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STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2

Power Semiconductor Devices

MODULE OVERVIEW

Power semiconductor devices constitute the heart of power electronic system. Modern power electronics era
started with the introduction of power semiconductor devices in the 1950’s, particularly with the commercial
introduction of thyristor in 1958. Since then, many power semiconductor devices, such as triac, gate turn-off
thyristor (GTO), bipolar power transistor (BPT or BJT), power MOSFET, insulated gate bipolar transistor
(IGBT), static induction transistor (SIT), static induction thyristor (SITH) and MOS-controlled thyristor (MTC)
have appeared. These power switching devices along with the microelectronic circuits are recently ushering
a new era in power electronics and motion control systems. Power electronics and motion control are
expected to have an increasing influence on a nation’s industrial productivity, energy conservation and urban
pollution problems in the coming decades. (https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-015-938 7 -
8_11)

This module will provide students to acquire knowledge and skills in the familiarization of the working principles,
construction, application, characteristics and testing methods of the various types of power semiconductor
devices/components.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Upon completion of this module you will be expected to:

1. Read and interpret symbols and diagrams;
2. Explain the principles of operation;
3, Describe the construction, control characteristics and function of the different Power Semiconductor
Devices;
4. Describe methods for testing semiconductor devices using digital or analogue multi-meters.
5. Recognize typical faults of semiconductor devices.
• Open Circuit.
• Short Circuit.
• Leaky

2.1 POWER DIODES

A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direction with far greater ease than in
the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other
diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as the figure
below. The term “diode” is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ≤ 1 A. The term rectifier is used for
power devices, I > 1 A.

Figure 2.1.1 Actual Image and Symbol of a Diode

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Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of Current flow.

When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or prevent current through the lamp,
depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (As shown in figure 2.1.2)

Figure 2.1.2. Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased.
(b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased.

When the polarity of the battery is such that current is allowed to flow through the diode, the diode is said to
be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is “backward” and the diode blocks current, the diode is said
to be reverse-biased. A diode may be thought of as like a switch: “closed” when forward-biased and “open”
when reverse-biased.

The direction of the diode symbol’s “arrowhead” points at the direction of the current in conventional flow. This
convention holds true for all semiconductors possessing “arrowheads” in their schematics. The opposite is true
when electron flow is used, where the current direction is against the “arrowhead”.

2.1.1. Hydraulic Check Valve Analogy

Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A check valve allows
fluid flow through it in only one direction as in the figure below.

Figure 2.1.3. Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Current flow permitted.
(b) Current flow prohibited.

Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the pressure across them
is of the correct “polarity” to open the gate (in the analogy shown, greater fluid pressure on the right than on the
left). If the pressure is of the opposite “polarity,” the pressure difference across the check valve will close and
hold the gate so that no flow occurs.

Like check valves, diodes are essentially “pressure” operated (voltage-operated) devices. The essential
difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the polarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let’s
take a closer look at the simple battery-diode-lamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops
across the various components in the figure below.

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Figure 2.1.3. Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased.

(b) Reverse biased.

2.1.2. Forward Bias Diode Configuration

A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, leaving most of the battery
voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery’s polarity is reversed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and
drops all of the battery’s voltage leaving none for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch
(closed in the forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most
substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conducting than the average mechanical
switch (0.7 volts versus tens of millivolts).

This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of the depletion region formed
by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor
diode, a thin depletion region exists around the region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below
(a)) The depletion region is almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator:

Figure 2.1.4 Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic

symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in the figure above (b) such that the anode (pointing end)
corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, non-pointing end, at (b) corresponds to the
N-type material at (a). Also note that the cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on
the symbol.

2.1.3. Reverse Bias Diode Configuration

If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands, further resisting
any current through it. (see Figure 2.1.5)

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Figure 2.1.5 Depletion region expands with reverse bias.

2.1.4. Forward Voltage

Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion region collapses
becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current through it. In order for a sustained current to go
through the diode; though, the depletion region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a
certain minimum voltage to accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in the figure below
.

Figure 2.1.6 Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region
thickness.

For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germanium diodes, the forward
voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising the diode accounts for its
nominal forward voltage figure, which is why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages .
Forward voltage drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that diode
voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) switch. For most simplified circuit analysis,
the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be considered constant at the nominal figure and not related
to the amount of current.

2.1.5. Reverse-Biased Operation

A reverse-biased diode prevents current from going through it, due to the expanded depletion region.
In actuality, a very small amount of current can and does go through a reverse-biased diode, called the leakage
current, but it can be ignored for most purposes.

The ability of a diode to withstand reverse-bias voltages is limited, as it is for any insulator. If the applied
reverse-bias voltage becomes too great, the diode will experience a condition known as breakdown (figure
below), which is usually destructive.

A diode’s maximum reverse-bias voltage rating is known as the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV, and may
be obtained from the manufacturer. Like forward voltage, the PIV rating of a diode varies with temperature,
except that PIV increases with increased temperature and decreases as the diode becomes cooler—exactly
opposite that of forward voltage.

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Figure 2.1.7 Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and
reverse breakdown.

Typically, the PIV rating of a generic “rectifier” diode is at least 50 volts at room temperature. Diodes
with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are available for modest prices.

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diodes-and-rectifiers/

2.1.6. Other Types of Diodes

The following are the common types of diodes;

1. Zener Diode
2. Varactor Diode or Varicap Diode
3. Tunnel Diode
4. Schottky Diode
5. Photodiode
6. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
7. Laser Diode

2.1.6.1. Zener Diode

The Zener diode is used to provide a stable reference voltage. As a result, it is used in vast amounts.
It works under reverse bias condition and found that when a particular voltage is reached it breaks down. If the
flow of current is limited by a resistor, it activates a stable voltage to be generated. This type of diode is widely
used to offer a reference voltage in power supplies.

Zener Diode Circuit Working and Applications

The diode is one of the basic components in electronic circuits. When you want to know about voltage
considerations you should know about the diodes. The diode is basically made up of semiconductors which
have two characteristics, ‘P’ type and ‘N’ type. The ‘P’type and ‘N’ type semiconductors represent positive and
negative type semiconductors. ‘P’type semiconductor will have excess number of holes in configuration and ‘N’
type semiconductor will have excess number of electrons. If both types of characteristics present in a single
crystal then it can be termed as a diode. The positive terminal of the battery connects with the ‘P’ side and the
negative side is connected with the ‘N’ side. Let’s discuss about Zener diode working, It is nothing but a simple
diode connecting in reverse bias.

Figure 2.1.8 Zener Diode

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It is mainly a special property of the diode rather than any special type of equipment. The person named
Clearance Zener invented this property of the diode that’s why it is named after him as a remembrance. The
special property of the diode is that there will be a breakdown in the circuit if the voltage applied across a
reversely biased circuit. This does not allow the current to flow across it. When the voltage across the diode is
increased, temperature also increases and the crystal ions vibrate with greater amplitude and all these leads to
the breakdown of the depletion layer. The layer at the junction of ‘P’ type and ‘N’ type. When the applied voltage
exceeds an specific amount Zener breakdown takes place.

Figure 2.1.9 Zener Diode Characteristics

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Zener diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias mode and Zener diode can be connected
in reverse bias positive in a circuit as shown in a picture. We can connect it for different applications.

