆ B) By definition of inclusion

 A⊆ B

The property has been proven this way.

5. Identity (neutral) element for intersection of sets

In general, we can say that set operations are operations performed between elements
of the set of parts of the universal set U that we have denoted by P(U). In other words,
these are operations performed between subsets of U. In the particular case of
intersection of sets, the identity or neutral element is the element of P(U) whose
intersection with any other element A of P(U) reproduces the same element A. This
element for intersection is the universal set U. Therefore, it is satisfied that

A ∩U = U ∩ A = A

This is a corollary of property 4. In fact, we have already said that

A⊆U

Therefore, according to property 4

(A⊆U)  [(A∩U) = A]

This result, along with the commutative property of intersection of sets, proves that
the universal set is the identity or neutral element of intersection of sets.

Based on the definition of intersection of sets , we can now list two additional
characteristics of the empty set. These are:

1. For any set A, it is always verified that

A∩∅ = ∅

108
 Proof:

We have already seen that

∅⊆A

Therefore, according to property 4

(∅ ⊆ A)  [(A∩∅) = ∅]

This proves the statement.

2. For any set A it is verified that

A ∩ Ac = ∅

Since Ac is defined as the set formed by all those elements that belong to the
universal set that are not members of A, this means that A and Ac are disjoint sets
and as a consequence the result of their intersection is the empty set.

Union

Given two any sets A and B, the union of A and B is a new set formed by all elements that
belong to either A or B or to both. The symbol used to represent the union of sets looks like
an U. Thus, according to this definition, the union of A and B is the set

A ⋃ B = {x: x A ⋁ x  B}

Therefore, an element belongs to the union of two sets, if and only if, it belongs to at least
one of them. This means that the union is the set formed by all elements of both sets taken
altogether. This definition establishes that

x  A⋃B  (x A ⋁ x  B)

When A and B are defined by the rules P(x) and Q(x) respectively, we can also write that

x  A⋃B  [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)]

109
This means that an element x belongs to the union of A and B, if and only if, it makes the
inclusive disjunction of P(x) and Q(x) true.

If we recall the truth table for t he inclusive disjunction of two propositions presented in
Chapter I and make the association with sets A and B and their union we have that

P(x) Q(x) P(x) ⋁ Q(x)

(A) (B) (A⋃B)
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

We can observe that the union of A and B corresponds to the first three rows of the table
which determine the three shaded regions in the Venn diagram shown in Figure 2.6.

A B

Figure 2.6

If A and B were disjoint sets, the combination shown in the first row of the truth table for the
conjunction of two propositions presented above is not possible . In this case, only two
shaded regions are determined in the Venn diagram. Figure 2.7 shows an example of union of
disjoint sets.

U
A

Figure 2.7

110
The formal definition for the union of two sets is as follows:

Given the sets A and B such that

A ={x: P(x)} and B ={x: Q(x)}

A⋃B = {x: P(x) ⋁ Q(x)}

Example

Let us have the following sets:

A = {x: x  Z ⋀ x ≤-2}

B = {x: x  Z ⋀ x > 2}
The union of A and B is the set

A⋃B = {x: x  Z ⋀ (x ≤-2 ⋁ x > 2)}

Supported by the following laws of logic:

P(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] (Addition)

Q(x) ⇒ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] (Addition)

[P(x) ⋀ Q(x)] ⇒ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] (Simplification and addition)

And also supported by the definitions of inclusion, intersection , and union, it is very easy to
prove the following results:

A⊆ (A⋃B) B ⊆ (A⋃B) (A∩B) ⊆ (A⋃B)

These results are true regardless of any condit ion. T hey are true for any A and B. Those
results tell us that the union of any two sets contains both sets and as a consequence their
intersection.

111
Properties of union of sets

Given the sets A, B and C defined as

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)} C ={x: R(x)}

The following properties are satisfied:

1. Idempotent

Every set A satisfies that

A⋃A = A

This property is supported by the idempotent law of logic

P(x) ⋁ P(x) ≡ P(x)

2. Commutative

A⋃B = B⋃A

Supported by the commutative law of disjunction

P(x) ⋁ Q(x) ≡ Q(x) ⋁ P(x)

3. Associative

A⋃ (B⋃C) = (A⋃B) ⋃C

Supported by the associative law of logic

P(x) ⋁ [Q(x) ⋁ R(x)] ≡ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⋁ R(x)

4.
(A⊆ B)  [(A⋃B) = B]

112
 Proof:

Let us prove first that

(A⊆ B) ⇒ [(A⋃ B) = B]

By applying the antisymmetric property of inclusion to the consequent of the above

implication, it can be rewritten as

(A⊆ B) ⇒ {[(A⋃ B) ⊆ B] ⋀ [B ⊆ (A ⋃ B)]}

We earlier saw that for any A and B it is always true that

B ⊆ (A⋃B)

Therefore, we only need to prove that

(A⊆ B) ⇒ [(A⋃ B) ⊆ B]

Let us proceed as follows:

A⊆ B
(A⊆ B) ⇒ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] By definition of inclusion

[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⇒ {[P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⇒ Q(x)} (Logical equivalence)3

{[P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⇒ Q(x)} ⇒ [(A⋃B) ⊆ B] By def. of both union and incl

 (A⋃ B) ⊆ B

Let us now prove the converse form

[(A⋃B) = B] ⇒ (A⊆ B)

This is

The logical equivalence (P  Q) ≡ [(P ⋁ Q)  Q] can be proven by building the corresponding truth table.
3

113
 (A⋃B) = B

[(A⋃B) = B] ⇒ [(A⋃B) ⊆B] By reflexive prop of inclusion

[(A⋃B) ⊆B] ⇒ {[P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⇒ Q(x)} By def of both union and incl

{[P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⇒ Q(x)} ⇒ [P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] (Logical equivalence)4

[P(x) ⇒ Q(x)] ⇒ (A⊆ B) By definition of inclusion

 A⊆ B

The property has been proven this way.

5. Identity (neutral) element for union of sets

In the case of union of sets, the identity or neutral element is the element of P(U)
whose union with any other element A of P(U) reproduces the same element A. This
element for union is the empty set ∅. Therefore, it is satisfied that

A⋃∅=∅⋃A=A

This property is a corollary of property 4. By r ecalling that the empty set is a subset
of any other set, it can be verified according to property 4 that

(∅⊆ A)  [(A⋃∅) = A]

Thus, along with the commutative property of union of sets, it is proven that ∅ is the
neutral element for union of sets.

6. For any set A it is verified that

A ⋃ Ac = U

Proof:

To prove this equality we only need to apply the antisymmetric property of inclusion.

[(A ⋃ Ac) = U]  {[(A ⋃ Ac) ⊆ U)] ⋀ [U ⊆ (A ⋃ Ac)]}

The logical equivalence [(p⋁ q)q]≡ (p q) can be proven by building the corresponding truth table.
4

114
 Let us assume that A is defined by comprehension such that

A ={x: P(x)}

Therefore

Ac ={x: ∼ P(x)} and U ={x: P(x) ⋁ ∼ P(x)}

Then

x  (A ⋃ Ac)
x  (A ⋃ Ac) ⇒ [P(x) ⋁ ∼ P(x)]

[P(x) ⋁ ∼ P(x)] ⇒ x  U

xU

This proves that

[x  (A ⋃ Ac) ⇒ x  U] ≡ [(A ⋃ Ac) ⊆ U]

The converse form is

xU
xU ⇒ [P(x) ⋁ ∼ P(x)]

[P(x) ⋁ ∼ P(x)] ⇒ x  (A ⋃ Ac)

 x  (A ⋃ Ac)

This proves that

[x  U ⇒ x  (A ⋃ Ac)] ≡ [(U ⊆ (A ⋃ Ac)]

Therefore, this property has been proven.

Properties that relate intersection, union, and complement

Given the sets A, B and C such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)} C ={x: R(x)}

115
1. Distributive

a) Intersection with respect to union

A ∩ (B ⋃ C) = (A ∩ B) ⋃ (A ∩ C)

Supported by the logical equivalence:

{P(x) ⋀ [Q(x) ⋁ R(x)]} ≡ {[P(x) ⋀ Q(x)] ⋁ [P(x) ⋀ R(x)]}

b) Union with respect to intersection

A ⋃ (B ∩ C) = (A ⋃ B) ∩ (A ⋃ C)

Supported by the logical equivalence:

{P(x) ⋁ [Q(x) ⋀ R(x)]} ≡ {[P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⋀ [P(x) ⋁ R(x)]}

2. De Morgan

a) (A ∩ B)c = Ac ⋃ Bc

Supported by the logical equivalence:

∼ [P(x) ⋀ Q(x)] ≡ [∼ P(x) ⋁∼ Q(x)]

b) (A ⋃ B)c = Ac ∩ Bc

Supported by the logical equivalence:

∼ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ≡ [∼ P(x) ⋀∼ Q(x)]

116
Difference

Given the sets A and B, the difference of A and B is the set of all elements in A that do not
belong to B. We will denote the difference of A and B as follows:

A-B

The above is the most frequent notation for the difference of sets found in the literature on
Set Theory. However , sometimes it can also be denoted as A ⧵B. According to the
definition, we have that

x  (A - B)  x  A ⋀ x  B

When A and B are defined by comprehension such that

A ={x: P(x)} and B ={x: Q(x)}

We can write the above statement as follows:

x  (A - B)  P(x) ⋀ ∼ Q(x)

This means that an element belongs to the difference of A and B, if and only if, it makes P(x)
true and Q(x) false. That is to say, if and only if, it makes the conjunction of P(x) and ∼Q(x)
true. Recalling the truth table for the conjunction of two propo sitions and making the
association with sets A and B and the difference of A and B, we have that

P(x) Q(x) ∼Q(x) P(x) ⋀ ∼ Q(x)

(A) (B) (Bc) (A – B)
T T F F
T F T T
F T F F
F F T F

We can see that the difference of A and B corresponds with the second row of the table which
determines the shaded region of the Venn diagram shown in Figure 2.8 below.

117
 U
A B

A-B

Figure 2.8

Thus, the formal definition for the difference of sets can be stated as follows:

Given A and B such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)}

A – B = {x: P(x) ⋀ ∼ Q(x)}

The definition makes clear that the difference of sets does not satisfy commutativity. This is

A – B ≠ B -A

This can be easily proven just by verifying that

[P(x) ⋀ ∼ Q(x)] ≢ [Q(x) ⋀ ∼ P(x)]

By using the truth table as we have done before, we have that

P(x) Q(x) ∼P(x) ∼P(x) ⋀ Q(x)

(A) (B) (A)c (B - A)
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

118
The difference B – A is illustrated in Figure 2.9 It allows us to graphically show that the
difference of sets is not commutative.

A B-A B

Figure 2.9

Example

Let A and B be the following sets:

A = {x: x Z ⋀ 0 < x ≤ 9}
B = {x: x Z ⋀ -4 ≤ x ≤ 4}

The difference A – B is

A -B = {x: x Z ⋀ 5 ≤ x ≤ 9} = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

While the difference B – A is

B -A = {x: x Z ⋀ -4 ≤ x ≤ 0} = {-4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

Property

Given A and B such that

A ={x: P(x)} and B ={x: Q(x)}

It is verified that

119
 A – B = A ∩ Bc

Proof:

In propositional language A – B is defined as

P(x) ⋀ ∼ Q(x)

Since ∼Q(x) defines Bc, the conjunction above proves the property.

