Grammar Book
Grammar Book
GRAMMAR
I YEAR
BY S. KECHYAN
ÐÐ ÎðÂàôÂÚ²Ü ºì ¶ÆîàôÂÚ²Ü Ü²Ê²ð²ðàôÂÚàôÜ
ºðºì²ÜÆ ì.´ðÚàôêàìÆ ²Üì²Ü äºî²Î²Ü
Ⱥ¼ì²´²Ü²Î²Ü вزÈê²ð²Ü
A COURSE OF ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
I YEAR
BY S. KECHYAN
§ÈÆÜ¶ì²¦ Ðð²î²ð²ÎâàôÂÚàôÜ
ºðºì²Ü 2004
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¶Ø¸ 81.2 ²Ý·É ó7
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4602020102
ø 2004Ã. ¶Ø¸ 81.2 ²Ý·É ó7
0134(01)-2004
3
Contents
Introduction
Grammatical Structure of the English Language ……...……………… 5
General Classification of the Parts of Speech ….…………………….. 7
The Verb ……………………………………………………………… 8
Unit I The Simple Present and The Present Continuous……………… 14
Unit II Simple Past and The Past Continuous ………………………… 34
Unit III The Present Perfect and The Present perfect Continuous…….. 49
Unit IV The Past Perfect and The Past Perfect Continuous .…………. 72
Unit V The Future Time ...……………………………………………. 83
Unit VI The Passive Voice ………………...…………………………. 103
Modal Verbs ………………………………………………………….. 121
Unit VII Can/Could …………………………………………..………. 122
Unit VIII May/might ………………………………………………….. 135
Unit IX Must (Have to/Had to) ……………………………………….. 144
Unit X Have To/ and To Be To ………………………………………. 155
Unit XI Shall/Should …………………………………………………. 164
Unit XII Will/would ………………………………………………….. 176
Unit XIII Need and Dare ……………………………………………... 184
The Noun ……………………………………………………………... 196
Unit XIV The Number of Nouns …………………………………...… 198
Unit XV The Case of Nouns ………………………………………….. 207
Unit XVI The Article ………………………………………………… 212
Unit XVII The Adjective ……………………………………………... 228
Unit XVIII The Adverb ………………………………………………. 238
The Pronoun …………………………………………………………... 251
Unit XIX Personal Pronouns, Possessive Pronouns ………………….. 252
Unit XX Reflexive, Emphatic, Reciprocal Pronouns ………………… 259
Unit XXI Demonstrative pronouns …………………………………… 265
Unit XXII Quantitative Pronouns …………………………………….. 272
Unit XXIII Distributive Pronouns…………………………………….. 284
Unit XXIV Relative Pronouns ………………………………………... 297
Unit XXV Conjunctive, Interrogative Pronouns ……………………... 305
Unit XXVI The Numeral ……………………………………………... 313
Appendices …………………………………………………………… 317
Bibliography ………………………………………………………….. 335
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INTRODUCTION
5
c) The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: If I had had
the money I would have bought that house.
In all these analytical forms the form word is an auxiliary verb.
1. Endings:
a) –s in the third person singular in the Simple Present: he/she
it plays;
b) –s in the plural of nouns: trees;
c) –s in the genitive case: my brother’s girlfriend;
d) –ed in the Past Simple of regular verbs: We revised the rules
yesterday.
I went home.
ºë ·Ý³óÇ ïáõÝ: îáõÝ ·Ý³óÇ »ë: ¶Ý³óÇ »ë ïáõÝ:
6
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH
7
THE VERB
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action. The verb has
the following grammatical categories: person, number, tense,
aspect, voice and mood. These categories can be expressed by
means of affixes, inner flexion and by form words.
2. Verbs have:
a) Finite forms which can be used as the predicate of a
sentence.
b) Non-finite forms - verbals (infinitive, participle I, participle
II and gerund) which cannot be used as the predicate of a
sentence:
3. According to the way of forming the past simple and the participle
II, all verbs may be divided into three groups: regular verbs,
irregular verbs and mixed verbs.
Regular verbs form the past simple and participle II by adding –ed
to the stem of the verb, or –d if the stem of the verb ends in –e.
The pronunciation of the –ed (-d) depends on the sound preceding it.
It is pronounced:
8
[id] after t, d: parted, handed;
[d] after voiced consonants except d and after vowels: signed,
stayed;
[t] after voiceless consonants except t: booked, worked;
9
be – was/were – been, do – did – done, make – made -
made (special irregular verbs)
Mixed verbs. Their Past Simple is of the regular type, and their
Participle II is of the irregular type:
sow – sowed – sown
show – showed – shown
Non – terminative (durative) verbs do not imply any such limit and
the action can go on indefinitely: to live, to exist, to speak, to know;
b) Auxiliary verbs are those which have lost their meaning and
are used as form words, thus having only a grammatical
function. Here belong such verbs as to do, to be, to have,
shall, should;
Intransitive verbs do not require any object. Here belong such verbs
as stand, laugh, hear, think, go, come, swim;
12
Some of the English tenses denote time relations (the Indefinite form
– Simple Present, Simple Past, Simple Future) others denote both
time and aspect relations (Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous).
13
UNIT I
Simple present
The simple present is formed from the infinitive without the particle
to. In the third person singular it has the suffix -s /-es.
-s is pronounced [z] after voiced consonants and vowels: bring –
brings, stay – stays
[s] after voiceless consonants: pack – packs, put – puts
-es is pronounced [Iz] after sibilants –s, -ss, -z, -ch, -sh, -x: dress –
dresses, buzz – buzzes, watch – watches, wash – washes, fix –
fixes and
[z] after –o preceded by a consonant go – goes, do - does
Spelling
In the third person singular y changes to ie+s if it is preceded by a
consonant:
study – studies, apply - applies
y remains unchanged if it is preceded by a vowel:
play – plays, spray - sprays
Use:
Simple present has different uses. It is not only used to express
present time situations, but also to refer to future and past events.
General time
1 The simple present is often used:
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a) To talk about things in general.
Characterizing a person/thing
2. We can give a general characteristic to the person (or thing) using
the simple present tense.
Directions/instructions
3. We often use the simple present when we ask for and give
directions and instructions.
15
First (you) boil some water. Then warm the teapot. Then
add three teaspoons of tea. Next pour on boiling water.
Summaries
4. The simple present is common in summaries of plays, stories etc.
In Act I Hamlet meets the ghost of his father. The ghost tells
him…
This book is about a man who deserts his family and goes to
live on an island.
5. We use the simple present with the verb say when we are asking
about notices or very recently received letters or quoting from
books,
Temporary situations
6. The simple present isn’t usually used to talk about temporary
situations or actions that are only going on around the present.
However, the simple present is used:
“Do you see anything from here?” “No, I can neither see
nor hear the actors.”
16
Gwendolen (reproachfully): Mamma!
Lady Bracknell: in the carriage, Gwendolen!
(Gwendolen goes to the door. She and Jack blow kisses to
each other behind Lady Bracknell.)
When the curtain rises, Juliet is sitting at her desk. The
phone rings. She picks it up and listens quietly…
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object clauses after to see (that), to take care (that) to make sure
(that)) when the action refers to the future.
d) Object clauses after to see, to take care and make sure are
introduced by the conjunction that or joined asyndetically.
She will take care that nobody hurts the boy at that school.
I’ll make sure that nobody overhears us.
Note: In clauses other than those of time and condition, the Simple Future is
used even if these clauses are introduced by the conjunctions if and
when.
Don’t wait here! I can’t say when he’ll be back. (object clause)
She simply wants to know if you will show that letter to them.
(object clause)
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10. The use of the simple present with reference to the future is also
structurally dependent in some special questions.
Where do we go now?
When do they start?
‘Historic’ present
11. We may find the simple present in literary style to describe a
succession of actions in the past (especially to make the narration
seem more immediate, vivid and dramatic). It is often called
historic or dramatic Present.
Present continuous
19
added to the stem of the verb. In writing the following spelling rules
should be observed:
A mute –e at the end of the verb is dropped before the suffix –ing:
rise – rising, give - giving
A final consonant is doubled if it is preceded by a short stressed
vowel:
put – putting, begin - beginning
Final –r is doubled if it is preceded by a stressed vowel:
occ′ur – occ′urring, ref′er - ref′erring
Final –l is always doubled:
travel – travelling, quarrel – quarrelling (Am. Eng. –
traveling, quarreling)
Use:
‘Around now’
1. We use the present continuous to talk about temporary actions and
situations that are going on ‘around now’.
Changes
3. We also use the present continuous to talk about developing and
changing situations, even if these are long-lasting.
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The population of the world is rising.
The universe is expanding, and it has been expanding since
its beginning.
Annoying habits
4. The present continuous is used to say that something happens
more often than we think it normal or reasonable. This use of the
present continuous gives an emotional colouring to the statement.
Often such adverbials as always, constantly, continually. are
found in these sentences. Compare:
Ann says that her granny always complains though she has
nothing to complain of.
(It merely means that her granny does it regularly)
Ann says that her granny is always complaining though
she has nothing to complain of. (It means that Ann’s granny
complains more often than Ann thinks it normal or
reasonable.)
Their new car is always breaking down. They want to sell
it.
21
We’re going to buy a new house.
Bob and Ann are going to get married.
Believe, belong, consist, contain, doubt, fit, have, know, like, love, hate,
matter, mean, own, owe, prefer, understand, seem, suppose, suspect,
want, wish, agree, forbid, forget, find, need, hear, see, notice, respect,
care for, refuse, remember, feel, measure, taste, smell, weigh, think,
expect, depend, impress, etc.
22
feel in the medical sense can take either form:
How does she feel today?
How is she feeling today?
“Dear Amy,
I’ve already forgotten all about it. I’m liking my new life
here very much ”
23
They are always wanting to do something they should not
do.
ACTIVITY
24
but you are sitting on my hat. 19. However much you cry, I won’t
change my mind. 20. She bit with her hand on the back of the sofa
and cried to them: “You talk too much.” 21. “Why don’t you listen to
me? Am I a boring speaker?” asked Mother.22. “Why don’t you
phone me tomorrow?” he said. 23. Air consists mainly of nitrogen
and oxygen. 24. They are having some problems with their son. 25.
Do you suppose she is telling the truth? 26. … Smith passes to
Devaney, Devaney to Barns, Barns to Lucas and Harris
intercepts…Harris to Simms, nice ball and Simms shoots!
Ex. 2. Give the third person forms of the verbs in these sentences.
Show whether you would pronounce the third person form as /s/,
/z/ or /Iz/
“Normally you are very sensible, so why are you being so silly about
this matter?” 2. Son, I am not going to send you any more money this
month. You are spending far too much. You need to learn to be more
careful. 3. We got an invitation in the mail from Ron and Maureen.
They are having dinner party next Saturday evening. 4. You two are
always assuming people are unhappy so that you can pity them. 5.
Thanks for your invitation, but I am going to have dinner with my
sister and her husband. 6. Opinion is changing in favour of stronger
25
penalties for armed robbery. 7. The shops are getting ready for
Christmas already. They are beginning to put up the decorations in
Regent Street. 8. They haven’t got anywhere to live at the moment.
They are living with friends until they find somewhere. 9. The world
is changing. Things never stay the same. 10 I want to lose weight, so
this week I am not eating lunch. 11. My grandmother is never
satisfied. She is always complaining. 12. That car is useless! It’s
always breaking down. 13. I apologize for what I said about you. 14.
The new restaurant in Hill Street is very good. I recommend it.
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4. It tastes good.
5. Tom is thinking of emigrating.
6. What do you think of it.
7. Why are you smelling the fish?
8. The fish smells bad.
9. He has a country house with a large garden.
10. They are having some problems with their sons.
11. The parcel weighs 10 kilos.
12. She is weighing the baby.
13. It depends what you mean.
14. I am depending on you, so don’t make any mistakes.
15. This room measures 10 meters across.
16. The doctor is measuring out a dose of medicine.
17. Are you hearing anything from Andy these days?
18. Don’t shout I hear you quite well.
27
11. Look! The child (to smell) the flower. He is imitating the
grown-ups.
12. Where did you buy these sheets? They (to feel) soft.
13. Close the door, please. I (to feel) cold. I (to feel) that I am
going to get ill.
14. “I still (to think) about John.” “I (not to think) you should
worry about him.”
15. “I have an appointment with Mr. Jackson”. “Yes, I know. He
(to expect) you” said the secretary.
16. I haven’t seen Carol today. I (to expect) her to phone me this
evening.
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The man is standing at the door. (سñ¹Á Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿
¹é³Ý Ùáï.)
The student is working in the next room.
There is a student working in the next room.
29
1. Sunrise is at 4.30 tomorrow morning.
2. The cost of the excursions is part of the price of the holiday.
3. What is the weight of that piece of meat?
4. Paul is ill. He has flue.
5. Charles and his father are exactly alike.
6. What’s your opinion of Wendy’s new painting?
7. How long is that wall?
8. Never mind about the price, just buy it!
9. Nigel keeps interrupting me.
10. Do you enjoy modern music?
30
14. ÐÇÙ³ ³Û¹ Éë³ñ³ÝáõÙ ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝ Ñ³ÝÓÝáÕ áñ¨¿ áõë³ÝáÕ
ϳ±:
15. ¸³ ÇÙ Ù»ÕùÝ ¿: ºë Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ »Ù ËݹñáõÙ, - ³ë³ó ݳ
³Ù³ã»Éáí:
16. â»±ë ï»ëÝáõÙ, áñ ݳ ѳñµ³Í ¿. Ýñ³ÝÇó ÏáÝÛ³ÏÇ Ñáï ¿
÷ãáõÙ:
17. ¸»ÛíÁ Ñ³×³Ë ¿ ³Ý³ËáñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ áõÝ»ÝáõÙ áõëáõóÇãÝ»ñÇ
Ñ»ï:
18. ºë ã·Çï»Ù, û »ñµ ¿ å³ïíÇñ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ ųٳݻÉáõ,
ë³Ï³ÛÝ »ñµ Ýñ³Ýù ³Ûëï»Õ ÉÇÝ»Ý, Ù»Ýù Ýñ³Ýó å³ïíÇÝ
׳ßÏ»ñáõÛà Ïϳ½Ù³Ï»ñå»Ýù.
19. ²Û¹ù³Ý ÇÝùݳѳí³Ý ÙÇ »ÕÇñ, ¹³ ù»½ ãÇ ë³½áõÙ:
20. - ÆÝãá±õ »ë ³Û¹å»ë Ñdzó³Í ݳÛáõÙ ÇÝÓ:
-¸áõ ÑdzݳÉÇ ï»ëù áõÝ»ë ³Ûëûñ:
21. ÆÝãá±õ »ë ³åáõñÇó Ñáï ù³ßáõÙ, ê»Ù: ÆÝãá±õ ã»ë áõïáõÙ: ²ÛÝ
ß³ï Ñ³Ù»Õ ¿:
22. ¸áõù ѳݻÉáõÏÝ»ñáí »ù ËáëáõÙ ³Ûëûñ, »ë Ó»½ ã»Ù
ѳëϳÝáõÙ:
Ex. 11. Find and correct the errors in the following sentences. All
of the mistakes are in verb tense form and usage.
Ex. 12. Use either the Simple Present or the Present Continuous
of the verbs in the list to complete the sentences. Use each verb
only one time.
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to retire to go fishing to be to name
to exaggerate to expect need to prefer
to suppose to walk to get over to see to (to repair)
to fight to feel to shrink to stand
to overhear not to do to contain to prepare
to depend to burn to realize to go
32
Ex. 13. Put each verb in brackets into the most suitable present
tense.
I work in a large office with about thirty other people, most of whom
I (to know) quite well. We (to spend) most of the day together, so we
have all become friends. In fact, most of my colleagues are so
interesting that I (to think) of writing a book about them!