Figure 2.1.10 Zener Diode connection

The circuit symbol of Zener diode is as shown in the Figure 2.1.11. For convenience it is used normally. When
discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical representation of the operation of the
Zener diode. It is called the V-I characteristics of a general p – n junction diode.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode behavior. When the diode is connected in
forward bias diode acts as a normal diode. When the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined
voltage then the Zener breakdown voltage occurs. To get breakdown voltage sharp and distinct doping is

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controlled and the surface imperfections are avoided. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the Zener voltage.
And also, the knee voltage because at this point the current is the current is very rapid.

Figure 2.1.11 Zener Diode Behavior

Application of Zener Diode

Zener diode is popularly used as Shunt Regulator or Voltage Regulator. As we have gone through the first part
of the article, we know what is Zener diode and what is the basic principle of operation. Here the question arises
where this type of diodes can be useful. Main application of this type of diodes are as voltage regulator. Over
voltage protector, as voltage reference.

Figure 2.1.12 Checking the condition of Zener Diode

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2.1.6.2. Varactor Diode or Varicap Diode

Varactor diode is one kind of semiconductor microwave solid-state device and the applications of this diode
mainly involve in where variable capacitance is preferred which can be accomplished by controlling voltage.
These diodes are also named as varicap diodes. Even though the outcome of the variable capacitance can be
shown by the normal P-N junction diodes, but these diodes are chosen for giving the desired capacitance
changes as they are special types of diodes. Varactor diodes are specifically fabricated and optimized such that
they permit a high range of changes in capacitance.

Figure 2.1.13 Symbol of a Varactor Diode

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The different types of Varactor diodes are available in the market such as hyper abrupt, abrupt and gallium-
arsenide Varactor diodes. The symbol of the Varactor diode is shown in the above figure that includes a
capacitor symbol at one end of the diode that signifies the characteristics of the variable capacitor of the Varactor
diodes.

The symbol of the Varactor diode looks like a common PN- junction diode that includes two terminals namely
the cathode and the anode. And at one end this diode is inbuilt with two lines that specify the capacitor symbol.

Working Principles of a Varactor Diode

To know the Varactor diode working principle, we must know the function of capacitor and capacitance. Let us
consider the capacitor that comprises of two plates alienated by an insulator as shown in the figure.

We know that the capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the region of the terminals, as the region
of the terminals increases the capacitance of the capacitor increases. When the diode is in the reverse biased
mode, where the two regions of P-type and N-type are able to conduct and thus can be treated as two terminals.

The depletion area between the P-type & N-type regions can be considered as the insulating dielectric.
Therefore, it is similar to the capacitor shown above.

Figure 2.1.14 Working of a Varactor Diode

The volume of the depletion region of the diode varies with change in reverse bias. If the reverse voltage of the
diode is increased, then the size of the depletion region increases. Likewise, if the reverse voltage of the
Varactor diode is decreased, then the size of the depletion region decreases. Hence, by changing the revers e
bias of the diode the capacitance can be changed.

Characteristics of Varactor Diode

The characteristics of Varactor diode have the following:

• These diodes significantly generate less noise compared to other diodes.

• The cost of these diodes is available at lower and more reliable.
• These diodes are very small in size and very lightweight.
• There is no use when it is operated in forwarding bias.
• In reverse bias mode, the Varactor diode enhances the capacitance.

Applications of Varactor Diode

The applications of Varactor Diode mainly involve within the RF design arena, However, in this article, we are
discussing a couple of applications of Varactor diodes, to illustrate how these diodes can be used in a practical.
The capacitor in a practical circuit can be changed with the Varactor diode, but it is necessary to make sure the
tuning voltage that is, the voltage necessary to set the diode capacitance. And to ensure that this diode is not
influenced by the bias voltage in the circuit. By using voltage control technique in the diode circuit, changing
capacitance can be offered.

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a. Voltage Controlled Oscillators

Consider the circuit of VCO designed by using varactor diode ‘D1’ as symbolized in the figure. The oscillator
can be allowed by changing the’ D1’ diode. The capacitor C1 is used to stop the reverse bias for the varact or
diode, also neglects the diode getting short-circuited through the inductor. The diode can be adjusted by
applying bias through an R1 resistor (isolating series resistor).

Figure 2.1.15 Varactor Diode in VCOs

b. RF Filters

The varactor diodes can be used in the RF filters to tune. In the receive front end circuits, tracking filters may
be crucial. These diodes allow the filters to follow the frequency of the incoming received signal which can be
restricted using a control voltage. Usually, this is offered by microprocessor control through the DAC. A few of
the main applications of Varactor diodes can be listed below:

• These diodes can be used as frequency modulators and RF phase shifters.

• These diodes can be used as frequency multipliers in microwave receivers.
• These diodes are used to change the capacitance in-tank LC circuits.

2.1.6.3. Tunnel Diode

Tunnel Diode is the P-N junction device that exhibits negative resistance. When the voltage is increased than
the current flowing through it decreases. It works on the principle of the Tunneling effect. Metal-Insulator-Met al
(MIM) diode is another type of Tunnel diode, but its present application appears to be limited to research
environments due to inherit sensitivities, its applications considered to be very limited to research environment s .
There is one more diode called Metal-Insulator-Insulator-Metal (MIIM) diode which includes an additional
insulator layer. The tunnel diode is a two-terminal device with n-type semiconductor as the cathode and p-type
semiconductor as an anode. The tunnel diode circuit symbol is as shown below.

Figure 2.1.16 Tunnel Diode Symbol

Tunnel Diode Circuit with Operations and Applications

A Tunnel Diode is also known as Eskari diode and it is a highly doped semiconductor that is capable of
very fast operation. Leo Esaki invented the Tunnel diode in August 1957. The Germanium material is basically
used to make tunnel diodes. They can also be made from gallium arsenide and silicon materials. Actually, they
are used in frequency detectors and converters. The Tunnel diode exhibits negative resistance in their operating

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range. Therefore, it can be used as an amplifier, oscillators and in any switching circuits. The tunnel diode is
used for microwave applications where its performance surpassed that of other devices of the day.

Tunnel Diode Working Phenomenon

Based on the classical mechanics’ theory, a particle must acquire energy which is equal to the potential energy
barrier height, if it has to move from one side of the barrier to the other. Otherwise, energy has to be supplied
from some external source, so the N-sided electrons of the junction can jump over the junction barrier to reach
the P-side of the junction. If the barrier is thin such as in tunnel diode, according to the Schrodinger equation
implies that there is a large amount of probability and then an electron will penetrate through the barrier. This
process will happen without any energy loss on the part of the electron. The behavior of the quantum mechanical
indicates tunneling. The high-impurity P-N junction devices are called as tunnel-diodes. The tunneling
phenomenon provides a majority carrier effect.

Construction of Tunnel Diode

The diode has a ceramic body and a hermetically sealing lid on top. A small tin dot is alloyed or soldered to a
heavily doped pellet of n-type Ge. The pellet is soldered to anode contact which is used for heat dissipation.
The tin-dot is connected to the cathode contact via a mesh screen is used to reduce the inductance.