Likewise, it is verified that

B – A = B ∩Ac

Also notice that if A and B are disjoint sets, then

A–B=A and B–A=B

Symmetric Difference

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is a new set defined as the set of elements that
belong to either A or B but not to both. It is usually denoted by A ∆ B. Therefore

x  (A ∆ B)  x  A ⋁ x  B

When A and B are defined by comprehension such that

A ={x: P(x)} and B ={x: Q(x)}

We can write the above definition as follows:

x  (A ∆ B)  P(x) ⋁ Q(x)

This means that an element belongs to the symmetric difference of A and B, if and only if, it
makes true either P(x) or Q(x) but not both simultaneously. That is to say, if and only if, the

120
element makes the exclusive disjunction of P(x) and Q(x) true. If we recall the truth table for
the exclusive disjunction of two propositions and make the association with sets A and B and
their symmetric difference, we have that

P(x) Q(x) P(x) ⋁ Q(x)

(A) B(x) (A∆B)
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F

We can see that the symmetric difference of A and B corresponds with both the second and
third row of the table which determines the shaded region of the Venn diagram shown in
Figure 2.10 below.

A∆B
U

A B

Figure 2.10

The formal definition for the symmetric difference of sets can be stated as follows:

Given A and B such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)}
A ∆ B = {x: P(x) ⋁ Q(x)}

The symmetric difference can be written in different ways. According to the definition, an
element belongs to the symmetric difference of sets A and B, if and only if, it is in A but not
in B or if it is in B but not in A. By using symbols

121
 x  (A ∆ B)  (x  A ⋀ x  B) ⋁ (x  B ⋀ x  A)

According to the definition of the difference of sets, the above statement can be written as

x  (A ∆ B)  x  (A- B) ⋁ x  (B - A)

Since the union of sets has been defined by an inclusive disjunction, the above statement can
also be written as

x  (A ∆ B)  x  [(A- B) ⋃ (B - A)]

Therefore, this means that

A ∆ B = (A- B) ⋃ (B - A)

If we proceed in a similar way, it is very easy to prove that

A ∆ B = (A ∩ Bc) ⋃ (B ∩ Ac)

A ∆ B = (A⋃B) - (A∩B)

Example

Let A and B be the same sets that we saw in the previous example:

A = {x: x Z ⋀ 0 < x ≤ 9}

B = {x: x Z ⋀ -4 ≤ x ≤ 4}

The symmetric difference of A and B is the set:

122
 A ∆ B = {-4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

By comparing this result with the results from the previous example, we verify that in fact it
is

A ∆ B = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9} ⋃ {-4, -3, -2, -1, 0} = (A- B) ⋃ (B - A)

Properties of symmetric difference

Given the sets A, B, and C such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)} C ={x: R(x)}

1. Commutativity

It is verified that

A∆B=B∆A

Supported by the commutative law of exclusive disjunction

P(x) ⋁ Q(x) ≡ Q(x) ⋁ P(x)

2. Associativity

A ∆ (B ∆ C) = (A ∆ B) ∆ C

Supported by the associative law of exclusive disjunction

P(x) ⋁ [Q(x) ⋁ R(x)] ≡ [P(x) ⋁ Q(x)] ⋁ R(x)

3. Identity (neutral) element for symmetric difference of sets

The empty set is neutral for the symmetric difference of sets since for any set A it is
satisfied that

123
 A∆∅=∅∆A=A

Proof:

A ∆ ∅ = (A ∩∅c) ⋃ (∅ ∩ Ac)
= (A ∩ U) ⋃ ∅
=A∩U
=A

4. Inverse element for symmetric difference of sets

In set operations an inverse element is the set that combined or operated with another
given set returns the identity or neutral element corresponding to that operation. For
the operations studied previously there is not such inverse element. However, for the
symmetric difference it does exist. Thus, for every set A we can verify that

A∆A=∅

Since ∅ is the neutral or identity element for the symmetric difference of sets, then
we conclude that the inverse element in this case is the same given set A.

Proof:

By definition and the results previously shown we know that

A ∆ A = (A ∩ Ac) ⋃ (Ac ∩ A)
=∅⋃∅

=∅
This proves that in fact the inverse element of A is the same A.

Throughout this exposition , the equivalence between the languages of both logic and set
theory has been emphasized . This does not only provide a clear idea of the importance of
logic for mathematical reasoning but also it provides a valuable help in making easier to
understand the basic concepts of set theory which are fundamental in building the conceptual
body of calculus. We have seen how each statement of a property o r ch aracteristic that
becomes a proposition when applied to a particular element is associated to a set. Thus, any
statement of a tautology in logic is equated with the fact that all elements of a given situation
satisfy certain property in set theory. This means that statement is true for all elements of a
given situation. Therefore, we can say that “tautology” in logic translates into a “universal
set” in set theory. Likewise, “contradiction” translates into “empty set”.

124
We also saw how each logical conne ctive corresponds to either a relationship or to a set
operation. We summarize those equivalences in the following table.

Let A and B be the sets such that

A ={x: P(x)} B ={x: Q(x)}

In PROPOSITIONAL
SET THEORY Translates to LOGIC
x A ≡ P(x)
x B ≡ Q(x)
x A ≡ ∼P(x)
x B ≡ ∼Q(x)
A=B ≡ P(x)  Q(x)
A⊆B ≡ P(x) ⇒ Q(x)
Ac ≡ ∼P(x)
Bc ≡ ∼Q(x)
A∩B ≡ P(x) ⋀ Q(x)
A⋃B ≡ P(x) ⋁ Q(x)
A-B ≡ P(x) ⋀ ∼Q(x)
B- A ≡ ∼P(x) ⋀ Q(x)
A∆B ≡ P(x) ⋁ Q(x)
U ≡ P(x) ⋁ ∼P(x)
∅ ≡ P(x) ⋀ ∼P(x)

Intersections and unions of family of sets

Both intersection and union of sets can be extended to more than two sets. Let us assume that
we have the following set of sets:

{A1, A2, ⋯, An}

This type of sets is usually called a family of sets and we can denote it as follows:

{Ai}; i = 1, 2, ⋯, n

However, it is very important to mention some issues related to this concept. First of all, the
above definition is not a formal definition of family of sets. A family of sets does not need to

125
be a set itself , since a family of sets allows containing repeated members. For this reason in
some contexts the term “collection” is used , instead. Second , in formal definition s, this
concept is referred to collections of subsets of a given set . For ex ample, suppose that A is a
collection of subsets of a given set D. In this case we can say that A is a family of sets over
D. The sets that constitute a family may share some specific characteristics or properties that
allow us to identify which subsets of D are members of family A. Third, a family of sets
should not be confused with the set of parts that was presented earlier. The set of parts is the
set of all subsets of a given set, while a family is a particular collec tion of subsets of that set
and it is not necessarily formed by all its subsets. In fact, we can constitute many different
families over the same given set. Having said this, let u s now proceed with the extension of
intersection and union to more than two sets.

The intersection of all sets that form the above given family is

A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ⋯ ∩ An

This intersection can be denoted by

n

A i
i 1

The union is

A1 ⋃ A2 ⋃ ⋯ ⋃ An

The union can be denoted by

A i
i 1

Let us consider the following set

In = {1, 2, ⋯, n}

Such that each i  In is associated with a set Ai. Thus, we can write both the intersection and
the union as follows:

A i A i
iI n iI n

126
In is usually called the index set and thus we can say that the set

{Ai: i  In}

is an indexed family of sets.

Therefore, this way it is easier to present the following definitions:

Given the family

{Ai: i  In}

The intersection of the family is the set

 A = {x: i  In: x  Ai}

i
iI n

The union of the family is the set

 A = {x: i  In: x  Ai}

i
iI n

The above definitions indicate that the intersection of the family is the set of elements which
are members of each set of the family. The union of the family is the set of elements that
belong to at least one of the sets of the family.

The properties that are satisfied by the intersection and union of two sets are also satisfied by
these operations extended to more than two sets. Below we present below the properties that
connect both operations.

a) Distributive laws

   
  Ai    B j    Ai  B j
 iI   jI   
 n   m  ijIIn
m

   
  Ai    B j    Ai  B j
 iI   jI   
 n   m  ijIIn
m

127
 b) De Morgan laws

c
 
  Ai    Aic
 iI 
 n  iI n

c
 
  Ai    Aic
 iI 
 n  iI n

PARTITION OF A SET

Given a set D   and a family A of disjoint and non-empty subsets of D, if the union of all
these subsets equals D, then A constitutes a partition of D. Formally, the definition is as
follows:

Given a set D   and the family

A = {Ai: i  In: (Ai  D) ⋀ (Ai   ) ⋀ ( i, j  In: i  j: Ai ∩ Aj =)}

A is a partition of D  A =D i
iI n

Example

Let N be the set of natural numbers , E and O the set s of natural even, and odd numbers
respectively and the family

{E, O}

Since both E and O are non-empty subsets of N and

(E ∩ O =) ⋀ (E ⋃ O = N)

Then, the family {E, O} is a partition of N.

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EXERCISES III

1. Determine the intersection of the given sets and build the corresponding Venn
Diagram in each of the following cases:

a) A = {x: x N* ⋀ x ≤ 7} B = {0, 2, 4, 6}

b) C = {x: x N ⋀ 5 ≤ x ≤ 8} D = {x: x N ⋀ x is even ⋀ x ≤ 10}

c) E = { x: x N ⋀ x | 72} F = { x: x N ⋀ x | 18}

2. Verify the commutativity property of intersection of sets using the following pair of
sets:

a) A = {1, 3, 5, 7} B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b) C = {x: x N ⋀ 4 < x ≤ 20} D = {1, 14, 15, 18, 20}

3. Determine the union of the following sets and the corres ponding Venn diagram
whenever possible:

a) A = {2, 5, 7} B = {1, 3, 4, 2}
b) C = {x: x N ⋀ 4 < x ≤ 20} D = {1, 14, 15, 18, 20, 25}

c) E = {x: x N* ⋀ x < 7} F = {4, 8, 12}

d) P = {x: x N ⋀ 4 < x ≤ 20} Q = {x: x N ⋀ x is even ⋀ x < 7}

e) R = {x: x N ⋀ x > 10} S = {x: x N ⋀ 1 < x ≤ 7}

4. Verify the associative property of union of sets using the following sets:

A = {x: x N ⋀ ⋀ x is odd ⋀ x < 15}

B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
C = {x: x N ⋀ x is even ⋀ x ≤ 10}

5. Given the following sets:

A = {x: x N* ⋀ x < 5}
B = {Natural numbers greater than 2 and less than 6}
C = {x: x N ⋀ x is odd ⋀ 1 ≤ x ≤ 5}

129
 Determine:

A⋃B A⋃D B∩A B∩C D∩A B∩D

A⋃C A∩C B⋃C B⋃D D⋃C C∩A

6. If F ⋃ G = , what can we say about F and G?

7. If F ∩ G = , can we conclude that F =  or that G = ?

8. If F  G and F ∩ G = , what can we say about F?

9. Complete the following propositions:

a) S ∩  = b)  ⋃ {0} = c) R ∩ Rc = d) P ⋃  =
e) (Pc)c = f) {} ⋃ {0} = g)  ∩ U = h) {} ∩ {} =
i)  ⋃  = j)  ∩ c = k)  ⋃ U = l)  ∩ {} =
m) K ⋃ Kc = n)  ∩  =

10. Given the following sets:

A = {a, b, c} B = {a, e, i, o, u} C = {x: x N ⋀ x ends in 7 ⋀ x < 28}

D = {3, 5, 7, 8} P = {Female students} Z = {Married women}

Determine: A – B, C – D and P – Z

11. Use the resulting sets from the previous exercise to v erify that the difference of sets
does not satisfy the commutative property.