(To take) Helen Watson, for example. Helen (to run) the accounts
department. At the moment she (to go out) with Bob Balantine, one
of the sales representatives, and they (to seem) very happy together.
But everyone except Helen apparently (to know) that Bob always (to
make) eyes at Susan Porter. But I (to happen) to know that Susan (to
dislike) Bob. “I can't’ stand people who (to apologies) all the time!”
She told me. “And besides, I know he (to deceive) poor Helen. He
(to see) Betty Wills from the overseas department.” And plenty of
other interesting things (to go on). For instance, every week money
(to disappear from the petty cash box. When you (to realize) that
someone in your office is a thief, it (to upset) you at first. But I (also
try) to catch whoever it is before the police (to be called in). I’m
going to tell you who I (suspect), well, not yet anyway.
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UNIT II
Simple past
Formation
(For the formation, pronunciation and spelling of the simple past, see
The Verb.)
Use:
The simple past tense is generally used to talk about past events:
short finished actions and happenings, longer situations, and repeated
events. It is often used with references to finished periods and
moments of time.
Past events
1. We use the simple past to express a single accomplished action in
the past. The time of the action is usually indicated by adverbs and
adverbial phrases such as yesterday, the day before yesterday,
the previous day/week/month/year, two /three/ a few/some
days/weeks/years/ centuries ago, last week/month /year etc.
Note1: The time of the action may be implied in the situation through the
mention of the place or other attending circumstances.
-Did you buy anything in Paris? (the speaker knows when she
was in Paris)
34
- Yes, I bought clothing and a lot of toys for my little daughter.
Note 2: Sometimes the mention of the time or the place of the action
appears unnecessary because the action is definite in the mind of
the speaker and the hearer.
She stayed with them for about three months and then
decided to move to Belgium.
She looked at him for a long time and then shrugged.
He spent all his youth in Russia.
Time relation
3. We may find the simple past in complex sentences introduced by
when, as or while conjunctions when the two actions are fully
simultaneous.
4. We use the simple past to say that one thing happened after
another.
35
When Father entered the room, my sister put the receiver
down.
She stopped playing the piano when Soames came in.
Repeated events
5. The simple past is used to express permanent states or recurrent
actions in the past. The latter is generally supported by frequency
adverbs: often, never, now and again, sometimes, etc.
36
Future actions viewed from the past
7. The simple past is used to express a future action viewed from the
past in a) time clauses, b) conditional clauses, c) concessive
clauses d) object clauses after to see (that), to take care (that), to
make sure (that). Future- in- the Past is usually used in the
principal clause. (see Unit I)
Past Continuous
Formation
The past continuous tense is formed by the past tense of the verb to
be + participle I (For the spelling, see Unit I)
Use:
The past continuous is chiefly used for past actions which continued
for some time but whose exact limits are not known and are not
important.
37
It was getting dark and we decided to turn back.
Between one and two I was doing the shopping and walking the
dog.
Annoying habits
3. The Past Continuous with always, continually, constantly
expresses a frequently repeated past action which often annoys the
speaker.
Time relation
4. We may find the simple past and the past continuous used in
different combinations with each other.
A complex sentence with a time clause introduced by the
conjunction as:
38
a) The actions of the two clauses may be fully simultaneous.
The simple past is commonly found in both clauses.
But as and while can be used with a simple tense, especially with a verb
like sit, stand, lie, grow etc. which refers to a continuous action or state:
39
When he lived in that small town his friends often visited
him.
His parents died when he was twelve.
Note 3: (just) as; (just) when are used to say that two short actions or
events happen/happened at the same time.
40
Martha said nothing but looked from one face to the other
while they discussed the plans.
She sat still as a statue while he was playing the sonata.
The child was drawing while her mother was ironing her
clothes.
7. The past continuous or the simple past is often used after such
phrases as the whole day, all day long.
Future events
8. We use the past continuous to express an action which was
supposed to take place in the near future due to a previous
arrangement.
41
I was going to phone you, but I forgot.
I was thinking of going to Italy this year, but I haven’t
decided.
I was about to do it, but I started doing something else.
ACTIVITY
Ex.2. Give the past forms of these regular verbs. Show whether
you would pronounce these past forms as /d/, /t/ or /id/
42
2. We ……. first class. (travel)
3. He …… an hour yesterday. (wait)
4. They …… to talk me into coming. (try)
5. I …… his letter a week ago. (post)
6. Nobody …… at him. (laugh)
7. You …… to me! (lie)
8. She …… into the house. (hurry)
9. He …… when he saw me. (stop)
10. Bob finally …… her. (marry)
1. Life was changing very quickly during the second half of the
ninetieth century.
2. I was listening to the radio when the sensational news suddenly
came on.
3. They weren’t sleeping at the time of the earthquake,
fortunately.
4. What was happening in the world when you were born?
5. Dr. Johnson was very busy at the hospital yesterday, she was
delivering babies all day long.
6. How many people were sitting in the theatre when the fire
started?
7. It was bright sunlight in the room when I woke.
43
8. He turned to him and said that the office smelt like a stage-
dressing-room.
9. During the study period in class yesterday, it was hard for me
to concentrate because the student next to me was humming.
10. When Joan was a child she used to be very nervous, she was
always biting her fingernails.
11. She said that she didn’t want to stay there any longer and that
she was leaving the country in a week.
12. I looked at my watch, it read five minutes to eleven.
13. He saw that one of the students was having difficulty with the
homework.
14. Philip made no haste to move from where he sat.
15. Then he noticed Jack. He was standing in front of the fire and
was talking Italian to a man in glasses.
16. She stopped beside Tommy who was in a particularly scornful
mood. He was leaving in the morning.
17. His steps slowed down as he mounted the stairs.
18. She left the house and went along a sandy path leading to the
vegetable garden. Soon she saw that someone was moving
among the tomato plants.
44
Ex. 6. Complete the sentences with the Simple Past or the Past
Continuous of the verbs in parentheses.
1. Yesterday I (to clean) my apartment from the time I (to get up)
to the time I (to go) to bed.
2. When the balloon (to burst), everyone (to be startled).
3. Emily accidentally (to stick) her finger with a needle while she
(to sew).
4. Maria promised to help us. I hope she (to mean) what she said.
5. While the artist (to paint) her portrait, she (to admire) his
handsome profile.
6. I (to write) to him for a while, then I (to stop) writing.
7. There (not to be) anything (to cook) on the stove when I got
home.
8. The team (to celebrate) it’s victory at the Olympics all night
long.
9. I left myself in with my key and made my way upstairs. Crystal
and Arthur (to sit) at the table. They both (to rise) when I (to
enter).
10. I couldn’t understand why he (to be) selfish. He wasn’t usually
like that.
11. She was very nervous. She (to tear) her dress while she (to
change).
12. Mother looked at her son. He (to smell) the soup. She (to see)
that the boy (not to want) to eat the soup.
13. We entered our own flat. I (to pick up) two letters which (to lie)
on the floor.
14. It was already late. As I (to stop) at the bar to have a drink I (to
see) them talking it over.
15. He asked me what work I (to do) and whether I (to intend) to go
to the University.
16. She told me last night that she (to go) for a swim if she (to
wake) early.
45
Harry was always / continually interrupting me.
1. It (to be) idle chitchat as they (to drive) along. 2. While the
uniformed attendant (to usher) the last strugglers through the great
glass-paneled double doors, the manager (to sit) in his office
interviewing Raymond Hewson. 3. It (to rain) as I (to walk) up the
hill towards the station at six o clock on a Saturday. 4. The driver
was injured. A young woman (to hurry) into the station and (to
phone) for an ambulance while I (to take) care of the driver. The
poor man (to groan) quietly when the ambulance (to arrive.) at high
speed and (to rush) him away to hospital. 5. John (to take) a
photograph of me while I (not to look). 6. When she (to come) back
an hour later, Daphne still (to work). She never remembered to eat
when she (to write). 7. She (to pick up) her handbag and (to walk)
out the door as Barbara (to watch her). 8. The doorbell (to ring)
while I (to take) a bath. 9. I (to walk) along the road when I (to see)
Dave. So I (to stop) and (to have) a chat. 10. The Caliph decided to
go to the market and investigate. When he (to find) the man in black,
he (to speak) to him angrily. 11. John (to manage) to use his crib
46
while the teacher (not to look).12. When I first (to see) Alan, he (to
try) to find a job in London.
47
Ex. 10. Identify any possible errors in these sentences.
Ex. 11. Put each verb in brackets into a suitable past tense. Only
use the past perfect where this is absolutely necessary.
Harry went back to the camp the following morning, but it was in
some confusion. Soldiers (to wander) around carrying equipment
from one place to another, but there (not to seem) to be any purpose
to what they (to do). Harry (never to be) in an army camp before, but
it (not to take) a genius to realize that most of the officers (to take)
the first opportunity to abandon the men and head for safety. He (to
try) to phone the newspaper, but something (to happen) to the
telephone lines. He (to try) to find out exactly (to go on), when the
first plane (to fly) low over the camp. A wooden building a few
hundred yards away suddenly (to disappear) in an explosion of
flame. Before long bombs (to explode) all around him, and then
everything (to go.) quiet. The planes (to vanish) as suddenly as they
(to appear). Smoke (to rise) from burning buildings. A dead man (to
lie) next to Harry, the first dead man person he (ever to see). And
suddenly it (to begin) to rain.
48
UNIT III
Present Perfect
Formation
The present perfect is built up by means of the auxiliary verb
have/has+ participle II of the notional verb.
(For the formation of the participle II, see The Verb)
Use:
49
Note 1: Although the present perfect is mainly used for fairly recent
occurrences, we may sometimes find the present perfect used for
actions which took place long ago. (It may also express recurrent
actions or states of some duration.)
“You have so often been helpful in the past.” “I have tried,” said
Joseph.
“You’ve all been young once, you know. We’ve all felt it, Roy.”
- I am afraid they’ll find her rather dull.
- I’ve only seen her once. It was a long time ago and then she
didn’t speak much.
2. The present perfect is the most normal tense for giving (or asking)
news of recent events.
Notice that the present perfect is not used to talk about a finished
event, if we say when it happened. Compare:
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Dear George,
Lots of things have happened since I last wrote to you. I
have bought a new car. I bought it last week. It cost me a
lot of money…
‘Time up to now’
4. We often use the present perfect for past events when we are
thinking of a period of time continuing up to the present – for
example when we use indefinite time adverbs that mean “at some
time / at any time up to now”: like ever, before, never, yet,
already, recently, lately, so far, just….
Note 2: In an informal style, simple past tenses are sometimes possible with
always, ever and never when they refer to ‘time up to now.
Note 3: Notice the use of the simple past with just now.
I haven’t seen Alice this morning. (the period isn’t over yet)
I didn’t see Alice this morning. (the period is over)
7. We often use the present perfect to talk about how long present
situation has lasted. In this case either the whole period of duration
of the action is marked or its starting point: for an hour, for a
long time, for the past/in the last few days, in years, in a long
while …, since last spring, since she was ten years old etc.
52
When did you pass your exam? (present perfect is never
used in when questions)
What books did you read when you were on holiday?
What books have you read about it?
Where were you yesterday? I came to your office but you
weren’t there.
Where have you been all this time?
Note 4. Notice that we usually prefer a simple past tense when we identify
the person, thing or circumstances responsible for a present situation
(because we are focusing on the past cause, not the present result.)
Compare:
We may find the simple present in this type of clauses. The choice of
the form (simple present or present perfect) depends on the lexical
meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the present perfect is more
common. With terminative verbs the use of the both forms is
possible.
53
I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I
have tried it.
I’ll tell you when I’ve finished /finish it.
12. Note that we say “It’s the first/second third…time something has
happened”
Formation
The present perfect continuous is built up by means of the auxiliary
verb to be in the present perfect and participle I of the notional verb.
Use:
55
4. We can use the present perfect continuous to talk about repeated
actions and events, (but not if we say how many/ how many times
they have happened because this stresses the idea of completion)
56
I have played tennis three times this week. (how many
times)
I have been ironing since morning.
I have ironed five shirts so far. (how many)
How many pages of that book have you read?
However, both tenses are possible in cases like this, with a slight
difference of emphasis:
57
ACTIVITY
59
Ex. 3. Complete the sentences with the Simple Past or Present
Perfect of the verb in parentheses.
Ex.6. Read the text and put each verb in the brackets into the
Simple Past or the Present Perfect.
Mr. Patterson doesn’t work now. He (to work) in a bank for 25 years.
Then he (to give) it up. He says he enjoys staying at home. Mr. And
Mrs. Patterson (to be) happily married for thirty-five years. They are
very proud of their family. Their son, Louis, is very successful. For
the past six years he (to be) the manager of the Big Value
Supermarket on Grant Street. Louis (to work) very hard to get where
he is today. First he (to be) a clerk for two years. Then he (to be) a
cashier for three years. After that, he (to be) an assistant manager for
five years. Finally, six years ago, he (to become) the manager of the
store. Everybody at the Big Value Supermarket is very proud of
Louis. He (to start) at the bottom and he (to work) his way up to the
top.
62
1. Eating Chinese food is new to me.
2. Her boyfriend is different from what he used to be
3. There is a definite improvement in your English
4. I don’t know where my keys are.
5. After I arrived here, I started to feel better.
6. This is my second visit to your country.
7. They have been married for five years.
8. My boss hasn’t been to Paris before.
9. I paid this bill earlier, actually.
10. The children are at the park. It’s two hours since they started
to play ball.
11. Cuba became a socialist country in 1959. It’s still a socialist
country.
12. Latin is a dead language now. After the decline of Rome,
people gradually stopped speaking Latin.
Ex. 8. Explain the use of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past
in the following questions.
1. “I have seen that couple lately.” “When did you see them?” “Why
hasn’t he let us know where he has gone?” 2. “What time is it?”
“Almost nine o’clock” “Damn,” he swore, “Why didn’t someone
wake me?” 3. “How did you learn to drive?” “My father taught me.”
4. As Rosemary entered her room, her mother called to her: “Where
have you been?” 5. Jane is always on holiday, “Oh, is she? Where
has she gone?” 6. “Nick has just come back from his holiday.” “Oh,
where did he go?” 7. You seem to know a lot about your neighbours.
How long have you lived here. 8. “I know that you didn’t like that
city, but how long did you stay there?” 9. You look upset. What has
happened to you? 10. “I am going to see Mr. Warren,” she said. “He
is in St Joseph’s Hospital.” Her father turned from TV. “What
happened to him?”
63
1. What a heavenly dress! Where you (to buy) it? 2. When Renny
came in his grandmother asked him: “Where on earth you (to be) all
day?” 3. “How many children you (teach) in that other family?” the
girl asked her new governess. “Not many, just one girl.” “How long
you (to stay) with her?” 4. How many cameras you (to assemble)
yet? 5. He turned to me and asked: “You (to hear) that noise?” 6. He
is very secretive. You ever (to hear) him speak about his past? 7.
How many times you (to win) money in the lottery? 8. When my
mother came home and saw me, she got surprised. “Why you (not to
go) yet?” she asked. 9. “My son doesn’t want to work.” “Why you
(to give) your son that kind of education then?” 10. All roads are
blocked by the heavy snowfall. How on earth you (to get) here
Ex. 10. Put in the Present Perfect or the Simple Past in questions
in the following text.
64
-How you (to feel) since then?
-Not very strong.
-Why you (not to leave) the army?
-I can’t imagine my life outside the army.
-Where you (to serve) lately?
-In the Caucasus mostly. The climate there suits my health.
Ex. 11. Use the Simple Present or the Present Perfect in the
following clauses of time referring to the future.
1. “Has the visitor gone?” “No, he refuses to go till he (to see) you.”
2. It’s a deserted place. You’ll find it lonely here after the sun (to
set). 3. It’s raining cats and dogs, we shall wait here till it (to stop). 4.