Figure 2.1.17 Operation and its Characteristics

The operation of the tunnel diode mainly includes two biasing methods such as forward and reverse

a. Forward Bias Condition

Under the forward bias condition, as voltage increases, then-current decreases and thus become
increasingly misaligned, known as negative resistance. An increase in voltage will lead to operating as a normal
diode where the conduction of electrons travels across the P-N junction diode. The negative resistance region
is the most important operating region for a Tunnel diode. The Tunnel diode and normal P-N junction diode
characteristics are different from each other.

b. Reverse Bias Condition

Under the reverse condition, the tunnel diode acts as a back diode or backward diode. With zero offset
voltage, it can act as a fast rectifier. In reverse bias condition, the empty states on the n-side aligned with the
filled states on the p-side. In the reverse direction, the electrons will tunnel through a potential barrier. Because
of its high doping concentrations, tunnel diode acts as an excellent conductor.

Tunnel Diode Applications

• Due to the tunneling mechanism, it is used as an ultra-high-speed switch.

• The switching time is of the order of nanoseconds or even picoseconds.

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• Due to the triple valued feature of its curve from current, it is used as a logic memory storage device.
• Due to extremely small capacitance, inductance and negative resistance, it is used as a microwave
oscillator at a frequency of about 10 GHz.
• Due to its negative resistance, it is used as a relaxation oscillator circuit.

Advantages of Tunnel Diode

• Low cost
• Low noise
• Ease of operation
• High speed
• Low power
• Insensitive to nuclear radiations

Disadvantages of Tunnel Diode

• Being a two-terminal device, it provides no isolation between output and input circuits.
• The voltage range, which can be operated properly in 1 volt or below.

2.1.6.4. Schottky Barrier Diode

A Schottky diode is also known as Schottky or hot carrier diode. It is a semiconductor diode with a very fast
switching action, but a low forward voltage drop. When a current flow through the diode there is a small voltage
drop across the diode terminals. In a normal diode, the voltage drop is between 0.6 to 1.7 volts, while in a
Schottky diode the voltage drop normally ranges between 0.15 and 0.45volts. This lower voltage drop provides
higher switching speed and better system efficiency. In Schottky diode, a semiconductor–metal junction is
formed between a semiconductor and a metal, thus creating a Schottky barrier. The N-type semiconductor acts
as a cathode and the metal side acts as the anode of the diode.

Symbol of Schottky Diode Images of Schottky Diode

Figure 2.1.18 Schottky Diode Symbol and Construction

It is a unilateral junction. A metal-semiconductor junction is formed at one end and another metal-semiconductor
contact is formed at the other end. It is an ideal Ohmic bidirectional contact with no potential existing between
the metal and the semiconductor and it is non-rectifying. The built-in potential across the open-circuited Schottky
barrier diode characterizes the Schottky diode.

Characteristics of Schottky Barrier Diode

• The forward voltage drop of the Schottky barrier diode is very low compared to a normal PN junction
diode.
• The forward voltage drop ranges from 0.3 volts to 0.5 volts.
• The forward voltage drop of the Schottky barrier is made up of silicon.
• The forward voltage drop increases at the same time increasing the doping concentration of N-type
semiconductor.

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• The V-I characteristics of a Schottky barrier diode are very steeper compared to the V-I characteristics
of normal PN junction diode due to the high concentration of current carriers.

Figure 2.1.19 V-I characteristics of a Schottky barrier diode and PN-diode

Working of Schottky Barrier Diode

As shown in the below figure, when the voltage is applied to the diode in such a way that the metal is +Ve with
respect to the semiconductor. It is a unipolar device as it has electrons as majority charge carriers on both sides
of the junction. When these two are brought in contact, electrons begin to flow in both directions across the
metal-semiconductor interface.

Figure 2.1.20 Voltage applied to Schottky Diode

Therefore, there are no depletion region shapes near the junction that is, there is no large current from the metal
to the semiconductor in reverse bias. Due to the time of electron-hole recombination, the delay there in the
junction diodes is not present. N-type semiconductors have superior potential energy as a contrast to electrons
of metals. The voltage increased across the diode will be against the built-in potential and makes simple to the
flow of current.

Applications of Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes are used for the voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation
due to the high current density in the Schottky diode. It’s also been a low forward voltage drop in Schottky diode,
it is wasted in less heat, making them an efficient choice for applications that are sensitive and very efficient.
Because of the Schottky diode used in stand-alone photovoltaic systems in order to prevent batteries from
discharging purpose for the solar panels at night as well as in grid-connected systems, containing multiple
strings are connected in parallel connection. Schottky diodes are also used as rectifiers in power supplies.

Advantages of Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes are used in many applications compared to other types of diodes that do not perform well.
• Low turn-on voltage: The turn-on voltage for the diode is between 0.2 and 0.3 volts. For a silicon diode, it
is against 0.6 to 0.7 volts from a standard silicon diode.
• Fast recovery time: A fast recovery time means a small amount of stored charge that can be used for high-
speed switching applications.
• Low junction capacitance: It occupies a very small area, after the result obtained from wire point contact
of the silicon. Since the capacitance levels are very small.

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Features of Schottky Barrier Diode

The features of Schottky diode mainly include the following

• Higher efficiency
• Low forward voltage drop
• Low capacitance
• Low profile surface-mount package, ultra-small
• Integrated guard ring for stress protection

2.1.6.5. Photodiode

The photodiode is used to detect light. It is found that when light strikes a PN-junction it can create electrons
and holes. Typically, photodiodes operate under reverse bias condition where even a small amount of flow of
current resulting from the light can be simply noticed. These diodes can also be used to produce electricity.

A photodiode is one type of light detector, used to convert the light into current or voltage based on the mode
of operation of the device. It comprises of optical filters, built-in lenses and also surface areas. These diodes
have a slow response time when the surface area of the photodiode increases. Photodiodes are alike to regular
semiconductor diodes, but that they may be either visible to let light reach the delicate part of the device. Several
diodes intended for use exactly as a photodiode will also use a PIN junction somewhat than the usual PN
junction.

Figure 2.1.21 Photodiode Symbol and Construction

Types of Photodiode

Although there are numerous types of photodiode available in the market and they all works on the
same basic principles, though some are improved by other effects. The working of different types of photodiodes
work in a slightly different way, but the basic operation of these diodes remains the same. The types of the
photodiodes can be classified based on its construction and functions as follows.

• PN Photodiode
• Schottky Photo Diode
• PIN Photodiode
• Avalanche Photodiode

These diodes are widely used in the applications where the detection of the presence of light, color, position,
intensity is required.

The main features of these diodes include the following.

• The linearity of the diode is good with respect to incident light
• Noise is low.
• The response is wide spectral
• Rugged mechanically
• Light weight and compact
• Long life

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Working of Photodiode

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple
of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in
the depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the
depletion region.

Therefore, holes in the region move toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode, and a
photocurrent will be generated. The entire current through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the
photocurrent. So, the absent current must be reduced to maximize the sensitivity of the device.