12. Given the sets:

A = {a, b, c, d} B = {a, b, i} C = {a, e, i, o} D = {f, g, c}

Determine:

A–B C–D A∆B A–D B∆C

B–C D–C D–B B⋃C C∆A

130
 A⋃B C∆D C∩D D∩B D–A

13. According to the Venn diagram given below , determine whether the following
propositions are true or false:

a) 1  A – B b) 4  A ⋃ B c) 5  A ∩ B d) a  B – A

e) b  B – A f) A ∩ B ⊂ A ⋃ B g) 8  A ∩ B h) A – B = ϹAB

A B
1· 6· a·
b· 5· 4·
3· 8· 7·
2·

14. Given the following sets:

A = {2, 4, 6, 8} B = {1, 3, 5, 6} C = {2, 3, 4, 5}

Determine:

(A ⋃ B) – C [(A ⋃ C) ∩ B] – (A ⋃ B) (B ∩ C) – (B ⋃ C)

A ⋃ (B – A) (A ∩ C) – C (B ∩ C) – (A ⋃ C)

(B ⋃ C) – (B ∩ C) A ∩ (B – A)

15. Given the sets:

A = {x: x N ⋀ x is even ⋀ 10 < x < 20}

B = {x: x is a divisor of 12}

C = {2, 4}

Determine:

(A – B) ⋃ C P(C) Ϲ BC C–B

131
16. Given the sets:

A = {x: x Z ⋀ -2 ≤ x ≤ 2} B = {-3, -2, -1, 0} C = {x: x N ⋀ x < 4}

Determine:

(B ⋃ C) ∩ A A∆B (A - B) ⋃ (B ∩ C)

17. Given the sets:

M = {x: x N* ⋀ x is even ⋀ x < 12}

H = {x: x N ⋀ x is a divisor of 4}

J = {2, 4}

Determine:

(H – M) P(H) Ϲ MJ

18. By using set notation, w rite the set that corresponds to the shaded region in each of
the following diagrams:

a)

A B

132
b)

A B

c)

A B

d)

A B

133
e)

A B

f)

U
U

AA BB

g)

A B

134
 h)

A B

i)

A B

19. By using Venn diagram, determine which of the following equalities are true:

a) A ∩ (B ⋃ C)c = (B ∩ A) ∩ C
b) A ⋃ (B ⋃ C)c = (Ac ⋃ B)c ∩ (Ac ∩ C)c
c) Ac – (B ⋃ C) = (Ac - B) ⋃ (Ac - C)

d) A – (B ⋃ C) = Cc ∩ (Bc ∩ A)
e) B ⋃ (A - C) = (B ⋃ A) - (B ⋃ C)

f) A ∆ Bc = (A ⋃ Bc) ∩ (Ac ⋃ B)

20. Determine whether p is a necessary, a sufficient or a necessary and sufficient

condition for q:

135
 a) p: A ∩ B = A c) p: A  B
q: A  B q: Bc  Ac

b) p: (A ⋃ B) = (A ∩ B) d) p: (A ∩ B)  A
q: A = B q: A  B

21. Prove:

a) [P(A) ⋃ P(B)]  P(A ⋃ B)

b) P(A ∩ B) = P(A) ∩ P(B)
c) (A  B)  P(A)  P(B)
d) (A ∆ B = A ∆ C) ⇒ B = C
e) [(A ∆ B) ∩ C] = [(A ∩ C) ∆ (B ∩ C)]

22. Given any two non -empty sets A and B, determine which of the following statements
are defined and which are not:

a) ϹA∩BA b) ϹA⋃BA c) ϹA (A∩B) d) ϹB (A⋃B)

23. Prove:

a) (B  A)  [(A – B) ⋃ B = A]
b) A ∆ U = Ac
c) A ∩ (B - C) = [(A ∩ B) - (A ∩ C)]
d) A ∆ B = [(A ⋃ B) ∩ (A ∩ B)c]
e) A – B = Bc – Ac
f) [(A ⋃ B) ∩ (Ac ∩ Bc)] = 

24. Determine the set of parts of the following sets:

A = {2, {2, 3}, } B = {{0}, 0, {b}} C = {1, 2, {}, a}

D = {} E = {10} F = {, {}}

25. Let A, B, and C be any sets, knowing that A –B = A ∩ Bc, prove the equalities given
below:

136
 a)  - A = 
b) Ac – Bc = B – A
c) A – B = A – (A ∩ B) = (A ⋃ B) - B
d) (A – B) ∩ (B – A) = 
e) (A – B) – C = A – (B ⋃ C)

26. For any set A having a finite number of elements we will denote this number as n(A).
Thus, if P and Q are disjoint sets, then

n(P ⋃ Q) = n(P) + n(Q)

In general, for any two sets A and B having a finite number of elements it can be
verified that

n(A ⋃ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

Given the fact that A, B and C three any sets with a finite number of elements , derive
a formula for

n(A ⋃ B ⋃ C)

27. The number of members of clubs A and B t otal 140 . Out of the 140 members, 40
belong to both clubs and 60 are members of B. How many members belong to A?

28. The academic registrar reports that there are 200 students from the sciences area
enrolled in different courses according to the following distribution: Physics 80,
Biology 90, and Chemistry 55. There are 32 students who are enrolled in both
Biology and Physics , 23 in both Chemistry and Physics, and 16 in both Biology and
Chemistry, while 8 are enrolled in the three courses. Is this report correct?

29. The math teacher gave three tests during the course. At the end of the semester the
results were: 2 students failed the three tests, 10 students failed the first and the third
test, 9 failed the second and the third test, 5 failed the first and the second test, and 31
failed the first, 26 the second and 31 the third. There were 100 students in this course .
How many students passed the three tests?

30. In a town of 1 ,000 inhabitants, 470 are subscribed to newspaper A, 420 to newspaper
B, and 315 to newspaper C. Also, we know that 140 are subscribed to both B and C,

137
 220 to A and C, and 110 to A and B. There are 75 people subscribed to all three
newspapers. We want to know the following:

a) How many people are not subscribed to any newspaper?

b) How many people are subscribed to only two newspapers?
c) How many people are subscribed to only one newspaper?

31. In order to know the place of birth, sex , and marital status of government employees ,
the relevant information was collected from 692 of those employees. They got the
following results: 300 males, 230 married, 370 were born in the capital of the country,
150 married males, 180 males were born in the capital, 90 married were born in the
capital, and 10 single males were born out of the capital. We want to know:

a) How many married males were born in the capital?

b) How many married females were born out of the capital?
c) How many single females were born out of the capital?
d) How many people satisfy at least one of the following conditions : married male,
male born in the capital, or married and born in the capital?

32. Given the set:

A = {0, a, -1, +, }

Determine whether the following families are a partition of A or not and explain why:

a) {{, -1, a}, {0, +}} b) {{0, a}, {+, -1}}

c) {{0, a, -1, +}, } d) {{0}, {a}, {-1}, {+}, {}}

33. Given the set:

A = {x: x Z ⋀ -5 ≤ x ≤ 5}

Determine whether the following families are a partition of A or not and explain why:

a) {{-5, -4, -3, -2}, {-1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}}

b) {{-4, -3, -2, -1}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, -5, 0}}
c) {{x: x Z ⋀ x  -5}, {x: x Z ⋀ x ≤ 5}}

d) {{x: x Z ⋀ -6 < x ≤ 0}, {x: x Z ⋀ 1 ≤ x < 6}}

138
 e) {{x: x Z ⋀ -5 ≤ x ≤ -1}, {x: x Z ⋀ -1 ≤ x < 2}, {x: x Z ⋀ 2 ≤ x ≤ 5}}

NUMBER SETS

In the previous discussion up to this section, it has been taken for granted that students have
prior knowledge about numerical sets. This is why we have already used them in our
examples and proposed exercises. Also, at the beginning of this chapter we mentioned the
existence of different kinds of numbers that are grouped into sets and also their corresponding
notations were also introduced. Students beginning their math studies should be able to
distinguish and establ ish the differences between these sets in order to work with them
properly. Consequently, we need to address in more detail and formality the study of this
type of sets although without resorting to complex definitions of numbers. We will do this by
describing the development of the different number sets a s a process stimulated by the need
to overcome restrictions. That is to say , as a process of successive extensions of the
numerical sets aimed at solving limitations.

The first and the simplest set of numbers that we know is the one used for counting and
ordering. Such set is the following:

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . .}

We denote this set by N*. Most authors refer to this set as the set of natural numbers. There
is no consensus on the inclusion or not of the number zero as a natural number . When 0 is
added to this set, we get a set of numbers that most authors call the whole numbers. However,
in this book for simplicity we denote the set of whole numbers by the capital letter N and we
refer to it as the set of natural numbers. Thus, we have that

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . .}

The above set is schematically represented as:

N*

The number 0

The natural numbers can be ordered from lowest to highest. The addition and multiplication
operations can be performed with natural numbers without limitation. This means that given

139
any two natural numbers, let us say a and b, either the sum a + b or the product a.b are also
natural numbers. However, the subtraction a - b is not always a natural number. If a is less
than b, then a – b is not a natural number. We say then that N is closed under the addition
and multiplication operations, but it is not under the subtraction operation. In other words, N
satisfies the closure property under the addition and multiplication operations but it does not
under the subtraction operation. This limitation raises the need to extend this set by adding
the corresponding negative number to each natural number. In t his way the set of integer
numbers is constituted which is denoted by the capital letter Z. Thus, we have that

Z = {. . .,-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . .}

Schematically, this enlargement process is represented as follows:

N*

N
The number 0

Negative integers

When we want to make reference to only the positive integers , we will use the notation Z+.
Like natural numbers , integers can also be ordered from lowest to highest. The set Z is
closed under the addition, the multiplication, and the subtraction operations. However, Z
does not satisfy the closure property under the division operation. In fact, being a and b any
two integer numbers such that a is not a multiple of b the quotient a/b is not an integer.
Again, this limitation raises the need for another extension of the set of numbers which
consists in adding the fractional numbers . In t his way , we constitute the set of rational
numbers which is denoted by the capital letter Q. Therefore, the closure property is satisfied
by Q under the addition, the subtraction, the multiplication, and the division operations.

The same way a s with natural and integer s, the rational numbers can also be ordered from
lowest to highest. However, there is an important property satisfied by Q that distinguishes
this set from the former ones. This is the density property. This property tells us that there
always exists another rational number that lies between any two given rational numbers not
matter how close they are to each other.

140
Given the satisfaction of this property by Q, it is not possible to describe by extension a
subset of Q constituted by all rational numbers that lie between any two given rational
numbers as we have done with similar subsets of either N or Z. The same reason raises the
need to have a formal definition of Q. For this purpose, we must state first that a given
number is a rational number, if and only if, it can be expressed as the quotient of two integer
numbers. This definition of a rational number allows us to provide the following formal
description by comprehension of Q:

Q = {x:  a, b  Z ⋀ b 0: x = (a/b)}

The above definition states that a number x is a rational number, if and only if, there are two
integers a and b such that x = a/b being b  0. Thus, once the fractional numbers are added,
the expansion process of numbers schematically represented looks as follows:

N*
N
The number 0

Q
Negative integers

Fractional numbers

In order to understand the need for an additional extension of the set of numbers , it is useful
to devote some time by first considering the representation of rational numbers as points on a
straight line.

The number line

In mathematics, graphic representations are of great help, since they allow visualizing many
of its diverse concepts thus making easier to understand them . This is the role played by
Venn diagrams in set theory that we have already used to explain many of its concepts. In
the case of numbers, they can be represented by points on a straight line. We do this by
associating points on a straight line with rational numbers according to the following
procedure:

141
1) We t ake any po int on a straight line which is identified by the capital letter O. We
call this point “ Origin”. The rational 0 (zero) is associated with this point which
divides the straight line into two half -lines. The negative rational numbers will be
represented by points on the straight line lying to the left side of O while the positive
numbers will be represented by points lying to the right side of O (See Figure 2.11).

Negative numbers O Positive numbers

_ 0 +
_
Figure 2.11

2) Let us now locate another point to the right side of O which is identified by the capital
letter U. The rational 1 (one) is associated with this point. Thus, the length of the OU
segment will be assumed as the unit of measure to represent the rational numbers by
points on the straight line (See Figure 2.12).