Don’t you hear me, John? Don’t start watching TV till we (to have)
supper. 5. I promise. When I (to be) off duty, we shall go there. 6. I
shall probably bore you to death by the time I (to finish) talking
about myself. 7. “Don’t forget to ring me as soon as you (to arrive).”
8. I don’t want to see him. I’ll come home after he (to leave). 9. That
boy has brains. I think he’ll become a great scholar when he (to
graduate) from the University. 10. After we (to do) all the packing, it
will be nice to have a light meal. 11. Don’t say anything while Ian is
here. Wait until she (to go). 12. When I (to phone) Kate this evening,
I’ll invite her to the party.
Ex. 12. Compare the use of the Simple Perfect and the Present
Perfect Continuous in the following situations.
1. “Freddie, you really have got hold of the wrong end of the stick.”
“You have been coming here for years,” said Freddie, “you’ve
been a bloody nuisance with your Thursdays. We have refused
hundreds of invitations because of you. We’ve entertained you,
we’ve fed you, we’ve stayed in to be bored by you, and it has
never occurred to you in all this time to offer us as much as a
drink.”
7. “Turn down the music, Jane. Don’t you see Dad is working?”
“It’s OK, dear. I have been listening to that music since I have
been working here.”
8. Lincoln spoke first: “We have been talking it over ever since we
got your letter last month.”
9. “This has been a rough shoot. You don’t know how much of
myself I’ve been pouring into this film, Daff … how
desperately I’ve wanted to please you,” said Justin.
Ex. 14. Read the situations and write two sentences using words
in brackets. (You should use Simple Perfect to show completed
action).
67
3. Frank likes fishing. He started fishing early in the morning. It’s
11 o’clock and he is still fishing. (to fish/ since 7 a. m.). (to
catch/ 12 fish so far).
4. The couple is away on a honeymoon. They are traveling round
Europe at the moment. The couple started their tour three weeks
ago. (to travel/ for three weeks). (to visit/ four countries so far).
5. Sam is a heavy smoker. He started smoking four hours ago and
the packet is empty now. (to smoke/ for four hours). (to smoke/
20 cigarettes already).
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15. How you … since your operation?
16. I like your house John. By the way, how long … you your
house?
17. Officers Jackson and Parker … parking tickets since 8 a. m. and
they are exhausted. They have to write only one more parking
ticket, and then they can go home.
18. I … country music since I moved to Nashville seven years ago.
Ex. 16. Make up situations for these statements using the Present
Perfect Continuous tense.
69
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³ÝÓݳ·Çñ¹ ÏáñóÝáõÙ »ë£ 17. Üñ³Ýó áñ¹ÇÝ Ù»Ï ï³ñÇ ¿, ÇÝã
Ù»ÏÝ»É ¿ ³ñï³ë³ÑÙ³Ý, ë³Ï³ÛÝ Ýñ³ Í»ñ ÍÝáÕÝ»ñÁ Ýñ³ÝÇó ¹»é
áã ÙÇ Éáõñ ã»Ý ëï³ó»É£
18. – àñï»±Õ ¿ æáÝÁ£
– ܳ áëïÇϳÝÇ Ñ»ï ¿ Ë áëáõÙ:
– ÆëÏ Çݱ㠿 å³ï³Ñ»É:
– ܳ ³é³Ýó í³ñáñ¹³Ï³Ý Çñ³íáõÝùÇ ¿ í³ñ»É Ù»ù»Ý³Ý:
Ex. 18. Put each verb in brackets into the Simple Past, Present
Perfect or Present Perfect Continuous.
70
7. Have you had a heavy or light work load? (Have you had any
problems yet?)
8. Have you had much fun lately?
9. Do you look back on your school-days with pleasure now?
10. What were you doing at this time last year?
71
UNIT IV
Past perfect
Formation
The past perfect is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in
the simple past and the participle II of the notional verb.
had + participle II
Use:
The basic meanings of the past perfect are ‘earlier past’ and
‘completed in the past’.
A common use is to ‘go back’ when we are already talking about the
past, so as to make it clear that something had already happened at
the time we are talking about.
‘Earlier past’
1. The past perfect tense generally refers to an event in the past
which happens before another event in the past. (Sometimes there
is no time expression to make it clear.)
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By ten o’clock the manager had already looked through
the documents and was waiting to see the representative
of the firm.
I had told her that I didn’t want to be present at her
parties (sometimes the speaker doesn’t specify the time.)
a) Sarah was twenty then. Her parents had died three years
before and since then she had lived with her aunt. Her
mother had advised her not to get married till she was
twenty-five. Sarah intended to follow her advice.
But if we merely give the events in the order in which they occurred
no past perfect is used. The simple past is used instead. (see Unit II.)
When I met him he was 39. He had been in the army for
twenty years. (or… since he was nineteen.)
73
4. The past perfect is used in time clauses after the conjunctions
when, before, after, till/until, as soon as when it is necessary to
emphasize that the first action was completely finished before the
second one started. Compare:
Inversion
6. The past perfect is used in complex sentences with a subordinate
clauses of time introduced by the correlatives scarcely … when,
hardly …when, nearly … when, and no sooner… than, the time
relation between the two actions is of a specific character – the
action of the subordinate clause takes place when the action of the
principal clause is hardly accomplished.
Such sentences are emphatic in meaning and a negative adverb or
an adverbial expression may be put at the beginning of a sentence
for emphasis. In this case negative adverbs are followed by the
inversion of subject and verb (the word order is changed).
74
negative adverb + auxiliary verb +subject.
1. The past perfect continuous is used when the action began before
the time of speaking in the past, and continued up to that time, or
stopped just before it. We can often use either form here.
When I found Mary, I could see that she had been crying.
It was now six and he was tired because he had been
working / he had worked since dawn.
2. We use the past perfect continuous to say that something had been
happening for a period of time before something else happened.
75
3. A repeated action in the past perfect can sometimes be expressed
as a continuous action by the past perfect continuous.
The past perfect continuous bears the same relation to the past
perfect that the present perfect continuous bears to the present
perfect. (see Unit III. The Present Perfect and The Present Perfect
Continuous: Basic difference)
ACTIVITY
Ex. 1. Explain the use of the past tense-aspect forms in the
following extract. (Translate the extract into Armenian.)
It had snowed all night. Now the sun was shining. I was with Kitty in
Kensington Gardens. We had met at Peter Pan and walked up to my
“Leningrad garden.” Here there were few people about. Some well-
padded individuals were exercising their dogs, watching with absurd
pleasure the dogs’ amazement at the snow, their play, and the doggy
footprints. The stone basins were frozen and some ducks, with
comical caution, were slithering about on the ice. The fountains were
bearded with opaque white icicles. We had carried a couple of chairs
into the little stone pavilion at the end and were sitting there in a
corner. The pavilion, heaped over with snow, was enclosed and
private, our corner almost obscure. The snow had dulled the traffic
noise, muffled the world about us, arched us in. Every now and then
the dog ran up to the doorway, sniffed and ran off, wild with snow-
joy, and smiling wool-clad owner plodded by. No one else came,
straight ahead, between two stone nymphs, the lake curved away,
goldened with willows, and the cloudless glittering blue sky arched
over the snowy park.. There was not a breath of wind.
Ex.2. Join the sentences using because and the Past Perfect.
76
Judy and Errol were tired because they had spent
the morning shopping.
Ex. 4. Complete the text using the Past Perfect or Simple Past
tenses.
I (to go) to London for the first time in 1970 when I (to be) just a
child.
My parents (to be) already there many times so they (to know) the
city well. But they never (to be) there with a child so they saw a
different side of London with me. We (to go) out every day and (to
have) a fantastic time. My parents (to study) English for many years
so they (to have) no difficulty with the language.
It (to rain) while we (to be) there, but we (to pack) all our waterproof
clothes so it (to be) no problem. When the time (to come) to leave, I
(to feel) quite sad because I (to have) such a good time.
77
1. Thursday evening I (not to go) home and change as usual, but
(to sit) in the Sloane Square bar until it (to be) time to go along
to Queen’s Gate Terrace.
2. I hated eating my own food with a witness, Laura (to watch) in
silence until I (to finish). It (to take) about a minute.
3. I never (to be) to any European country before I (to go) to Paris.
4. When I (to let) myself into my own flat I (to realize) at once
that there was a woman there.
5. “How long the patient (to be) sick before she (to be) cured?”
6. “I (to come) as soon as I (to get) your message”, Lloyd said.
7. David (to disappear) as soon as we (to have) breakfast.
8. After she (to go), Willy (to lock) the door and (to go) into the
bedroom.
9. “I (cannot) stay in Wales after what (to happen),” he added
angrily.
10. Godfrey (to rise) and (to take) his own breakfast earlier than
usual, but lingered in the parlour till his younger brothers (to
finish) their meal and (to go) out.
11. When they (to show) him round and (to feed) him on their best,
they eagerly (to demand) news.
12. The bus (to move) before we (to reach) it.
78
Barely………
3. She knows little what has been going on in her presence.
Little……….
4. I didn’t know where I was until I asked a passer-by. Not
until……….
5. He had only just arrived home when the police called.
Scarcely………
6. We have never spent so much money on clothes. Never
before………
7. The demand for tickets was so great that people queued night
and day. Such………
8. The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be
cancelled. So heavy………
9. Harry broke his leg and also injured his shoulder. Not
only………..
10. The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way. In
no way……..
11. The money is not to be paid under any circumstances. Under no
circumstances……….
12. The train had only just left the station when there was an
explosion. Hardly………
13. It had just stopped raining when the sun came out. No
sooner………..
14. Just after the play started there was a power failure.
Hardly………..
Ex. 7. Complete the sentences with the Past Perfect or the Past
Perfect Continuous of the verbs in the list. Each verb is used only
once.
1. We … for Nancy for the last two hours, but she hasn’t arrived
yet.
79
2. The students asked the famous writer how long he … books.
3. Everything in our garden was dying because we … rain for
more than five months.
4. Bob was very excited. His favourite team finally … a game.
5. We went to Disneyland when we visited Los Angeles. Prior to
that time we never … such a big amusement park.
6. How much money the company … before they finally went out
of business?
7. He told me he … from her since the day she walked out of their
office.
8. Anne’s lack of accent was explained by the fact that she … for
twenty years in London.
9. She could see from the wet look of their costumes that they
just….
10. When he came back we tried to pretend that we … him.
11. How many years … Jesus before he was crucified?
12. I sat in the kitchen smoking. Flora, who … the piano in the
sitting-room, came to see what I was doing.
13. The noise woke Joe who… in his pram by the garage door.
14. It was cold and dark in the small room because it … for five
days.
15. The last member of the party was Neville, the film star, whom
David … for some time.
16. She realized that she was faint for food. She …nothing since
the picnic.
80
6. ÂáÙÁ »ñµ»ù ã¿ñ áõ½áõÙ, áñ Ù³ÛñÝ Çٳݳ, û ÇÝùÝ ÇÝã ¿ñ ³ñ»É
³Û¹ ³ÙµáÕç ųٳݳÏ:
7. øáõÛñ»ñÇ Å³Ù³Ý»Éáõó »ñÏáõ ûñ ³Ýó Ù»Ýù áñáß»óÇÝù å³ïÙ»É
Ýñ³Ýó ³Û¹ ÙÇç³¹»åÇ Ù³ëÇÝ:
8. ØÇ ų٠¿É ãϳñ, áñ ù³ÛÉáõÙ ¿ÇÝù, »ñµ ÉáõëÇÝÁ »ñ¨³ó µÉñÇ
»ï¨Çó:
9. ÜÇùÁ óáõÛó ïí»ó Ýñ³Ýó ݳٳÏÁ ¨ ³ë³ó, áñ Çñ ùáõÛñÁ ¨ Ýñ³
³ÙáõëÇÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý Ù»ÏÝ»É »Ý γݳ¹³:
10. ºñ»Ë³ÛÇ íÇ׳ÏÁ ·Ý³Éáí í³ï³ÝáõÙ ¿ñ: г½Çí ¿ñ æáñçÁ
ïáõÝ Ùï»É, »ñµ Ýñ³Ý áõÕ³ñÏ»óÇÝ µÅßÏÇ »ï¨Çó:
11. ܳ áõÝ»ñ Ïñïë»ñ »Õµ³Ûñ° гñáɹÁ, áñÇÝ Ý³ »ñµ»ù ã¿ñ ëÇñ»É:
12. ºñµ µáÉáñ ÑÛáõñ»ñÝ ³ñ¹»Ý Ñ»é³ó»É ¿ÇÝ, гñÇëÁ Ùáï»ó³í
¾ÙÇÉÇÇÝ ¨ ³ë³ó, “ÐÇÙ³ Ù»Ýù ϳñáÕ »Ýù Ëáë»É:”
13. î³ñûñÇÝ³Ï ¿ñ, áñ ¸áñÇëÁ í»ñçÇÝ »ñ»ù ï³ñÇÝ»ñÇ
ÁÝóóùáõÙ áã ÙÇ ýÇÉÙ ã¿ñ Ýϳñ³Ñ³Ý»É: ¸³ Ýñ³Ý µÝáñáß ã¿ñ:
14. Ø»Ýù` µáÉáñë, µ³ñÓñ ïñ³Ù³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ¿ÇÝù: îáÙë»ñÝ
³ñ¹»Ý ·Ý»É ¿ÇÝù ¨ ³ÛÅÙ áõÕ¨áñáõÃÛ³Ý å³ïñ³ëïáõÃÛáõÝ
¿ÇÝù ï»ëÝáõÙ:
1. The fog was a little less dense. I (to stand) still for a while, then
began to walk along in the direction of the King’s Arms.
2. Then I heard someone say in the hall that the Joplings (to leave)
for Italy as soon as the vocation (to begin).
3. Tuesday dawned at last. I hardly (to sleep). The unusualness of
insomnia was a physical torture. The house (to seem) empty and
sad without boys.
4. This was not the first time I (to see) Gunnar. The very first time
I (to see) him was across the High Street. He (to stride) along,
wearing his gown, arm in arm with Anne.
5. I told him because he (to be going) to marry Crystal and
because he (to be) a gentle harmless being.
6. And I went into the room where I (to lie) in the afternoon and
put on my nightdress and then I (to go) to see what Joan (to do)
and she just (to lie) down on her bed and I (to tell) her to get
undressed and get into bed.
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7. It was Wednesday evening. I (to spend) longer than usual at the
Liverpool Street bar and (to feel) rather drunk now.
8. Suddenly I remembered Tommy. I (to look) at my watch.
Tommy (to wait) for me for well over an hour. I (to go) into the
telephone box outside the Royal Theatre and (to ring) her
number.
9. A light fine rain (to fall) now, the rain which (to tap-tap)
discreetly Gunar’s window through those immensely long
seconds during which I (to be) in his room.
10. Kitty, wearing a long peacock-blue woolen evening dress (to
gaze) at me. Standing behind her and holding a brush, with
which she evidently (to brush) Kitty’s hair, was her maid.
Ex. 10. Put each verb in brackets into suitable past tense.
This time last year I (to cycle) in the rain along a country road in
France with a friend of mine. We (to decide) to go on a cycling
holiday in Normandy. Neither of us (to be) to France before, but we
(to know) some French from our time of school and we (to manage)
to brush up on the basics. Now we (to wonder) if we (to make) the
right decision. We (to plan) our route carefully in advance, but we (to
forget) one important thing, the weather. It (to rain) solidly since our
arrival and that night we (to end up) sleeping in the waiting room at a
railway station. Then the next morning as we (to ride) down a steep
hill my bike (to skid) on the wet road and I (to fall off). I (to realize)
immediately that I (to break) my arm, and after a visit to the local
hospital I (to catch) the next train to Calais for the ferry home.
Unfortunately my parents (not to expect) me home for a fortnight,
and (to go) away on holiday. So I (to spend) a miserable couple of
weeks alone, reading “Teach Yourself French”.
Ex. 11. Talk about the reasons why these things happened.