Figure 2.1.22 PN Junction Diode

Modes of Operation

The operating modes of the photodiode include three modes, namely Photovoltaic mode, Photoconductive
mode and avalanche diode mode

a. Photovoltaic Mode

This mode is also known as zero bias mode, in which a voltage is produced by the lightened photodiode. It
gives a very small dynamic range & non-linear necessity of the voltage formed.

b. Photoconductive Mode

The photodiode used in this photoconductive mode is more usually reverse biased. The reverse voltage
application will increase the depletion layer’s width, which in turn decreases the response time & the junction
capacitance. This mode is too fast and displays electronic noise.

c. Avalanche Diode Mode

Avalanche diodes operate in a high reverse bias condition, which permits multiplication of an avalanc he
breakdown to each photo-produced electron-hole pair. This outcome in an internal gain in the photodiode, which
slowly increases the device response.

Applications of Photodiode

a. The applications of photodiodes involve in similar applications of photodetectors like charge-coupled

devices, photoconductors, and photomultiplier tubes.

b. These diodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc players, and
televisions and remote controls in VCRs.

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c. In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights, photoconductors are
more frequently used rather than photodiodes.

d. Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science & industry.
Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.

e. Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications like instruments to analyze samples,
detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.

f. These diodes are much faster & more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are frequently
used for lighting regulation and in optical communications.

Characteristics of Photodiode

A photodiode continually operates in a reverse bias mode. The characteristics photodiode photocurrent is nearly
independent of reverse bias voltage which is applied. For zero luminance, the photocurrent is almost zero
excluding for small dark current. It is of the order of Nano amperes. As optical power rises the photo current
also rises linearly. The max photocurrent is incomplete by the power dissipation of the photo diode.

2.1.6.6. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The Light Emitting Diode is P-N junction diode, which consists of two leads and semiconductor light source.
When it is activated by applying the suitable voltages across its leads then it emits the light energy in the form
of photons and the color of this light was determined by the band gap of semiconductor material. This light
energy is produced by the recombination of electrons and electron holes with in this device and this process is
called electroluminescence process. This process was stated in twentieth century from solid state material when
it is heated at room temperature then it emits the light energy. At the beginning the infrared light emitting diode
was developed and its light intensity was low but it is still frequently used in variety of consumer electronics
circuits such as remote controls. Different sizes of light emitting diodes are available in market form 1 mm2 to
onward.

Construction of Light Emitting Diode

The construction of LED differs from the normal standard diode in many aspects. As shown in the figure, the p-
n junction of the LED bulb is enclosed by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin hemispherical-shaped shell or
body which protects the Led from shock and vibration. LEDs have two terminals; a cathode and an anode.
The cathode terminal is identified by either a flat spot on the body or notch or by one of the leads shorter than
the other. The domed top of the LED is just like a lens concentrating the amount of light.: A Cathode lead of
LED Bulb is always shorter than the Anode. If you cannot identify like this, use a digital multimeter for ease.
Read our article on using a multimeter. The epoxy resin shell is constructed in such a way that the photons of
light emitted by the junction are reflected away from the substrate base to which the diode is attached because
Led junction does not emit that much light. Due to this, the brightest light will be emitted at the top of the Led.

Figure 2.1.23 Light Emitting Diode Symbol and Construction

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Working Principle

As we have mentioned above, a Light emitting diode is a PN junction. Hence its working principle is based on
the same. How LED Bulb Works A Light emitting diode bulb consists of two semiconducting material i.e. p-type
material and n-type material.

A p-n junction is formed, by connecting these two types of materials. When the p-n junction is forward biased,
the majority carriers; either electrons or holes; start moving across the junction. As shown in the figure 2.1.23,
electrons start moving from n-region and holes start moving from p-region. When they moved from their regions,
they start to recombine across the depletion region. Free electrons will remain in the conduction band of energy
level while holes remain in the valence band of energy level.

The Energy level of the electrons is high than holes because electrons are more mobile than holes i.e. current
conduction due to electrons are more. During the recombination of electrons and holes, some portion of energy
must be dissipated or emitted in the form of heat and light. The phenomenon into which light emits from the
semiconductor under the influence of the electric field is known as electroluminescence.

Always remember that the majority of light is produced from the junction nearer to the p-type region. So, diode
is designed in such a way that this area is kept close to the surface of the device to ensure that the minimum
amount of light is absorbed. The electrons dissipate energy in different forms depending on the nature of the
diode used. Like for silicon and germanium diodes, it dissipates energy in the form of heat while for gallium
phosphide (GaP) and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) semiconductors, it dissipates energy by emitting
photons. For the emission of different colors, different semiconductors are used.

For example; phosphorus is used for a red light, gallium phosphide for the green light and aluminum indium
gallium phosphide for yellow and orange light.

Advantages of LED

Light emitting diodes have a variety of advantages over other light sources. Its advantages are: Easily controlled
and programmed. Large Life span. High efficiency. Low radiated heat. High levels of brightness and intensity.
High reliability. No UV rays Low voltage and current requirements. Less wiring required. Low maintenance cost.
Instant lightning.

a. Easily controlled and programmed.

b. Large Life Span
c. Low Radiated Heat
d. High Level of Brightness and Intensity
e. High Reliability
f. No UV Rays
g. Low Voltage and Current Requirements
h. Less Wiring Required
i. Low maintenance cost
j. Instant Lighting

2.1.6.7. Laser Diode

The laser diode is not the similar as the ordinary LED (light emitting diode) because it generates coherent light.
These diodes are extensively used in many applications like DVDs, CD drives and laser light pointers for PPTs.
Although these diodes are inexpensive than other types of laser generator, they are much more expensive than
LEDs. They also have a partial life.

Applications of Laser Pointer

Laser pointers are used in skin and laser treatments, laser surgery, and for cutting and welding materials in
industries. They are used in laser printers, barcode scanners and optical disk drives. Also used in Fiber Optic
Communication

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2.1.7. Diode Testing

Diodes can be tested using a multi meter. It is normally the resistance of the diode in both forward and revers e
directions that is tested. There are however a number of points to remember when testing diodes.

2.1.7.1. With Digital Meters

Most digital multi-meters are suitable for diode testing, and in many cases will have a special ‘diode test’ range
usually marked with a diode symbol. This range should always be used when testing diodes or any other
semiconductor device. The reason for this is that the meter tests the diode by applying a voltage across the
diode junction. The normal voltages used by the meter on other resistance ranges may not be high enough to
overcome the diode´s forward junction potential and so will not make the diode conduct, even in the forward
direction. This would give an indication that the diode was open circuit (very high resistance). If the diode
range is used, the test voltage applied by the meter will be high enough in most cases to overcome the forward
junction potential and the diode will conduct.

Therefore, in the forward direction (meter positive lead to the diode anode, and the negative lead to the cathode)
the diode's resistance can be measured.

The actual value of resistance will depend on the slope of the forward characteristic of the diode at the voltage
applied by the meter, and so will vary from device to device and from meter to meter, so a precise value cannot
be given. When measuring a good silicon diode (not connected to any circuit), a reading in the forward direction
of about 500Ω to 1kΩ could be expected, similar or slightly less with germanium diodes. With the meter leads
reversed, an out of range (infinity) or open circuit reading (usually indicated by a display something like ‘1.’ on
a digital meter.

If the diode is already in a circuit, the resistances measured, always with the circuit switched off, will be affected
by any parallel paths.

Therefore, readings will be lower than those indicated below. However very low or zero-ohm readings may
indicate a short circuit diode (the most common fault with diodes) making it worthwhile, if no other obvious
reason for the very low reading can be seen, to remove at least one end of the diode from the circuit and re-
check the diode's forward and reverse resistance.