O U
0 1

Figure 2.12

3) Therefore, to represent any positive integer all we need to do is to move from O the
OU segment as many times as the value of the given number to the right of O. If the
number is a negative integer we must do the same to the left side of O. By following
this procedure , we have represented the integers 3 and -2 in Figure 2.13 associated
with the points identified by the capital letters A and B respectively. We got point A
moving the OU segment three times from O to the right and point B moving the OU
segment two times from O to the left.

B O U A
-2 0 1 3

Figure 2.13

4) To represent fractional numbers such as m/n, being m and n integers, we divide the
OU segment into n equal parts. Then, we move the nth part m times from O either to
the right if it is a positive number or to the left if it is a negative number. In this way
we have represented the fractional number 5/3 in Figure 2.14 associated with the point
identified by the capital letter C. We divided the OU segment into three equal parts

142
 (each one of length 1/3) and moved the 3th part 5 times from O to the right to get point
C.

O U C
0 1/3 1 5/3

Figure 2.14

By following the procedure described above , it is possible to represent any rational number
on the number line. That is to say that all rational numbers can be associated to a point on
the number line. However, not all points on the number line can be associated with a rational
number. This means that there are points on the number line for which it is not possible to
find a rational number to associate with. A classic example is depicted in Figure 2.15.

O U Q
0 1 2

Figure 2.15

In Figure 2.15, the OP segment is the hypotenuse of a right triangle with the other two sides
of length equal to unity. According to the Pythagoras’s theorem , the length of the OP
segment equals 2 . Therefore, the point that we have located on the number line which is
identified by the capital letter Q must be associated with the number 2 . The problem is that
there is not any rational number whose square is equal to 2. This means that there is not any
rational number that measures the length of the OQ segment.

Given the relevance of this finding , we need to prove that in fact there is not any rational
number whose square equals to 2. Before doing this, we need to recall some of the
information that we have used previously. First, all integer numbers can be written as either
2k or 2k + 1 , being k some other integer. Those integers written as 2k are even numbers
while those written as 2k + 1 are odd numbers. Also, we proved earlier in Chapter I that
squares of even numbers are even while square s of odd numbers are odd. T he respective
converse forms are also true.

143
The easiest way of proving that 2 is not a rational number is by applying the contradiction
or reduction to absurdity method that we learnt in Chapter I. Then, to apply this method we
will start assuming as a premise the negation of the given statement. Therefore , our premise
will be that 2 is a rational number. Thus, if we recall the definition of a rational number
given earlier, we start assuming that in fact there exist integers a and b such that ( a/b)2 = 2.
Also, we can assume that a and b have no common factor. This assumption does not raise
any additional restriction on the number, since we could simplify it until all common divisors
are eliminated. This means that any rational number can be written as a/b being a and b
integers with no common factor. Therefore, we can proceed as follows:

[ a, b  Z: (a/b)2 = 2] ⋀ [∄ c Z: (c | a) ⋀ (c | b)]

[ a, b  Z: (a/b)2 = 2] ⋀ [∄ c Z: (c | a) ⋀ (c | b)] ⇒ a2 = 2b2

(a2 = 2b2) ⇒ a2 is even

(a2 is even) ⇒ a is even

(a is even) ⇒  2: 2 | a

( 2: 2 | a) ⇒  k  Z: a = 2k
(a = 2k) ⇒ a2 = 4k2

(a2 = 4k2) ⇒ 4k2 = 2b2 From premise (a/b)2 = 2

(4k2 = 2b2) ⇒ b2 = 2k2

(b2 = 2k2) ⇒ b2 is even

(b2 is even) ⇒ b is even

(b is even) ⇒  2: 2 | b
∴  2: (2 | a) ⋀ (2 | b)

The conclusion contradicts the premise

∄ c Z: (c | a) ⋀ (c | b)

This proves that in fact there is not any ration al number whose square equals 2. Therefore, it
has been proven that there exists a point on the number line to which it is not possible to
associate any rational number. Furthermore, there are infinite points that lie between any
other two points on the number line to which it is not possible to associate any rational
number. This restriction of the set of rat ional numbers raises the need for another extension
of the number set that includes numbers t hat can be associated with these points on the
number line. Such numbers are known as irrationals and their union with the rational
numbers gives rise to the set of real numbers which are denoted by the capital letter R. In

144
this way, all points on the number line can be associated with a real number and vice versa.
The same way a s with the rational numbers the real numbers can be ordered from lowest to
highest and they also satisfy the density property. The real number that is associa ted with a
point on the number line is known as the coordinate of that point. For instance, in figures
2.13-15 the real numbers -2, 0, 1, 5/3, 3, and 2 are the coordinates of points B, O, U, C, A,
and Q respectively.

This association of real numbers with points on the number line is helpful to visualize the
relationship “less than” that can be established between real numbers. Thus, given any two
real numbers a and b, if a is less than b, then a is associated with a point located on the
number line to the left side of the point associated with b (See Figure 2.16).

0 a b
Figure 2.16

For example, the real numbers represented in Figure 2.13 satisfy

-2 < 0 < 1 < 3

These numbers are associated with the points B, O, U, and A on the number line respectively.
We can also see that each point is located to the left of the next according to the relationship
“less than ”. In general, considering real numbers from lowest to highest implies moving
from left to right on the number line.

When we want to consider all real numbers that lie between any other two given real
numbers a and b such that a < b, as depicted in Figure 2.16, we usually write

a<x<b

We will be back to this subject when considering the concept of “intervals of real numbers”
in the next section.

So far the expansion process of the numerical sets looks schematically as follows:

145
 N*
N

The number 0
Z

Q Negative integers

R
Fractional numbers

Irrational numbers

However, there is still one limitation when working with the R. For example, let us have the
following equation:

x2 + 4 = 0

The solution of this equation would be

x  4

The problem is that there is not any real number whose square equals -4. The square of any
positive or negative number is always a positive number. Therefore, there is no way for the
square of any real number to equal a negative one. In fact, t here are infinite situations like
the one that emerged from the equation shown above. For example, a more general equation
would be the following:

x2  a  0

146
Where a is any real number such tha t a > 0. To get a solution for the previous equation, we
need to do the following:

x  4(1)  4  1  2  1

If we do i   1 , then the solutions are 2i and -2i which are not real numbers. In the case of
the more general example given above the solutions would be:

x  a(1)  a  1   a i  

These numbers are called imaginary numbers. The imaginary numbers are part of a wider
system of numbers called complex numbers . The general form of a complex number is as
follows:

a + bi

Where a represents the real part of the number and bi is the imaginary part. Any complex
number for which b = 0 is a real number, while those for which a = 0 are imaginary numbers.
This means that all real numbers are also complex numbers. The set of complex numbers is
denoted by the capital letter C. Then, it is verified that

RC

Therefore, the different sets of numbers that have been developed satisfy the inclusion
relationship as follows:

N*  N  Z  Q  R  C

From now on our study will be framed in the context of real numbers.

Intervals

Intervals are subset s of R of very frequent use in Mathematics. They are infinite sets of
consecutive real numbers that lie between two other given real numbers. For example, the set
of all consecutive real numbers lying between 2 and 5 constitute s an interval. In general,
given any two real numbers a and b such that a < b, all consecutive real numbers lying
between a and b constitute an interval. The numbers a and b are known as the endpoints of

147
the interval, being a the lower end and b the upper end. Intervals can be classified according
to whether the endpoints belong to the considered interval or not as follows:

1) Open Interval

The endpoints are not included as members of the interval. Such interval is denoted
(a, b) and can be described by comprehension as follows:

(a, b) = {x: x  R ⋀ a < x < b}

One way of illustrating an open interval on the number line is shown in Figure 2.17.

a b
Figure 2.17

2) Closed Interval

The endpoints are included as members of the interval. Such interval is denoted [a, b]
and can be described by comprehension as follows:

[a, b] = {x: x  R ⋀ a ≤ x ≤ b}

One way of illustrating a closed interval on the number line is shown in Figure 2.18.

a b
Figure 2.18

3) Half-Open(Closed) Interval

One endpoint is included but not the other. Depending on which endpoint is included
they can be denoted either ( a, b ] or [ a, b ). The respective descriptions b y
comprehension are as follows:

(a, b] = {x: x  R ⋀ a < x ≤ b}

[a, b) = {x: x  R ⋀ a ≤ x < b}

148
 Figure 2.19 provides the respective illustrations.

(a, b]

a b
[a, b)
a b
Figure 2.19

4) Intervals with an infinite endpoint

Intervals with an infinite endpoint are those intervals that have no bound in that
direction. The notations and descriptions for this type of intervals are as follows:

(a, ∞) = {x: x  R ⋀ x > a}

[a, ∞) = {x: x  R ⋀ x  a}
(-∞, b) = {x: x  R ⋀ x < b}
(-∞, b] = {x: x  R ⋀ x ≤ b}

The symbols -∞ and ∞ are read “minus infinity” and “infinity” respectively. These
symbols are used to represent the unbounded endpoints of the interval. The -∞ is used
for the lower end (left direction on the number line) and ∞ for the upper end (right
direction on the number line). They are not real numbers. For this reason, it does not
make any sense to write either (a, ∞] or x ≤ ∞ because there is not a real number x
such that x = ∞. The set of all real numbers sometimes is written as an interval with
both endpoints unbounded. This is R = (-∞, ∞). Figure 2.20 provides illustrations of
intervals with infinite endpoints.

a (a, ∞ )

a [a, ∞ )

(-∞, b] b

(-∞, b) b

-∞ 0 ∞
(-∞, ∞)

)
Figure 2.20

149
All the operations and the relationships that were previously defined for sets are of course
satisfied by intervals.

Examples

1) Given the following intervals:

A = [-4, 1) B = (-3, 2] C = [1, 3]

Determine:

a) A ⋃ B b) A ∩ B c) A ∩ C

d) C – B e) Ac f) (A ∩ C)c

Solutions:

a) [-4, 2] b) (-3, 1) c) 

d) (2, 3] e) (-∞, -4) ⋃ [1, ∞) f) R

Let us have a closer look at cases a) and b) in order to explain the procedure and the
reasoning:

a) We represent intervals A and B on two separated number line s by using the same
unitary segment and by making the origin of both lines match as shown in Figure
2.21.

A⋃B
A
-4 0 1
B
-3 0 1 2

Figure 2.21

The exercise seeks to determine the union of intervals A and B. Then, according to
the definition, an element belongs to the union of two sets, if and only if, it be longs to

150
 at least one of them. In this case, t his means that the union is the interval formed by
all real numbers of both intervals taken altogether. The result includes both endpoints
-4 and 2, since -4 is included in A while 2 is included in B. This is why the solution
is the closed interval [-4, 2].

b) In this case the exercise looks for the intersection of A and B. The resulting interval is
then constituted by only the common real numbers of the two given interval s as
shown in Figure 2.22.

A∩B
A
-4 0 1
B
-3 0 1 2

Figure 2.22

The lower endpoint of B belongs to A but not to B, therefore it is not included in the
resulting intersection. Likewise, the upper endpoint of A belongs to B but not to A
and as a consequence it does not belong to the resulting intersection. Thus, the result
of this exercise is the open interval (-3, 1).

