Jimma University

College of Social Sciences and Law

Department of English Language and Literature
Course title: Technical Report Writing and Research Methodology

Course Code: EnLa 409

TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING NOTES FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
UNIT ONE: Technical Report Writing
A report is an account given or an opinion which is expressed formally on the basis of investigation
or consideration. They are a way of informing and persuading people as well as initiating change.

In Engineering, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report. This is the
conventional format for reporting the results of your research, investigations, and design projects.
1.1 What is a Technical Report?
The term "technical" refers to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts
and specialists.

 Technical Report is a document that records the procedures adopted and results obtained from a
scientific or technical activity or investigation.

 A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or
results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem.
It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research.

 Technical report is a definitive document which provides information about a task or exercise. It
is an organized, factual and objective information brought out by a person who has experienced
or accumulated (information) and communicated to need it or want it or entitled to it. It is more
detailed than an article published in a journal or paper presented at a conference.
1.2 Why Write Technical Report?
 The primary purposes of technical report is to disseminate the results of scientific and technical
research and to recommend action.
 Technical report is useful to report plans, progress, and problems of an organisation or activity.

 At university, reports are read by lecturers and tutors in order to assess your mastery of the
subjects and your ability to apply your knowledge to a practical task.
 In the workplace, they will be read by managers, clients, and the construction engineers
responsible for building from your designs. Also, as an employee in a company, you will be
asked to prepare or contribute to annual, project or progress reports. The ability to produce a

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 clear, concise, and professionally presented report is ,therefore, a skill you will need to develop
in order to succeed both at university and in your future career

1.3.1 General features of technical Writing: Difference between Report and General Writings
General writings can be subjective in nature. They reflect the writer’s personality.
Reports have a highly structured format.
The reader/audience is the most important person in report.
The audience for technical writing documentation is very small and specific.
Reports are usually preceded by a summary. Summaries give the whole picture, in miniature.
Reports can also be oral but essays are only written.

1.4 Audiences of technical Writing: characteristics and level of expertise

Audience refers to the real and the imagined readers (users) who use texts (products) to do
something in their own environment.
 Audience is the real, flesh-and-blood people that we can interview in their workplace and
observe doing their jobs.
 Audience is also the imagined interpreters of our products whose questions we attempt to
anticipate when designing/writing report. It must, therefore, be identified as a possible area of
difficulty before the writing starts.
 The identity of the reader will determine not only the approach but also the technical level and
the style of the writing.
Consider your readers: What is the value of information about audience?
 Without exposure to audience, we cannot design effective, user-centered products
 Improving Design : observations of audience can lead to improvements in a specific product
design (paper), and also in future designs
 Building Theories of Audience: Technical communicators need access to usability
information to build and test their own theories of audience

1.5 Process of technical report writing

The following stages are involved in writing a report:

1. Planning and preparation/clarifying your terms of a reference / terms of a reference of a report
is a guiding statement used to define the scope of your investigation.
Before you write a single word you must:
Set your objective. You must first be absolutely sure of the purpose of your report. An objective is not
what you intend to write, it is what you intend to achieve.
Assess your readership. In many cases, you know who will be reading your report. In this case, the
detailed content, style and structure can then be matched to their level of knowledge and expertise:
• Concentrate on points they will care about.
• Explain things they do not know.
• Address questions and concerns they would be likely to raise.
If you do not know your readers, try to find out:
• Are the readers alike or mixed?
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 • Are they used to reading and understanding reports?
• How much time will they spend on this report?
• What do they already know?
o What else will they need to know?
Decide what information you will need. For some reports, you will need to collect very little
information, while for others you will require a great deal.
Prepare your skeletal framework. There are three stages involved in the preparation of a skeletal
frame work:
 Write a working title.
 Consider the overall structure of the report.
 Consider how information will be presented within the main body.
2. Collecting and handling information:
3. writing the first draft
4. Checking and re-drafting and completing the document.

1.6 Style of Technical Writing

REPORT STYLE
A good report which makes recommendations must ensure that the persons for whom the report is
intended:

􀁩􀀃 Read it without unnecessary delay.

􀁩􀀃 Understand everything in it without undue effort.
􀁩􀀃 Accept the facts, findings, conclusions and recommendations.
􀁩􀀃 Decide to take the action recommended.

Experts now a days agree that the factors that most affect readability are:
􀁩􀀃 unattractive appearance
􀁩􀀃 non-technical subject matter
􀁩􀀃 a clear and direct style
􀁩􀀃 short sentences
􀁩􀀃 short and familiar words.
Certainly material which goes outside the writer’s own company must always conform to a high
standard of stylistic propriety. There are numerous ways in which you can bring individuality to
whatever you write, which will not only enable you to communicate more effectively, but also
give your writing extra color and impact.

Selectivity/ choice of words:

Careful choice of words can enable you to convey many subtleties of meaning.
 Prefer plain words: Do not be afraid of plain English. Write to express, not to impress. Prefer
words your readers are likely to understand.

not The ready availability of computer-based tutorials associated with applications software has
become prevalent since the development of Microsoft Windows.
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but Computer-based tutorials associated with applications soft ware have become readily available
since the development of Microsoft Windows.
 Avoid overwriting and padding: Weed out any meaningless, excess words.
not Accounts Receivable is not concerned with the follow-up of any of the items with the
exception of delinquent accounts.
but Accounts Receivable follows up delinquent accounts only.

 Avoid redundant words: Repetition of a word can keep the reader aware of the topic. However,
saying the same thing twice over in different words for no good reason is tautology.
not Past history suggests that our future prospects are bright.
But History suggests that our prospects are bright.
 Prefer the positive: Try to use positive statements wherever possible.
not We do not believe the backup files are adequate.
But We believe the backup files are inadequate.

 Prefer English to foreign words and phrases: Using uncommon foreign-language terms like
inter alia ( for among other things), per se ( for as such , by itself), and sine die( for without a
day being fixed for a further meeting) may look like showing off. Avoid them unless there are
no good English equivalents – and unless you are sure that your audience will understand
them.

Accuracy: Check that everything you write is factually accurate. The accuracy of a document is the
responsibility of its writer. Some guidelines are given below

a) Spelling: When the engineer has completed a section of the report, it should be checked for spelling
and typing errors.

b) Technical words: Engineers sometimes avoid the spell-check because it highlights too many
technical words which are not in the computer’s dictionary. Such words should be added if they are
likely to be used frequently, and a second person should check what is added.

C) Sentences: Good style involves variety in sentence length. But many technical writers are led into
grammatical confusion because their sentences are so long that by the end both writer and reader have
lost sight of the beginning.

Short sentences produce a clear, easily-read style for factual material. There are two main ways to
shorten a sentence: to replace wordy constructions with simpler ones; second, to break complex and
compound sentences into two or more sentences:

Before: We make no specific guarantees with respect to future rate of return on these investment
instruments.
After: We guarantee no specific return on these funds.
d) Paragraphs: Paragraphs have a psychological effect on the reader. Several paragraphs on a page,
with the resulting spaces, encourage reading, but a page which is filled by only one paragraph even if
it is logically cohesive, its length may discourage and frustrate the reader. To avoid this use the three
ways below:
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 Break Apart Long Paragraphs: The following paragraph (also justified to make it less inviting) is
arbitrarily split. Notice the effect.

Before:

Remember that nearly all readers subvocalize, saying words mentally to

themselves silently. So, words that are hard to pronounce will as they read
slow the reader. This advice is particularly germane in naming products,
systems, or companies. Nearly every E2 and E3 has trouble with the th
sound (especially unvoiced) and many Asian languages struggle with l and
r. When General Instrument of Horsham, Pennsylvania, changed their
image in 996, they also adopted the more high-tech sounding name of
NextLevel. In 1998, they will restore the original name, mainly because
most of their they Asian customers for cable-TV converter boxes have
trouble with saying NextLevel. Similarly, the spokes clown for McDonalds
restaurants in Japan is called Donald McDonald not Ronald.)

After:
Remember that nearly all readers subvocalize, saying words mentally to themselves as they
read silently. So, words that are hard to pronounce will slow the reader. This adviceis
particularly germane in naming products, systems, or companies. Nearly every E2 and E3 has
trouble with the th sound (especially unvoiced) and many Asian languages struggle with l and
r.

When General Instrument Corporation of Horsham, Pennsylvania, changed their image in

1996, they also adopted the more high-tech sounding name of NextLevel. In 1998, they will
restore the original name, mainly because most of their Asian customers for cable-TV
converter boxes have trouble with saying NextLevel. (Similarly, the spokes clown for
McDonalds restaurants in Japan is called Donald McDonald not Ronald.)

o Convert Some Paragraphs into Lists: Proposals or reports that contain items or steps in a process
are far more understandable in list form.
Instead of
In evaluating alternative offerors, please consider that our company has 15 years’
experience in the construction of oil and gas pipelines. We hold the patents on the most
advanced pumping technology. Further, we maintain business offices in all the major
Middle Eastern capitals.
Write
In evaluating alternative offerors, please consider that our company:
• Has 15 years’ experience in the construction of oil and gas pipelines
• Holds the patents on the most advanced pumping technology
• Maintains business offices in all the major Middle Eastern capitals.

o Convert Some Paragraphs into Tables: In most cultures, a simple table will be far easier to
follow.

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 Instead of:
New users should open the Maintenance Menu and select Setup. Also, old users may select Setup
from the Maintenance Menu if they want to change their Preferences. Old users who don’t want to
change their setup in any way should go to the File menu and select either New or Open (for existing
file). Prefer
User Menu Select . . .

New User maintenance Set up

User wanting to change maintenance Set up
preferences
Other users file New ( new file ) or open ( existing
file)
Note: above all, writers must say what they mean. Readers should not be left in doubt about the
meaning of, for instance, an abbreviation, or about the writer’s intention, or about the information
presented. If they cannot understand what is going on, the report will probably end up in the
wastepaper basket.

Use of language

I. Formality: Reports are formal. Therefore, the language used has to be formal, but not
grandiose (or in a boastful or pretentious way). Formal writing simply means writing in full (it is, not
it’s), avoiding slang or colloquialisms, and using words correctly. It does not mean that simple words
are unacceptable. ‘Dispatch’ is not intrinsically better than ‘send’, and ‘finish’ is not inferior to
‘draw to a conclusion’.

II. Avoid sexist language: The tone of your writing should not reflect a gender bias – or any other
bias, such as race, religion, age or disability.
not A good manager will gain the respect of his staff.
but A good manager will gain the respect of staff.

III. Simplicity: Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated language. If a report is to
persuade, brief or justify, its message must be clear. Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses
even the most informed reader.

IV. Objectivity: A report should not reflect personal emotions and opinions. You must look at all sides
of a problem with an open mind before stating your conclusions. The role is similar to that of a sports
referee or a High Court judge. In these situations, decisions are based on the results, the evidence, or
an interpretation of the evidence –not on personal opinions and feelings.

Similarly, Technical Report is usually written impersonally, i. e. passive sentences are used quite
frequently and personal pronouns like “I, we, my, our, you, etc.” are avoided. However, in a summary
or critical appreciation it is OK, to speak of “we” or “our”, if the own working group or department is
meant.