Figure 2.1.24 Digital Meter

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2.1.7.2. With Analogue Meters

If an analogue meter is used for testing it must be remembered that because zero on the resistance and voltage
scales are reversed, due to the inner workings of the meter, the polarity of the probes when using analogue
meters for resistance measurement, is also reversed compared to digital meters. Therefore, when measuring
resistance of a diode with an analogue meter on any range the BLACK lead is positive and the RED lead is
negative. This means that the black lead should be connected to the anode and red to cathode to measure the
FORWARD resistance of the diode. Some analogue meters have a specific diode testing range, but most
analogue meters will be quite suitable for diode testing. The most suitable analogue range will normally be
indicated in the user instructions, but as with digital meters the actual voltage used on the testing range should
be checked to to understand its effect on the expected forward and reverse resistances.

NOTE: the above paragraph refers only to true analogue meters, many modern "analogue" models tend to be
digital meters with an analogue display. In this case the method described for digital meters should be followed.
Which meter is yours? A simple resistance test on a known good diode can be used; connect the black -ve lead
to the cathode and the red +ve lead to the anode. If the meter shows the expected forward resistance the meter
lead polarity is not reversed.

It is also quite usual for the forward resistance measurement across some LEDs, especially those such as blue
LEDs that have a higher forward junction potential to appear to very high (infinity) during testing if the meter
voltage on the diode range is low, even when the LED is OK.

However, a meter with a test voltage of around 3V should produce some glow from the LED. Some multi-meters
are also available, which instead of displaying the resistance of the diode on the diode test range, display the
junction potential (in volts). It is therefore essential to make sure you know what conditions the meter uses
before testing any semiconductors.

Figure 2.1.25 Analogue Meter

2.1.7.3. Making the tests

The diagram below shows how to connect a digital meter to test the diode. There are a number of things to
remember:

• Make sure you are using the diode range.

• Using a digital meter, connect the black lead to the cathode and red to the anode (forward bias -
around 1kΩ).
• Reverse the meter connections (reverse bias - infinity reading).

REMEMBER - If you are using an analogue meter to measure resistance the polarities of the test leads are
reversed.

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SOME METERS, when measuring diode resistance, give a reading indicating the junction potential (in volts)
instead of the diode's resistance (in Ohms) CHECK YOUR METER INSTRUCTIONS so that you are sure what
the meter reading indicates.

Figure 2.1.26. Connecting a Digital Meter for Testing a Diode

2.1.7.4 Identifying Diode Connections

The cathode connection of a diode is marked in various ways. In the case of a bridge rectifier package, the AC
input terminals and the DC output terminals are usually marked with a sine wave symbol and plus/minus signs
respectively, as shown.

Bridge rectifiers can be tested as ordinary diodes as long as each diode is tested separately. The package pins
should be compared with the diagram of the internal layout of the four diodes as shown below so you can test
each diode´s forward and reverse resistance. Single diodes are generally marked with a band to indicate the
cathode, but with stud type rectifiers there is generally a diode symbol printed on the case.

Figure 2.1.27. Diode Polarity Markings.

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2.1.7.5. Fault Indications

a. Short Circuit

Diodes can be damaged by high voltages, especially diodes working in high voltage or high-power applications
such as power supplies, and as a result will usually go short circuit 0Ω when measured in either direction. When
a diode in a power supply goes short circuit, large currents can flow and obvious damage occurs such as
"cooked" diodes and / or blown fuses. Short circuit diodes that are not obviously damaged show 0Ω or very low
resistance in both forward and reverse directions.

b. Open Circuit

Occasionally, diodes (especially small signal diodes) may go open circuit, and read very high resistance or
infinity (shown as 1 on digital meters) in both forward and reverse directions.

c. Leaky

Sometimes a signal diode may become "leaky". While its forward resistance may be normal, its revers e
resistance may be lower than the expected infinity. This type of fault is usually restricted to small signal diodes,
since if power diodes become leaky, the extra reverse current flow will almost certainly generate enough heat
to rapidly destroy the diode. In small signal diodes this fault can only be reliably measured with the diode
removed from the circuit because of the parallel resistances of any other components connected across the
diode will tend to produce lower than expected reverse resistance.

d. Testing Zener Diodes

All Zener diodes have a defined voltage, and if the voltage measured across them under working conditions, is
higher than that printed in the circuit manual (or on the diode if you can see the markings), then the diode is
faulty, (probably open circuit) and must be changed. Zener diodes exhibit similar short and open circuit faults
to other diodes, but in addition may become ‘noisy’. The normally very stable voltage across them suffers from
very rapid fluctuations similar constant to the ‘background noise’ hiss on a poor audio signal. As Zener diodes
are often used to stabilize power supply lines, this rapid fluctuation of voltage can give rise to strange faults,
depending on what is being supplied by the power supply in question. The moral is - If a circuit is behaving
strangely, and noise on the power supply is suspected, check any Zener diode stabilizing that line by substituting
it with a known good diode.

2.2. THYRISTOR FAMILY

Thyristor (SCR) Packages Thyristor is a general name for a number of high-speed switching devices frequently
used in AC power control and AC/DC switching, including TRIACS and SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers).
The SCR is a very common type of thyristor and several examples of common SCR packages are shown below.
Many types are available that are able to switch loads from a few watts to tens of kilowatts. The circuit symbol
for a SCR is shown in below and suggests that the SCR acts basically as a SILICON RECTIFIER diode, with
the usual anode and cathode connections, but with an additional CONTROL terminal, called the GATE, hence
the name Silicon Controlled Rectifier. A trigger voltage applied to the gate whilst the anode is more positive
than the cathode will switch the SCR on to allow current to flow between anode and cathode. This current will
continue to flow, even if the trigger voltage is removed, until anode to cathode current falls to very nearly zero
due to external influences such as the circuit being switched off, or the AC current waveform passing through
zero volts as part of its cycle. The following are the different types of thyristors:

1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

2. DIAC
3. TRIAC
4. MOS Controlled Thyristor
5. Gate Turn-Off Thyristor

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2.2.1. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) SCRs, unlike normal two-layer PN junction rectifiers, consist of four layers
of silicon in a P-N-P-N structure, as can be seen in the cut-away view of a SCR in Figure 2.2.1. The addition of
the gate connection to this structure enables the rectifier to be switched from a non-conducting 'forward blocking'
state into a low resistance, 'forward conducting' state (see also Fig. Below). So a small current applied to the
gate is able to switch on a very much larger current (also at a much higher voltage) applied between anode and
cathode. Once the SCR is conducting, it behaves like a normal silicon rectifier; the gate current may be removed
and the device will remain in a conducting state. The SCR is made to conduct by applying the trigger pulse to
the gate terminal while the main anode and cathode terminals are forward biased. When the device is revers e
biased a gating pulse has no effect. To turn the SCR off, the anode to cathode current must be reduced below
a certain critical "holding current" value, (near to zero). A common application for SCRs is in the switching of
high-power loads. They are the switching element in many domestic light dimmers and are also used as control
elements in variable or regulated power supplies.