82
UNIT V
FUTURE TIME
Simple Future
Formation
The formation: shall/will+ infinitive without to.
Use:
The simple future is not only used for giving information about the
future, but it is also common in offers, promises, orders and similar
kinds of ‘interpersonal’ language use.
Oh, I’ve left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
“What would you like to drink?” “ I’ll have an orange
juice, please.”
“Did you phone Ruth?” “Oh no, I forgot. I’ll phone her
now.”
I like it. I’ll buy it.
but Well, we’ve agreed on a price, and I’m going to buy it.
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We’ll be there in five days.
3. The simple future is used to give (or to ask) information about the
future, in case where there is no reason to use a present continuous
or ‘be going to’.
Predictions
4. We often use the simple future in predictions of future events- to
say what we think (don’t think), guess or calculate will happen.
a) offering to do something
You can’t do that work alone. I’ll help you with it.
“The telephone is ringing.” “ I’ll get it.”
b) agreeing to do something
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- Will you dine with me tomorrow?
- I will if you don’t change your mind till tomorrow.
Compare: Shall I shut the window? (do you want me to shut it?)
Will you shut the window? (I want you to shut it)
85
The Future Continuous
Formation:
The future continuous is built up by means of shall/will be +
participle I
Use:
86
Polite enquiries
4. The future continuous is used to make polite enquiries about
people’s plans.
Compare: Will you stay in this evening? (it shows request or order)
Will you be staying in this evening? (the speaker simply
wants to know your plans)
Are you going to stay in this evening? (pressing for a
decision)
Formation:
The future perfect is formed by means of shall/will have +
participle II
Use:
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By next Christmas we’ll have been here for eight years.
The builders say they’ll have finished the roof by Tuesday.
Formation:
The future perfect continuous is built by means of shall/will have
been + participle I
Use:
The future perfect continuous form can be used if we want to
emphasize the continuity of a future achievement. We often use the
future perfect continuous with verbs like learn, lie, live, rain, sit,
wait, work etc. which naturally suggest continuity
By the end of the month, I’ll have been working for this
firm for a year.
They will have been traveling for a month on Friday.
In English there are special forms to express future actions if they are
viewed from some moment in the past. (The Simple Future, the
Future Continuous in the Past, the Future perfect in the Past, the
Future Perfect Continuous in the Past). In addition to the Future in
the Past there are other means of expressing actions which are future
from the point of view of the past (see Unit II).
ACTIVITY
1. “I am going in to bathe”, she said. “I’ll be right out. I’ll eat with
you and then we’ll put the cot in.”
2. “There are people who want to talk with you.” “I’ll listen. But
only after the girl is free.”
3. “What name did you use?” asked Scofield. “R. M. Nixon. The
receptionist was real nice. She thanked me. ” “You’ll go for
Amos.” “I intend to.”
4. “The old fool’s wife is in her room and he’s in his chapel of
course.” “Where?” “Oh, all right. Come on, I’ll show you …
You are better looking, more polite too.”
5. “Stay the night at the Yevropeyskaya Hotel on Brodsky Street.
I’ll contact you there.” “They’ll demand identification.” “By all
means, give it to them. A colonel of the KGB will no doubt get a
better room.
6. “I’ve told you about this before, Maggie,” said Mrs. Hurstwood.
“I’m not going to tell you again.”
7. “Have you made up your mind, George, when you will take your
vacation?”
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8. “We’ll go without you.” “You will eh?” he sneered. “Yes, we
will.” “Well, we’ll see about that. It seems to me you’re trying
to run things with a pretty high hand of late.”
9. “I’ll not live with you,” said Carrie. “I don’t want to live with
you. You’ve done nothing but brag around ever since you have
been here.”
10. “Why don’t you come and see me?” “I will,” said Carrie.
“Really, I’ve been wanting to come.”
11. “Will you let me come back if I want to?” “Of course,” he
answered, “you know I will.”
12. “There is somebody at the door.” “That will be the postman.”
13. “As you will have noticed, there is a new secretary in the front
office.”
14. The regiment will start at dawn.
15. I am going to be working all day tomorrow, so I won’t have
time to shop.
16. I’ve been going to write to you for ages, but I’ve only just
found time.
17. “By next Christmas we’ll have been here for eight years,” said
Alice.
18. Professor Baxter will be giving another lecture on Roman
glass-making at this time next week.
19. She is taking that medicine whether she likes it or not.
20. OK. We’ll buy the tickets if you buy supper after the show.
21. “I’ll have been teaching for twenty years this summer,” said
Mrs. Hendersson.
9. -Ann is in hospital.
- Oh really? I didn’t know. I … go and visit her.
16. – Why did you buy all this sugar and chocolate?
91
- I … make a delicious dessert for dinner tonight.
92
8. How long (to be) the children going to be … in the pool (to
swim).
9. How much longer (to be) your son going to be … braces on his
teeth (to wear).
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3. We are going to be late meeting my brother’s plane. By the time
we (to get) to the airport, it (to arrive) already.
4. This is the longest flight I have ever taken. By the time we get
to New Zealand, we (to fly) for 13 hours. I am going to be
exhausted.
5. “How about going across the street for a cup of coffee, Ron?” “I
can't. I (to meet) Jennifer at the library at 5.00.
6. I don’t feel good. I (to stay) home from work tomorrow.
7. “Let’s go! What’s taking you so long?” “I (to be) there as soon
as I (to find) my keys.”
8. “Why did you buy so many vegetables?” “I (to make) a large
salad for the potluck dinner tonight.”
9. I’ll meet you at the airport tomorrow. After you (to clear)
customs, look for me just outside the gate. I (to stand) right by
the door.
10. It’s cold in here. I am frozen. Who (to light) fire for me?
11. The strike has been going on for two months now. The strikers
(not to return) to work until they (to get) a rise and the benefits
they are demanding.
12. Please come and visit me today when you (to have) a chance. I
(to shop) from 1.00 to 2.30, but I (to be) home after that.
13. Just relax, Antoine. As soon as your sprained ankle (to heal)
you can play soccer again. At this time next week you (to play)
soccer again.
14. “George, I need somebody to take me to the airport tomorrow
morning.” “That’s no problem. I (to take) you. What time your
plane (to fly)?”
15. Don’t ask Margaret what to do. She (not to know) what to do.
16. I’ve got some incredible news! You never (to believe). What’s
happened?
17. “At last I’ll see that they (not to do) anything outrageous to
her,” aunt said.
1. His mother went out of the room and he could hear her frying
something downstairs while he (to wash), (to shave) and (to
dress) to go down into the dining-room for breakfast.
2. You said if you (not to go) back, they (to come) looking for
you.
3. Denton said to the waitress that he (to take) the soup and a
hamburger and a cup of coffee.
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4. Everybody knew that the grand wedding ball (to begin) at eight
o’clock that evening.
5. He saw to it that she (to get) everything she needed.
6. Your mother thought that you (to want) a place of your own
when you (to come) out of the army.
7. Peter (to dine) with the Duncans on Sunday. But in the morning
he called up and asked if he might be excused because his
father (to come) down and they (to have) a family party.
8. When I told my father that I (not to go) into his goddamn
business, he got angry.
9. I didn’t believe her. According to her, by the end of that
semester she (to teach) more than 50.000 students from 42
countries.
10. Sue said that she (to do) nothing more until she (to have) a good
rest.
11. Bob asked me not to come to his place in the evening as he (to
watch) and interesting football match on TV then.
12. My neighbour was sure that I (not hear) that news yet.
13. Jane asked me why I had bought so many tomatoes and I
answered that I (to make) a lot of spaghetti sauce.
14. We wondered if she (forgive) Ron if he (to apologize).
15. The washing machine (not to work) so I had to wash the clothes
myself by hand.
On June 20th, I will return home. I (to be) away from home for two
years by that time. My family (to meet) me at the airport with kisses
and tears. They (to miss) me as much as I have missed them. I (to be)
very happy to see them again. When I (to get) a chance, I (to take) a
long look at them. My little brother (to be no longer) so little. He (to
grow) at least a foot. He (to be) almost as tall as my father. My little
sister (to wear), probably a green dress because that’s her favourite
colour. She (to change) quite a bit, too, but she (to be) still
mischievous and inquisitive. She (to ask) me a thousand questions a
minute, or so it will seem. My father (to gain), probably some
weight, and his hair (to turn) a little grayer, but otherwise he will be
96
just as I remember him. My mother (to look) a little older, but not
much. The wrinkles on her face (to be) smile wrinkles.
REVISION
OF TENSE FORMS
Ex. 1. Read the stories and complete the sentences with verbs in
parentheses. Use any appropriate tense – form.
A Little Gossip
-Yes, but some people (to complain) about the heat and (to grumble)
because we (not to have) much rain for the gardens.
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- Some people are never satisfied. And I think they are a bit lazy. As
for me I (to work) in my rose garden since morning.
- By the way, you (to hear) that young Patrick Ellis (to have) another
accident in his car?
- Well, they (to take) him to hospital but I (not to think) it (to be)
serious because he (to come) home again today.
- I suppose he (to drive) flat out again. Only yesterday I (to tell) Mrs.
Tailor
how madly he (to drive). And all his friends are just the same.
- Mm… I’ve got some news for you, too. You (to hear) that Eva
Browning (to get) married for the third time on September the tenth?
- Fancy that! She only (to get) her second divorce in the spring. What
a dreadful woman she is!
- Her first marriage only (to last) six months – and that was only in
1972, wasn’t it?
-Yes, that’s right. At this rate she (to lose) count of her husbands
before she (to be) forty.
- She may lose count, Mrs. Jones but we certainly won’t.
The Appointment
Once upon a time, there was a rich Caliph in Baghdad. He was very
famous because he was wise and kind. One morning he (to send) his
servant, Abdul to the market to buy some fruit. As Abdul (to walk)
through the market, he suddenly (to feel) very cold. He (to know)
that somebody was behind him. He (to turn) round and (to see) a tall
man, dressed in black. He couldn’t see the man’s face, only his eyes.
The man (to stare) at him, and Abdul (to begin) to shiver.
98
“Who are you? What you (to want)? Abdul asked.
The man in black (not to reply).
“What’s your name?” Abdul asked nervously.
“I…am…Death,” the stranger (to reply) coldly and turned away.
Abdul (to drop) his basket and (to run) all the way back to the
Caliph’s house. He (to rush) into the Caliph’s room..
“Excuse me, master. I have to leave Baghdad immediately,” Abdul
said.
“But why? What (to happen)?” the Caliph asked.
“ I just (to meet) Death in the market,” Abdul replied.
“Are you certain?” said the Caliph.
“Yes, I’m certain. He (to be dressed) in black, and he (to stare) at me.
I (to be going) to my father’s house in Samara. If I (to go) at once, I
(to be) there before sunset.”
The Caliph could see that Abdul was terrified and (to give) him
permission to go to Samara.
The Caliph was puzzled. He was fond of Abdul and he was angry
because Abdul (to be) badly frightened by the stranger in the market.
He (to decide) to go to the market and investigate. When he (to find)
the man in black, he (to speak) to him angrily.
“Why you (to frighten) my servant?”
“Who is your servant?” the stranger replied.
“His name is Abdul,” answered the Caliph.
“I (not to want) to frighten him, I just (to be surprised) to see him in
Baghdad.”
“Why you (to be surprised)?” the Caliph asked.
“I (to be surprised) because I’ve got an appointment with
him…tonight…in Samara.
Agatha Christie
99
In December 1926 an incident (to occur) which would have made an
enthralling detective story in itself. At the height of her success with
her first novel, she apparently (to vanish) into thin air for ten days.
At the time she (to be) extremely distressed because she (to find out)
that her husband (to have) an affair with another woman and (to
want) a divorce. She (to sleep) badly, she (not to be able) to write
and she (to eat) little.
On Friday 3 rd December, Agatha (to tell) her secretary and
companion, Carlo (Miss Charlotte Fisher), that she (to want) a day
alone. When Carlo (to return) in the evening, she (to find) that the
garage doors (to be left) open and the maids (to look) frightened.
According to them, Mrs. Christie (to come) downstairs at about
eleven in the evening, (to get) into her car and (to drive off) quickly
without saying anything to anybody.
A nation-wide hunt for the missing novelist was started. The police
(to be) suspicious. – The servants (to know) something more? –
Agatha’s husband (to hide) something?
Newspapers (to print) wild stories about her disappearance –that she
(to commit) suicide, that she (to be kidnapped), that she (to run
away) with a secret lover; some even suggested that she (to plan) the
whole thing as a publicity stunt.
The mystery ended ten days later when Agatha (to be found) alive
and well in Harrogate, a health spa in Yorkshire. Her husband
explained to the waiting reporters that she (to lose) her memory. But
to this day, nobody really (to know) what (to happen) during those
missing ten days.
ERROR ANALYSIS
1. Jack chose the hotel. He has never been there before, but he has
heard his mother speak of it once.
2. How many times have you been winning in the lottery.
3. By the time I return to my country, I am away from home more
than three years.
100
4. As soon as I will graduate, I am going to return to my
hometown.
5. He wants to get married, but he doesn’t meet the right person
yet.
6. I have been seeing that movie three times, and now I am
wanting to see it again.
7. I haven’t seen my elder brother since about five years.
8. Anna had listened to loud rock music when her friends arrived,
but turned off so that all of them could study together.
9. “I can’t find the mustard.” “Okay. I am going to find it for
you.”
10. I understood everything before I didn’t stay there a week.
11. Hardly I got into bed when the telephone rang.
12. So far he doesn’t make friends with anyone. I am thinking he
won’t stay here long.
13. He said that he was smelling something burning but there
wasn’t something cooking on the stove.
14. He is my close friend. I have been knowing him for my
childhood.
15. I am sure Flora will be here after a while
16. Tomorrow will be my birthday.
17. I leave now but I’ll see you two weeks later.
18. I’m sorry, dinner isn’t ready yet, but it is going to be ready in a
minute.