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 Most technicians got used to the impersonal way of writing during their education and professional
practice. The customers will probably prefer impersonal writing as well, because they are used to it,
too.
You have to decide carefully for your Technical Report, whether, how much and where you want to
use active sentences instead of the usual passive. You are “on the safe side”, if you avoid personal
pronouns and use the passive voice instead. Here an example of formulating the same fact once in
active and once in passive voice:
Active: “... we have evaluated the following alternatives ...”
Passive: “... the following alternatives have been evaluated ...”
We is bad writing style in Technical Reports!
The tense is present tense. Past tense is only used, if a previously used part, measuring procedure or
similar is described.
V. Conciseness: Veni, Vidi, Vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). That is how Julius Caesar reported
his visit to our shores. While none of your reports will be as short as this, you should aim to keep them
concise. In doing this, do not mistake brevity for conciseness. A concise report is short but still
contains all the essential details. To ensure this, you should not ask: ‘Can this information be
included?’ Rather, you should ask: ‘Is it necessary for this information to be included?’

Presentation/layout: The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read report:
• Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments from your tutor.
• Paragraphs should be short and concise.
• Headings should be clear - highlighted in bold or underlined.
• All diagrams and illustrations should be labeled and numbered.
• All standard units, measurements and technical terminology should be listed in a glossary of terms at the
back of your report.

1.7 Honesty & Plagiarism

Plagiarism is using the work of others and, bailing to reference it, passing it off as your work.

 Don’t plagiarize under ANY circumstances. (no copying from other sources)
 Plagiarism could END your academic or professional career in some circumstances.
 As ENGINEERS, you must maintain the highest moral and ethical standards –breach of this trust
may place public lives in jeopardy, hence there is NO LENIANCY

To avoid plagiarism you must comply with the following:

1. If you copy material exactly, enclose it in quotation marks or indent it and reference it in your
text.
2. If you summarize or paraphrase material you must still reference the source in your text. The
names and details of the author(s) work you have used MUST be included in your writing AND in
your references section.

Your supervisor or lecturer will be familiar with publications relating to specific areas of
engineering and will be likely to recognize any plagiarized writing. Furthermore, there are some
extremely good plagiarism checkers available on the internet, which are able to check, in seconds, if
your work is original or not. Copying the work of other students is also plagiarism although this is
often referred to as collusion.
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1.8 Acknowledging Sources/References
Many different styles of referencing have developed over the years. Currently there are four main
styles of referencing for academic articles, as follows:

1 The APA style. This system is also known as the Harvard or, more colloquially, as the ‘name
(date)’ system. This is because an author’s surname in the text is followed by the date of the
publication in brackets, and entries in the reference list are listed alphabetically, starting with the
name and the initials of the author(s) followed by the date of publication for each entry. For example:
Sharples, M. (Ed.). (1993). Computer supported collaborative writing. London: Springer-Verlag.
Speck, B. W., Johnson, T. R., Dice, C. P., & Heaton, L. B. (1999). Collaborative writing: An
annotated bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Zammuner, V. L. (1995). Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets the
best results? Learning and Instruction, 5 (2), 101–24.

The Modern Languages Association (MLA) style. In this version the authors’ surnames (with or
without the dates) appear in the text and the first author’s surname comes first in the reference list.
This is followed by his or her first name, but first names then come first for any additional authors.
Dates of the publications are given after journal titles, or at the end of the references for books, etc.
The list is ordered alphabetically. For example:
Sharples, Michael (Ed.). Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. London: Springer-Verlag, 1993.
Speck, Bruce W., Teresa R. Johnson, Catherine Dice, and Leon B. Heaton. Collaborative Writing:An
Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.
Tang, Catherine. ‘Effects of collaborative learning on the quality of assignments.’ Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education. Eds. Barry Dart and Gillian Boulton-Lewis. Pp. 103–23.
Melbourne: Australian
Council for Educational Research, 1998. Zammuner, Victoria L. ‘Individual and co-operative
computer writing and revising: Who gets the best results?’ Learning and Instruction 5 (1995)
101–24. 3

The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) style. Here, the authors in the text are
numbered in order of their appearance in the text, sometimes without their names, and the numbers
are enclosed in square brackets. The reference list is then numbered sequentially. Names are
presented with the initial(s) first, followed by surnames. Dates of the publications are given after
journal titles, or at the end of the references for book, etc. Journal titles are sometimes abbreviated.
For example:

[1] M. Sharples, Ed., Computer Supported Collaborative Writing. London: Springer-Verlag,

1993.
[2] V. L. Zammuner, ‘Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets
the best results?’ Learning and Instruction, vol. 5, no.2, pp. 101–24, 1995.
[3] C. Tang, ‘Effects of collaborative learning on the quality of assignments,’ in Teaching and
Learning in Higher Education, B. Dart and G. Boulton-Lewis, Eds. Melbourne:
Australian Council for Educational Research, 1998, pp. 102–23.
[4] B. W. M. Speck, T. R. Johnson, C. P. Dice and L. B. Heaton, Collaborative Writing: An
Annotated Bibliography. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999.
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An alternative version is to list (and number) the authors alphabetically in the reference list, and to
assign these numbers to the authors in the text as appropriate.

The Vancouver style. Here, as with the ISCME (International Steering Committee of Medical
Editors) system, the authors are numbered in the text in order of their appearance, and the numbers
are enclosed in square brackets.

The reference list is numbered sequentially, but the authors are listed surnames first, followed by their
initials. Again the dates of publications are given after journal titles, or at the ends of the references
for books etc. The key feature of the Vancouver style is its ‘spare’ typography and punctuation, and
the use of abbreviated journal titles. For example:
1 Sharples M, editor. Computer supported collaborative writing. London: Springer-Verlag, 1993.
Zammuner VL. Individual and co-operative computer writing and revising: Who gets the best results?
Learn Instruction 1995; 5 (Pt 2): 101–24.
4 Speck BWM, Johnson TR, Dice CP, Heaton LB. Collaborative writing: an annotated bibliography.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1999.

[Unit Two: Technical Report Types and applications

Reports vary in their purpose, and in the type of information they present. However, all of them share
similar features and a formal structure and careful planning, presenting the material in a logical
manner using clear and concise language.
2.1 Informal reports
2.1.1 Memo
Purpose
A memo (short for memorandum) is a very short document, usually up to a page long. In effect, it's
an adaptation of a business letter, and is less formal than a letter.
How to write it
The memo heading: it is quite different from those of a letter. A memo is headed by the word
MEMORANDUM and followed by the side headings:
To:
Cc:
From:
Date:
Subject:
MEMORANDUM
To: (Name and title of the person to whom you are writing)
C: (Names and titles of other people to be sent copies of your memo (if required))
From: (Your name)
Date: (In the style 28 November 2012, not 28/11/12)
Subject: A clear, informative title, containing the main message of your memo. It is often side-
heading in short memo short memo (about half a page) or a centered title in a longer memo.
In separate paragraphs (body of the memo) write:
 purpose of the memo

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  your conclusion(s) or main point & facts/data to support the conclusion(s). Note that the
supporting data are placed after the conclusion(s) or main point. Don't lead up to them and
place them at the end.
 Recommendation (if necessary)
Note. NO salutation or closing, i.e, don't use Yours sincerely/faithfully.
All headings justified to the left-hand margin.
Your signature

An example of a very short memo (half page long)

MEMORANDUM
To: Dr Peter Brown, Department of Mechanical Engineering
C: Prof. Jennifer Green, Head of Department, Mechanical Engineering
From: Pat Black
Date: 8 October 2001
Subject: My visit to Composites Construction Ltd

This is to let you know that from 14 to 17 November I shall be visiting the research labs at
Composites Construction Ltd in Middletown.

As we previously discussed, my main activity will be to discuss the progress of our joint research
program, our proposals for future development and the next round of funding.
I look forward to discussing the visit with you on my return.
Agendas for Committee Meetings
An agenda is a list of items to be discussed during a meeting. It must be drawn up in advance. An
agenda may take various forms, according to the requirements and, in some cases, the kind of
meeting to which it refers. Be sure you know precisely what is expected of you. Here are two
common forms of committee agenda:
the standard agenda
the discursive agenda.

The standard agenda simply lists the subjects to be discussed, and the order in which they will be
taken. The discursive agenda is designed to stimulate thought before and comment at the meeting. It
is often used for ‘one-off’ meetings.
In deciding what to include on an agenda, bear these points in mind:

 Talk to the chairperson and other committee members who may have business to include.
 Refer to the minutes of previous meetings for any business or discussions which were then
deferred, and for reminders of routine annual, half-yearly, quarterly or monthly recurring
items.
 Keep a special file of documents which are likely to be required at the next meeting. Sort and
arrange them before drafting the agenda.
What would be a suitable format?
Standard agenda
A suitable format for a standard agenda would be as follows:
1. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place)
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2. Apologies for Absence
3. Minutes of the Previous Meeting
4.
5. Items requiring the attention of the committee
6.
7.
8. Any Other Business (‘leftovers’, not items that should have been discussed within section 4–7)
9. Date of Next Meeting (also give the time and location)
10. Papers required for the Meeting (in the order that they will be needed).

Items 1–3 and 8–10 are standard. Between them come all other items requiring the attention of the
committee.
Discursive agenda

A discursive agenda could be structured as follows:

1. Heading (including where and when the meeting will take place)
2. Introduction (what will be discussed, and why – keep it fairly general)
3. Scope (what are the boundaries of the discussion?)
4. Discussion points (list the items to be discussed and the reasons for discussing them)
5. Possible action (what options are open to the committee?)
6. Summary (the reason for the meeting; what it hopes to achieve and why members should
attend and contribute)
7. Papers required for the meeting (in the order that they will be needed).

2.1. 2 Minute Writing

Minutes are a record of the proceedings of a meeting e.g. who attended and did not, discussion that
took place, action to be taken, time the meeting closed.

Why do we write Meeting Minutes?

 To capture the essential information of a meeting – decisions and assigned actions.

 To save and use them for reference or background material for future meetings relating to the
same topic.

How to write effective minutes: The way the minutes are recorded may differ depending on the
type of meeting it is. By this I mean, you may need to record all the discussion as well as the
resolutions or you may only need to record the resolution and not worry about the discussion
leading up to the resolution. 

Before the Meeting: If you are recording the minutes, make sure you aren’t a major participant in
the meeting. You can’t perform both tasks well. Make sure you leave some blank space to record
your notes. Include the following information:

Date, time and place of the meeting

The purpose of the meeting
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 The meeting lead or chair’s name
Assigned action items
Decisions made

During the Meeting: As people enter the room, check off their names on your attendee list. Ask the
meeting lead to introduce you to meeting attendees you aren’t familiar with. This will be helpful
later when you are recording assigned tasks or decisions. When you’re writing out your notes, use
some of the following tips from the International Association of Administrative Professionals
(IAAP).

Number the pages as you go so you aren’t confused later. Focus on action items, not discussion.

Be objective. Write in the same tense throughout and usually avoid using people’s names except
for motions or seconds. This is a business document, not about who said what.

Avoid inflammatory or personal observations. The fewer adjectives or adverbs you use, the better.
Dull writing is the key to appropriate minutes.

If you need to refer to other documents attach them in an appendix or indicate where they may be
found. Don’t rewrite their intent or try to summarize them.

After the Meeting: Review the notes and add additional comments, or clarify what you didn’t
understand right after the meeting.

Who will take the Minutes? : Minutes are usually taken by the Secretary or Minute Clerk. If you are
the person nominated to take the minutes, ensure you receive a copy of the agenda when it is
distributed so that you are familiar with the matters to be discussed. 
Sample minute

TEACHING COLLEGE MINUTES

Minutes of the Health and Safety Committee Meeting held in room G104 at 4pm on 9th July 20XX.