You may also watch the video regarding SCR on this link- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hh_kDOdnxTo

Figure 2.2.1 Typical SCR Construction & Symbol

2.2.1.1. Working Principle of SCR

The working of thyristor can be understood by considering the three states modes of process of SCR (silicon
controlled rectifier) such as:

Figure 2.2.2. Current Flow and Voltage Bias in an SCR

a. Reverse Blocking Mode

If we reverse the connections of the thyristors, then the upper and lower diodes are reverse biased. Thus, there
is no transmission path, so there is no flow of current. Hence, this is called as reverse blocking mode.

b. Forward Blocking Mode

Generally, without any activating pulse to the gate terminal, SCR remains switched off, representing no flow of
current in the forward direction. This is because; the connected two diodes together will form a thyristor. But,

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the connection between these diodes is reverse biased, which reduces the current flow from top to bottom.
Hence, this state is called as the forward blocking mode. In this mode, even though thyristor is including
condition like a conventional forward biased diode, it will not perform as the gate terminal is not activated.

c. Forward Conducting Mode

In this mode, the anode voltage should be superior to the cathode voltage and the gate terminal must be
activated properly for the transmission of the thyristor. This is because, when the gate terminal is activated,
then the lower transistor will perform which switches ON the upper transistor and then the upper transistor
switches ON the lower transistor and thus the transistors triggers each other. This procedure of inner positive
feedback of both the transistors recurs until both get fully triggered and then the flow of current will from the
anode to the cathode. So, this form of operation of SCR is called as forward conduction mode.

2.2.1.2. Characteristics of SCR

The figure shows the silicon controlled rectifier characteristics and also represents the thyristor operation in
three different modes such as reverse blocking mode, forward blocking mode, and forward conducting mode.
The V-I characteristics of thyristor also represent the reverse blocking voltage, forward blocking voltage, revers e
breakdown voltage, holding current, break-over voltage, and so on as shown in the figure.

Figure 2.2.3 SCR Characteristics

2.2.1.3. Applications of SCR

The SCR applications include the following:

• Application of SCR includes in the circuits which deal with large currents and voltages like electrical power
system circuits with more than 1kV or larger than 100A of current.

• These are particularly used to decrease the interior power loss in the circuit. Using on-off switching control of
the thyristors.

• SCRs are also used for modification purpose, i.e., from alternating current to direct current. Usually, thyristors
are used in cyclo converters (AC to AC converters) which is the most general application.

2.2.1.4. Testing SCR

Watch You Tube on how to check SCR (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nYP -DfLI1G4)

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2.2.2. DIAC

A DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage (V BO) has been reached. DIAC
stands for “Diode for Alternating Current”. A DIAC is a device which has two electrodes, and it is a member of
the thyristor family. DIACs are used in the triggering of thyristors. The figure below shows a symbol of a DIAC,
which resembles the connection of two diodes in series.

Figure 2.2.4 DIAC Symbols and reassembles of two diodes in series connections

DIACs have no gate electrode, unlike some other thyristors that they are commonly used to trigger, such as a
TRIAC.

The advantage of a DIAC is that it can be turned on or off simply by reducing the voltage level below its
avalanche breakdown voltage. DIACs are also known as a transistor without a base. It should also be noted
that a DIAC can be either turned on or off for both polarities of voltage (i.e. positive or negative voltage). They
also still work when avalanche breakdown occurs.

2.2.2.1 Applications of DIAC

The main application of a DIAC is its use in a TRIAC triggering circuit. The DIAC is connected to the gate
terminal of the TRIAC. When the voltage across the gate decreases below a predetermined value, the gate
voltage will be zero and hence the TRIAC will be turned off.

Some other applications of a DIAC include:

1. It can be used in the lamp dimmer circuit
2. It is used in a heat control circuit
3. It is used in the speed control of a universal motor

A DIAC can be used with a TRIAC in a series combination for triggering. The gate of TRIAC is connected with
a terminal of the DIAC. When the applied voltage across the DIAC increases above the avalanche breakdown
voltage, only then it can conduct.

However, when the voltage across DIAC decreases below its avalanche breakdown voltage it will be turned
off, and hence the TRIAC will also remain in the off state.

2.2.2.2 Construction of DIAC

It is a device which consists of four layers and two terminals. The construction is almost the same as that of the
transistor. But there are certain points which deviate from the construction from the transistor. The differentiat ing
points are-

1. There is no base terminal in the DIAC

2. The three regions have almost the same level of doping
3. It gives symmetrical switching characteristics for either polarity of voltages

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Figure 2.2.5 Construction of a DIAC

2.2.2.3. DIAC Characteristics

From the figure above, we can see that a DIAC has two p-type material and three n-type materials. Also, it does
not have any gate terminal in it.

The DIAC can be turned on for both the polarity of voltages. When A 2 is more positive with respect to A1 then
the current does not flow through the corresponding N-layer but flows from P2-N2-P1-N1. When A1 is more
positive A2 then the current flows through P1-N2-P2-N3.The construction resembles the diode connected in
series.

When the applied voltage is small in either polarity, a very small current flows which is known as leakage current
because of the drift of electrons and holes in the depletion region. Although a small current flow, it is not sufficient
to produce avalanche breakdown, hence the device remains in the non-conducting state. When the applied
voltage in either polarity exceeds the breakdown voltage, DIAC current rises and the device conducts in
accordance with its V-I characteristics.

Figure 2.2.5 V-I Characteristics of a DIAC

The V-I characteristics resemble English letter Z. The DIAC acts as an open circuit when the voltage is less
than its avalanche breakdown voltage. When the device has to be turned off, the voltage must be reduced
below its avalanche breakdown voltage.

2.2.2.4. Testing a DIAC

To test a DIAC, you may watch on this given Link in YouTube

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g71OUV7SK 1A)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhrB3OnE XX8

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2.2.3. TRIAC

The word TRIAC can be expanded as a TRIode for Alternating Current. While other power electronic switches
like MOSFET, IGBT, etc are used for switching/controlling DC power, the TRIAC is used to control AC power
because once turned on TRIAC can conduct in both the direction allowing AC voltage to passes completely in
both the positive and negative cycle.

The TRIAC is a three-terminal semiconductor switching device that is used for controlling current flow in a
circuit. It is one of the most important members of the thyristor family; it is a bidirectional device that can pass
the current in both forward and reverse direction, which means that they can conduct in both the conditions of
the gate signal, positive and negative.

(Watch the You Tube Link https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0SG6BNrKUs)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8IzhKYF8JcM

A TRIACs can be formed by connecting two equivalent SCRs in inverse parallel to one another and the gates
of the two SCR are connected together to form a single gate. If you are new to DIACs as well then you can
read the DIAC Introduction Article to know more about it. The Symbol of the TRIAC will be like the image below,
it has three terminals Main Terminal 1 (MT1), Main Terminal 2 (MT2) and Gate (G).

Want MorFigure 2.2.6 Symbol and construction of the TRIAC

The MT1 and MT 2 are also called as Anode 1 and Anode 2. The TRIAC can be included in a circuit in a way
that the current is flowing from either MT1 to MT2 or MT2 to MT1, there will not be any current until we inject a
gate current pulse at G.

2.2.3.1. TRIAC Construction

Figure 2.2.6 shows the structure of the TRIAC, it is a four-layer device that consists of six doping regions. The
gate terminal is designed in a way to have ohmic contact with both N and P regions, which helps the device to
get triggered with both positive and negative polarities. Although TRIAC is a bidirectional device, everyone
prefers to specify voltage and current using MT1 as the reference in order to reduce confusion.