19. It is no use to phone Bob at the office, he will be leaving.
20. Don’t phone me after 11.00. I’ll have been asleep.
101
5. ܳ ÷³Ïí»É ¿ ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ ¨ Ññ³Å³ñíáõÙ ¿ ¹áõñë ·³É, ÙÇÝã¨
Ýñ³Ýù µáÉáñÁ ãÑ»é³Ý³Ý:
6. èáÛÝ ³Û¹ ³ÙµáÕç Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³ß˳ï»É ¿ñ ¨ í³ï ¿ñ ùÝ»É: ܳ
ß³ï Ñá·Ý³Í ï»ëù áõÝ»ñ:
7. Ø»Ýù »ñÏáõ ûñ ÙݳóÇÝù êÙÇÃÝ»ñÇ Ùáï ¨ Ñ»ïá ·Ý³óùáí
í»ñ³¹³ñÓ³Ýù ÈáݹáÝ:
8. г½Çí ¿Ç »ë Ýñ³Ýó Ññ³Å»ßï ïí»É, »ñµ ·Ý³óùÁ ß³ñÅí»ó:
9. ºñÏáõ ³ÙÇë ¿ñ, ÇÝã ³åñáõÙ ¿ÇÝù ·ÛáõÕáõÙ, »ñµ »Õµ³Ûñë
»Ï³í Ù»½ ³Ûó»ÉáõÃÛ³Ý:
10. æáÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ëïáõ·»É ¿ñ Çñ ³ß³Ï»ñïÝ»ñÇ
ß³ñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ¨ ³ÛÅÙ ÙÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ·Çñù ¿ñ
ϳñ¹áõÙ, áñÁ ·Ý»É ¿ñ ³é³íáïÛ³Ý ` ¹åñáó ·Ý³Éáõ
׳ݳå³ñÑÇÝ:
11. ²Ýݳ°, »Õµ³Ûñ¹ í»ñ³¹³éÝáõÙ ¿: γñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ ݳ ù»½
Ùáï ÏÙݳ:
12. ºë ѳëϳó³, áñ å³ÑÁ, áñÇÝ »ñϳñ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ëå³ë»É »Ù,
»Ï»É ¿:
13. ܳ µáÉáñáíÇÝ ¿É ³Ù³ãÏáï ã¿ñ: î³ëÁ ñáå» ¿É ãϳñ, ÇÝã
Ù»Ýù ͳÝáà ¿ÇÝù ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó, »ñµ ݳ Ëݹñ»ó, áñ Çñ»Ý ê»ÉÇ
³Ýí³Ý»Ù:
14. ºÕ³Ý³ÏÝ ³Û¹ ûñÁ Ùé³ÛÉ ¿ñ: ê³éÁ ù³ÙÇÝ, áñ ÷ãáõÙ ¿ñ
³é³íáïí³ÝÇó, ³ñ¹»Ý ¹³¹³ñ»É ¿ñ, µ³Ûó ¹»é ³ÝÓñ¨ ¿ñ
Ù³ÕáõÙ:
15. îÝûñ»ÝÝ ³ë³ó, áñ Ýñ³Ýù, áíù»ñ ϵ³ó³Ï³Û»Ý ³é³Ýó
ÑÇÙݳíáñ å³ï׳éÇ, Ïå³ïÅí»Ý:
16. Üñ³ Ùáñ ëÇñïÝ áõÅ·ÇÝ µ³µ³ËáõÙ ¿ñ` ³Û¹ Ñáõ½Çã
ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝÁ Éë»ÉÇë:
17. âÝ³Û³Í Ýñ³ Ãí³óÛ³É ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛ³ÝÁ` ݳ ÇÝÓ áã ÙÇ
û·ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ¿É óáõÛó ãïí»ó:
18. ºë Ýñ³Ý É³í »Ù ×³Ý³ãáõÙ: Üñ³Ý »ñ»ë ïáõñ, ³ëï³éÝ ¿É
Ñ»ïÁ Ïáõ½Ç:
19. ÂáÙÁ ϳñ¨áñ ùÝÝáõÃÛ³Ý ¿ñ å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ Çñ ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ:
Üñ³ Ù³ÛñÁ Ñ»ï¨áõÙ ¿ñ, áñ áã áù Ýñ³Ý ã³Ýѳݷëï³óÝÇ:
102
UNIT VI
The voice is one of the categories of the verb. It shows whether the
subject is the doer of the action or whether it is acted upon.
Accordingly, there are two voices in English- active and passive.
Modal Verbs
active: can/could/ may/might /must/ought to/ should/ would/ etc. write/paint
passive: can/could /may/might/ must,/ought to/should/would etc. be written/painted
The passive is not the reverse of the active. The two constructions
are not parallel in their use and serve different purposes.
103
The passive construction is generally used in the following cases:
3. Obvious agent:
4. Unimportant agent:
Then the toys are packed into boxes and sent to shops.
104
Note that the passive construction is impossible when the direct
object of the verb is expressed by:
a) an infinitive
c) a clause
5. Verbs which have two objects can be made passive in two ways.
Common verbs of this type are: to bring, to give, to lend, to pass,
to pay, to promise, to show, to hand, to offer, to send, to tell;
106
6. There are verbs in English which require a direct and an indirect
object in the active construction, but they admit only of one
passive construction- the direct passive, among them we find to
write, to read, to play, to telegraph, to bring, to sing, to buy, to
sell, to explain, to describe, to dictate, to repeat, to mention, to
introduce, to deliver, to present to recommend, to prove, to
point out;
107
8. The phraseological passive construction is the type in which the
subject corresponds to the prepositional object of the active
construction, besides the predicate is expressed by a phraseological
unit, such as: to take care (of), to take no notice (of), to pay
attention (to), to take responsibility (for), to lose sight (of), to
put an end (to), to find fault (with), to make fool (of), to get in
touch (with), to make fun (of), to make use (of)…
By and with
10. Generally the person (the agent) who performs an action in a
passive sentence is introduced by by.
108
The difference between by and with may involve the presence of a
person..
ACTIVITY
Ex.1. Transform the active verb phrases in the following
sentences to passive verb phrases. Omit the performing agents if
necessary.
109
16. One can seldom find inexpensive food in the stores now.
17. People don’t speak English in that part of the world.
18. You must develop this film before the end of the year.
19. When I got to the party, they were already serving dinner.
20. The surgeon will operate on the patient tomorrow.
Passive voice with verbs which have two objects: Direct and
Indirect
110
C) Example:
They bought a new house for their daughter last month.
A new house was bought for their daughter last month.
111
Phraseological Passive Construction:
1. When the car turned round the corner, we lost sight of it.
2. He took no notice of their remarks.
3. At the party they made fun of Jack.
4. He understood that the man had made fool of him.
5. They said that they should put an end to poverty.
6. She promised that she would take good care of the children.
7. He didn’t pay any attention to my warning.
112
Example: You’re not supposed to park here. It’s private parking
only.
113
13. The dance company is having successful tour of the United
States. Their dances (perform) over 500 times before they
return to Senegal.
14. When I went to the school auditorium, the children (rehearse)
then musical play. The play is going to (present) this coming
Friday at 7.00 p. m.
15. Unfortunately, my grandfather’s teeth have got to (pull) out.
16. The batteries in the radio need (change).
17. This problem had better (to take) care of at once.
18. A person named Carl Gauss (recognized) as mathematical
genius at the age of 10.
19. Yesterday I told my teenage daughter to clean her room before
she (go) to school. After she (leave) the house, I (look) in her
room.
20. ”Where you (buy) that beautiful necklace?” I (not buy) it. It
(give) to me for my birthday.
Ex. 8. Complete the sentences with the verbs in the list. Use each
verb only once.
114
1. I have my gardener … the garden every afternoon.
2. You should have your eyes ….
3. The doctor says I have to have my lungs ….
4. How did you get the child … to bed so early?
5. I had to have the gas station attendant … some water.
6. I got my apartment … before I moved in.
7. The General had the best troops … to the front.
8. I always have the store … my groceries.
9. Her dress was too long, and she had her seamstress … it.
10. My pants were too short, and I had my tailor … them.
11. Why don’t you have your lawyer … of this problem?
12. I had the phone man … the extension phone in the kitchen.
13. You’d better have your gardener … the lawn with insecticide.
14. How much does it cost to get a piano ….
15. What is a good way to get a stubborn child … all of his dinner?
16. You’d better get your hair …, it’s beginning to look sloppy.
17. I must have my secretary … this letter.
18. How did the teacher get such a lazy student … his homework?
19. How much do you have to pay to get your windows …?
20. How did she finally get that stubborn man … her?
1. As soon as you are done … the dictionary, I’d like to use it.
2. I’m not acquainted … that man. Do you know him?
3. Mark Twain is known … his stories about life on the
Mississippi.
4. A person who is addicted … drugs needs professional medical
help.
5. This apartment comes furnished … only a stove and a
refrigerator.
6. Jack is married … Joan.
7. Could I please have the dictionary when you are finished …
it?
8. I’m not ready yet. I’m still dressed … my pajamas.
9. My car is equipped … air conditioning and a sun roof.
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10. Victor is blessed … a good sense of humor, which has helped
him to get out of some very difficult situations.
11. Are the choices in this restaurant limited … pizza and
sandwiches? – If you are interested … other dishes, take a
look at the back page of the menu.
12. Carol is engaged … Larry. Their marriage is planned for May
3.
13. Last month Billy was bitten by a dog. Now he’s scared …
every dog he sees.
14. The department store was filled … toys for the holiday sale.
15. I am in favour of nuclear disarmament. I am terrified … the
possibility of an accidental nuclear war. And are you opposed
… it?
16. I am annoyed … my boss.
17. Zoology is more closely related … biology than it is to
Botany.
18. I am very disappointed … that movie. The whole first hour
was devoted … historical background. I was bored … it before
the plot took shape.
19. George Washington is remembered … his story leadership
during the Revolutionary War.
20. Why are you upset … the children?
21. I think you’re involved … too many activities.
22. We are finally prepared … our camping trip.
23. John’s bald head is protected … the hot sun. He’s wearing a
straw hat.
24. The store was crowded … last-minute shopper on the eve of
the holiday.
25. Are they still associated … the International Red Cross? –
Yes, they are dedicated … helping people.
Ex. 10. Use the required active and passive tense-aspect forms in
the following text.
I once (to know) a village teacher who (to be) partially blind. He (to
deprive) of one eye as the result of infection. His blind eye (to take)
out, and a glass one (to insert) in its socket in its stead.
116
One day the teacher (to need) to leave his class of small children
alone for half an hour or so. But he (to hold) back by one
consideration. The children of the class (to be) really unruly. He (to
know) that if they (to leave) alone for any length of time they (to
become) violent and complains (to make) by their parents..
Suddenly he (to strike) by an idea. In a moment his glass eye (to
take) out of his socket, and (to place) on the table.
“Now, children,” he said, I (to go) out for a few minutes but you (to
observe) all the time by my eye. If anything (to do) which (not to
approve) by me, it (to see) by my eye, and the child (to punish) when
I (to return).
The children (to impress) very much, and the teacher (to go) off. But
when he (to return) an hour later, it (to seem) that a hurricane (to
pass) through the classroom. The teacher (to astound).
“Evidently,” he thought, “I (to outwit)”. The desks (to overturn), the
walls (spatter) with ink from ink-bombs which (to throw) during a
battle which still (to fight) out as a manifestation of high spirits. In
fact, a good time (to have) by all.
The teacher (to wonder) why the presence of his glass eye (not to
respect). He (to look) round for it and (to see) that it (to cover) by a
hat.
REVISION
OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
117
5. Mark Twain, the author of The adventures of Tom Sawyer,
(grown up) in a small town on the Mississippi River.
6. My refrigerator doesn’t have to (defrost).
7. Almost every part of the world (experienced) an earthquake in
recent years.
8. Jane’s eyes burned and her shoulders ached. She (sit) at the
computer for five hours. Finally she (take) a break.
9. What (discuss) when you left the meeting.
10. The Olympic Games (begin) in 77 B. C. in Olympia, a small
town in Greece. At that time, only Greeks (allow) to complete
in them.
11. We got an invitation in the mail from Rom and Maureen. They
(to have) a dinner party next Saturday evening.
12. By the time he got to work, he (drink) three cups of coffee.
13. The dance company is having successful tour of the United
States. Their dances (perform) over 500 times before they
return to Senegal.
14. When I went to the school auditorium, the children (rehearse)
then musical play. The play is going to (present) this coming
Friday at 7.00 p. m.
15. Unfortunatly, my grandfather’s teeth have got to (pull) out.
16. The batteries in the radio need (change).
17. This problem had better (take) care of at once.
18. A person named Carl Gauss (recognized) as mathematical
genius at the age of 10.
19. Yesterday I told my teenage daughter to clean her room before
she (go) to school. After she (leave) the house, I (look) in her
room.
20. ”Where you (buy) that beautiful necklace?” I (not buy) it. It
(give) to me for my birthday
118
2. гÕáñ¹í»É ¿, áñ ѳ½³ñ³íáñ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ ³Ý³å³ëï³Ý »Ý
¹³ñÓ»É çñѻջÕÇó Ñ»ïá:
3. æáÝÇ Ù³ÛñÁ ½·³ó, áñ ÇÝã- áñ µ³Ý »Ý óùóÝáõÙ Çñ»ÝÇó:
4. Æñ³íÇ׳ÏÁ ß³ï Éáõñç ¿: γñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ ÇÝã- áñ µ³Ý å»ïù ¿
³ñíÇ ù³ÝÇ ¹»é ã³÷Çó ³í»ÉÇ áõß ã¿:
5. гÛï³ñ³ñí»É ¿, áñ ¹»é¨ë áã Ù»ÏÇÝ áã ÙÇ Ùñó³Ý³Ï ãÇ ïñí»É:
6. ØÇ° ³Ýѳݷëï³Ý³, ù»½ ϳë»Ý, û »ñµ ¿ í»ñçÇÝ ·Ý³óùÁ
Ù»ÏÝáõÙ:
7. ÀݹáõÝ»ÉáõÃÛ³Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Ï åñáý»ëáñÇ íñ³ áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ
ã¹³ñÓñ»óÇÝ, µ³Ûó Ýñ³ ëÇñáõÝÇÏ ïÇÏÝáç ßáõñçÁ Çñ³ñ³ÝóáõÙ
¿ñ ³é³ç³ó»É:
8. Èáõñ»ñ »Ý ï³ñ³ÍíáõÙ, áñ ³Û¹ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ·áñÍãÇÝ
³Ñ³µ»ÏÇãÝ»ñÝ »Ý ëå³Ý»É:
9. ÂáÙÇÝ µáÉáñáíÇÝ ¹áõñ ã¿ñ ·³ÉÇë, áñ Çñ»Ý Ñ³×³Ë Çñ »Õµáñ
ï»ÕÝ »Ý ÁݹáõÝáõÙ:
10. üñ»ÝÏÇÝ µ³ó³ïñ»óÇÝ, û ÇÝãáõ ¿ñ ݳ ë˳É, ¨ ݳ ÁݹáõÝ»ó
Çñ ë˳ÉÁ:
11. ä³Ûٳݳíáñí»óÇÝ, áñ æá°ñçÁ ÏáõÕ»ÏóÇ »ñ»Ë³ÛÇÝ ¨ ÏÑ»ï¨Ç,
áñ Ýñ³Ý ɳí ËÝ³Ù»Ý ³ÛÝï»Õ:
12. ä³Ñ³Ýçí»ó, áñ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ Ý³Ë ¨ ³é³ç ½»Ýù»ñÁ ѳÝÓÝ»Ý:
13. ÄáÕáíÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ýßí»ó, áñ Ïáñ³Í ÷³ëóÃÕûñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ
³ÝÙÇç³å»ë ãÇ Ñ³Õáñ¹í»É ջϳí³ñáõÃÛ³ÝÁ:
14. êÛáõÇÝ »ñµ»ù ¹áõñ ã¿ñ ·³ÉÇë, »ñµ Çñ»Ý Ù³ïݳÝßáõÙ ¿ÇÝ Çñ
ûñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ:
15. -¶Çï»±ë° Ù»Í ÷á÷áËáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ »Ý ëå³ëíáõÙ ³Û¹
ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ:
-â»Ù ϳñÍáõÙ, û áñ¨¿ µ³Ý Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿ ÷áË»É ³ÛÝï»Õ:
16. îáõÝÝ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ï»ëù áõÝ»ñ` ϳñÍ»ë ï³ñÇÝ»ñ ß³ñáõݳÏ
³ÛÝï»Õ áã áù ã»ñ ³åñ»É:
17. æáÝÇ Ñáñ Ù³ëÇÝ Ù»Í Ï³ñÍÇù áõÝ»ÇÝ ·ÛáõÕáõÙ:
18. ²ëáõÙ »Ý, áñ ³Ûë Ýáñ ß»ÝùÁ ݳ˳ï»ëí³Í ¿
ÑÇÙݳñÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ:
19. Èááõñ»ÝëÁ ½·áõÙ ¿ñ, áñ íϳÛÇÝ Ñ³í³Ý³µ³ñ ÏëïÇå»ÇÝ
íϳÛáõÃÛáõÝ ãï³É:
20. Üñ³Ý ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇó ³½³ï»óÇÝ ÍáõÛÉ ¨ ³Ý³½ÝÇí ÉÇÝ»Éáõ
å³ï׳éáí:
119
ERROR ANALYSIS
120
MODAL VERBS
The verbs can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must,
ought to, need and dare are called ‘modal auxiliary verbs’. A modal
auxiliary verb is used with another verb to express ability, inability,
certainty, possibility, obligation, necessity, prohibition, habitual
behaviour etc.