2) Given the interval

A = (-2, 7]

Determine whether or not the family

{A1, A2, A3}

constitutes a partition of the interval A in each of the following cases:

a) A1 = (-2, 0) A2 = [0, 4) A3 = [4, ∞)

This family does not constitute a partition of interval A because A3 is not a subset
of A and therefore

A1 ⋃ A2 ⋃ A3 = (-2, ∞)  A

151
 b) A1 = (-2, 0] A2 = (0, 2) A3 = [2, 7]

This family constitutes a partition of interval A because

A1 ⋃ A2 ⋃ A3 = A

And also

A1 ∩ A2 = A1 ∩ A3 = A2 ∩ A3 = 

c) A1 = (-2, 1] A2 = (1, 3] A3 = [3, 7]

This family does not constitute a partition of interval A because

A2 ∩ A3 = {3}  

EXERCISES IV

1. Determine whether the following propositions are true or false:

a) 3  R b) 2  Q c) -6  Q d)   R

4
e) R f) -1  Q g) 16  N h) 3  Z
25

i) 7 Q j)  16  R k)   Q l) 9  N

m) -8  Z n) 3 Q o) 7/3  Q p) 0  Q

q) -3  N r) 2/3  Z s) 1/3  Z t) -1  N

2. Describe by comprehension the following intervals:

A = [-3, 5) B = (4, 10) C = [0, 7] D = (-5, 3] E = [-7, -2)

F = (0, 4) G = [-3, -2) H = (-2, 8] I = (2, 5] J = [-3, 0]

152
3. Given the sets below, represent them on the number line and then describe them by
using the interval notation:

A = {x: x  R ⋀ x < 3} B = {x: x  R ⋀ x > -2} C = {x: x  R ⋀ x  -5}

D = {x: x  R ⋀ x ≤ 7} E = {x: x  R ⋀ 0 < x ≤ 3} F = {x: x  R ⋀ x  3}

G = {x: x  R ⋀ -3 ≤ x ≤ 3} H = {x: x  R ⋀ -1/2 ≤ x > 2 }

I = {x: x  R ⋀ -1 < x < 3}

4. Given the intervals:

A = [-4, 1/2) B = (-1, 3/2) C = (-∞, 1]

Determine:

a) A ⋃ B b) A – B c) A – C d) B ⋃ C e) B – C f) A ∩ B

g) B –A h) A ∩ C i) C – A j) B ∩ C k) C – B l) A ∆ B

m) A ∆ C n) B ∆ C o) A ⋃ C

5. Perform the operations indicated below and graphically represent the resulting
interval of each case:
c c
a) [-2, 8) – [-2, 2]c b) { [-3, 4) – (0, 5)} c) { [-3, 5] ∩ [0, 6) }

d) { (-∞, 4) ⋃ (-2, 7] }c e) [3, 5)c – [0, 4) f) [-3, 2) ∩ (0, 5]

g) { [-1, 2) ⋃ (0, 3] }c h) { [-3, 6) – [-2, 7] }c

i) { [-8, 7] ∩ (2, 9) } – (-∞, 4)c j) (-5, 3] ∩ [-8, 0)c

6. Given the sets

A = {x: x  R ⋀ x – ½ ≤ 2} B = {x: x  R ⋀-3 x - 2 < 1}

Determine the following sets and write the solution by using interval notation for
those which are not empty sets:

153
 a) A ∩ B b) Ac c) A – B d) (A – B) ⋃ (B – A)

e) A ⋃ B f) Bc g) B – A h) A ∆ B

7. Given the following interval:

(-15, 17]

Determine whether or not the family of intervals

{A1, A2, A3, A4, A5}

constitutes a partition of the given interval for each of the following cases::

a) A1 = (-15, -10) A2= [-10, -5] A3 = (-5, 5) A4 = [5, 10] A5 = (10, 17]

b) A1 = (-15, -10) A2= (-10, -5] A3 = (-5, 5) A4 = [5, 10] A5 = (10, 17]

c) A1 = (-15, -5) A2= (-15, -10) A3 = (-5, 0) A4 = [5, 10] A5 = (0, 10]

d) A1 = (-15, -2) A2= [-2, 10) A3 = [10, 12] A4 = (12, 16] A5 = (16, 17]

e) A1 = [-15, -2) A2= [-2, 10) A3 = [10, 12] A4 = (12, 16] A5 = (16, 17]

f) A1 = (-15, -10] A2= (-10, -5] A3 = (-5, 5) A4 = [5, 10] A5 = (10, 17]

8. Determine which of the following families are partitions of R:

a) {Z, {Fractional numbers}}

b) {Q, {Irrational numbers}}
c) {Even numbers}, {Odd numbers}, Q, {Irrational numbers}}
d) {Q, {Irrational numbers}, {Imaginary numbers}}
e) {N, Z, Q, {Irrational numbers}}
f) {Q, {Irrational numbers}, }
g) {Z, {Fractional numbers}, Q, {Irrational numbers}}
h) {Z, {Fractional numbers}, {Irrational numbers}}
i) {{0}, Z+, {Negative Integer numbers }, { Fractional numbers }, { Irrational
numbers}}

154
ANSWERS TO THE EXERSICES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER II

EXERSICES I

1. A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} C = {-2, -1,0, 1, 2, 3}

D = {3, 5, 7, 9} E= F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 7, 8, 9}

2. a) F b) T c) F d) T e) F f) T

3.
a) A is the set of natural numbers less than or equal to six.
b) B is the set of all rational numbers such that added to ½ the result is a natural
number.
c) C is the set of natural numbers such that multiplied by 4 minus 6 are greater than
or equal to 5 and less than or equal to 30.
d) H is the set of lines in the plane that are parallel to line a.
e) M is the set of lines in the plane that are perpendicular to line a.
f) E is the set of natural umbers such that multiplied by 2 minus 3 are greater than 2
and less than or equal to 11.
g) F is the set of natural numbers that are not members of E.

4.
a) {x: x = 2n ⋀ n  N }
b) {x: x  R ⋀ x3 -2x2 – x + 2 = 0}
c) {x: x  N ⋀ -16 < 10x – 78 ≤ 3}

5. A = {x: x = 2n + 1 ⋀ n  N ⋀ n ≤ 7} or A = {x: x = 2n + 1 ⋀ n  N ⋀ x ≤ 15}

B = {x: x = n2 ⋀ n  N* ⋀ n ≤ 6}
C = {x: x  N ⋀ x is a prime number ⋀ n ≤ 7}
D ={x: x = 2n ⋀ n  N ⋀ n ≤ 6}

6. No, because C is a set of sets.

7. A y C.

155
EXERSICES II

1. a) Yes b) Yes c) No

2. a) F b) F c) F d) F e) F f) T

3. B  A D A D C

4.
a)

A B
a.
d.
c.
e. b.
C

b)

A B
f.
e. a. b.
c. d.

c)

f. B
A b.
a. c. d.

e.
C

5. H  G F G H F

6. Correct, incorrect, incorrect, correct, incorrect, correct.

7. A ⊈ B   x  A ⋀ x  B

8. a) X = D b) X = E or X = F c) X = B d) X = D

9. False

156
 10. L1 = {500} L2 = {500, 934} L3 = {500, 1000}

11. a) Ac = {d, n, r, c} Bc = {a, d, c} Cc = 

b) c is the given universal set.
c) It is not possible to determine because {1, 3, z} ⊈ U

12.
P(A) = {,{a}, {3}, {p}, {a,3}, {a, p}, {3, p}, A}
P(B) = {, {5}, {x}, {5, x}}
P(C) = {, 1}
P(D) = {, {5}, {6}, {7}, {8}, {5, 6}, {5, 7}, {5, 8}, {6, 7}, {6, 8},
{7, 8}, {5, 6, 7}, {5, 7, 8}, {5, 6, 8}, {6, 7, 8}, D}

13. P(B) = {, {EARTH}, {WIND}, {FIRE}, {EARTH, WIND},

{EARTH, FIRE}, {WIND, FIRE}, B}

14. a) F b) T c) F d) T e) F

EXERCISES III

1.
a) A ∩ B = {2, 4, 6}
b) C ∩ D = {6, 8}
c) E ∩ F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}

3.
a) A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
b) C ⋃ D = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25}

c) E ⋃ F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 12}
d) P ⋃ Q = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

e) R ⋃ S = {x: x  N ⋀ 1 < x ≤ 7 ⋁ x > 10}

5.
A ⋃ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} A ⋃ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A ⋃ D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7} A ∩ C = {1, 3}

157
 B ∩ A = {3, 4} B ⋃ C = {1, 3, 4, 5}

B ∩ C = {3, 5} B ⋃ D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7}
D ∩ A = {1, 2} D ⋃ C = {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}
B ∩ D = {5} C ∩ A = {1, 3}

6. F= y G=

7. No

8. F=

9. a)  b) {0} c)  d) P e) P
f) {, 0} g)  h) {} i)  j) 
k) U l)  m) U n) 

10. A – B = {b, c} C – D = {17, 27} P – Z = {single female students}

12. A – B = {c, d} B – C = {b} A ⋃ B = {a, b, c, d, i}

C – D = {a, e, i, o} D – C = {f, g, c} C ∆ D = {a, e, i, o, f, g, c}
A ∆ B = {c, d, i} D – B = {f, g, c} C∩D=
A – D = {a, b, d} B ⋃ C = {a, b, i, e, o}
D∩B= B ∆ C = {b, e, o} C ∆ B = {b, e, o}
D – A = {f, g}

13. a) T b) T c) T d) T e) F
f) T g) T h) F

14. (A ⋃ B) – C = {1, 6, 8} (A ∩ C) – C = 
[(A ⋃ C) ∩ B] - (A ⋃ B) =  (B ∩ C) – (A ⋃ C) = 
(B ∩ C) – (B ⋃ C) =  (B ⋃ C) - (B ∩ C) = {1, 2, 4, 6}
A ⋃ (B – A) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8} A ∩ (B – A) = 

15. (A – B) ⋃ C = {2, 4, 14, 16, 18} P(C) = {, {2}, {4}, {2, 4}}

158
 ϹBC = {1, 3, 6, 12} C-B=

16. (B ⋃ C) ∩ A = A A ∆ B = {-3, 1, 2}
(A – B) ⋃ (B ⋃ C) = {0, 1, 2}

17. H – M = {1} P(H) = {, {1}, {2}, {4}, {1, 2}, {1, 4}, {2, 4}, H}
ϹMJ = {6, 8, 10}

18. a) (A ⋃ B)c b) (A ∩ B)c c) A – B d) (B – A)c

e) (A – B) ⋃ (A ∩ B) or A f) (A ∆ B)c
g) (B – A) ⋃ (A ∩ B) or B
h) Ac i) (A ⋃ B)c

19. a) F b) T c) F
d) T e) F f) T

20. a) Necessary and sufficient b) Necessary and sufficient

c) Necessary and sufficient d) Necessary

22. a) No b) Yes c) Yes d) No

24. P(A) = {, {2}, {{2, 3}}, {}, {2, {2, 3}}, {2, }, {{2, 3}, }, A}
P(B) = {, {{0}}, {0}, {{b}}, {{0}, 0}, {{0}, {b}}, {0, {b}}, B}
P(C) = {, {1}, {2}, {{}}, {a}, {1, {}}, {1, a}, {1, 2}, {2, {}}, {2, a},
{{}, a}, {1, 2, {}}, {1, 2, a}, {1, {}, a}, {2, {}, a}, C}

26. n(A⋃ B ⋃ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) – n(A ∩ B) + n(A ∩ C)+ n(B ∩ C)+ n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

27. 120
28. It is incorrect because there are 162 students in the area of Sciences.
29. 34
30. a) 190 b) 245 c) 490

159
 31. a) 40 b) 30 c) 172 d) 340
32. a) Yes b) No c) No d) Yes
33. a) No b) Yes c) No d) Yes e) No

EXERCISES IV

1. a) T b) F c) T d) T e) T
f) T g) F h) T i) F j) F
k) F l) T m) F n) T o) F
p) T q) T r) F s) F t) F

2. A = {x: x  R ⋀ -3 ≤ x < 5} B = {x: x  R ⋀ 4 < x < 10}

C = {x: x  R ⋀ 0 ≤ x ≤ 7} D = {x: x  R ⋀ -5 > x ≤ 3}

E = {x: x  R ⋀ -7 ≤ x < -2} F = {x: x  R ⋀ 0 < x < 4}

G = {x: x  R ⋀ -3 ≤ x < -2} H = {x: x  R ⋀ -2 < x ≤ 8}

I = {x: x  R ⋀ 2 < x ≤ 5} J = {x: x  R ⋀ -3 ≤ x ≤ 0}

3. A = (-∞, 3) B = (-2, ∞) C = [-5, ∞) D = (-∞, 7]

E = (0, 3] F = [3, ∞) G = [-3, 3) H = [-1/2, 2 )