2.2.3.2. TRIAC Working Principle and Operation

TRIAC can go to conduction state if the applied voltage is equal to the breakdown voltage, but the most
preferred way of turning on a TRIAC is by providing a gate pulse, either positive or negative. If the gate current
is high, a very small amount of voltage is enough to turn on the TRIAC. As the TRIAC is bidirectional and has
an ability to get turned on with both the polarities to the gate pulse it can operate in four different types of modes
of operation as listed below

a. MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.
b. MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
c. MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1.
d. MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1.

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MT2 is positive with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1

When the terminal MT2 is positive with respect to the Terminal MT1 the current will be flowing in the path of P1-
N1-P2-N2. During this operation, the junction between the layers P1-N1 and P2-N2 are forward
biased whereas the Junction between N1-P2 is reverse biased. When the positive signal is applied to the gate
the junction between P2-N2 is forward biased and breakdown occurs.

MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity negative with respect to MT1
When the terminal MT2 is positive and negative pulse is provided to the gate terminal the current will be flowing
in the path of P2-N1-P2-N2. During the operation the junction between the layers P2-N1 and P1-N4 are forward
biased whereas the junction between the layers N1-P1 is reverse biased, hence the TRIAC is said to operat e
in the negatively biased region.

MT2 is negative with respect to MT1 with a gate polarity positive with respect to MT1
When the terminal MT2 is negative and the gate is triggered with a positive pulse the junction between P2-N2
is forward biased and the current carriers are injected, hence the TRIAC is turned on.

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The TRIAC doesn’t usually operate in mode 4 because it carries a disadvantage that it should not be used for
circuits with high di/dt. The sensitivity of triggering of TRIAC with mode 2 and 3 is high and negative gate pulse
is used in case of a marginal triggering capability. The triggering of mode 1 is even more sensitive than mode
2 and 3 triggering but it requires a positive gate pulse for triggering. In most of the cases, the triggering mode 2
and 3 are preferred.

2.2.3.3. Characteristics of TRIAC

Since the TRIAC is a bidirectional device it’s the VI characteristics curve of TRIAC will be on the first and third
quadrant of the graph, which is similar to the VI characteristics of a Thyristor. If you are completely news to
Thyristors like SCR you can check the Introduction to SCR article. When the terminal MT2 is set to be positive
with respect to the terminal MT1 the TRIAC will be operating in the forward blocking mode.

During the initial stage due to the resistance of the TRIAC, there will be a small leakage current flowing through
the device as the applied voltage is less than the breakdown voltage. When the voltage is increased and it
reaches the breakdown voltage the TRIAC is turned on and high current starts flowing through the device.

Apart from increasing the voltage of the device the TRIAC can be turned ON by applying the gate pulse, even
if the applied voltage is less than the breakdown voltage. The same operation can be carried out in the negative
direction of the TRIAC which can leave us with a mirror image of the same curve on the negative quadrant. The
supply voltage at which the TRIAC starts conduction will depend on the gate current applied to the TRIAC. If
the gate current is higher, then the voltage required to turn ON the TRIAC can be less. The characteristic curve
that is given above shows the operation of TRIAC in mode 1 on the first quadrant and mode 3 on the third
quadrant.

2.2.3.4. TRIAC Application

As mentioned earlier, TRIACs are commonly used to switch AC voltages. A sample application TRIAC circuit
for AC switching is shown below.

The above circuit shows the typical set up of a switching system using a TRIAC. Initially, when the switch SW1
is open there will not be any supply to the gate circuit and the current flow will be zero through the lamp. If the
switch is turned ON the current starts flowing through the resistor R and there will be a pulse provided to the

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Gate terminal G. The given gate pulse will help in breaking down the junctions of the TRIAC and help it conduct,
hence the AC voltage Vs will be allowed to flow through the circuit and lights up the Lamp.

TRIACs can be used in various applications such as:

1. Control circuits like electric fan speed control and smaller motor controls
2. High Power lamp switching and light dimmers
3. AC power control domestic appliances

2.2.4. MOS Controlled Thyristor

The MOS controlled thyristor is a type of power semiconductor device. It has the capabilities of current and
thyristor voltage through the MOS gated used for the turn ON and OFF purpose. It is used in high power
applications like high power, huge frequency, low conduction and it is used in further process. The following
symbols are P-MCT and N-MCT shown below.

2.2.4.1 Applications of MCT

The applications of MCT includes the following

1. MCT’s are used in the circuit breakers.

2. It is used in higher power applications like high power conversions.
3. MOS control Thyristor are used in the induction heating.
4. UPS systems
5. It is also used in the converters like DC to DC converter.
6. Variable power factors, operations are used in the MCT’s as a force committed power switch.

2.2.4.2. The advantages of the MCT

• The MOS control Thyristor have a low forward conduction drop.

• It has low switching losses.
• It has high gate input impedance.
• It can turn ON/ OFF very fast.

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2.2.5. Gate Turn-Off Thyristor

A Gate Turn off Thyristor or GTO is a three terminal, bipolar (current controlled minority carrier) semiconductor
switching device. Similar to conventional thyristor, the terminals are anode, cathode and gate as shown in the
figure. As the name indicates, it has gate turn off capability.

These are capable not only to turn ON the main current with a gate drive circuit, but also to turn it OFF. A small
positive gate current triggers the GTO into conduction mode and also by a negative pulse on the gate, it is
capable of being turned off. Observe in below figure that the gate has double arrows on it which distinguish the
GTO from normal thyristor. This indicates the bidirectional current flow through the gate terminal.

The gate current required to turn off the GTO is relatively high. For example, a GTO rated with 4000V and
3000A may need -750A gate current to switch it off. So the typical turn off gain of GTO is low and is in the range
of 4 to 5. Due to this large negative current, GTOs are used in low power applications.

On the other hand, during the conduction state GTO behaves just like a thyristor with a small ON state voltage
drop. The GTO has faster switching speed than the thyristor and has higher voltage and current ratings than
the power transistors.

Several varieties of GTOs are available in today’s market with asymmetric and symmetric voltage capabilities.
GTOs with identical forward and reverse blocking capabilities are called as symmetric GTOs (S-GTOs). These
are used in current source inverters, but these are somewhat slower. Mostly asymmetric GTOs (A-GTOs) are
used due to its lower ON state voltage drop and stable temperature characteristics.

These asymmetrical GTOs have an appreciable reverse voltage capability (typically 20 to 25 V). These are
used where either the reverse voltage across it would never occur or a reverse conducting diode is connected
across the circuit. This article describes only about asymmetric GTOs.

2.2.5.1 Construction of GTO

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Consider the below structure of GTO, which is almost similar to the thyristor. It is also a four layer, three junction
P-N-P-N device like a standard thyristor. In this, the n+ layer at the cathode end is highly doped to obtain high
emitter efficiency. This result the breakdown voltage of the junction J3 is low which is typically in the range of
20 to 40 volts.

The doping level of the p type gate is highly graded because the doping level should be low to maintain high
emitter efficiency, whereas for having a good turn OFF properties, doping of this region should be high. In
addition, gate and cathodes should be highly interdigited with various geometric forms to optimize the current
turn off capability.