PRESENT
Erin Smith, Health & Safety Officer (Chairperson) (ES)
Ian Jones, Administration Officer (IJ)
Aarlif Hussain, Staff Welfare Co-ordinator (AH)
Bradley Pitt, Department Representative (BP)
George Coney, Estates Manager (GC)

etc

Jo Smith (Secretary) (JS)

ACTION
1. APOLOGIES FOR ABSENCE
Apologies were received from Brian Jones and Angela Green
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2. MINUTES OF PREVIOUS MEETING
The minutes of the previous meeting were taken as read, agreed as a true and correct record
and signed by the Chairperson
3. MATTERS ARISING
George Coney reported that the recent fire drills had been successful and all the issues raised
last time had been resolved.

4. NEW BUILDING REGULATIONS

These were effective from 1 October 20XX. Members agreed that all staff must be informed
of the implications. 
A copy of the surveyor’s letter was circulated and will be discussed in a meeting to be
arranged for next week.

5. PLANNED IT UPDATES
It was proposed that these would be undertaken by Ace Technology during October and
November to minimize disruption to operations. George Coney will meet with Ace next week
to discuss plans

6. ANY OTHER BUSINESS

Aarlif Hussain raised the issue of bank holidays and has asked members to give him their
thoughts at the next meeting

7. DATE AND TIME OF NEXT MEETING/Adjournment

It was agreed that the next meeting should be held at 4pm on 10 October 20XX

Signed …………………………….... (Chairperson) Date---------------------

The Structure (elements) of Technical Report

General Format
Technical Reports have an organized format because a majority of your audience may not read the
entire report in one reading. This specific format allows readers to quickly locate the information they
need.

Most technical reports include the parts listed below. However, you may be required to include or
exclude specific sections. Be sure to check with your instructor before using the format outlined here.

 Cover letter( optional)

 Title Page
 Transmittal Letter/Letter of submittal (optional)
 Acknowledgments
 Table of Contents

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  List of Illustrations/List of Figures & List of Tables
 Abstract
 Executive Summary
 Report Body
 References
 Glossary of terms (optional)
 Appendices

Transmittal Letter and covering letter: They are business letters that accompany a document.
A covering letter is any letter that is sent together with any document.
Purpose

(a) To provide the recipient with a specific context within which to place the document.
(b) To give the sender a permanent record of having sent the material.
(c) To show willingness to provide further information.

Transmittal Letter

Purpose
1. To adequately describe the contents of your document in the fewest possible words.
2 To give the reader immediate access to the main subject matter.

Cover letter is not bound within the letter, but it is inserted within package, or within front cover.
The letter is used when the report is addressed to a person outside of the writer’s organization.

Transmittal letters often inform readers of a report's context. Typically, the letter includes
information not found in the report. For example, the letter contains information about the particular
project in which the technical report writer:

• announce the topic and explain who authorized it and the date of authorization.
• briefly describe the project and preview the conclusions – if the reader is supportive.

• close expressing appreciation for assignment, suggesting follow-up actions, acknowledging

the help of others, and offering to answer questions.

A Transmittal Letter is a business letter and should be formatted accordingly; that is, you should
include the recipient's address, your address, a salutation and closing. Depending on the project, you
may also need to include contact information. Letter of submittal immediately follows Title Page.
Always check with your instructor to determine whether or not you should attach a transmittal letter
to your report. Look at the sample Transmittal Letter below.
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December 12, 1996

Dr. Tom Siller

Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80524

Dear Mr. Siller:

We are submitting to you the report, due December 13, 1996, that you requested. The report is
entitled CSU Performing Arts Center. The purpose of the report is to inform you of our design
decisions for the center. The content of this report concentrates on the structural and acoustical
aspects of the CSU Performing Arts Center. This report also discusses cable-stayed technology. If
you should have any questions concerning our project and paper please feel free to contact Mike
Bridge at 491-5048.

Sincerely,
Mike Bridge
Lead Engineer

Title Page

The title should tell the reader what the report is about. A technical report should always include a
title clearly identifying the report. A title should be descriptive and accurate, but not wordy, verbose
or too terse. Here is a Sample title page:

Abstract
Abstracts are formal summaries writers prepare of their completed work.
Purpose: to allow a reader to get a quick picture of the report's content and make a judgment. That is,
to enable readers to decide what to read, whether to read the work in full or to decide what to pass
over. Generally, Abstracts define the report's purpose and content. This section should give a true,
brief description of the report's content. The content may present the:

 scope of the report

 major points, including a summary of your research methodology

 highlights of the conclusions and recommendations

Since an Abstract is a brief summary of your report, its length corresponds with the report's length.
So, for example, if your report is eight pages long, you shouldn't use more than 150 words in the
Abstract. Generally, keep your abstract concise (preferably one page).

Types of Abstracts: informative vs. descriptive

Depending on the kind of information they contain, abstracts are often classified as descriptive or
informative. A descriptive abstract summarizes the purpose, scope, and methods used to arrive at the
reported findings. It is a slightly expanded table of contents in sentence and paragraph form. A
descriptive abstract need not be longer than several sentences.
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An informative abstract is an expanded version of the descriptive abstract. In addition to information
about the purpose, scope, and research methods used, the informative abstract summarizes any
results, conclusions, and recommendations. The informative abstract retains the tone and essential
scope of the original work, omitting its details. The first four sentences of the abstract shown in
Figure A–1 alone would be descriptive; with the addition of the sentences that detail the conclusions
of the report, the abstract becomes informative.

The type of abstract you should write depends on your audience and the organization or publication
for which you are writing. Informative abstracts work best for wide audiences that need to know
conclusions such as proceedings and progress reports that do not contain conclusions or
recommendations.

ABSTRACT
The Effects of Long-Distance Running on Male and Female Runners Aged 50 to 72 Years by
Sandra Young

The long-term effects of long-distance running on the bones, joints, and general health of runners
aged 50 to 72 can help determine whether physicians should recommend long-distance running for
their older patients. Recent studies conducted at Stanford University and the University of Florida
tested and compared male and female long-distance runners aged 50 to 72 with a control group of
runners and non runners. The groups were matched by sex, race, education, and occupation. The
Florida study used only male runners who had run at least 20 miles a week for five years and
compared them with a group of runners and non runners. Both studies based findings on medical
histories and on physical and X-ray examinations.
Both studies conclude that long-distance running is not associated with increased degenerative joint
disease. Control groups were more prone to spur formation, sclerosis, and joint-space narrowing and
showed more joint degeneration than runners.
Female long-distance runners exhibited somewhat more sclerosis in knee joints and the lumbar spine
area than matched control subjects. Both studies support the role of exercise in retarding bone loss
with aging. The investigation concludes that the health risk factors are fewer for long-distance runners
than for those less active aged 50 to 72. The investigation recommends that physicians recognize that
an exercise program that includes long-distance running can be beneficial to their aging patients’
health.

Figure A1: Informative Abstract (for an Article)

Writing Strategies

Write the abstract after finishing the report or document. The abstract, although it heads the article, is
often written last, together with the title. This is partly because,
• writers know what they have achieved, and
• partly because it is not easy to write an abstract.
• Or, the abstract may not accurately reflect the longer work.
Begin with a topic sentence that announces the subject and scope of your original document. It may
be helpful if you first summarize the main points you have made in each section before combining
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 them into as brief as possible piece of writing. It is also, easier to write an abstract if you remember
that all abstracts have a basic structure. Based on their structure, they can be structured or
unstructured.

Descriptive Abstract
Decide what material is relevant to your abstract-distinguish primary ideas from secondary ones.
Write with clarity and conciseness, eliminating unnecessary words and ideas. Do not, however,
become so terse that you omit articles (a, an, the) and important transitional words and phrases
(however, therefore, but, next).

Write complete sentences, but avoid stringing together a group of short sentences end to end; instead,
combine ideas by using subordination and parallel structure. Spell out all but the most common
abbreviations. In a report, an abstract follows the title page and is numbered page iii.

Types of Abstracts: Structured & unstructured

Structured Abstracts are typically written using five sub-headings –‘background’, ‘aim’, ‘method’,
‘results’ and ‘conclusions’. Sometimes the wording of these sub-headings varies a little – ‘objectives’
for ‘aim’, for example, but the meaning is much the same. Compared with traditional abstracts,
structured abstracts:

• contained more information

• were easier to read
• were easier to search
• facilitated peer review for conferences
• were generally welcomed by readers and by authors.
Background. In 1997 four journals published by the British Psychological Society began publishing
structured abstracts.
Aims. The aim of the studies reported here was to assess the effects of these structured abstracts by
comparing them with original versions written in a traditional, unstructured format.
Method. The authors of the articles accepted for publication in the four journals were asked to supply
copies of their traditional abstracts (written when the paper was submitted for publication) together
with copies of their structured abstracts requested by the editor when their paper was accepted.
Forty-eight such requests were made, and thirty pairs of abstracts were obtained. The abstracts were
then compared on a number of measures.
Results. Analysis showed that the structured abstracts were significantly more readable, significantly
longer and significantly more informative than the traditional ones. Judges assessed the contents of the
structured abstracts
more quickly and with significantly less difficulty than they did the traditional ones. Almost every
respondent expressed positive attitudes to structured abstracts.
Conclusions. The structured abstracts fared significantly better than the traditional ones on every
measure used in this enquiry. We recommend, therefore, that editors of other journals in the social
sciences consider adopting structured abstracts.
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Figure 2: An original abstract in structured form. The same can be written in unstructured form
below:

In 1997 four journals published by the British Psychological Society began publishing structured
abstracts. The aim of the studies reported here was to assess the effects of these structured abstracts by
comparing them with original versions written in a traditional, unstructured format. The authors of the
articles accepted for publication in the four journals were asked to supply copies of their traditional
abstracts (written when the paper was submitted for blication) together with copies of their structured
abstracts requested by the editor when their paper was accepted. Forty-eight such requests were made
and thirty pairs of abstracts were obtained. The abstracts were then compared on a number of measures.
Analysis showed that the structured abstracts were significantly more readable, significantly longer and
significantly more informative than the traditional ones. Judges assessed the contents of the structured
abstracts more quickly and with significantly less difficulty than they did the traditional ones. Almost
every respondent expressed positive attitudes to structured abstracts. In short, the structured abstracts
fared significantly better than the traditional ones on every measure used in this enquiry. We
recommend, therefore, that editors of other journals in the social sciences consider adopting structured
abstracts.
Acknowledgments: Briefly thank (e.g., people) who assisted you in compiling and writing up the
information in the report. This may be from librarians, technicians or computer centre staff, for
example. Here are Sample Acknowledgments:

MASK Engineering would like to thank Dr. Michael Schaff of the CSU Music Department
and Ms. Annie Cleveland from the CSU Theater Department for their expertise and input
for the CSU Performing Arts Center. We would also like to thank Dr. Tom Siller for his aid
in our research and use of his research materials.
Executive Summary
Purpose: written for readers who,
- do not have time to read the entire technical report.
-do not want to read the report
-do not have specialist knowledge of the report
The length is usually no longer than 10% of the report. It can be anywhere from 1-10 pages long,
depending on the report's length. It should summarize the key points and conclusions from your
report. You might include an executive summary with your report, or the summary can be a separate
document.