I = (-1, 3)

4. a) [-4, 3/2) b) [-4, -1] c)  d) (-∞, 3/2)

e) (1, 3/2) f) (-1, 1/2) g) [1/2, 3/2) h) [-4, 1/2)

i) (-∞, -4) ⋃ [1/2, 1] j) (-1, 1] k) (-∞, -1]

l) [-4, -1] ⋃ [1/2, 3/2) m) (-∞, -4) ⋃ [1/2, 1]

n) (-∞, -1] ⋃ (1, 3/2) o) (-∞, 1]

5. a) [-2, 2] b) (-∞, -3) ⋃ (0, ∞)

c) (-∞, 0) ⋃ (5, ∞) d) (7, ∞)

160
 e) (-∞, 0) ⋃ [5, ∞) f) (0, 2)

g) (-∞, -1) ⋃ (3, ∞) h) (-∞,-3) ⋃ [-2, ∞)

i) (2, 4) j) [0, 3]

6. a) (1, 5/2] b) (5/2, ∞) c) (-∞, -1]

d) (-∞, -1] ⋃ (5/2, ∞) e) (-∞, ∞) f) (-∞, -1]

g) (5/2, ∞) h) (-∞, -1] ⋃ (5/2, ∞)

7. a) No b) No c) No d) Yes
e) No f) Yes

8. a) No b) Yes c) No d) No e) No

f) No g) No h) Yes i) Yes

161
CHAPTER III: THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

In the previous chapter we described the development of the different types of numerical sets
that led to the definition of the set of real numbers. In this chapter the definition of the real
number system will be addressed by using an axiomatic approach. In doing this we must
address concepts that in turn are esse ntial for the development of fundamental concepts of
calculus that students of mathematics must handle properly.

The real number system is constituted by the set of real numbers, two fundamental
operations: addition (+) and multiplication ( ⋅ or x), and the binary relation “less than” (<)
which satisfy the following axioms:

Addition

1) Closure:

 a, b  R, (a + b)  R

2) Commutative law:

 a, b  R, a + b = b + a

3) Associative law:

 a, b, c  R, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

4) Existence and uniqueness of identity element:

 0 R:  a  R, a + 0 = 0 + a = a

5) Existence and uniqueness of inverse element:

  a  R,  (-a)  R: a + (-a) = (-a) + a = 0

From Axiom 5 we have that

 a  R: -(-a) = a

This means that the additive inverse of (-a) is a.

The arithmetic operation known as subtraction is derived from the addition operation and
axiom 5. In fact, given two any real numbers a and b and being (-b) the additive inverse of b,
we can write the difference a – b as a + (-b). This is

a – b = a + (-b)

Note that the additive identity defined in Axiom 4 is a unique element for all real numbers. It
is denoted by “0” and read as “zero”. While the additive inverse defined in Axiom 5 is unique
for each real number in particular. That is to say, for each real number there is one and only
one additive inverse. The additive inverse is also known as the opposite element. Then,
being a any real number, (-a) is the opposite of a and vice versa.

Multiplication

6) Closure:

 a, b  R, (a ⋅ b)  R

7) Commutative law:

 a, b  R, a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a

8) Associative law:

 a, b, c  R, (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c)

9) Existence and uniqueness of identity element:

163
  1 R:  a  R ⋀ a  0, a ⋅ 1 = 1⋅ a = a

10) Existence and uniqueness of inverse element:

 a  R ⋀ a  0,  a-1 R: a ⋅ a-1 = a-1⋅ a = 1

From Axiom 10 we have that

 a  R ⋀ a  0: (a-1)-1 = a

This means that the multiplicative inverse of a-1 is a and vice versa.

The arithmetic operation known as division is derived from the multiplication operation and
axiom 10. In fact, given two any real numbers a and b, being b  0 and b-1 the multiplicative
inverse of b, we can write the quotient a/b as a ⋅ b-1. This is

a
 a.b 1
b

If a = 1, then we have that

1
 1.b 1  b 1
b

Note that the multiplicative identity defined in Axiom 9 is a unique element for all non-zero
real numbers. It is denoted by “1” and read as “one”. While the multiplicative inverse defined
in Axiom 10 is unique for each non-zero real number in particular. This is, for each non-zero
real number there is one and only one multiplicative inverse.

The following axiom establishes a con nection between both operations multiplication and
addition:

11) Distributive law:

 a, b, c  R, a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a = (b + c) ⋅ a

164
 Relation “less than”

12) Trichotomy:

 a, b  R, (a < b) ⋁ (a = b) ⋁ (b < a)

13) Transitive law:

 a, b, c  R, (a < b ⋀ b < c) ⇒ a < c

The following axioms connect the relation “less than” with the multiplication and ad dition
operations respectively:

14)  a, b, c  R, (a < b) ⇒ (a + c < b + c)

15)  a, b, c  R ⋀ (0 < c), (a < b) ⇒ (a ⋅ c < b ⋅ c)

16) Least upper bound (supremum) axiom

In order to formally enunciate this axiom, it is necessary to first discuss previously the
concepts of bounds, maximum , and minimum of real number sets, which also play an
important role in the definitions of basic concepts of calculus.

BOUNDS OF SETS

Given the set A such that A  R,

A is bounded above   d  R: x ≤ d;  x  A

The number d is called an upper bound of A

165
Let us use the example of an open interval such as ( a, b), the number b and any real number
greater than b satisfy the definition of being an upper bound of the interval (a, b). This is still
true when the interval is closed. In general, for any given set of real numbers , if there is one
upper bound, then there are an infinite number of upper bounds for the same given set.
We denote the set of upper bounds of a given set A by UB(A). Thus, in the case of the open
interval (a, b), the set of upper bounds is described as follows:

UB(a, b) ={x  R: b ≤ x} = [b, ∞)

This set is also the set of upper bounds for the closed interval [ a, b]. Figure 3.1 illustrates the
set UB(a, b) = UB[a, b].

UB(a, b) = UB[a, b]

a b ∞
Figure 3.1

Intervals whose upper ends are not finite such as ( a, ∞), [a, ∞) and (-∞, ∞) are unbounded
above.

Given the set A such that A  R,

A is bounded below   c  R: c ≤ x;  x  A

The number c is called a lower bound of A

Let us use again the example of an open interval such as ( a, b), the number a and any real
number less than a satisfy the definition of being a lower bound of the interval ( a, b). Note
that the situation is the same if the interval is closed. In general, for any given set of real
numbers, if there is one lower bound, then there are an infinite number of lower bounds fo r
the same given set.
We denote the set of lower bounds of a given set A by LB(A). Thus, in the case of the open
interval (a, b), the set of lower bounds is described as follows:

LB(a, b) ={x  R: x ≤ a} = (-∞, a]

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This set is also the set of lower bounds for the closed interval [a, b]. Figure 3.2 illustrates the
set LB(a, b) = LB[a, b].

LB(a, b) = LB[a, b]
-∞ a b
Figure 3.2

Examples of unbounded below sets are those intervals whose lower ends are not finite such
as (-∞, b), (-∞, b] and (-∞, ∞).

Any set of real numbers which is both bounded above and bounded below is called bounded.
Thus, the formal definition is as follows:

Given the set A such that A  R,

A is bounded   c, d  R: c ≤ x ≤ d;  x  A

The intervals ( a, b ) and [ a, b ] are examples of bounded sets . Figure 3.3 provides an
illustration.

LB(a, b)= LB[a, b] UB(a, b)=UB[a, b]

-∞ a b
Figure 3.3

The intervals ( a, ∞) and [ a, ∞) are both unbounded, since they are unbounded above even
though they are bounded below. Likewise, the intervals ( -∞, b) and ( -∞, b] are both
unbounded because they are unbounded below even though they are bounded above.

167
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUN OF SETS

The maximum of a set of real numbers is the largest number of all elements of the given set,
while the minimum is the smallest. The formal definitions are provided below.

Given the set A such that A  R,

m is the maximum of A  m  A ⋀ x ≤ m;  x  A

We denote the maximum of a set A by max A. Then, according to the given definition, it is

m = max A

If a set has a maximum, then it is unique. This is formally stated by the following theorem:

Theorem 1

Given the set A ⊆ R and a, b A

(a = max A) ⋀ (b = max A) ⇒ (a = b)

Proof:

(a = max A) ⋀ (b = max A)

[(a = max A) ⋀ (b = max A)] ⇒ [( x  A: x≤ a) ⋀ ( x  A: x≤ b)] by definition

[( x  A: x≤ a) ⋀ ( x  A: x≤ b)] ⇒ [(b≤ a) ⋀ (a≤ b)] since a, b A

[(b≤ a) ⋀ (a≤ b)] ⇒ (a = b)

∴ (a = b)

168
Note that the definitions of maximum and upper bounds are similar. However, there is an
important difference: if they exist, the maximum is unique , and it belongs to the given set ,
while upper bounds may or may not belong to the set and there are an infinite number of
them.

Given the set A such that A  R,

n is the minimum of A  n  A ⋀ n ≤ x;  x  A

We denote the maximum of a set A by min A. Then, according to the given definition, it is

n = min A

Like the maximum of a set, if a set has a minimum, then it is unique. The proof is as easy as
the proof provided earlier for the uniqueness of the maximum. Therefore, we leave this proof
as an exercise for the student. In the same way, the definitions of minimum and lower
bounds are similar . The difference is the same stated in the case of maximum and upper
bounds.

As an example, in the case of the closed interval [a, b], the elements a and b are the minimum
and the maximum respectivel y. However, in the case of the open interval ( a, b ), there is
neither maximum nor minimum. The proof that this interval has no maximum is as follows:

Let us assume that the interval ( a, b) does have a maximum which is c. Then, according to
the definition, we have that

c  (a, b) ⋀ [ x (a, b) ⇒ x ≤ c]

Since c belongs to the interval (a, b), then

a<c<b

As we may recall, the set of real numbers s atisfies the density property. Therefore, between c
and b there are infinite real numbers that belong to ( a, b) which are less than b and greater
than c contradicting the assumption that c is the maximum. Then, the interval (a, b) does not
have a maximum. The non -existence of a minimum of ( a, b ) can be proven by a similar
reasoning.

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SUPREMUM AND INFIMUM

The supremum of a given set of real numbers is the least o f its upper bounds , while the
infimum is the greatest of its lower bounds. We can see that these concepts correspond with
the maximum and minimum of the set of upper bounds and the set of lower bounds
respectively. The formal definitions are as follows:

Given the set A such that A  R and A bounded above

s is the supremum of A  s = min UB(A)

We denote the supremum by Sup A such that, according to the given definition, it is

Sup A = s

Given the set A such that A  R and A bounded below

i is the infimum of A  i = max LB(A)

We denote the supremum by Inf A such that, according to the given definition, it is

Inf A = i

Let us use the example of the closed interval [a, b]. This interval has both a supremum and an
infimum which are b and a respectively. In this case, supremum and infimum equal the
maximum and the minimum of the interval respectively. If we have the open interval ( a, b)
the supremum and the infimum are also b and a respectively, but in this case they do not
match with the maximum and the minimum because, as we discussed it earlier, such extreme
elements do not exist for this interval. In general, we can state that given a set of real

170
numbers A, which is bounded above, if the supremum belongs to A then it equals the
maximum. On the contrary, if the supremum d oes not belong to A, then the set A does not
have a maximum. The same conclusion applies to the infimum and the minimum.
We can now enunciate Axiom 16 properly.