The junction between the P+ anode and N base is called anode junction. A heavily doped P+ anode region is
required to obtain the higher efficiency anode junction so that a good turn ON properties is achieved. However,
the turn OFF capabilities are affected with such GTOs.

This problem can be solved by introducing heavily doped N+ layers at regular intervals in P+ anode layer as
shown in figure. So this N+ layer makes a direct contact with N layer at junction J1. This cause the electrons to
travel from base N region directly to anode metal contact without causing hole injection from P+ anode. This is
called as a anode shorted GTO structure.

Due to these anode shorts, the reverse blocking capacity of the GTO is reduced to the reverse breakdown
voltage of junction j3 and hence speeds up the turn OFF mechanism.

However, with a large number of anode shorts, the efficiency of the anode junction reduces and hence the turn
ON performance of the GTO degrades. Therefore, careful considerations have to be taken about the density of
these anode shorts for a good turn ON and OFF performance.

2.2.5.2. GTO Principle of Operation

The turn ON operation of GTO is similar to a conventional thyristor. When the anode terminal is made positive
with respect to cathode by applying a positive gate current, the hole current injection from gate forward bias the
cathode p-base junction.

This results in the emission of electrons from the cathode towards the anode terminal. This induces the hole
injection from the anode terminal into the base region. This injection of holes and electrons continuous till the
GTO comes into the conduction state.

In case of thyristor, the conduction starts initially by turning ON the area of cathode adjacent to the gate terminal.
And thus, by plasma spreading the remaining area comes into the conduction. Unlike a thyristor, GTO consists
of narrow cathode elements which are heavily interdigitated with gate terminal, thereby initial turned ON area is
very large and plasma spreading is small. Hence the GTO comes into the conduction state very quickly.

To turn OFF a conducting GTO, a reverse bias is applied at the gate by making the gate negative with respect
to cathode. A part of the holes from the P base layer is extracted through the gate which suppress the injection
of electrons from the cathode.

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In response to this, more hole current is extracted through the gate results more suppression of electrons from
the cathode. Eventually, the voltage drop across the p base junction causes to reverse bias the gate cathode
junction and hence the GTO is turned OFF.

During the hole extraction process, the p-base region is gradually depleted so that the conduction area
squeezed. As this process continuous, the anode current flows through remote areas forming high current
density filaments. This causes local hot spots which can damage the device unless these filaments are
extinguished quickly.

By the application of high negative gate voltage these filaments are extinguished rapidly. Due to the N base
region stored charge, the anode to gate current continues to flow even though the cathode current is ceased.
This is called a tail current which decays exponentially as the excess charge carriers are reduced by the
recombination process. Once the tail current reduced to a leakage current level, the device retains its forward
blocking characteristics.

2.2.5.3. Characteristic of GTO

During the turn ON, GTO is similar to thyristor in it operates. So the first quadrant characteristics are similar to
the thyristor. When the anode is made positive with respect to cathode, the device operates in forward blocking
mode. By the application of positive gate signal triggers, the GTO into conduction state.

The latching current and forward leakage currents are considerably higher in GTO compared to the thyristor as
shown in figure. The gate drive can be removed if the anode current is above the holding current level.

But it is recommended not to remove the positive gate drive during conduction and to hold at value more than
the maximum critical gate current. This is because the cathode is subdivided into small finger elements as
discussed above to assist the turn OFF process.

This causes the anode current dips below the holding current level transiently, which forces a high anode current
at a high rate back into the GTO. This can be potentially destructive. Therefore, some manufacturers
recommend the continuous gate signal during the conduction state.

The GTO can be turned OFF by the application of reverse gate current which can be either step or ramp drive.
The GTO can be turned OFF without reversing anode voltage. The dashed line in the figure shows i-v trajectory
during the turn OFF for an inductive load. It should be noted that during the turn OFF, GTO can block a rated
forward voltage only.

To avoid dv/dt triggering and protect the device during turn OFF, either a recommended value of resistance
must be connected between the gate and cathode or a small reverse bias voltage (typically -2V) must be
maintained on the gate terminal. This prevents the gate cathode junction to become forward biased and hence
the GTO sustains during the turn OFF state.

In reverse biased condition of GTO, the blocking capability is depending on the type of GTO. A symmetric GTO
has a high reverse blocking capability while asymmetric GTO has a small reverse blocking capability as shown
in figure.

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It is observed that, during reverse biased condition, after a small reverse voltage (20 to 30 V) GTO starts
conducting in reverse direction due to the anode short structure. This mode of operation does not destroy the
device provided that the gate is negatively biased and the time of this operation should be small.

2.2.5.4. GTO Applications

Due to the advantages like excellent switching characteristics, no need of commutation circuit, maintenance-
free operation, etc makes the GTO usage predominant over thyristor in many applications. It is used as a
main control device in choppers and inverters. Some of these applications are:

1. AC drives
2. DC drives or DC choppers
3. AC stabilizing power supplies
4. DC circuit breakers
5. Induction heating
6. And other low power applications

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

A. Explain the following in clean sheet of paper

1. What is the main function of a Schottky diode?

2. What is the main principle of the Tunneling Effect?
3. Briefly describe the working principles, characteristics and applications of the different types of
Thyristors.
4. Create a table of comparison of the types of thyristors.

B. Provide correct words or phrases to the following questions:

1. A _________ is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for current.

2. When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the diode is said
to be _______________.
3. When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the diode is said
to be _______________.
4. The voltage dropped across a conducting; forward-biased diode is called the _______________.
5. Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately _____________ volts.
6. Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately _____________volts.
7. The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without “breaking down” is called the
_____________________ rating.
8. The width of the space charge region increases as the applied ______________ voltage increases.
9. A thyristor can conduct current in ________________ direction and block voltage in _____________ __ _
direction.

REFERENCES

https://www.elprocus.com/zener-diode-circuit-working-applications/

https://www.electronicshub.org/test-a-diode/

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_8.htm

https://analyseameter.com/2018/11/led-construction-working-principle-bulbs -types.html

https://analyseameter.com/2018/11/led-construction-working-principle-bulbs-types.html

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https://learnabout-electronics.org/Semiconductors/diode s_28.php

https://components101.com/articles/triac-symbol-working-and-application-circuits ( Working Application of

TRIAC) (Watch You Tube TRAC Test/check)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lWKcVRhlyfw (TRAC Test/check)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zi-5MFHhWAg (Thyristor - What are SCR, Triac, Diac and how to

test

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/ scr/what-i s-a-diac.php (DIAC

Operations and Application)

https://www.electrical4u.com/diac/ (DIAC Application & Working Principles)

https://components101.com/article s/triac-symbol-working-and-application-circuits (Understanding

TRIAC Working Principles and Application)

https://learnabout-electronics.org/Downloads/Semiconductors_module_06.pdf (Thyristors Theory)

https://learnabout-electronics.org/Semiconductors/thyristors_60.php

https://allabouteng.com/thyristor-working-types-applications/ (Thyristor Working, Types & Application)

https://www.elprocus.com/types-of-thyristors-and-their-applications/ (Thyristors and application)

https://electronicsdesk.com/thyristor.html

https://www.efxkits.co.uk/silicon-controlled-rectifier-applications/

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