Some reports only include an abstract while others include an executive summary. Always check with
your instructor to determine which to include or if you should include both.

Sample Executive Summary

Introduction
Our main goal was to design a Performing Arts Center for the CSU campus that would blend well
with the rest of the campus. To achieve this goal, our group split into two smaller groups; Alice in

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one and Simon, Mike, and Karen in the other. Alice concentrated on acoustical aspects of the
complex. Simon, Mike, and Karen concentrated on the structural plans.
Location
In this section, we specify the exact location of the structure and why we believe it is a prime location.
Cable-stayed Technology
Here, we present our rationale for using cable-stayed technology. We base this technology on several
other existing structures.
Main Hall Acoustics
One of the key characteristics of a concert hall that greatly influences sound quality, is its reverberation
time (the time before the decay of the reflected sound). In the construction of the main hall for the CSU
Performing Arts Center a balance will be determined that will create a reverberation time of two
seconds, as independent of audience size as possible.
Materials
In this section, we discuss the materials to be used. Retractable banners will be built into the ceiling,
and can be lowered to create this effect. Cloth seats will be used as they best assimilate an occupied
audience area (Beranek 1962 ). This allows sound within the hall to be independent of audience size.
The low sound absorbency of plaster also makes it ideal for the creation of the desired reverberation
time of two seconds.
Design Considerations
The intensity of the direct sound should not be too weak, but at the same time, it must not become
uncomfortably loud. This problem will be dealt with by limiting the length of the room, and by
designing the surfaces above and around the stage to project the sound evenly throughout the concert
hall. Another problem arises with the seats placed under a balcony. To prevent a muddiness within
the sound, the depth under the balcony should not exceed the height of the opening beneath the
balcony.

Floor Plans
The Colorado State University Performing Arts Center consists of three levels. The total area of the
complex is 56,500 square feet. The basement and ground floors consist of 20,500 square feet apiece.
The second floor has a square footage of 15,500.
Conclusion
During the duration of the project, we accomplished our goal of designing a Performing Arts Center for
the CSU campus that would blend well with the rest of the campus. A cable-stayed support system for

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the roof will allow for a compact facility and an unobstructed view for patrons. In order to achieve the
best acoustical results in the main performance hall, we have designed a rectangular hall made of plaster.
We have also designed the hall so that the depth under the balcony does not exceed the height of the
opening beneath the balcony. The total area of the complex will be 56,500 square feet split into three
levels. The main hall will have a seating capacity of 1,200.
Table of Contents
Table of Contents is a list of the main sections/headings of the report and the page number on which
they first appear. It goes on its own page.
 Don’t give range of pages: e.g., the following entry is wrong:
5.1 Experiment set-up ........................................................................................... 35-36
Correct is:
5.1 Experiment set-up................................................................................... 35
 Include section heading (exactly as in report)
 List of Figures/Tables follows contents (usually on their own page)
 Figures and tables are embedded within the report body, or placed at the end of the report in
their own section (not the same as an Appendix)

Sample Table of Contents

List of Figures and List of Tables

List of Figures & List of Tables

Like the Table of Contents, you need to present both of these in an organized, appealing format.
If you use tables or figures in your report, you must list them in the preliminary pages of your report,
immediately after your Table of Contents page. (See page 22 for details)
Each list identifies its components by number, title, and page number. Do not list any tables or figures
that appear in the appendices. Typically, you can shorten a figure or table's title when you create these
lists.
 Example List of Figures
 Example List of Tables

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Report Body
In a technical report, the body typically presents an Introduction, context for the report, detail
methods and procedures used to generate the report, demonstrate how results were obtained,
describes the results, draws conclusions, and, if appropriate, makes recommendations. Throughout
the body, you should include text (both your own and research from other sources), graphics, and
lists. Whenever you cite information or use graphics from another source, you must credit these
sources within your text. Check with your instructor to know which reference style to use.
Sample Report Body

Introduction

The purpose of designing a performing arts center on the CSU campus is to provide adequate
capacity and higher quality of sound and aesthetics as compared to the existing structures in the
region. Factors that MASK Engineering considered included accessibility, cost effectiveness,
location, and an efficient use of space. Our intent was to preserve the open space of the CSU campus
and to design the complex in such a manner that it will blend well with its surrounding environment.

We at MASK Engineering believe that this project will greatly benefit both the CSU campus and the
surrounding Fort Collins community. Such a facility will lead to the improvement of the performing
arts programs on campus. It will directly affect the students and professors in the music, theater. and
dance programs at the university, eventually increasing enrollment in these disciplines. There are
approximately 230 students in the performing arts programs at CSU right now. The amount of space
that is available to these students is inadequate for their performances. The construction of this
complex will not only provide them with the space they need, but will also continue the growth of
these programs, making CSU a leader in the education of the performing arts.

These changes at the university will result in a heightened cultural awareness in the community.
Currently, community events are held at the Lincoln Center, while CSU sponsored events are held at
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the Lory Student Center theater. A new facility will bring community and university events together
and will allow a greater variety of outside events to be brought to Fort Collins. The location of this
complex on campus will bring a greater number of students to these events due to the elimination of
transportation problems.

MASK Engineering has focused on the structural and acoustical aspects of the CSU Performing Arts
Center, while hiring other firms to handle the parking, mechanical and electrical operation, and
utilities. A cable-stayed support system has been chosen, and a floor plan has been drawn up that
will produce the best acoustical results. A. L. handled the acoustical aspects of the complex, while
S.C., K.N., and M.B. concentrated on the structural plans. We are planning for the construction of
this complex to begin within the next few years. Figure 2.1: Map of campus -circled area represents
site where Green Hall currently stands

Location

The site chosen for the Colorado State University Performing Arts Center is the plot of land upon
which Green Hall now stands (Figure 1). This area was chosen primarily for its location on the CSU
campus and its proximity to the downtown area. Green Hall is a condemned building and is not
currently used for anything beyond university storage. Some office space has been granted to the
branch of the CSUPD dealing with parking violations, but this department could easily move back to
its old location at Aylesworth Hall. Our firm believes that this space would be better used as a home
for the performing arts than as the site of a crumbling warehouse.

We have considered possible disturbances that the construction of the performing arts center on this
plot might cause. Due to the close proximity of Green Hall to Allison Hall and Parmelee Hall, we
have decided to begin construction early in the summer, after classes have ended. Green Hall will be
torn down first, and construction of the performing arts center will begin immediately. This will
allow us a good start on the project while students are not living in the nearby residence halls.
According to the front desk at Braiden Hall,, which is located near the Morgan Library construction
site, residents do not have a problem with noise and there have been no complaints of disturbances.
MASK Engineering believes that this will be the case for the residents in Allison and Parmelee when
they return in the fall as the performing arts center is finished.

Cable-stayed Technology

A cable-stayed support system was chosen for the design of the CSU Performing Arts Center. One
reason for choosing this system was to allow for a more compact facility because the space available
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on campus was limited. Another reason was to give patrons an unobstructed view of events by
eliminating the need for columns.

The original use of cable-stayed technology was seen in bridges. German engineers established the
design of cable-stayed bridges in the 1950's and 1960's. This technology was eventually adapted to
buildings, using cables to support the roof. Each tower is buttressed by two sets of cables, transferring
the load into the ground. Without a roof load to support, columns are not needed in the complex and
the space can be used in more ways.

The concept behind cable-stayed technology is to have the supporting reactions to the load directed in
only vertical directions as opposed to vertical and horizontal. It also eliminates any tension and/or
compression force (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). For a building, the load of the roof is directed through the
cables, to the towers, and down to the ground. The walls do not support the roof as they normally
would; only the cables are used to hold up the roof. An example of a cable-stayed building is the
Alamodome, a multipurpose stadium in San Antonio, Texas (Figure 3.3). Our model is based on this
design.

Figure 3.3

Main Hall Acoustics

Background
One of the key characteristics of a concert hall that greatly influences sound quality, is its
reverberation time (the time before the decay of the reflected sound). For orchestral or band music,
the ideal reverberation time is approximately two seconds. Any times approaching 1.6 seconds will
lead toward a dry, dead sound ( Beranek 1962 ). The other extreme is a time that is too long. This
causes the music to lose its clarity, an excessive loudness, and the blending of incompatible chords
( Beranek 1962 ). A hall's reverberation time can be affected by such things as the volume of the
room or the number of people in the audience. In the construction of the main hall for the CSU
Performing Arts Center a balance will be determined that will create a reverberation time of two
seconds, as independent of audience size as possible.

Sound quality is also greatly determined by the warmth of the sound. Warmth is determined by the
fullness of the bass tones. If the middle frequencies of a sound have longer reverberation times than
the low tones, then the sound will become brittle (Beranek 1962 1).

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Materials
Table 4.1 gives the absorption coefficients of different frequencies for common surfaces. It shows
that materials such as heavy curtains or thick carpet absorb are the ideal choice for decreasing the
intensity of higher frequencies. This leads to the production of a more full, warm sound. Retractable
banners will be built into the ceiling, and can be lowered to create this effect. Cloth seats will be used
as they best assimilate an occupied audience area ( Beranek 1962 ). This allows sound within the hall
to be independent of audience size. The low sound absorbance of plaster also makes it ideal for the
creation of the desired reverberation time of two seconds.

Design considerations

The intensity of the direct sound should not be too weak, but at the same time, it must not become
uncomfortably loud. This problem will be dealt with by limiting the length of the room, and by
designing the surfaces above and around the stage to project the sound evenly throughout the concert
hall. Another problem arises with the seats placed under a balcony. To prevent a muddiness within
the sound, the depth under the balcony should not exceed the height of the opening beneath the
balcony.

Floor Plans

The Colorado State University Performing Arts Center consists of three levels. The total area of the
complex is 56,500 square feet. The basement and ground floors consist of 20,500 square feet apiece.
The second floor has a square footage of 15,500.

The basement level of this center (Figure 5.1 ) includes two main dressing rooms with shower
facilities as well as four private dressing rooms with individual restrooms for guest performers. The
mechanical room for the building will be in the basement, housing such devices as the heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning equipment as well as the mechanics for the elevator. A spacious
performers' lounge has also been added in to the basement to provide a relaxing environment for the
center's performers.

The building's main floor (Figure 5.2 ) includes the main performance hall as well as a small
rehearsal hall. The main hall is 5,000 square feet and has a seating capacity of 1,200. A coffee shop
and art lounge have been included in this plan for the enjoyment and convenience of the patrons. A
large classroom is provided for dance classes as well as rehearsals. Sufficient office space is included
adjacent to the center's box office.

The top floor of the CSU Performing Arts Center (Figure 5.3 ) includes a walk- around balcony
overlooking the main lobby as well as a balcony for the main performance hall. An elevator is
provided for travel between the first and second floors. A recording studio is also located on this floor
as an added bonus.

References: Whenever you cite information (this includes graphics) from another source, you must
credit the source in your References. Always check with your instructor to determine which
reference style to use.

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Appendices: Appendices include information that is too large to fit within your report, yet
information necessary to your report. For example, large graphics, computer print-outs, maps, or
sample codes are best placed in Appendices. When making decisions about what to place in an
Appendix, consider whether or not the material interrupts the reading flow. For instance, six pages of
calculations would obviously cause readers to lose their train of thought. Appendices always appear
at the end of a report.