Most of the modal auxiliaries can, could, may, must should, would,
ought to etc. have no infinitives or participles, so when necessary we
use other words, for example forms of be able, be allowed. In past
time- contexts modal verbs are found in reported speech or thought.
121
UNIT VII
CAN / COULD
Use:
Ability, Inability
1. We use can to say that somebody has the ability to do something.
2. When can and could are used with see, hear, taste, feel, smell,
understand, remember, guess, tell, they give a kind of
progressive meaning to these verbs. Can and could used with
these verbs are not always translated into Armenian
122
He didn’t managed/ failed to settle the difficulty.
Possibility
4. Can may be used to show a possibility due to circumstances
(circumstances permit):
123
She could have married anybody she wanted to. (but she
didn’t want to)
You could have asked me to help you. (Why did you do it
alone?)
That was a bad place to go skiing – you could have broken
your leg.
Why did you throw the bottle out of the window? Somebody
could have been hurt.
I was so angry I could have killed him!
It could be better.
The situation couldn’t be worse.
We couldn’t have been happier in those days.
Choices, Opportunities
9. Can may be used to talk about the choices that somebody has now
or in the future or to suggest opportunities)
124
There are three possibilities: we can go to the police, we
can talk to a lawyer, or we can forget all about it.
“What shall we do?” “We can try asking Lucy for help.”
Could is also used to talk about present and future choices and
opportunities (especially when we want to make suggestions sound
less definite).
When you are in London, you could visit our friends there.
Alex is a kind and patient person. He could make a good
teacher. (conditional use)
“What shall we do tomorrow?” “Well, we could go
fishing.”
“What shall we do tonight?” “We could go to the
restaurant opposite the cinema.”
11. Can and could are also used to talk about permission that has
already been given or refused, and about things that are or are not
allowed by rules and laws (may is not normally used to talk about
rules and laws).
125
Can you park on a double yellow line on Sundays? (not
may
you park…?)
You can’t drive until you are seventeen. (you are not
allowed to drive ….)
Men and women can vote at eighteen. (are allowed to vote
at eighteen)
Criticisms
13. We can use could to criticize people for not doing things.
126
Uncertainty, Doubt, Surprise
14. Can and could are used to show uncertainty/doubt or surprise:
15. Can and could are also found in special questions for emotional
colouring: puzzlement irritation, impatience;
Improbability, Deduction
16. Can and could used in negative sentences show improbability or
negative deductions.
127
can't/couldn’t + different forms of infinitive
(could is less categorical)
(only negative forms)
She keeps the window open so that the bird can fly in and
out. (purpose clauses)
She kept the window open so that the bird could fly in and
out.
I want to believe. I wish I could. (object clause)
I wanted to believe. I wished I could.
ACTIVITY
129
can baby-sit for you this evening if you like.” “No, it’s all right,
thanks.” 21. “There’s the doorbell. Who can it be?” “Well it can't be
your mother. She’s in Edinburgh.” 22. He could have been Prime
Minister now if he hadn’t decided to leave politics.
1. Why did you walk all the way from the station? You … have
phoned for a lift.
2. This carpet was priced at £500, but I … get a discount because
of the little mark in the corner.
3. You and I are in charge of a great business, we … leave our
responsibility to others.
4. Roger told me that she … run his small establishment better
than any paid housekeeper.
5. We know that since his accident he … leave the house.
6. I ate the next course grimly to an end; she … have been
enjoying her meal much either.
130
7. The day started off misty, but by the time we had reached the
mountain the sun had appeared and we … climb it quite
quickly.
8. I loved staying with my grandparents. They let me read all the
books in the house and told me I … go to bed as late as I
wanted.
9. You … be hungry. You’ve just had dinner.
10. I wanted to buy some tomatoes. The first shop I went to didn’t
have any but I … get some in the next shop.
11. No one … ever tell when he is being serious and when he is
joking.
12. Tom walked straight into a wall. He … have been looking
where he was going.
13. I … have lent you the money. Why didn’t you ask me?
14. “You look exhausted.” “I … sleep very well recently.”
15. You … ski on the hills. There is plenty of snow in the
mountains.
16. … you come round and mend a leak in my hot water tank?
17. I was so angry. I … have killed him!
1. “He says he is still reading The Old Man and the Sea.” “He
can't (to read) it. I gave it to him two months ago and it’s quite
a short book.”
2. There could (to be) those who felt that a quiet retirement was
not for a man who held the secrets of the KGB in his head.
3. “A man answered the phone. I suppose it was her husband.”
“No, it couldn’t (to be) her husband. He has been dead for
ages.”
4. Brian said he would be here before 9.30. It’s ten o’clock now
and he is never late. He can't (to come).
5. Why did I listen to you I could (to be) at home by now instead
of sitting here in the cold.
6. I have seen nothing of Roberta lately and I don’t know what she
can (to do).
7. You were lucky – that ball could (to break) the window.
131
8. Why did you stay at a hotel when you went to New York? You
could (to stay) with Barbara.
9. “Where is Ann?” “I don’t know. She could (to visit) her aunt
and uncle right now. She usually visits them every Friday
evening.”
10. “Ken repaired his mother’s washing machine” “Ken couldn’t
(to repair) his mother’s washing machine because he doesn’t
know anything about machines.”
11. Suddenly she realized she could (to smell) something burning.
12. Can he (to wait) for me all this time? Mary thought to herself.
13. Jack is in trouble. I wonder if something can (to do) about it.
14. He couldn’t (to hear) the news at dinner because his sister
hadn’t arrived yet.
15. I don’t know who rang, but it could (to be) Jim.
16. Can he still (to speak) to the police? It’s two o’clock we are
late.
17. Jane walked past me without speaking. She can't (to see) me.
18. “I could (to kiss) her if I had wanted.” Bill was boasting.
19. Nick could (to win) the game if he hadn’t fallen.
132
Ex 6. Re-word the following sentences, using can/could.
133
8. ÆÝãáõ± Ù»ñ ÑÛáõñ»ñÁ ¹»é ã»Ý »Ï»É: ƱÝã ϳñáÕ ¿ å³ï³Ñ³Í
ÉÇÝ»É Ýñ³Ýó:
9. ºë ã»Ù ϳñáÕ ãÑÇ³Ý³É ÙÇ Ù³ñ¹áí, áñÝ ³ÛÝù³Ý íë»Ù
ëϽµáõÝùÝ»ñ áõÝÇ:
10. ²ÝóÛ³É ï³ñÇ` ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹Ý»ñÇÝ, Ù»Ýù ϳñáÕ ¿ÇÝù ºíñáå³
·Ý³É, µ³Ûó ãó³Ýϳó³Ýù: öá˳ñ»ÝÁ ׳åáÝdz ·Ý³óÇÝù:
11. Ðݳñ³íáñ ã¿ñ‚ áñ àõÇÉÛ³ÙëÝ»ñÁ Ý»ñϳ »Õ³Í ÉÇÝ»ÇÝ ³Û¹
ÁݹáõÝ»ÉáõÃÛ³ÝÁ: Ø»½³ÝÇó áã áù Ýñ³Ýó ãÇ ï»ë»É ³ÛÝï»Õ:
12. -Æñ³íÇ׳ÏÁ ëñ³ÝÇó ³í»ÉÇ í³ï ã¿ñ ϳñáÕ ÉÇÝ»É:
- ´³Ûó Ù»Ýù áãÇÝã ã»Ýù ϳñáÕ ³Ý»É ÝÙ³Ý
ѳݷ³Ù³ÝùÝ»ñáõÙ:
13. àã áù ã¿ñ ϳñáÕ ³í»ÉÇ ß³ï µ³Ý ³Ý»É ù³Ý ¹áõù:
14. â¿Ç±ù ϳñáÕ ÙÇ ÷áùñ áõß ·³É: Ø»Ï Å³ÙÇó »ë ÏϳñáճݳÙ
ùÝݳñÏ»É ³Û¹ ѳñóÁ Ó»½ Ñ»ï:
15. ´ÇÉÝ ³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ Ýñ³Ý ¹»é¨ë ãÇ Ñ³çáÕí»É ϳå ѳëï³ï»É
·áñͳϳÉÇ Ñ»ï:
16. êáíáñ³µ³ñ ²ÉÇëÁ Éñ³·ñ»ñÝ áõ ݳٳÏÝ»ñÁ ÃáÕÝáõÙ ¿ñ
ë»Õ³ÝÇ íñ³, áñå»ë½Ç ѳÛñÁ ϳñáճݳñ ϳñ¹³É ¹ñ³Ýù:
134
UNIT VIII
MAY / MIGHT
Use:
Asking permission
1. May and might can both be used for asking permission
Note that we don’t usually use may and might to talk about
permission which has already been given or refused or about rules
and laws (see Unit VII)
135
I could read what I liked when I was a child.
We can’t cross the street here.
Possibility
3. May and might are used to say that something is a possibility.
“What was the noise?” “It might have been a cat.” (perhaps
it was a cat)
“Carol wasn’t at the meeting.” “She might not have known
about it.” (perhaps she didn’t know about it)
“She is late.” “She may have missed the train.”
“I wonder why she was in such a bad mood yesterday.”
“He may not have been feeling well.” (= perhaps he wasn’t
feeling well)
136
I’ll try phoning him, but he may have gone out by now.
(Perhaps he has already gone out).
By the end of this year I might have saved some money.
(Perhaps I will have saved some money by then).
Note 1: Notice that might (not may) can have a conditional meaning (=
would perhaps)
might have + past participle refers to past possibility which didn’t
happen
Don’t play with knives. You might get hurt. (=Perhaps you would
get hurt if you did)
If I knew them better I might invite them to dinner. (the situation
is not real)
If I had known them better I might have invited them to dinner.
If she hadn’t been so bad-tempered, he might have married her.
(Perhaps he would have married her if she hadn’t been so bad-
tempered).
He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the medicine.
Luckily he wasn’t driving the car. He might have been hurt.
Suggestions
7. Might is often used in affirmative clauses to make requests and
suggestions.
137
You might try asking your boss for a raise.
You might turn to your father for help.
May … but
8. May, sometimes might, can be used to say that the fact makes no
difference to the main argument. It is used to express although
clauses.
It might have been worse means: (=things are not so bad after all)
might have been /might have been taken for (= looked like a …)
From afar the house might have been taken for a small
inn.
He was tall and blond. He might have been taken for a
Scandinavian.
138
might have known (might have known that somebody would…)
is an idiom by which the speaker expresses ironically that an action
was typical of someone else.
If I may say so, I think you have treated him very badly.
ACTIVITY
139
yesterday.” “He may not have been feeling well.” 14. These men risk
their lives so that we may live more safely. 15. The sign reads
“Students may not use the staff car park.” 16. You may be older than
me, but that doesn’t mean you are cleverer. 17. “I might have known
that he would be late.” “Yes, he is always late.” 18. Mary was upset.
“You might have told me my trousers were split,” she said to Sue.
Ex. 3. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verbs
in parentheses.
140
8. You are a real cad. I can’t think why I didn’t realize it before. I
might (to expect) this.
9. “I’ll go on Monday by the slow train.” “You might just as well
(to wait) till Tuesday and go on the fast one.”
10. By the end of this year I might (to save) some money.
11. “Then why on earth all this secrecy?” asked Mark irritably.
“One never knows who may (to listen). We must use caution,
” answered his secretary.
12. “It is no easy matter to find the right man,” the doctor said to
me. It was strange but he might (to read) my thoughts.
13. “Hillary may not (to be) to a public school,” said Laura, “but
he is a gentleman.”
14. She wasn’t a Swede, but she might (to take) for one. She was
tall and blonde.
141
Ex. 5. Fill in the blanks with can/could or may/might.
1. The news about the scandal isn’t in the newspaper. The publishers
… have been afraid to publish it. 2. Jack was an excellent tennis
player. He … beat anybody. 3. She was smartly, quietly dressed, and
… have been taken for a clever business woman. 4. Aunt Mary said
she hadn’t seen him. She … have been lying. Perhaps she didn’t
want to say he was there. 5. How … Sarah have made such a foolish
error? 6. “One … not get anything done nowadays,” grumbled my
grandmother. 7. “You have acted very irresponsibly and you … find
yourself in serious trouble,” said Father. 8. … I ask then, Mr.
Morley, what you were doing there? 9. Mrs. Castel looks familiar to
me. Where … I have met her? 10. He boasted and told the most
extraordinary stories which I’m sure … not possibly have been true.
11. The experiment was a flop (failure). I … have had the wrong
formula. 12. This letter … not be from John Smith. He has been dead
for ten years. 13. “I have a little bit of hangover.” “You … have
drunk too much last night.” 14. When they told me I was cured and
… go, I … tell you I was more afraid than glad. 15. “Why is Shelley
looking under the desk?” “She … have dropped something.” 16. We
… go to that new restaurant opposite the cinema. They say it’s a
good one. 17. She … be the boss, but that is no excuse for shouting
like that. 18. “It was Jack who broke the vase.” “I … have known!”
19. Don’t worry that Card is late, she … have missed the train.
142
7. ´áµÝ ³ë³ó, áñ Ñݳñ³íáñ ¾ áõñµ³Ã ÅáÕáí ãÉÇÝÇ, ù³ÝÇ áñ
ïÝûñ»ÝÁ ÑÇí³Ý¹ ¿:
8. ⿱ áñ å³ïíÇñ»É ¿Ç ù»½` ·»ïáõÙ ãÉáÕ³É: øÇã ¿ñ ÙÝáõÙ
˻չí»Çñ:
9. ʳճÕáõÃÛ³Ý ÏáÝý»ñ³ÝëÁ ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ ³Û¹ ËݹñÇ
ÉáõÍáõÙÁ Ï·ïÝÇ:
10. -ÆÝãå»±ë ¿ æ»ÛÝÁ ѳëóÝáõÙ ³Û¹ µáÉáñ ݳٳÏÝ»ñÁ
Ù»ù»Ý³·ñ»É:
-¶áõó», ݳ ¹ñ³Ýù ·áñÍÇó Ñ»ïá ¿ ïåáõÙ:
11. ´ÇÉÁ ÝáñÇó áõß³ó»É ¿: Ø»Ýù å»ïù ¾ ÇٳݳÛÇÝù, áñ ݳ
Ïáõ߳ݳ:
12. ØÇ·áõó» ÇÝÓ Ñ³ñóÝ»Çñ, û »ë ³ñ¹Ûáù áñ¨¿ ³é³ñÏáõÃÛáõÝ
áõÝ»Ù, û áã:
13. -î³ëÝ»ñÏáõ ï³ñ»Ï³ÝÇó ó³Íñ »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇÝ ãÇ ÃáõɳïñíáõÙ
³é³Ýó ÃáõÛÉïíáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ»é³Ý³É¹åñáóÇ ï³ñ³óùÇó, -
ѳÛï³ñ³ñ»ó ·Çß»ñûÃÇÏ ¹åñáóÇ ïÝûñ»ÝÁ:
14. лéíÇó ïáõÝÁ ϳñ»ÉÇ ¿ñ ÙÇ ÷áùñÇÏ å³Ý¹áÏÇ ï»Õ ¹Ý»É:
15. ºÃ» Ù»Ýù ÙÛáõë ׳ݳå³ñÑáí ·Ý³ó³Í ÉÇÝ»ÇÝù, ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ
³í»ÉÇ ßáõï ïáõÝ Ñ³ë³Í ÏÉÇÝ»ÇÝù:
16. -îÇÏÇÝ æ»ÏëáÝÁ »ñ»Ï ³íïáíóñÇ ¿ »ÝóñÏí»É ¨ Áݹ³Ù»ÝÁ
Ó»éùÝ ¿ Ïáïñ»É: - ²Û°á, Ýñ³ µ³ËïÁ µ»ñ»É ¿: γñáÕ ¿ñ ³í»ÉÇ
í³ï µ³Ý å³ï³Ñ»É:
143
UNIT IX
MUST
(HAVE TO/HAD TO)
Use:
Plants must / have to get enough light and water if they are
to grow properly.