Supremum axiom

A  R ⋀ A  ⋀ A bounded above ⇒  Sup A  R

Based on this axiomatic approach , it is interesting to establish the differences between the
numerical sets studied in the previous chapter by observing which axioms satisfy the different
numerical sets. Thus, N satisfies axioms 1 to 4, 6 to 9, and 11 to 15. Therefore, axioms 5,
10, and 16 are not satisfied by N. The extension of the numerical set to Z allows satisfying
axiom 5 but axioms 10 and 16 are still not satisfied. The extension to Q allows satisfying
axiom 10 but not 16. This means that not every subset of Q that is bounded above has a
supremum in Q. As an example, let us have the following set:

S = {x: x  Q ⋀ x  0 ⋀ x2 < 2}

The set S is bounded above whose least upper bound must be a number c such that

c2 = 2

This means that

Sup S = c

However, we proved earlier that there is not any rational number whose square equals 2.
Therefore, S defined as a subset of Q has a supremum which is not in Q. The extension to R
constitutes a set of numbers that satisfies all sixteen axioms. In t his way we can see that
axiom 16 establishes the difference between Q and R.
The sixteen axioms are the basic properties that R satisfies. Based on these axioms , other
important properties can be proven. Many of these properties are already known by the
students often taken for granted. However, they in fact constitute theorems that need to be
proven. We provide pr oof of some of them below and this also allow s us to show how to
apply these axioms in mathematical demonstrations.

Theorem 2

aR⇒a.0=0.a=0

171
Proof:
a.0 =a.0+0 By axiom 4
= a . 0 + [a + (-a)] By axiom 5
= (a . 0 + a) + (-a) By axiom 3
= (a . 0 + a . 1) + (-a) By axiom 9
= a . (0 + 1) + (-a) By axiom 11
= a . 1 + (-a) By axiom 4
= a + (-a) By axiom 9
=0 By axiom 5

∴a.0=0

Also
0.a=0 By axiom 7 and theorem 2

Theorem 3

a  R ⇒ -a = (-1) . a

We need to prove first that

a + (-1). a = 0

Proof:
a + (-1). a = 1. a + (-1). a By axiom 9
= [1 + (-1)]. a By axiom 11
= 0. a By axiom 5
=0 By theorem 2

Then, according to axiom 5 , the above means that ( -1). a is the inverse element of a which
has been denoted by –a and this proves this theorem.

172
Theorem 4

a  R ⋀ b  R ⇒ a . (-b) = - (a . b) = (-a) . b

Proof:
a . (-b) = a . [(-1). b] By theorem 3
= a . [b .(-1)] By axiom 7
= (a . b) . (-1) By axiom 8
= (-1) . (a . b) By axiom 7
= - (a . b) By theorem 3

∴ a . (-b) = - (a . b)

We leave t he proof of ( -a) . b = - (a . b ) as an exercise for the student s. This proof is

analogous to the previous one.

Corollary

a  R ⋀ b  R ⇒ (-a) . (-b) = a . b

Proof:

(-a) . (-b) = -[a . (-b)] By theorem 4

= -[-(a . b)] By theorem 4

=a.b By axiom 5

∴ (-a) . (-b) =a.b

To complete this axiomatic definition of real numbers , we must highlight the fact that
division by the real number zero is not defined. This number does not satisfy the axiom
referred to the multiplicative inverse. I f there is such an inverse element for zero , this fact
would produce a contradiction against the rest of the axioms. Let us take a look at this more
closely.
Let us s uppose that there is a multiplicative inverse for the real number zero which we
assume is c. If this is true, according to the axiom 10, it must be satisfied that

0.c=1

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However, this result contradicts Theorem 2. Since we derived the division of real numbers
from axiom 10, we conclude that the division by zero cannot be defined.

EXERCISES I

Given the real numbers a, b, and c, prove the following properties:

1) - a - b = - (a + b)

2) a + b = a + c ⇒ b =c (Additive cancellation property)

3) -0 = 0

4) a . b = 0 ⇒ a = 0 ⋁ b = 0
5) 1-1 = 1

6) a . b = a . c ⋀ a  0 ⇒ b =c (Multiplicative cancellation property)

INEQUELITIES

In this section we focus our attention on another set of properties (theorems) that involve the
relation “less than”. We will consider only some of them. The corresponding demonstrations
are supported by the axioms and properties previously proven. Let us assume that a, b, and c
are any real numbers.

Theorem 5

a<b⋀c<d⇒a+c<b+d

Proof:

a<b⋀c<d

a < b ⋀ c < d ⇒ (a + c < b + c) ⋀ (b + c < b + d) By axiom 14

⇒a+c<b+d By axiom 13

∴a+c<b+d

Theorem 6

a<b⇒-b<-a

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Proof:

a<b

a < b ⇒ a + (-a) < b + (-a) By axiom 14

⇒ 0 < b + (-a) By axiom 5

⇒ (-b) + 0 < (-b) + [b + (-a)] By axioms 14

⇒ -b < [(-b) + b] + (-a) By axioms 4 and 3

⇒ -b < 0 + (-a) By axiom 5

⇒ -b < -a By axiom 4

∴ -b < -a

Theorem 7

a<b⋀c<0⇒b.c<a.c

Proof:

a<b⋀c<0

a<b⋀c<0⇒a<b⋀0<-c By theorem 6 and property 3 in EXERCISES I

⇒ a. (-c) < b. (- c) By axiom 15

⇒ - a . c < - b. c By theorem 4

⇒ - (- b. c) < - (- a . c) By theorem 6

⇒ b. c < a . c By axiom 5

∴ b. c < a . c

Theorem 8

a  0 ⇒ 0 < a2

Proof:
There are two cases: a < 0 and 0 < a. Let us consider the first one:

175
 a<0
a < 0 ⇒ 0. a < a . a By theorem 7

⇒ 0 < a2 By theorem 2

∴ 0 < a2

Now let us see the second case:

0<a

0<a⇒0.a<a.a By axiom 15

⇒ 0 < a2 By theorem 2

∴ 0 < a2

Theorem 9

(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d) ⇒ a . c < b .d

Proof:

(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d)

(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d) ⇒ 0 < b ⋀ c < d By hypothesis

⇒b.c<b. d By axiom 15

∴b.c<b. d (1)

Also we also have

(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d)
(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d) ⇒ a < b ⋀ 0 ≤ c By hypothesis

⇒ a < b ⋀ (0 < c ⋁ 0 = c)

⇒ (a < b ⋀ 0 < c) ⋁ (a < b ⋀ 0 = c) Distributive law

⇒ (a . c < b . c) ⋁ (a . c = 0 = b . c) By axiom 15 and theorem 2

∴ (a . c < b . c) ⋁ (a . c = 0 = b . c) (2)

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From conclusions (2) and (1) and by axiom13, we get the final conclusion:

a.c<b.d

Therefore, we have proven that

(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d) ⇒ a . c < b .d

Theorem 10

Being 0≤ a and 0≤ b, we have that

a < b  a2 < b2

Proof:
a<b

a<b⇒a.a<a.b By axiom 15

⇒ a2 < a . b

∴ a2 < a . b (3)

Also

a<b

a<b⇒a.b<b.b By axiom 15

⇒ a . b < b2

∴ a . b < b2 (4)

From conclusions (3) and (4) and by axiom13, we conclude:

a2 < b2

Therefore, we have proven that

a < b ⇒ a2 < b2

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Let us now consider the converse form. This is

a2 < b2 ⇒ a < b

In this case , we apply the indirect proof method. This means that we will prove the
contrapositive form. This is

∼ (a < b) ⇒ ∼ (a2 < b2)

Or what is the same

b≤ a ⇒ b2≤ a2

Then

b≤ a

b≤ a ⇒ b . b ≤ a . b By axiom 15

⇒ b2 ≤ a . b

∴ b2 ≤ a . b (5)
Also
b≤ a
b≤ a ⇒ a . b ≤ a . a By axiom 15

⇒ a . b≤ a2

∴ a . b≤ a2 (6)

Similarly to the previous cases, from conclusions (5) and (6) and by axiom13, we conclude:

b≤ a ⇒ b2≤ a2

This completes the proof of this theorem.

Theorem 11

Being 0≤ b we have that

b < a2  b<a⋀a<- b

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Proof:

There are two cases: 0 ≤ a and a < 0. Let us see the first one:

b < a2
b < a2  ( b )2 < a2

 b <a By theorem 10

∴ b <a

Now, let us consider the second case (a < 0):

b < a2
b < a2  b < (-a)2 Because a < 0 ⇒ 0 < -a
 ( b )2 < (-a)2

 b < -a By theorem 10

a<- b By theorem 6

∴a<- b

Thus, we have proven that

b < a2  b<a⋀a<- b

EXERCISES II

1) Assume that a, b R ⋀ b  0. Prove that

a2 < b  - b < a < b

(Hint: The proof is similar to the one applied to prove theorem 11)

2) Given a, b R. Prove the following:

(a > 0 ⋀ b > 0) ⋁ (a < 0 ⋀ b < 0)  a . b > 0

179
 And
(a > 0 ⋀ b < 0) ⋁ (a < 0 ⋀ b > 0)  a . b < 0

(This is the rule of signs for multiplication)

3) Given a R. Prove the following:

a > 0  a-1 > 0

And
a < 0  a-1 < 0

4) Given a, b R. Prove the following:

a > 0 ⋀ b > 0 ⋀ a < b ⇒ b-1 < a -1

And

a < 0 ⋀ b < 0 ⋀ a < b ⇒ b-1 < a -1

The axioms that involve the relation “less than” previously studied along with the theorems,
including the ones proposed as exercises, constitute most of the properties that we must apply
when solving inequalities. We provide some examples below. The following table
summarizes those properties. Assume that a, b, c, and d are real numbers.

a<b⋀c<d⇒a+c<b+d
a<b⇒-b<-a
a<b⋀c<0⇒b.c<a.c
a  0 ⇒ 0 < a2
(0 ≤ a < b) ⋀ (0 ≤ c < d) ⇒ a . c < b .d
a < b  a2 < b2 ; being 0≤ a and 0≤ b
b < a2  b < a ⋀ a < - b ; being 0≤ b
a2 < b  - b < a < b ; being 0≤ b
(a > 0 ⋀ b > 0) ⋁ (a < 0 ⋀ b < 0)  a . b > 0
(a > 0 ⋀ b < 0) ⋁ (a < 0 ⋀ b > 0)  a . b < 0
a > 0  a-1 > 0
a < 0  a-1 < 0
(a > 0 ⋀ b > 0) ⋀ a < b ⇒ b-1 < a -1
(a < 0 ⋀ b < 0) ⋀ a < b ⇒ b-1 < a -1

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Example 1

Find the set of values of x that satisfy the following linear inequality:

5x -7 < x +1

Solution:

5x -7 < x +1  5x -7 –x + 7 < x +1 –x + 7 By axiom 14

 4x < 8

1 1
 (4x) < .8 By axiom 15
4 4

 x<2

Then, the solution is (-∞, 2).

Example 2

Find the set of values of x that satisfy the following quadratic inequality:

x2 – 5x + 6 > 0
Solution:

x2 – 5x + 6 > 0  (x – 3) . (x + 2) > 0 Factoring

 [(x – 3) > 0 ⋀ (x + 2) > 0] ⋁ [(x – 3) < 0 ⋀ (x + 2) < 0]

By property 2 in EXERCISES II

 (x > 3 ⋀ x > -2) ⋁ (x < 3 ⋀ x < -2) By axiom 14

 x > 3 ⋁ x < -2 By definition of intersection

Then, the solution is (-∞, -2) ⋃ (3, ∞).

Example 3

Determine the set of values of x that satisfy the following:

2x2 –x – 10 < 0

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Solution:

1 1
2x2 –x – 10 < 0  . (2x2 –x – 10) < .0 By axiom 15
2 2

1
 x2 – x–5<0 By theorem 2
2

5
 (x - )(x+ 2) < 0 Factoring
2

5 5
 [(x - ) < 0 ⋀ (x+ 2) > 0] ⋁ [(x - ) > 0 ⋀ (x+ 2) < 0]
2 2
By property 2 in EXERCISES II

5 5
 (x < ⋀ x > - 2) ⋁ (x > ⋀ x < - 2)
2 2
By axiom 14

5
x< ⋀x>-2 By definition of intersection
2

Then, the solution is ( -2, 5/2) . Notice that the solution ( x > 5/2) ⋀ (x < -2) constitutes an
empty set.