List of Illustrations/Diagrams

Diagrams are an essential part of many technical reports, in some circumstances giving a great deal of
information more easily than continuous prose could do.

Purpose: To list - separate from the Table of Contents - the numbers, titles and corresponding
page numbers of all your tables and figures.

How to write it
The term illustrations include tables and figures (graphs, line drawings, photographs, maps, or any
other non-verbal illustrative material, etc). Use the title List of Illustrations if your document contains
both tables and figures. If it contains only tables, call it List of Tables; if only figures, List of Figures.
If you are using List of Illustrations, list all the figures first, and then list all the tables. List the
number, title and page of each illustration. Place the List of Illustrations immediately after the Table
of Contents. If both of them are brief, put them on the same page with the Table of Contents first.

Tables: These are the most common form of diagram in technical reports. Tables can give a great
deal of accurate information if they are effectively presented. It is, as always, the need of the reader
which is all-important.

Graphs/Graphics: Graphs are used either to show trends or to give accurate technical information.
All graphs must be clearly labelled, and scales identified. They also provide illustrated information to
readers. In general, graphics are designed to make it easier for readers to understand your report.
Often, graphics are useful when concepts, designs, or processes are too complex or cumbersome to
describe in written or oral form.

Space: Sometimes diagrams outgrow their pages, and this is dangerous. Margins must be sufficient
on all sides to allow for clarity, and to carry as appropriate the page number, figure number and title,
and to allow for the binding of the document.

Diagram references: Diagrams of all types must be numbered and clearly referenced in the text.
Probably the most useful method of numbering is to use first the number of the report section in
which the diagram appears, and then, after a decimal point, the sequential number.

Positioning: Diagrams/illustrations must be presented when and where the user needs them.

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Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations (or List of Symbols, when dealing with only
mathematical symbols)

Purpose: To define the specialist terms, symbols and abbreviations (including acronyms) that you use
in the main text of the document.
How to write it
Decide the terms that need definition. Remember that a term self-evident to you may not be as
generally well known as you think. Even when you are writing a specialist document that will be read
only by experts – such as a thesis - your referees will appreciate a list of clearly defined terms. Make
sure, though, that you don't include terms that are generally very well known; to define them would
look silly.

Terms that need to be dealt with include:

- specific technical terms
- Greek or other symbols
- abbreviations (usually called acronyms). These are often in the form of the initial letters in capitals
of a series of words, e.g. PCR: polymerase chain reaction; PLC: programmable logic controller.
Before you list the terms and abbreviations, it may be appropriate to state: S.I. (Systeme International
d'Unit~s) abbreviations for units and standard notations for chemical elements, formulae and
chemical abbreviations are used in this work. Other abbreviations are listed below.
Where to put it
The Glossary of Terms can be placed either at the beginning of the document immediately after the
Table of Contents or the List of Illustrations (this is the optimal position for the reader), or at the end,
immediately before the Appendices.
If the glossary is large and you feel that it needs to be at the end of the document, readers would
appreciate a note placed immediately before the Introduction, referring them to the page number of
the glossary. Suggested wording: Explanations of terms and abbreviations used in this document are
given of Terms and Abbreviations, page x.

2.2 Formal Reports

Formal reports are usually written accounts of major projects that require substantial research, and
they often involve more than one writer.

Most formal reports are divided into three primary parts—front matter, body, and back matter—each
of which contains a number of elements. The number and arrangement of the elements may vary
depending on the subject, the length of the report, and the kinds of material covered. The following
list includes most of the elements a formal report might contain, in the order they typically appear.

2.2. 1 Progress report

2.2.1 A project team's progress reports

Purpose: To report at intervals on the progress of a management project undertaken by several
individuals.
Possible structures for a series of progress reports
1. Initial report at the start of the activity

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This is likely to be similar to a project proposal, in which you describe how you will approach the
task. As with any plan, it will involve intelligent and informed guesswork. Use the principles given in
1. Executive Summary
2 Objectives
3 Initial analysis of the problem
4 A preliminary literature survey
5 A clear statement of how you propose to tackle the first stages of the project, together with a brief
description of the methods you will use.
6 If needed, Schedule of Tasks.
7 Allocation of responsibilities individuals in the team
2 Intermediate reports
For intermediate progress reports, use the principles given in this section for 'A progress report to the
funding body or organization', page 10-11.
3 The final report
Again, use the principles given above for A progress report to the funding body or organization, page
10/11, and also take the following into consideration: This report will probably need to be longer than
the preceding reports.
o It will need to tie up the whole body of work into a logical story.
o It should concentrate on the results, conclusions and recommendations.
o If required, a description and possibly a peer review of the tasks undertaken by the various
individuals.
o If appropriate, a description of how the work you have done could be further developed in the
future.
2.3 A Consulting/Management Report
Purpose: To write a report as though you have been doing consulting work for the management
personnel of another organization. In imagining the organization where your report is going, the
following points need to be remembered:

1. Senior management may not read a whole report. They rely heavily on the Executive Summary,
Recommendations and Conclusions to get an overview of the substance of the report. A longer report
may also need section summaries. They will expect to understand from these:
 What your work means.
 How it will benefit the company's activities.
 Any further work that needs to be done.
 Possibly, what it will cost.
2. Senior management of an organization may not be technically or scientifically qualified. They may
be accountants or lawyers etc. Moreover, your report may be passed onto other people whom you
didn't expect to read it. It may, for instance, be read by financial or local government personnel. This
means that your report should be able to be understood by non-experts- at least in overview, meaning
and implications. It also needs to be written so that everyone can extract from it what they need,
without having to read the whole document. Even if they read the whole document, readers will need
a pathway to help them navigate through it. The Executive Summary, Recommendations,
Conclusions and section summaries are crucial parts of this.
Possible structure of a management report
• Title page

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 • Letter of Transmittal (cover letter), if needed
• Executive Summary
• Recommendations
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures
• List of Tables
• Glossary of terms and Abbreviations
• Acknowledgements
The following four sections may be required in a CONSULTING REPORT:
 Purpose Statement: state the purpose of the document
• Scope (or Scoping) Statement: To describe the topics covered in the document.
• Procedure Statement: To describe the processes you followed in investigating the topic of the
document
• Problem Statement: To describe the problem and its significance.
• Background or Introduction or both
• The body of the report: (structured under a series of headings appropriate to your topic)
Conclusions (if not placed at the beginning) or Conclusions and Recommendations
• References (if needed)
• Appendices
2.3 A Recommendation Report
Purpose: To make a recommendation or a series of recommendations, supported by a reasoned
argument, together with appropriate background material, facts and data.

How to write it
• A recommendation report is focused towards the future: it should show the ability to objectively
assess a set of conditions, and to recommend actions to be taken.
• Recommendations are your subjective opinions about the required course of action. But this
doesn't mean you can go into wild flights of fancy.
• No recommendation should come out of the blue: your report should contain adequate supporting
information for each recommendation.
Possible structure of a recommendation report
Title Page
Executive Summary or Summary or Abstract: Summarize the background material and your
investigation.
Recommendations: List your recommendations. Or instead, uses section called Conclusions and
Recommendations and place it at the end of the report (see below).
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations (if needed)
The following four sections may be effective in a RECOMMENDATION REPORT, either before the
Introduction/Background or as sections of it:
Purpose Statement
Scope (or Scoping) Statement
Procedure statement
Problem statement
 Introduction or Background
 Subheadings appropriate to the topic, and covering the methods and results.
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 Conclusions: You may be required to write a section called Conclusions and
Recommendations.
In this case, place it here at the end of the report and omit the Recommendations section after the
Abstract.
List of References
Appendices
2.5 Engineering Design Report
Purpose: design reports are used to communicate your solution of a design problem, usually to your
boss or a colleague.

Readership: The report should be written for another person of equal or greater competence than
yourself.

General characteristics of design documentation

1 The report should be self-contained, except for references to other specific documents {contracts,
drawings, textbooks, standards etc.).
3 Your report must contain all the information needed for someone to check how you arrived at your
recommended solution. While carrying out your design you will have used analysis to
demonstrate that your design will actually solve the problem. This needs to be clearly set out in
your documentation.
Suggested structure of design documentation
1 Summary.
2 Development of a Model.
4 Design Calculations.
The Summary: Purpose of this section: The Summary should state precisely what the report is
about, and answer the following questions. To make sure you don't solve the wrong problem, write up
the first two before you start the design.
1 What problem does the report address?
 If the problem was defined in writing (assignment, tender or contract document), just refer to
this briefly and accurately rather than restate the whole problem. Your reader will already
know what you were supposed to be doing.
2 What criteria were set for deciding on an adequate solution?
 You can only make a sensible design recommendation if you understand the criteria that are to
be used in judging the success of your design, and obviously you must know this before you
start designing. Again, if these were defined in writing just refer to the original document.
 Sometimes there are other constraints such as national standards that must be met. These
should also be stated.
 If the criteria were incomplete or contradictory, for example between the cost and durability
of a new product, you need to decide the relative importance of the criteria to be used in
making your decision. You need to explain this in a subsequent section.
3 How did you model the problem?
Outline very briefly the factors influencing how you went about your design:
 The analysis that was needed. How many different options were considered?
 The main factors influencing the design.
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 Note If you are designing something that is routine, this section would be very short.
4 What did you conclude?
 Refer to drawings or other details of your recommended solution. If you considered various
options, summarize why you chose your particular solution.
2. Development of a Model: Purpose of this section
The first step in an engineering design is to be able to conceptualize the problem in a way that allows
standard methods of analysis to be used. This section should explain how you went about this.’
Design calcula30tions: Purpose of this section
This is the part which proves that your design will work as it should, and will consist mostly of small
sketches and steps in solving equations.
Form of this section
 Use subheadings to make it clear what each section is about, and underline the important results.
 Include details of all components (material and dimensions of parts, electrical components etc.)
plus all the physical properties you have used (strengths, elastic modulus, density, specific
heats etc.).
 Your design report should contain only your final recommended solution.
Feasibility Reports
When organizations consider a new project—developing a new product or service, expanding a
customer base, purchasing equipment, or moving operations—they first try to determine the project’s
chances for success. A feasibility report presents evidence about the practicality of a proposed project
based on specific criteria. It answers such questions as the following:
• Is new construction or development necessary?
• Is sufficient staff available? What are the costs?
• Is funding available? What are the legal ramifications?

Based on the findings of this analysis, the report offers logical conclusions and recommends whether
the project should be carried out. When feasibility reports stress specific steps that should be taken as
a result of a study of a problem or an issue, they are often referred to as recommendation reports. In
the condensed feasibility report shown in Figure F–1, a consultant conducts a study to determine how
to upgrade a company’s computer system and Internet capability.
Before beginning to write a feasibility report, analyze the needs of the audience as well as the
context and purpose of the study. Then write a purpose statement, such as “The purpose of this study
is to determine the feasibility of expanding our Pacific Rim operations,” to guide you or a
collaborative team

Sample Feasibility Report

Introduction
The purpose of this report is to determine which of two proposed options would best enable Darnell Business
Forms Corporation to upgrade its file servers and its Internet capacity to meet its increasing data and
communication needs. . . .

Background. In October 2008, the Information Development Group put the MACRON System into operation.
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Since then, the volume of processing transactions has increased fivefold (from 1,000 to 5,000 updates per day).
This increase has severely impaired system response time; in fact, average response time has increased from 10
seconds to 120 seconds. . . .