Must you go now or can you wait a little longer? or Have
you got to go…
When must I do it? or When have I got to do it?
Did you have to pay customs duty on that?
The doctor said that I must stop smoking.
or The doctor said that I had to/would have to stop
smoking.
144
Note 1: In the first person have to should be used for habits and must for an
important or urgent obligation.
Future obligation
3. Note that will have to is used to talk about future obligation, but
have to /have got to is preferred when arrangements for the future
have already been made.
Must can be used to give orders and instructions for the future.
You can borrow my car but you must bring it back before
ten. (it sounds like a direct order from the speaker)
You can borrow my car but you will have to bring it back
before ten. (will have to sounds less like direct orders from
the speaker)
Prohibition
4. We use mustn’t to express an order not to do something. (Can’t is
also possible, and is normal in American English).
Note 2: Mustn’t and don’t have to are completely different in this sense.
145
You mustn’t do something = it is necessary that you do not do it
(so don’t do it)
You mustn’t tell our secret to anyone.
You don’t have to do something = you don’t need to do it (but
you can if you want)
I’m not working tomorrow, so I don’t have to get up early.
You needn’t do something = it is not necessary that you do it, you
don’t need to do it.
“You needn’t write more than 200 words on this subject.” The
teacher said to class.
Note 3: We use needn’t do something when the speaker gives authority for
non-performance of some action.
Conclusion/Deduction, Certainty
5. Must is used in affirmative sentences to express the conclusion
that something is certain (have to/have got to is more usual in
American English and it is becoming common in British English)
This must be the worst job in the world. (or It has to/has got
to be the worst job…)
He must know all about it as he has read a lot on the
subject.
Let’s have something to eat. You must be starving.
There is the doorbell. It must be Roger.
146
The prisoner must have escaped this way, for here are his
footsteps.
It must have been raining all the night. There are big
puddles in the garden. (the action begun in the past and
continued into the moment of speaking)
Emphatic advice:
8. Must is used to express strong advice.
147
Must + simple infinitive
(affirmative and negative form)
When I saw him, I must say I was more afraid than glad.
ACTIVITY
1. Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow
properly. 2. “It’s lovely to have you home,” said Mother. “We must
have a party to celebrate.” 3. You must not park on double yellow
lines in England. 4. She said that she must tell me about a dream she
had had the previous night. 5. You really must get your hair cut, Bill.
6. You must be Ann’s sister – you look just like her. 7. The Adams’
house is dark and quiet. Their car isn’t in the driveway. They must
not be at home. 8. It must have been terrible to live during the war. 9.
If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger
than C. 10. There is the doorbell. It must be Roger. 11. You must be
here before eight o’clock tomorrow. 12. You must be joking. She
can't be his sister. 13. “Can you help me with these letters?” “Must
148
we do them now? Can't they wait until the morning? ” 14. Our boss
looks very tired today. He mustn’t have slept well last night.
1. Building a pyramide must (to be) a long and hard job. 2. A lot of
thoughts must (to run) through Marie Antoinette’s mind as she was
waiting for her execution at the guillotine. 3. “I must (to get) old,”
my mother said, “I’m talking too much.” 4. When I first met my new
neighbour, he said he was Napoleon. He must (to be) crazy, or drunk.
5. But at last he rose realizing dully that he had work which he must
(to do). 6. “I got a strange message this morning.” “Somebody must
(to try) to frighten you away.” 7. We are lost! We must (to take) a
wrong turn at the last intersection. 8. She had already decided that
she must (to show) the letter to Alan. 9. At half-past two I heard
Hudson grunt, put down his book and switch out the light. He must
(to read) since midnight. 10. “I mustn’t (to eat) too much. I am
supposed to be on a diet,” said Ann. 11. Dave is an excellent student.
He must (to work) very hard. 12. Their little boy is very spoiled. He
must (to give) too much when he was younger. 13. “I don’t see Mrs.
Carter in the mornings any longer.” “She must (to do) her shopping
149
in the afternoon.” 14. When they returned from their vacation, they
looked very refreshed. They must (to have) a good time while they
were away. 15. Bob was stopped by a police officer last night. He
must (to drive) too fast when she clocked him on her radar. 16. My
sister is reading a letter and smiling. The letter must (to contain)
some good news.
150
because of you. 14. Both the clocks say 4:30, so that … be the time.
15. It’s a pity you didn’t ask because I … have helped you. 16. “He..
have told us that he was going to stay out all night.” Dad was angry.
17. There’s Tom. He is standing at the bus stop. He … be waiting for
the 2 o’clock bus. 18. “It’s supposed to rain tomorrow.” “I know, but
the forecast … be wrong. Weather forecast are far from 100%
accurate.” 19. I smell something burning. … the cake be burning?
20. “What were you talking about?” “He told me that I … tell
anyone.”
151
11. I can't remember where I put my briefcase. It might be/might
have been in the office. I often leave it there.
12. The parcel is making a ticking noise. It must be/must have
been a bomb. Throw it out of the window!
13. We shall probably go/must probably go to Scotland for our
holiday.
14. I haven’t been able to/can't see him much lately. He says he’s
very busy.
1. Mother called the children and told them not to disturb their father
as he had just returned from work and he must be very tired. 2. He
said ironically that after what had happened they must be laughing at
him. 3. Amerigo Bonasera used to contradict the other Italians saying
that they must obey their countries laws. 4. Sheila told the
psychologist that she must tell him something important about her
father. 5. The lady explained that they need voices and that they must
have young voices 6. Sonny said that they must find Luca by all
means. 7. Mrs. Cromwell told us that she must have been sitting
there for a quarter of an hour waiting and thinking about it before she
saw the letter. 8. Oliver ate his share and the Jew there mixed him a
glass of hot Gin and water and told him that he must drink it off
directly, because another gentleman wanted the tumbler.
152
5. -Ø»Ýù ëïÇåí³Í »Ýù ³Ûë ѳñóÁ ùÝݳñÏ»É ÙÛáõë ß³µ³Ã: -
´³Ûó ÙÛáõë ß³µ³Ã »ë, ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ, Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ã»Ù áõݻݳ:
6. λñ³ÏáõñÝ ³Ñ³íáñ ¿ñ: ¸ñ³ÝÇó ³í»ÉÇ í³ïÁ Ñݳñ³íáñ ã¿ñ
ÉÇÝ»É:
7. ¸áõéÁ µ³ó ¿ñ: ì»ñçÇÝ Ù³ñ¹Á, áñ ¹áõñë ¿ñ »Ï»É, å»ïù ¾ áñ
Ùáé³ó³Í ÉÇÝ»ñ ¿ñ ¹áõéÁ ÏáÕå»É:
8. -ºÏ»ù ´áµÇÝ Ëݹñ»Ýù, áñ ݳ Ù»½ Çñ Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí ï³ÝÇ: ¾ÝÝÇÝ
¨ ²É³ÝÁ å»ïù ¾ áñ ¹»é Ù»½ ëå³ë»ÉÇë ÉÇÝ»Ý:
-¸áõ ×Çßï »ë: Ðݳñ³íáñ ã¿, áñ Ýñ³Ýù ³é³Ýó Ù»½ ·Ý³ó³Í
ÉÇÝ»Ý:
9. -ÊÝÓáñÝ»ñÁ ß³ï ɳíÝ »Ý: ¸áõ å»ïù ¿ ¹ñ³Ýù µáÉáñÝ áõï»ë,
- ³ë³ó ²ÉÇëÁ:
10. -ÆÝ±ã »ë ·ñáõÙ, ´ÇÉ: - ì»å: - ²Ýßáõßï ϳï³ÏáõÙ »ë:
²ÝÑݳñÇÝ ¿, áñ ¹áõ í»å ·ñ»ÉÇë ÉÇÝ»ë: гí³Ý³µ³ñ ëÇñ³ÛÇÝ
Ý³Ù³Ï »ë ·ñáõÙ êÛáõÇÝ:
11. ²Ù»Ý ³ÙÇë ¸áõ·É³ëÁ áñáß ·áõÙ³ñ ¿ ÙÇ ÏáÕÙ ¹ÝáõÙ: ØÇÝ㨠³Ûë
ï³ñí³ í»ñçÁ ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ ݳ µ³í³Ï³ÝÇÝ ·áõÙ³ñ Ëݳ۳Í
ÏÉÇÝÇ:
12. -ºë ³ë³óÇ æ»ÏëáÝÝ»ñÇÝ, áñ ã»Ù ϳñáÕ ÁݹáõÝ»É Ýñ³Ýó
Ññ³í»ñÁ:
-ä»ïù ¿, áñ Ýñ³Ýù ÑÇÙ³ ß³ï íÇñ³íáñí³Í ½·³Ý Çñ»Ýó:
13. ºë Ùáï Ù»Ï Å³Ù ëå³ë»óÇ ø»ÛÃÇÝ ¨ ³ñ¹»Ý Ùï³ÍáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ
ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ ÇÝã-áñ µ³Ý ¿ å³ï³Ñ»É Ýñ³Ý, »ñµ ø»ÛÃÁ
ųٳݻó ï³ùëÇáí:
14. -سñÇ³Ý ³ëáõÙ ¿, Çñ ѳÛñÁ ³·³ñ³Ï³ï»ñ ¿: - Üñ³ ѳÛñÁ ãÇ
ϳñáÕ ³·³ñ³Ï³ï»ñ ÉÇÝ»É, ù³ÝÇ áñ ݳ áã ÙÇ ³·³ñ³Ï ¿É
ãáõÝÇ:
15. سñïÇÝÇÝ Ñ³í³Ý³µ³ñ ãѳçáÕí»ó ѳÙá½»É Ýñ³Ýó` ·³É
Ù»½ Ñ»ï:
16. -γñá±Õ »Ù ËÙáñ»Õ»Ý í»ñóÝ»É, - ѳñóñ»ó ÂáÙÁ:
-à°ã, ã»ë ϳñáÕ, - å³ï³ë˳ݻó Ù³ÛñÁ, - ¹áõ å»ïù ¿ Ý³Ë ùá
ßÇÉ³Ý áõï»ë. ¨ ãÇ Ï³ñ»ÉÇ Ëáë»É, »ñµ µ»ñ³ÝÁ¹ ÉÇùÝ ¿:
17. гí³Ý³µ³ñ ݳ ß³ï ¾³ß˳ïáõÙ: ²ÝÑݳñ ¾ Ýñ³Ý »ñ»ÏáÛ³Ý
ï³ÝÁ ·ïÝ»É:
153
He can’t /couldn’t have solved these problems alone.
(or Somebody must have helped him to solve them)
1. Everyone who had the fish for dinner last night got sick.
2. Jennifer’s car radio is always set on the classical music station.
3. The Browns house is dark and quiet. Their car isn’t in the
driveway.
4. The woman sitting behind us has been talking throughout the
movie. She knows what’s going to happen before it happens.
5. We had a test in class yesterday. Alice who is a lazy girl and
usually fails the tests got a 95% this time.
6. Jimmy says he was at Ann’s party yesterday, but Ann says she
didn’t see him.
7. I hear a dog barking. My neighbours’ dog usually barks when a
stranger passes by their house..
154
UNIT X
TO HAVE TO, TO BE TO
To Have To
To have to as a modal verb is not a defective verb and can have all
the necessary tense-aspect forms as well as the verbals.
Use:
Obligation
1. The modal verb have to is used to express obligation (necessity)
imposed by circumstances. We use have to for facts, not for our
personal feelings. (For the difference between must and have to,
see Unit IX)
have to + infinitive
(in affirmative, interrogative sentences)
155
I am not working tomorrow so I don’t have to get up early.
He doesn’t have to wear a tie at work.
He didn’t have to go to hospital because he was slightly
injured.
Certainty (strong possibility)
2. Have to may be used to say that something is certain.
to be + simple infinitive
(affirmative, interrogative form)
The Lord Mayor was to have laid the foundation stone but
he was taken ill last night so the Lady Mayoress is doing it
instead.
Order
3. To be to may be found in orders and instructions:
to be to + simple infinitive
(in affirmative, negative sentences)
157
was/were + simple infinitive
(in affirmative, negative sentences)
158
If I were you I shouldn’t go there alone.
If he were to come again I should not receive him.
ACTIVITY
Ex.1. Explain the meanings and forms of “to have to” in the
following sentences.
159
7. You … keep it a secret. You … tell anyone.
8. Mike’s mother is seriously ill. She might … go to hospital.
9. She has left her gloves here. She …come again.
10. … you wear a tie at work?
11. The doctor said that I … stop smoking.
12. “A dog has been killing our chickens.” “It … be a dog – it
could be a fox.”
13. “Edna isn’t in her office.” “She … go home. Her son is coming
today.
14. When you come to London, you … come and see us.
15. I’m not working tomorrow, so I … get up early.
16. You really … work harder if you want to pass the examination.
Ex.3. Explain the meanings and forms of “to be” in the following
sentences.
1. I felt nervous because I was soon to leave home for the first time.
2. “She can go to the party, but she is not to be late,” said her father.
3. No one is to leave this building without the permission of the
police. 4. If we are to get there by lunchtime we had better hurry. 5. I
thought we were saying goodbye for ever. But we were to meet
again, many years later, under very strange circumstances. 6. The
Lord Mayor was to have laid the foundation stone but he was taken
ill last night so the Lady Mayoress is doing it instead. 7. It was late
and he was nowhere to be found. 8. “I wish I were ten kilos lighter.”
Thought Barbara looking at herself in the mirror. 9. If I were to tell
you everything, you would be amazed. 10. He was wounded. The
wound didn’t worry him at the time but it was to be very
troublesome later.
160
this boarding school the children … to go to bed at eight o’clock. 6.
That day, however, I had a pupil waiting for an English lesson and I
… to cut my visitor short. 7. “We may … to discuss this question
without him,” said the manager. 8. The instructor says that we … not
to leave the camp after six. 9. Aunt Mary’s things … to be moved out
of her room so that it can be re-let. 10. “What you … to do to earn so
much money?” Barbara asked me. 11. We didn’t know then that a
day … to come when we would be glad to have any roof over our
heads. 12. “He is out. I’m afraid you … to come another time,” said
the secretary. 13. I … a music lesson in the morning, but my teacher
called up to cancel it. 14. It’s cold today. You … better wear a coat
when you go out. 15. I went to the bank this morning. There was no
queue, so I … to wait. 16. “I … to work for this cad since I was
seventeen,” Bob said angrily. 17. The computer programmer who …
to work for this company hasn’t arrived yet.
Ex.5. Re-word the sentences using “to have to” or “to be to.”
161
2. I mustn’t do the translation.
I don’t have to do the translation.
I am not to do the translation.
162
Ex. 8. Put in can, can’t, couldn’t, to have had to, haven’t been able
to, may, must, must be or must have.
Remember Me?
163
UNIT XI
SHALL / SHOULD
Shall
Use:
1. Shall I? shall we? are used in requests for advice or orders, (to
ask after the will of the person addressed) offers, suggestions:
3. Shall used with the second and third persons can express a duty
(obligation), intention, promise, threat or warning:
164
Who shall answer the telephone, major?
He shan’t come here. (I won’t let him come)
You shall have my answer tomorrow.
“You shall stay just where you are,” his father said angrily.
He shall do as I say.
Should
Use:
Obligation
1. Should is used to express duty or obligation which in different
contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as
advisability and desirability.
165
should + simple infinitive
(affirmative, interrogative, negative forms)
Criticism of an action
3. We also use should when something is not right or what we
expect.
166
Shouldn’t (oughtn’t to) have + past participle shows that an
undesirable action was carried out:
Deduction,
5. Should may be used to express supposition implying strong
probability:
Emotional should
6. Should (not ought to) may have a peculiar function- it may be
used for emotional colouring. In this function it may be called
emotional should.
167
Why should I do it?
Why shouldn’t you invite him?