EXERCISES III

1. Solve the following linear inequalities:

a) x +5 > 2 b) 3x ≤ 5 c) 4x + 1 < 2x +3

d) 3x – 3 > 7x + 12 e) -3x + 1< 2x + 5 f) 11x – 7 ≤ 4x + 2

2. Solve the following quadratic inequalities:

a) x2 – 5x + 6 < 0 b) x2 – 3x - 4 > 0 c) 2x2 – x – 10 > 0

d) 2x2 – 3x + 4 < -x2 + 4x e) 3x2 – 7x + 6 ≤ 0 f) x2 -4x + 5  0

182
3. Determine the x values for which the statements given below are:

(1) Equal to zero (2) Less than zero (3) Grater than zero

a) x2 -5x -6 b) x2 – 10x +33 c) x2 -6x

d) x(x – 1) e) x2 + 3x + 2 f) (x2 -1)(x + 4)

ABSOLUTE VALUE

The concept of the absolute value of a real number plays an important role in the definition
and applications of fundament al concepts of calculus that students must learn properly. The
formal definition is presented below.

x  R, the absolute value of x is denoted by x and defined as follows:

-x if x < 0
x =
x if x  0

From the definition above we can see that the absolute value of a real number is always
positive except when x = 0. Let us take a look at these examples:

2 = 2 -2 = -(-2) = 2 0.035 = 0.035 5/4 = 5/4

In essence , the absolute value is a magnitude and geometrically it represents the distance
from the origin on the number line to the point associated to the real number x. The concept is
illustrated in Figure 3.4.

-3 = 3 3 = 3

-3 0 3
Figure 3.4

183
The absolute value satisfies a set of properties that are useful in solving math problems and
demonstrations in which this concept is involved. We present some of them below.
Let us assume that a and b are any real numbers. Then, they satisfy the following properties:

1) a  0

2) a = -a

3) a  a ⋀ a  -a

4) a . b = a . b

5) a + b ≤ a + b

6) a - b  a - b

The first three properties are direct consequence of the definition . Therefore, we will focus
our attention on the fourth and fifth properties in the following theorems while the sixth
property is a corollary of the fifth.

Theorem 12

 a, b  R, a . b = a . b

Proof:
We have two possible situations : i) a and b of the same sign or ii) a and b of different sign.
Let us see the first case.

i) Same sign

a 0⋀ b0

a . b = a . b By definition and because a  0 ⋀ b  0

= a . b Because a . b  0 according to the rule of signs and theorem 2

a <0⋀ b<0

a . b = (-a). (-b) By the corollary of theorem 4

= -a. -b By the previous case because – a > 0 ⋀- b > 0

= a. b By property 2) of absolute value

184
 ii) Different sign

Let us assume first that a  0 ⋀ b < 0

a . b = - (a. b) By property 2) of absolute value

= a. (- b) By theorem 4

= a. -b By the first case of i)

= a. b By property 2) of absolute value

∴ a . b = a . b

The proof of the case a < 0 ⋀ b  0 is exactly the same as the previous demonstration
just by simply exchanging the signs for a and b.

Theorem 13

 a, b  R, a + b ≤ a + b
Proof:

a + ba + b = (a + b)(a + b) By theorem 12

a + b2 = (a + b)2

= (a + b)2 By definition
= a2 + 2ab + b2

≤ a2 + 2ab + b2 By property 3) of absolute value

≤ a2 + 2ab + b2 By definition and theorem 12

≤ (a + b)2

∴ a + b2 ≤ (a + b)2

Therefore, based on theorem 10, we conclude that

a + b ≤ a + b

Corollary

 a, b  R, a - b  a - b

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Proof:

a=a+0 By axiom 4

a = a + (-b +b) By axiom 5

a = (a –b) + b By axiom 3

a = (a – b) + b

a ≤ a – b + b By theorem 13

a - b ≤ a – b + b - b By axiom 14

a - b ≤ a – b By axioms 5 and 4

∴ a - b  a - b

Let us see some examples of applications.

Example 1

Determine the values of x that satisfy the following equation:

2x + 1 = 5

Solution:

According to property 2 of absolute value, we have that

2x + 1 = 5  2x + 1 = 5 ⋁ - (2x + 1) = 5

 2x = 4 ⋁ - 2x = 6

 x = 2 ⋁ x = -3

Example 2

Solve the following equation:

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 3x - 4 = x + 1

Solution:

In this case the possible solutions to this equation are subject to the condition x + 1  0, this is
x  -1, since by definition the absolute value is always greater than or equal to zero. Thus,

3x - 4 = x + 1  3x -4 = x + 1 ⋁ - (3x – 4) = x + 1

 2x = 5 ⋁ - 4x = -3

 x = 5/2 ⋁ x = ¾

Both values are solutions of the given equation since they satisfy the condition x  -1.

Example 3

Given that a  R and a > 0, d etermine the set of values of x that satisfy the following
inequality:

x < a

Solution:

It was stated earlier that the absolute value of a real number x geometrically represents the
distance from the origin on the number line to the point associated with the real number x.
Therefore, the solution of the given inequality is the set of real numbers whose associate d
points on the number line lie a distance from the origin less than a units. This is the set of real
numbers greater than - a and less than a. This set is illustrated in Figure 3.5

-a 0 a

Figure 3.5

Then

x < a  x > - a ⋀ x < a

 x  (- a, a)

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If the given inequality is stated as

x ≤ a

Then, the solution would be the closed interval [ -a, a ]. By s ummarizing these results we
have:

Given a  R ⋀ a > 0,

x < a  x  (- a, a) ⋀ x ≤ a  x  [- a, a]

Example 4

Given that a  R and a  0, d etermine the set of values of x that sa tisfy the following
inequality:

x  a
Solution:

By following the same as in the previous example , in this case the solution is the set of real
numbers that are either less than – a or greater than a, since these are the numbers which are
associated with points on the number line that lie a distance from th e origin greater than a
units. This set is illustrated in Figure 3.6.

-a 0 a

Figure 3.6

Then

x > a  x < - a ⋁ x > a

 x  (- ∞, - a) ⋃ (a, ∞)

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If the given inequality is stated as

x  a

Then, the solution includes both – a and a. By summarizing these results we have

Given a  R ⋀ a  0,

x > a  x  (- ∞, - a) ⋃ (a, ∞) ⋀ x  a  x  (- ∞, - a] ⋃ [a, ∞)

The results from examples 3 and 4 are helpful when solving inequalities that involve absolute
values. Let us see some examples about it.

Example 5

Solve the following inequality:

x - 3 < 4

Solution:

By applying the result from example 3 we have

x - 3 < 4  (x – 3) > -4 ⋀ (x – 3) < 4

 x > -1 ⋀ x < 7

 x  (- 1, 7)

Example 6

Solve the following inequality

3x - 1  2x + 5

Solution:

In this case we apply the result from example 4.

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 3x - 1  2x + 5  (3x -1) ≤ - (2x + 5) ⋁ (3x -1)  2x + 5

 5x ≤ -4 ⋁ x  6

 x ≤ -4/5 ⋁ x  6

 x  (- ∞, - 4/5] ⋃ [6, ∞)

It is not necessary to establish the condition 2x + 5  0 because the values of x that make
2x + 5 < 0 are included in the solution of the given inequality.

NEIGHBOURHOOD

As the tit le suggests, this c oncept refers to the set of real numbers which are “close” to a
certain number of interest. This is an interval whose definition involves the concept of
absolute value. The neighbourhood of a number plays an important role in the definitio n of
fundamental concepts of Calculus. The formal definition is as follows:

Given the real numbers a and r such that r > 0,

The neighbourhood of centre a and radius r is the set denoted by N(a, r) such that

N(a, r) = {x: x  R ⋀ x - a < r}

According to this definition and after applying the results that we got from previous examples
involving both absolute value and inequalities, we can see that

N(a, r) = (a – r, a + r)

This means that the neighbourhood of centre a and radius r is an open in terval whose
endpoints are a – r and a + r respectively, and a is in the middle of the interval. Figure 3.7
provides an illustration.

r r

a-r a a+r
Figure 3.7

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Example 8

Build a neighbourhood of centre 3 and radius 2.

Solution:

According to the definition, the neighbourhood of centre 3 and radius 2 is the set

N(3,2) = {x: x  R ⋀ x - 3 < 2}

= (3 -2, 3 + 2)

= (1, 5)

It is worth noting that the given definition of neighbour includes the centre and excludes the
endpoints. However, the de finition of some concepts of Calculus requires excluding the
centre while other s require including the endpoints. When the centre is excluded, the
neighbourhood is known as reduced and it is denoted by N*(a, r) such that

N*(a, r) = {x: x  R ⋀ 0 < x - a < r}

= (a – r, a) ⋃ (a, a + r)

When the endpoints are included , the neighbourhood is known as complete and it is denoted
by N(a, r) such that

N(a, r) = {x: x  R ⋀ x - a ≤ r}

= [a – r, a + r]

Figure 3.8 provides illustrations.

N*(a, r)

a-r a a+r

N(a, r)

a-r a a+r

Figure 3.8

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EXERCISES IV

1. Solve the following equations:

a) 3x - 1 = 2x + 5 b) x + 1 = 3x – 9 c) x + 3 = 2x + 1

d) 2x + 3 = x + 3 e) x2 + 2 = 2x + 1 f) 3x - 5 + x – 7 = 0

2. Solve the following inequalities:

a) x + 3 > 7 b) 2x + 5 > 3 c) 3 + 2x ≤ 2

d) 3x - 1 < 4 e) x - 2 ≤ 2x f) 2x + 1  2 + x

3. Determine the following sets:

a) Real numbers close to -1 at a distance less than 2.

b) Real numbers close to -1 at a distance no greater than 2.

c) Real numbers close to but not equal to -1 at a distance less than 2.

d) Real numbers close to but not equal to a at a distance less than , being a,   R
and  > 0.

e) Real numbers close to but not equal to L at a distance less than , being L,   R
and  > 0.

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ANSWERS TO THE EXERCISES PROPOSED IN CHAPTER III

EXERCISES III

1. a) x > -3 b) x ≤ 5/3 c) x < 1 d) x < -15/4 e) x > -4/5 f) x ≤ 9/7

2. a) 2 < x < 3 b) x < -1 or x > 4 c) x < -2 or x > 5/2 d) 1 < x < 4/3

e) No solution in R f) R

3. a) (1) x = -1 and x = 6 (2) - 1 < x < 6 (3) x < -1 or x > 6

b) It is always greater than zero for all real numbers

c) (1) x = 0 and x = 6 (2) 0 < x < 6 (3) x < 0 or x > 6

d) (1) x = 0 and x = 1 (2) 0 < x < 1 (3) x < 0 or x > 1

e) (1) x = -2 and x = -1 (2) -2 < x < -1 (3) x < -2 or x > -1

f) (1) x = -4, x = -1 and x = 1 (2) x < -4 or -1 < x < 1 (3) -4 < x < -1 or x > 1

EXERCISES IV

1. a) x = 6 and x = -4/5 b) x = 5 c) x = 2 and x = -4/3

d) x = 0 and x = -2 e) x = 1 f) x = 3 and x = -1

2. a) x < -10 or x > 4 b) x < -4 or x > -1 c) -5/2 ≤ x ≤ -1/2

d) -1 < x < 5/3 e) x  2/3 f) x ≤ -1 or x  1

3. a) N(-1, 2)= (-3, 1) b) N(-1, 2) = [-3, 1] c) N*(-1, 2) = (-3, -1) ⋃ (-1, 1)

d) N*(a, ) = (a – , a) ⋃ (a, a + ) e) N (L, ) = ( L – , L + )

193
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