Scope. We have investigated two alternative solutions to provide increased processing capacity: (1) purchase of
an additional Aurora processor to supplement the one in operation, and (2) purchase of an Icardo 60 with
expandable peripherals to replace the Aurora processor currently in operation. . . .
Additional Aurora Processor
Purchasing a second Aurora processor would require increased annual maintenance costs, salary for a second
computer specialist, increased energy costs, and a one-time construction cost for necessary remodeling and
installing Internet connections.
• Annual maintenance costs $35,000 . Total annual operating costs $117,500
• Construction cost (one-time) 50,000 . Annual increased energy costs 7,500
• Total first-year costs $167,500 . Annual costs for computer specialist
75,000
The installation and operation of another Aurora processor are expected to produce savings in system reliability
and readiness.
System Reliability. An additional Aurora would reduce current downtime periods from four to two per week.
Downtime recovery averages 30 minutes and affects 40 users. . . . [The feasibility report would also discuss the
second option— purchase of the Icardo 60 and its long-term savings.]

Conclusion
A comparison of costs for both systems indicates that the Icardo 60 would cost $2,200 more in first-year costs.
Aurora Icardo 60
Net additional operating costs $56,300 $84,000
One-time construction costs 50,000 24,500
First-year total $106,300 $108,500
Installation of an additional Aurora processor would permit the present information-processing systems to
operate relatively smoothly and efficiently. -----
Recommendation
The Icardo 60 processor should be purchased because of the long-term savings and because its additional
capacity and flexibility will allow for greater expansion in the future.
Feasibility Report Sections
Every feasibility report should contain an introduction, a body, a conclusion, and a
recommendation.

Introduction. The introduction states the purpose of the report, describes the circumstances that led to
the report, and includes any pertinent background information. It may also discuss the scope of the
report, any procedures or methods used in the analysis of alternatives, and any limitations of the
study.

Body. The body of the report presents a detailed review of the alternatives for achieving the goals of
the project. Examine each option according to specific criteria, such as cost and financing, availability
of staff, and other relevant requirements, identifying the subsections with headings to guide readers.

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Conclusion. The conclusion interprets the available options and leads to one option as the best or
most feasible.

Recommendation. The recommendation section clearly presents the writer’s (or team’s) opinion on
which alternative best meets the criteria as summarized in the conclusion.

Proposals
A proposal is a document written to persuade readers that what is proposed will benefit them by
solving a problem or fulfilling a need. Therefore, when you write a proposal,
• you must convince readers that they need what you are proposing,
• that it is practical and appropriate, and that
• you are the right person or organization to provide the proposed product or service.

Proposal Forms
Proposals are written within a specific context. Understanding the context will help you determine the
most appropriate writing strategy as well as the proposal’s length, formality, and structure.

Informal Proposal Structure. Informal proposals are relatively short (about five pages or fewer) and
typically consist of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

INTRODUCTION. The introduction should define the purpose and scope of your proposal as well
as the problem you propose to address or solve. You may also include any relevant background or
context that will help readers appreciate the benefits of what you will propose in the body.

BODY. The body should offer the details of your plan to address or solve the problem and explain (1)
what service or product you are offering;
(2) how you will perform the work and what special materials you may use; (3) the schedule you plan
to follow that designates when each phase of the project will be completed; and (4) if appropriate, a
breakdown of project costs.

CONCLUSION. The conclusion should persuasively resell your proposal by emphasizing the
benefits of your plan, solution, product, or service over any competing ideas or projects. You may
also need to include details about the time period during which the proposal is valid. Effective
conclusions show confidence in your proposal, your appreciation for the opportunity to submit the
proposal, and your willingness to provide further information, as well as encouraging your reader to
act on your proposal.

Formal Proposal Structure. Proposals longer than five pages are often called formal proposals and
typically include front matter and back matter. The number of sections in a proposal depends on the
audience, the purpose, and the scope of the proposal.
FRONT MATTER of Formal Proposal
• Cover Letter or Letter of Transmittal. In the cover letter, express appreciation for the opportunity to
submit your proposal, any help from the customer (or decision-maker), and any prior positive
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associations with the customer. Then summarize the proposal’s recommendations and express
confidence that they will satisfy the customer’s or decision-maker’s needs.

• Title Page. Include the title of the proposal, the date, the name and logo of the organization to which
it is being submitted, and your company name and logo.
• Table of Contents. Include a table of contents in longer proposals to guide readers to important
sections, which should be listed according to beginning page numbers.
• List of Figures. If your proposal has six or more figures, include a list of figures with captions as
well as figure and page numbers

BODY
• Executive Summary. Briefly summarize the proposal’s highlights in persuasive, nontechnical
language for decision-makers.
• Introduction.
• Body. (See the sections Grant and Research Proposals)
• Conclusion. ((See the sections Grant and Research Proposals)

BACK MATTER
• Appendixes. Provide résumés of key personnel or material of interest to some readers, such as
statistical analyses, organizational charts, and workflow diagrams.
• Bibliography. List sources consulted in preparing the proposal, such as research studies,
specifications, and standards.
• Glossary. If your proposal contains terms that will be unfamiliar to your intended audience, list and
define them in the glossary.

Proposal Types: Based on purposes

Grant and Research Proposals. Grant proposals request funds or material goods to support a specific
project or cause. Grants are not loans and usually do not have to be repaid. For example, the
president of Habitat for Humanity may write a grant proposal to a lumber company asking for a
donation of lumber to help construct new housing for disadvantaged families.
Research proposals request approval to conduct research to investigate a problem or possible
improvements to a product or an operation. Because their purpose is to gain approval to conduct
research, they do not focus on particular solutions or ultimate results. For example, an engineer may
submit a research proposal to a manager for permission to research a new method that improves
cement strength for bridges. Similarly, students often submit research proposals to request approval
of their research plans for term projects, such as formal reports, or thesis projects.
Grant and research proposals are persuasive when they clearly define your research goals, your plan
for achieving those goals, and your qualifications to perform the research. The proposal typically
includes the following key components:
• Introduction. Explain the reasons for and the benefits of the proposal. What can readers expect as a
result of the proposed research, and what is the value of your potential findings?
• Background. Describe the problem your research will address so that readers are confident that you
understand the problem completely. Illustrate how both your primary audience and others will benefit
from the results of your proposed research.

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• Research Plan. Discuss in detail your plan for conducting the research. First, focus on your
research objectives—what specifically you plan to investigate. Then, focus on your research methods
—how you plan to achieve your objectives (through interviewing? on the Web? through other
sources?).

• Work Schedule. Outline realistic deadlines for specific research tasks that will help you achieve
your objectives and meet the final deadline.
• Qualifications. Summarize the expertise of those who will conduct the research. You might also
include their résumés in an appendix.
• Budget. Provide a list of projected costs for your research project, as appropriate, including costs of
all resources needed to carry out your research plan.
• Conclusion. Remind the reader of the benefits from your research and any specific products that
will result, such as a formal report. Close with a request for approval by a specific date and offer to
answer any of the readers’ questions.

Unit three: Research methods

3.1 The concept of Research
Different meanings are given for the term research. Broadly, some scholars define it as a search for
knowledge or the search for new knowledge. Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2006), however, say,
“Research is a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem.” Fellows and Liu (2008:8)
believe that “most problems requiring research for their solution are likely to be open-ended.”
According to Fellows and Liu (2008), open ended problems:
 tend to be complex
 existence may be difficult to identify,
 situation is likely to be dynamic and so, the variables are difficult to isolate.
 finding a solution is hard and may require novel ideas (e.g. through ‘brainstorming’). Or many
alternative solutions are likely to be possible.

For Woody (2011: online), research means,"--- defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions;
and carefully---testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.”
Here, there seems to be no uniform consensus among writers in defining research but the definitions
appear to suggest that research should be systematic, use logical and scientific procedures to answer a
( an open-ended problems) question.
3.2 Classifications of research
3.2.1 Applied vs. Pure
Research can be applied research or pure (or basic or fundamental) research on the basis of the
application of the research study. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate
problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization. Examples include copy research or
marketing research. But pure research is mainly concerned with generalizations and the formulation
of a theory. Fundamental (pure) research focuses on:
 ‘gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself’
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  developing a sampling technique or an instrument that can be applied to a particular situation
 the discovery of theories, laws of nature, etc
 generalizations about human behavior
Often, the difference between applied and pure research concerns the questions to be addressed rather
than the approaches adopted. Pure research is undertaken to develop knowledge, to contribute to the
body of theory which exists – to aid the search for the ‘truth’. However, applied research seeks to
address issues of applications: to help solve a practical problem (the addition to knowledge is more
‘incidental’ than being the main purpose). Hence, mainly pure research develops scientific knowledge
and so asks ‘is it true?’ whilst applied research uses scientific knowledge and so asks ‘does it work?’

Most research in social sciences is applied. Therefore, most practitioners/industrialists tend to pursue
development work and applications while academics are encouraged to undertake ‘pure’ research. Of
course, particularly in contexts like construction, the vast majority of research is a combination of
‘pure’ and ‘applied’ research–of theory and applications. This is because, development and
applications cannot exist without the basic, pure research while pure research is unlikely to be of
great benefit to society without development and applications.

3.2.2 Quantitative Research vs. Qualitative Research

Broadly, based on the research methods (e.g., how the variables are measured, and how the
information is analyzed) and the type of information needed through the research activity, research is
classified in to qualitative or quantitative.
Quantitative research tends to involve relatively large-scale and representative sets of data. It provides
information in-breadth and allows you to sample large numbers of the population, but the contact
with those people is much quicker than it is in qualitative research. Qualitative research, on the other
hand, is concerned with collecting and analyzing information in as many forms, chiefly non-numeric,
as possible. It tends to focus on exploring, in as much detail as possible, smaller numbers of instances
or examples which are seen as being interesting or illuminating, and aims to achieve ‘depth’ rather
than ‘breadth’.

Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-scale survey research, using
methods such as questionnaires or structured interviews. Qualitative research explores attitudes,
behavior and experiences through such methods as interviews or focus groups. It attempts to get an
in-depth opinion from participants. Because it focuses on attitudes, behavior and experiences, fewer
people take part in the research, but the contact with these people tends to last a lot longer.
Qualitative research one can analyze the various factors which motivate people to behave in a
particular manner or which make people like or dislike a particular thing. Since quantitative research
is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity, (e.g., how many people have
a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?) , it is structured, and does not
yield the reasons behind behavior or why people hold certain attitudes.

Example
Consider investigating client satisfaction with the provision of a construction project. What
quantitative and what qualitative data are likely to be available readily on a case study of a
construction project? Quantitative data would comprise time and cost performance derived from
project records – predicted v. actual; quality might be considered from records of re-worked items,
corrections required due to defects recorded during the maintenance period – measured by number,
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value etc.
Qualitative data could present participants’ perceptions of client satisfaction with respect to the
performance criteria of cost, time and quality. Such data would be obtained through questioning of
those participants’ identification of the variables and hypothesizing of their inter-relations. Research
could proceed by endeavoring to hold all but one of the independent variables constant and
examining the effects of controlled changes in the remaining independent variable on the dependent
variable.
Other types of research
Descriptive research
The purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics or behaviors of a given
population in a systematic and accurate fashion, or to systematically identify and record (all the
elements of) a phenomenon, process or system. Such identification and recording it should always be
done as objectively (accurately) and as comprehensively as possible (this is important for later
analysis). The research may be undertaken as a survey (possibly of the population identified) or as
case study. Typically, descriptive research is not designed to test hypotheses but rather is conducted
to provide information about the physical, social, behavioral, economic, or psychological
characteristics of some group of people. The group of interest may be as large as the population of the
world or as small as the students in a particular school.

Exploratory–done to test, or explore, aspects of theory. A central feature is the use of hypotheses.
Either an hypothesis is set up and then tested via research (data collection, analyses, interpretation of
results) or a complex array of variables is identified and hypotheses are produced to be tested by
further research.

Explanatory–to answer a particular question or explain a specific issue/phenomenon. As in

exploratory studies, hypotheses are used but here, as the situation is known better (or is defined more
clearly), theory etc. can be used to develop the hypotheses which the research will test. Also, this
could be a-follow-on from exploratory research which has produced hypotheses for testing.

Research Design
Research design is concerned with determining the most appropriate approach (methodology and
method(s)) to adopt. Its critical consideration is the logic that links the data collection and analysis to
yield results, and, thence, conclusions, to the main research question being investigated. The main
priority is to ensure that the research maximizes the chance of realizing its objectives. Therefore, the
research design must take into account the research questions, determine what data are required, and
how the data are to be analyzed. Research design is closely allied to statistical analysis of data, for
sound reasons. If you plan your research design properly, then whatever you find should be a useful
contribution to knowledge.
Types of Design: which to use and how to use them
The term method relate principally to the tools of data collection or analysis: techniques such as
questionnaires and interviews. Methodology has a more philosophical meaning, and usually refers to
the approach or paradigm that underpins the research. Thus, an interview that is conducted within,
say, a qualitative approach or paradigm will have a different underlying purpose and produce broadly
different data from an interview conducted within a quantitative paradigm.
Field experiments
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It’s different from an interventionist case study because you’re using a larger sample size: large
enough to give you some idea how your results would scale up to the population at large. (As with
surveys, the precise size will depend on the statistics you’re using.) Field experiments give you
answers to a lot of questions that you can’t answer through case studies and surveys.
Experiments and quasi-experiments
What is an Experiment?
An experiment is an activity or process, a combination of activities, which produces events, possible
outcomes. Usually, in scientific contexts, experiments are devised and conducted as tests to
investigate any relationship(s) between the activities carried out and the resultant outcomes.
The experiment is a situation in which the independent variable (also known as the exposure, the
intervention, the experimental or predictor variable) is carefully manipulated by the investigator
under known, tightly defined and controlled conditions, or by natural occurrence. At its most basic,
the experiment consists of an experimental group which is exposed to the intervention under
investigation and a control group which is not exposed. The experimental and control groups should
be equivalent, and investigated systematically under conditions that are identical (apart from the
exposure of the experimental group), in order to minimize variation between them.

In a field experiment, you’re doing something to people, and seeing the results. However, one major
limitation of the field experiment is that you’re doing it out in the field, to any apparently suitable
people that you can find. You have no control over what sort of people are happening along. The
experimental style of research is, perhaps, suited best to ‘bounded’ problems or issues in which the
variables involved are known, or, at least, hypothesized with some confidence.

The experimental method is particularly associated with the physical sciences, where materials and
non-human life forms are more amenable to experimentation. Indeed, experiments are at the heart of
what is known as the scientific method, with its practice of formulating and testing hypotheses
through carefully designed and controlled tests. Experiments are, however, widely used as a research
approach in a number of the social sciences, particularly psychology (which is often classified as a
science rather than a social science), but also economics, health care and education.
As already indicated, the social sciences are concerned with human behavior and perspectives. A
strict application of an experimental approach to research in these areas would suggest exposing one
group of individuals to the experiment–which might be beneficial or disadvantageous, and difficult to
judge in advance–while denying it to others. There are, in other words, ethical issues around the use
of experiments involving people. Yet, while they appear particularly evident in the case of
experiments, these issues are just as strong for other research approaches. They apply to action
research, to case studies and to surveys as well
Advantages and disadvantages of experiments
Advantages
1. The controlled experiment is generally viewed as the best way of getting a definitive answer to a
research question.
2. Through random assignment of people to intervention and control groups the risk of extraneous
variables confounding the results is minimized.
3. Control over the introduction and variation of the ‘predictor’ variables clarifies the direction of
cause and effect.
4. If both pre- and post-testing is conducted this controls for time-related threats to validity.

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5. The modern design of experiments permits greater flexibility, efficiency and powerful statistical
manipulation.
6. The experiment is the only research design which can, in principle, yield causal relationships.

Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to design experiments so as to represent a specified population.
2. It is often difficult to choose the ‘control’ variables so as to exclude all confounding variables.
3. Contriving the desired ‘natural setting’ in experiments is often not possible.
4. Experiments cannot capture the diversity of goals, objectives and service inputs which may
contribute to outcomes in natural settings.
Quasi-experiments
The usual approach to experimental design is to devise a study in which the main independent
variables, except the one of interest, are held approximately constant and the consequences for the
major dependent variable are measured. Such approaches are called quasi-experiments. A common
approach is to undertake comparative studies on similar projects executed at about the same time by
similar firms employing similar organizational arrangements. Such a study could investigate the
impact of different management styles of project managers on project management performance, as
measured in terms of time, cost, quality, etc.

Case studies: A case study is a detailed study of a single individual, group/organization, or

event/project. The data for case studies can come from a variety of sources, including observation,
interviews, questionnaires, reports and archival records (such as minutes of meetings). Normally, and
because only a small number of cases are studied, but the studies are in-depth, the purpose is to secure
theoretical validity (as for experiments), rather than the (more common) statistical validity required of
surveys.
Unlike the experimenter who manipulates variables to determine their causal significance or the
surveyor who asks standardized questions of large, representative samples of individuals, the case
study researcher typically observes the characteristics of an individual unit–a child, a clique, a class, a
school or a community. The purpose of such observation is to probe deeply and to analyze intensively
the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of the unit with a view to establishing
generalizations about the wider population to which that unit belongs.
Advantages and disadvantages of case studies
Advantages
1. The case study is the method of choice when the phenomenon under study is not readily
distinguishable from its context.
2. It is drawn from people’s experiences and practices and so it is seen to be strong.
3. Ideally suited to the needs and resources of the small-scale researcher.
4. Case studies allow for generalizations from a specific instance to a more general issue.
5. Because the data contained in case studies are close to people’s experiences, they can be more
persuasive and more accessible.
Disadvantages
1. The disadvantages of case studies are linked to their advantages, in particular:
2. The very complexity of a case can make analysis difficult.
3. While the contextualization of aspects of the case strengthen this form of research, it is
difficult to know where ‘context’ begins and ends.

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Collecting Data
All research involves the collection and analysis of data, whether through reading, observation,
measurement, asking questions, or a combination of these or other strategies.
Access and Ethics

Two key issues are likely to confront you as a researcher as soon as you begin to consider collecting
data for your project are access and ethics. These issues are also likely to be a continuing concern
throughout the process of data collection, and possibly also afterwards. They have to do with what
data you are able to collect, how you get it and how you use it.
Access-Gaining access to the people, institutions or documents you wish to study for your research is
not just a one-off exercise. Rather, it is a continuous and potentially very demanding process. Our
research topic may necessitate your gaining, and maintaining, access to any or all of the following:
• documents, held in libraries or by institutions;
• people, in their homes, places of work, in the wider community, or over the Internet;
• institutions, such as private companies, schools or government departments.

Common Ethical Issues-Most commonly, ethical issues are thought to arise predominantly with
research designs that use qualitative methods of data collection. This is because of the closer
relationships between the researcher and researched.
Confidentiality & Anonymity. Trust and confidence are important considerations in data collection–
the more sensitive the data, the more trust in the researcher which is required by the provider.
Confidentiality is a similar to anonymity. Anonymity refers to persons and organizations whilst
confidentiality relates to the data. The two issues are closely related such that confidentiality concerns
neither revealing data to anyone nor using the data for purposes other than those for whom the
respondents have given permission. If trust and confidence have been established, it is likely to be
easier to obtain data and it may be possible to obtain data which might not be available otherwise.

The assurances can be given verbally but should be confirmed in writing in the formal letter of
request for response in which the purpose and legitimacy of the research should be explained. It is
useful if the letter contains an explanation of the research, the envisaged outcomes, benefits and
purpose of the work as well as an explanation of its role in a degree course etc. Despite assurances of
confidentiality, such as, ‘. . . any data provided will be treated as confidential and used for the
purposes of this research only; the identity of respondents will not be revealed’, respondents may
require further restrictions to apply concerning publication of results. Such restrictions should be
considered carefully as they could ‘stifle’ the work and its value.

Sampling: strategies
The objective of sampling is to provide a practical means of enabling the data collection and
processing components of research to be carried out whilst ensuring that the sample provides a good
representation of the population; i.e. the sample is representative. The first question new researchers
tend to ask is ‘how many people should I speak to?’

For some research projects, there will be only a small number of people within your research
population, in which case it might be possible to contact everyone. This is called a census. However,
for most projects, unless you have a huge budget, limitless timescale and large team of interviewers,
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it will be difficult to speak to every person within your research population. You are probably
restricted by time and money–you have to make sure that you construct a sample which will be
manageable. Also, you have to account for non-response and you may need to choose a higher
proportion of your research population. Researchers overcome this problem by choosing a smaller,
more manageable number of people to take part in their research. This technique is called sampling.
For example, all buildings on Hong Kong Island or all buildings in Greater London can be viewed as
populations, whilst both of these are also samples of all buildings in the world. If the population is
sufficiently small, a full population ‘sample’ may be researched, but in the vast majority of cases a
sample must be taken.
There are many different ways to choose a sample, and the method used will depend upon the area of
research, research methodology and preference of the researcher. The sample size will also depend on
what you want to do with your results. Generally, in quantitative research, the larger the sample the
more accurate your results. Therefore, for large scale, quantitative surveys you will need to contact
many more people than you would for a small, qualitative piece of research.
In quantitative research, it is believed that if this sample is chosen carefully using the correct
procedure, it is then possible to generalize the results to the whole of the research population. For
many qualitative researchers however, the ability to generalize their work to the whole research
population is not the goal. Basically there are two main types of sample:
􀁘 probability samples
􀁘 purposive samples.
In probability samples, all people within the research population have a specifiable chance of being
selected. These types of sample are used if the researcher wishes to explain, predict or generalize to
the whole research population. On the other hand, purposive samples are used if description rather
than generalization is the goal.
Probability sampling:
• Simple random sampling –selection at random
• Systematic sampling –selecting every nth case
• Stratified sampling –sampling within groups of the population
• Cluster sampling –surveying whole clusters of the population sampled at random
Non-probability sampling:
• Convenience sampling – sampling those most convenient
• Voluntary sampling – the sample is self-selected
• Quota sampling – convenience sampling within groups of the population
• Purposive sampling – handpicking supposedly typical or interesting cases
• Dimensional sampling – multi-dimensional quota sampling
• Snowball sampling – building up a sample through informants

Applying Techniques for Collecting Data

Documents
All research projects involve, to a greater or lesser extent, the use and analysis of documents.
Researchers are expected to read, understand and critically analyze the writings of others, whether
fellow researchers, practitioners or policy-makers. Considerable attention has, therefore, already been
given to the techniques of reading for research. They might, for example:
• be library-based, aimed at producing a critical synopsis of an existing area of research writing;
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• be computer-based, consisting largely of the analysis of previously collected data sets;
• be work-based, drawing on materials produced within an organization;
• have a policy focus, examining materials relevant to a particular set of policy decisions;
• have a historical orientation, making use of available archival and other surviving documentary
evidence.
Interviews
The interview method involves questioning or discussing issues with people. It can be a very useful
technique for collecting data which would likely not be accessible using techniques such as
observation or questionnaires. If you have decided to carry out a number of interviews for your
research project, one of the basic decisions you will have to take is whether to record the interview or
to take notes.
Each of these strategies has associated advantages and disadvantages:
 Using an audio or digital recorder means that you need only concentrate on the process of the
interview. You can focus your attention on the interviewee, give appropriate eye contact and non-
verbal communication. You will have a verbatim record of the whole interview.
 Recording may, however, make respondents anxious, and less likely to reveal confidential
information. Recordings also take a long time to transcribe and analyze.
 Note-taking gives you an instant record of the key points of an interview. You do not need to
acquire an audio or digital recorder, and do not need to worry about initial sorting, categorizing
and analyzing of the data collected.
 However, note-taking can also be distracting. Putting pen to paper may lead interviewees to think
that they have said something significant. Conversely, when you don’t make a note, they may
think that you find their comments unimportant.

Another key issue in carrying out interviews, as well as other forms of questioning like
questionnaires, is how best to ask potentially sensitive questions.
About age:
• ask for year of birth
• or the year when they left school
• or how old their first child is
• or when they are due to retire
About ethnic group:
• ask them to select from a range of options
• or to write it down for you
• or ask them how they would like you to describe their ethnic group
• or make an assessment yourself
About income:
• ask them if they could afford to buy a new car or house
• or whether they would regard their income as above average, average or below average
• or which of a number of income bands they come in
Hint: Instead of asking all of your questions directly and verbally, you could make some use of
prompt cards, particularly for sensitive questions, and ask your interviewee to point to the answer.
distinguishes three types of questions: factual, knowledge and opinion.
Opinion questions are the most sensitive category; factual are least sensitive. The more sensitive the
category of questions, the more important it is that the questions are not perceived by the respondent
to be ‘threatening’. A ‘threatening’ question reduces the response rate to individual questions, if not
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to the entire interview or questionnaire. Interviews vary in their nature, they can be: structured,
semi-structured and unstructured.
The major differences lie in the constraints placed on the respondent and the interviewer. In a
structured interview, the interviewer administers a questionnaire, perhaps by asking the questions
and recording the responses, with little scope for probing those responses by asking supplementary
questions to obtain more details and to pursue new and interesting aspects. In unstructured
interviews, at the extreme, the interviewer introduces the topic briefly and then records the replies of
the respondent. This may be almost a monologue with some prompts to ensure completion of the
statements; clearly the respondent can say what and as much as she/he desires. Semi-structured
interviews fill the spectrum between the two extremes. They vary in form quite widely, from a
questionnaire-type with some probing, to a list of topic areas on which the respondent’s views are
recorded.
Observations
The observation method involves the researcher in watching, recording and analyzing events of
interest. Direct observation tends to be used in areas such as health, sociology and psychology. It
involves the observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain situation and often uses technology such as video
cameras or one-way mirrors. Participant observation, as a research method, can be a covert
participant observer-entering organizations and participating in their activities without anyone
knowing that they were conducting research. Overt participant observation, where everyone knows
who the researcher is and what she is doing, however, can be a valuable and rewarding method for
qualitative inquiry.
Questionnaires
Questions occur in two primary forms–open or closed. Open questions are designed to enable the
respondent to answer in full; to reply in whatever form, with whatever content and to whatever extent
the respondent wishes (in interviews, the researcher may probe). Such questions are easy to ask but
may be difficult to answer, the answer may never be full/complete and, often, the answers are very
difficult to analyze. It is essential that answers to open questions are recorded in detail and in. Closed
questions have a set number of responses as determined by the researcher. Thus, it may be preferable
to place open questions before related, closed questions. It is possible to ask more closed than open
questions, as responses to closed questions can be given more easily and quickly.

Questionnaires may be administered by post or email/web to respondents, to groups by the

researcher or particular individuals, such as to a class of students, by a lecturer, or to individuals by
the researcher–perhaps to form the basis of an interview. The questions should be unambiguous and
easy for the respondent to answer, they should not require extensive data gathering by the respondent.
They should not contain requests for unnecessary data, for instance, they should not request a name
when the respondent is known, if the questionnaire was sent to the person by name, especially when
anonymity is to be provided or when the identity of the respondent is not needed.

All questionnaires should be piloted initially; completed by a small sample of respondents. The
piloting will test whether the questions are intelligible, easy to answer, unambiguous etc. Through
obtaining feedback from these respondents, there will be an opportunity for improving the
questionnaire. Here is a model questionnaire:

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Triangulation
Triangulation is the use of two or more research methods to investigate the same thing, such as
experiment and interviews in a case study project. A postal or other questionnaire to a generalized,
representative sample of respondents would assist the researchers to appreciate the general validity of
the findings from the particular case study and would serve to aid understanding of its unique and
generally applicable features.
Analyzing Data
The methods you use to analyze your data will depend on whether you have chosen to conduct
qualitative or quantitative research, and this choice will be influenced by personal and methodological
preference and educational background.
Deciding Which Approach to Use: Quantitative & Qualitative Approaches
The basic broad distinction between the quantitative (i.e. numbers) and the qualitative (i.e. words and
everything else) has a major influence on how data may be analyzed. This is because, qualitative data
may be quantified, and quantitative data qualified. For example, it is common practice in analyzing
surveys to assign, sometimes arbitrarily, numerical values to qualitative data, such as, ‘successful’
(1), ‘unsuccessful’ (2).

Similarly, if you conduct your research entirely through interviews, and analyze the results by
searching for similarities and differences in the interview records, you are quite likely to end up using
numbers or their written equivalents in your writing: e.g. ‘all of the interviewees’, ‘most of the
respondents’, ‘half of the women I spoke to’, etc. Or, if you base your study wholly on numerical
data, you will still introduce qualitative factors in your analysis, as in discussing the relative worth of
different data sources, and in interpreting what your results mean for practice.

Quantitative approaches

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For quantitative data analysis, issues of validity and reliability are important. Quantitative researchers
endeavor to show that their chosen methods succeed in measuring what they purport to measure.
They want to make sure that their measurements are stable and consistent and that there are no errors
or bias present, either from the respondents or from the researcher.

For quantitative data, the analysis can be left until the end of the data collection process, and if it is a
large survey, statistical software is the easiest and most efficient method to use. For this type of
analysis time has to be put aside for the data input process which can be long and laborious. However,
once this has been done the analysis is quick and efficient, with most software packages producing
well presented graphs, pie charts and tables which can be used for the final report.
Generally, quantitative approaches provide ‘snapshots’ and so, are used to address questions such as
what, how much, how many? Thus, the data, and results, are instantaneous or cross-sectional (e.g.
compressive strength of a concrete cube; number of firms in an industry; market price of an item;
content of an Architect’s Instruction).

The data collected by questionnaires may, of course, be either qualitative or quantitative.

Questionnaires do, however, lend themselves more to quantitative forms of analysis. This is partly
because they are designed to collect mainly discrete items of information, either numbers or words
which can be coded and represented as numbers. This emphasis is also partly due to the larger scale
of many questionnaire surveys, and their common focus on representation, which encourages a
numerical or quasi-numerical summary of the results.

Qualitative approaches
In qualitative research, the beliefs, understandings, opinions, views etc. of people are investigated–the
data gathered may be unstructured, at least in their ‘raw’ form, but will tend to be detailed, and hence
‘rich’ in content and scope.
Analyses of such data tend to be considerably more difficult than with quantitative data, often
requiring a lot of filtering, sorting and other ‘manipulations’ to make them suitable for analytic
techniques. Analytic techniques for qualitative data may be highly laborious, involving transcribing
interviews etc. and analyzing the content of conversations. Clearly, a variety of external,
environmental variables are likely to impact on the data and results and the researchers are likely to
be intimately involved in all stages of the work in a more active way than usually is acceptable in
quantitative studies.
Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process, with few rigid rules and procedures. Ask two
researchers to analyze a transcript and they will probably come up with very different results. This
may be because they have studied different subjects, or because they come from different political or
methodological standpoints.
For qualitative data, the researcher might analyze as the research progresses, continually refining and
reorganizing in light of the emerging results.
To analyze interview of qualitatively, it is useful to produce an interview summary form or a focus
group summary form which you complete as soon as possible after each interview or focus group has
taken place. This includes practical details about the time and place, the participants, the duration of
the interview or focus group, and details about the content and emerging themes. There are many
different types of qualitative data analysis. The method you use will depend on your research topic,
your personal preferences and the time, equipment and finances available to you. Also, qualitative
data analysis is a very personal process
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In most contexts, visual aids and diagrams can be extremely helpful in analyzing data, as patterns and
relationships often emerge. Such diagrams should comprise (as near as is practical) the raw data; this
is relatively simple for quantitative data but will be the result of the initial scrutinies where categories
of qualitative data are required.

Reporting the Results: Results, Inferences and Conclusions

Once the research project has been structured, the theory and literature studied, the data collected and
analyzed, the next stages are to produce results and, by making inferences, examine and discuss the
results of empirical work in the context of theory and literature, to draw conclusions and make
recommendations; limitations of the study must be made explicit. The results relate to the analyses of
data, whilst the conclusions use those results, together with the theory and literature, to determine
what has been found out through the execution of the study. Particularly, conclusions must relate to
any hypotheses proposed, the objectives set and, hence, to the overall aim of the research.

It is important to be sure of the validity and reliability of the work – the confidence which someone
may have in the findings. One should judge how the findings may be used in other research and in
application in practice. Part of such appreciation leads to recommendations for further research–this is
identification of additional areas of study to extend and complement the work which has been carried
out; it will inform the development of subsequent research projects. Thus, results are what emerge
from analyses and, as such, require interpretation to give meaning in the context of what the research
sought to discover. They must demonstrate what has been found out through the execution of the
research. For quantitative studies, statistical inference is employed to determine the applicability of
the results to the issues under investigation and, thence, the drawing of conclusions. Conclusions take
a ‘broad perspective’, looking at the research executed as a whole, but focusing particularly on the
hypotheses, objectives and aim of the research, adopting an incremental approach to generalizations
which may be made.
Inferences: Inference is the process by which the meanings and implications of the results are
determined in order that conclusions may be drawn.
Interpretation: Inferences and discussions enable the researcher to present the issues arising out of
the research from two perspectives separated in time–that prior to the execution of the empirical work
and that following its execution and production of results. In interpreting results, associations and
causalities between variables are investigated. Usually, variables are considered in pairs; independent
and dependent variables.

For example, A random sample of 2000 people who smoke is selected to investigate whether a short
TV campaign will induce them to give up smoking. Six weeks after the end of the campaign, they are
asked whether they have given up smoking:
Viewed Not viewed Total
(V) (N)
Still smoking (S) 500 300 800
Given up (G) 1000 200 1200
1500 500 2000

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67% of those who viewed the campaign had given up smoking whilst only 40% of those who did not
view the campaign had given up. The results suggest that the campaign was successful but other
factors (variables) could have been influential–consider ‘social class’ and ‘age group’.

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