I went into business with him as his partner. Why
shouldn’t I have done it. (refers the action to the past).
168
I am so glad that you should help our son. (emotional
colouring)
We are sorry that she should have had a row with her
boyfriend.
It was strange that he should behave like that.
It is /was strange that he should have left without saying
goodbye to anyone. (the action of the subordinate clause
precedes that of the main clause)
If you should see Tom this evening, can you ask him to
phone me? (ºÃ» å³ï³ÑÇ ³ÛÝå»ë, áñ / »Ã» ѳÝϳñÍ
ï»ëÝ»ë ÂáÙÇÝ.....)
or Should you see Ann this evening, can you ask her to
phone me?
ACTIVITY
1. Beatrice is in hospital, but her son hasn’t been to see her. He ought
to go and see her. 2. You should always lock the front door when you
go out. 3. She has been studying hard for the exam, so she ought to
pass. 4. Those boys shouldn’t be playing football at this time. They
should be at school. 5. Do you think I ought to (should) apply for this
job? 6. People really shouldn’t smoke when there are children
around. 7. It was a great party last night. You ought to (should) have
170
come. 8. Andrew is very upset. You shouldn’t (ought not to) have
shouted angrily at him. 9. “How can you know what his feelings
are?” “I ought to know, for he is always telling me about them.” 10.
They ought to have arrived by now.
11. If that should happen again, we’ll have to send you home.
Ex 4. Use the required form of the infinitive after “ought to” and
“should”.
171
4. The apple trees have lots of ripe fruit on them but no one can be
bothered to pick it so it will be wasted.
Someone …………………………………………………
5. I live in Edinburgh. You came to Edinburgh last week but you
didn’t visit me.
You ………………………………………………………
6. Ron is wearing jeans. He is expected at formal reception.
He…………………………………………………………
7. You are talking and laughing instead of listening to your teacher.
You ………………………………………………………
1. I don’t think people … keep pets if they don’t have time to care
for them properly.
2. They … go sailing today. The sea is rough and it might be
dangerous.
3. We … stop for petrol soon. The tank is almost empty.
4. These biscuits are delicious. You … try one.
5. When people are driving, they… keep their eyes on the road.
6. You … turn that music down before your Dad gets angry.
7. Can you buy me some stamps when you go out? There … be
some change in my purse if you haven’t got enough money.
8. You … take something good to read because you’ll have quite a
long wait in the departure lounge.
9. It’s cold today. You … wear a coat when you go out.
10. I don’t think they … get married. They are too young.
11. “I received my phone bill four weeks ago but I haven’t paid it
yet.” “You … pay your phone bill or you may have problems.”
12. I’m in a difficult position. What do you think I … do.
172
Ex. 7. Translate the sentences into English using “should” or
“ought to”.
1. “They are my family, signore. Why should I avoid them?” The girl
looked surprised. 2. The landlord demanded that we should pay the
rent by Friday. 3. Isn’t it typical of Roy that he should leave without
saying goodbye to anybody? 4. I was surprised that he should ask me
for advice. What advice could I give him? 5. I’m sorry that you
should have had a row with Pat about it. 6. Kate was frowning. “I
can't understand why you should do this.” 7. It’s strange that Ann
should be so worried about the exams. 8. “I don’t see any reason why
we shouldn’t go to their wedding party,” said mother. 9. It outraged
173
him that his wife should be so foolish. 10. They insisted that we
should have dinner with them. 11. This is too terrible! To think that
you should talk to me in this way.
1. Don’t be late. It’s essential that you should (be) there on time. 2.
It’s surprising that he should (say) such a thing to you yesterday. 3.
It’s only natural that parents should (worry) about their children. 4.
“Where is Phyllis?” “Ann hasn’t invited him to her party.” “I am
shocked that she shouldn’t (invite) her to her party.” 5. I’m sorry you
should (think) I did it on purpose. 6. It’s strange that you should
(ask) me such questions now. 7. “I hear Mary divorced Tim.” “Yes,
it’s monstrous that he should (treat) her like that.” 8. “Ann is always
in trouble.” “It’s absurd that such things should (happen) to a girl
like her.”
174
10. ¸áõéÁ µ³óí»ó, ¨ DZÝã »ù ϳñÍáõÙ` áí Ùï³í. Ñáñ³ùáõÛñ
²ÉÇëÁ` ÉÇ Çñ ÷ÝÃ÷ÝÃáóÝ»ñáí:
Ex. 11. Choose one of the following topics and write a short
paragraph on it.
175
UNIT XII
WILL / WOULD
Use:
Habitual action
1. Will (would in past time contexts) implies willingness, personal
interest on the part of the doer of the action or emphasizes the
characteristics of the performer rather than the action:
176
I will stop smoking! I really will!
“There’s the doorbell.” “ I’ll go.
We decided that we wouldn’t interfere.
Request, Invitation:
3. Will and would can be used for requests and invitations:
177
Order
5. This is a formal, impersonal type of command, similar to must or
is/are to but more peremptory (not to be disobeyed or questioned)
much used in schools or military establishments):
“You will stay here till you are relieved,” said the officer.
All boys will attend roll-call at 9 o’clock.
Supposition/Deduction
6. Will can introduce an assumption (supposition/deduction). This
meaning is found with the second and third persons:
178
8. Notice the use of will in the following sentences:
ACTIVITY
180
7. “How’s grandfather?” “Much the same. He will/would sit
talking to himself for hours.”
8. I won’t have/wouldn’t have you speak to me like that.
9. He turned off the lamp. But sleep wouldn’t/won’t come.
10. I think I’ll go and watch TV if you will/won’t excuse me.
11. She had rather/would rather read the letter first.
12. I doubt whether Helen would/will know the answer.
13. “His mother didn’t even listen to us.” “She wouldn’t /won’t.”
14. It’s no use expecting Barry to turn up. He will have
forgotten/would have forgotten.
15. I wish she would/won’t take things seriously.
16. Tom is very impatient. He will/would interrupt when I’m
talking.
181
18. Thanks for lending me the money. I promise to pay you back on
Monday.
19. That man on the motorbike isn’t wearing a helmet. That’s
dangerous.
20. You are feeling sick because you ate too much. Why did you
eat so much?
182
12. -²í»ÉÇ É³í ¿ »ë ÁݹѳÝñ³å»ë ïáõÝ »Ï³Í ãÉÇÝ»Ç: ºë ã·Çï»Ç,
áñ ÇÝÓ ÝÙ³Ý Ó¨áí »Ý í»ñ³µ»ñí»Éáõ ³Ûëï»Õ, - ³ë³ó
²ñÃáõñÁ:
13. ²Ûëï»Õ áã Ñ»éáõ ÙÇ ·»Õ»óÇÏ í³Ûñ ϳ, áñÁ »ë Ïáõ½»Ç ù»½
óáõÛó ï³É:
14. ÜÙ³Ý ³ÝÓñ¨áï »Õ³Ý³ÏÇÝ »ë Ï·»ñ³¹³ë»Ç ï³ÝÁ ÙÝ³É ¨ ÙÇ
Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ·Çñù ϳñ¹³É:
15. Ø»Ýù æ»ÛÝÇÝ ÙÇßï ³ëáõÙ »Ýù, áñ ݳ Ù³ñϳÝó ãÁݹѳïÇ,
»ñµ Ýñ³Ýù ËáëáõÙ »Ý, µ³Ûó ݳ ѳٳéáñ»Ý ß³ñáõݳÏáõÙ ¿
¹³ ³Ý»É:
183
UNIT XIII
NEED, DARE
Need
Use:
184
You need to work harder.
I agree that she needs to be told about the arrangements.
Your hair needs to be cut. or Your hair needs cutting.
You will need to start work soon if you want to pass your
exam. (it makes orders and instructions sound less direct)
You will need to fill in this form before you see the
inspector.
Do you need to use the photocopier?
Will you be needing me this afternoon?
Tell her she doesn’t need to work tonight.
Won’t you need to take some food?
Note: Notice that need can’t be used after interrogatives when, where,
who, what etc. Must is used instead:
If need be (= if it is necessary)
185
It needn’t be (= it doesn’t have to be)
Need smb./smth.= to have a need for a person or thing
Dare
Use:
3. Dare as an ordinary verb has all the necessary forms. It has the
same meaning as the modal auxiliary dare (=have the courage,
impudence) to do something:
186
Nobody dared to speak.
And now she dares (to) accuse me of theft.
She told me she had never dared to ask him about it.
He wouldn’t dare to speak to me like that.
ACTIVITY
187
needn’t have watered the flowers. Just after I finished it started
raining. 11. “The boy needs a slap”, said Aunt Mary angrily. 12.
“She looks quite ill. I’m sure it’s flu.” ”It needn’t be – maybe she is
just over-tired. 13. “There is a real need to improve our newspaper,”
said the editor-in-chief, at the meeting. 14. Tell her she doesn’t need
to work tomorrow.
1. You needn’t / mustn’t tell Jennifer about it. She already knows.
2. You needn’t / mustn’t tell Margaret. I don’t want her know.
3. Need I / must I explain everything twice?
4. Need you / must you go now or can you wait a little longer?
5. This is a valuable book. You need / must look after it carefully
and mustn’t / needn’t loose it.
6. You needn’t / mustn’t light a match; I can see well enough.
7. You needn’t / mustn’t light a match; the room is full of gas.
8. If must / need be I’ll ask Ben to help me.
9. The sofa is dirty. It needs / must to be cleaned again.
10. 10.“What sort of house do you want to buy? Something big?”
“Well, it mustn’t / needn’t be big – that’s not important, but it
must have a nice garden – that’s essential.
11. You mustn’t / don’t need to eat it if you don’t want to.
12. You don’t need to pay / you mustn’t pay for emergency in
most countries.
188
3. His advice was a great help, but she didn’t even thank him.
She …………………………….........................................
4. Why did you leave the child in its sister’s care. She isn’t old
enough.
You ………………………………...................................
5. Why did you type this? A handwritten note would have been
quite adequate.
You ……………………………........................................
6. I am sorry I bought these gloves. Mother gave me better ones for my
birthday.
I …………………………..............................................................
7. I am going to be in trouble. I completely forgot to post these letters
yesterday.
I………………………………......................................................
8. Mother made far more sandwiches than we needed. She didn’t know
Ann and Fred wouldn’t come.
She………………………………………………………………
9. I’m not feeling well. It’s probably the fish I ate for lunch.
I ………………………………………..........................................
10. I am sorry I changed before dinner. Nobody else did.
I ………………………………………..........................................
189
a) She is very upset now
b) There‘ll be plenty of room
c) Because there is no extra charge for delivery
d) You will be asked to leave otherwise
e) Or he’ll miss his interview
f) Unless she is ill
g) Because she woke up early anyway
h) If he is not going to work today
i) When she was supposed to be working
j) Because he wasn’t feeling tired
k) From people you hardly know
l) If you want to succeed in athletics
190
7. -γñÇù ϳ±, áñ »ë í³ÕÁ ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇ ·³Ù£ - à°ã, ¹áõ ϳñáÕ
»ë ï³ÝÁ Ùݳɣ γñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ í³ÕÁ ß³ï ·áñÍ ã»Ýù áõݻݳ£
8. -ºÃ» ³ÙáõëÇÝë ³Ûëï»Õ ÉÇÝ»ñ, ¹áõù ã¿Çù ѳٳñÓ³ÏíÇ ÇÝÓ
Ñ»ï ³Û¹å»ë Ëáë»É, - ³ë³ó ïÇÏÇÝ ø³ñï»ñÁ£
9. ºë »ñ»Ï ѳëóñ»óÇ Ù»ù»Ý³·ñ»É ³Û¹ µáÉáñ ݳٳÏÝ»ñÁ,
áñáíÑ»ï¨ ×³ß »÷»Éáõ ϳñÇù ãϳñ£ ºñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ ¹ñëáõÙ ¿ÇÝ
׳߻Éáõ£
10. γñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ Ù»Ýù µáÉáñë ¿É ÙÇ ÷áùñ-ÇÝã ß÷áÃí³Í ï»ëù
áõÝ»ÇÝù, »ñµ Éë»óÇÝù ³Û¹ ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝÁ£
Ex. 7. Combine the correct forms of ‘dare’ and ‘need’ with the
verbs in brackets.
191
REVISION
OF MODAL VERBS
192
11. “We … be here. That sign says ‘No Trespassing’.” “It’s too
late now. We’re already here.”
A. couldn’t B. aren’t supposed to C. needn’t
12. He took an umbrella because he thought it was going to rain.
But it didn’t rain. He … an umbrella.
A. shouldn’t have taken B. needn’t have taken
C. had better not take
13. “There was a chocolate cake on the table. What happened to
it?” “I don’t know. The children … it.”
A. might have eaten B. could eat C. would eat
14. “It would be better not to seek them.” “Why … I avoid
them?”
A. shall B should C. am
15. “It will be a strange return for me.” “I don’t think anyone …
give you a welcome-home party. ”
A. would sooner B. are going to C. will
16. I don’t think we should throw that letter away. We … need it
later.
A. can’t but B. might C. are allowed to
17. Why did you stay at a hotel? You … with us.
A. could B. must have stayed C. could have stayed
18. “Did he tell you his secret?” “He … die than tell me his
secret.”
A. would sooner B. should C. may as well
19. George came back home alone. We realized that he …
persuade Laura to come with him.
A. used to fail to B. must have failed to
C. should have failed to
20. She was afraid of him and … tell him what had happened.
A. didn’t need to B. didn’t have to C. didn’t dare to
1. Thank you for your kind help. I might not manage without
you.
2. Fortunately I needn’t have gone to the bank in person.
3. Pay no attention to what Paul said. He shouldn’t have been
serious.
193
4. It is strange that he should live without saying good-bye to the
hostess.
5. They could be injured when the car crashed, but they weren’t.
6. Jack is very angry with you. You should leave before he gets
back.
7. The heating comes on automatically. You have to turn it on.
8. Sally got home at four o’clock this morning. The party could
have been really good.
9. I’m not sure about my application. May I send two copies or
three?
10. Everyone was angry because Sam won’t turn off the
television.
11. It wasn’t very nice of you not to invite her to your party! You
must have invited her.
12. She left for Canada for good and we weren’t to see her any
longer.
13. The camel is to go for days without water.
14. The accused man could establish an alibi by proving that he
was at a party when the money was stolen.
15. Don’t worry that John is late. He should have missed the train.
16. “I gave up my job.” “You should think twice before you gave
up your job”
Ex. 3. What will you say or ask in the following situations?. Use
modal verbs.
195
THE NOUN
Classification of Nouns
En English the gender of a noun only affects its pronoun (his, her,
him, it, its).
Men, boys and male animals are masculine.
Women, girls and female animals are feminine.
Inanimate things are neuter.
196
Exceptions: ships are normally considered feminine, and so are
countries when referred to by name:
Most nouns have the same form for masculine and feminine:
Some nouns form the feminine from the masculine by adding –ess.
Note that words ending in -er or -or often drop the -e or the -o:
197
UNIT XIV
THE NUMBER OF NOUNS
198
scarf- scarfs/scarves, wharf-wharfs/wharves, hoof-hoofs/hooves,
dwarf-dwarfs/ dwarves.
7. Nouns which have the same form for the singular and plural:
a sheep-sheep, a swine –swine, a deer-deer, a craft-craft, a
counsel-counsel (= legal adviser, barrister).
Note 1: The nouns fruit and fish can be used as countable nouns and as
uncountable nouns. Compare:
Do you cat much fruit?
but the fruits of the earth.
He didn’t caught any fish yesterday.
There were two fishees in the basket.
Note 2: The noun penny has two plural forms: pennies (when referring to
individual coins) and pence (when the amount only is meant):
199
funguses, hypothesis-hypotheses, medium-media or mediums,
nucleus- nuclei or nucleuses, oasis-oases, phenomenon-
phenomena, radius-radii or radiuses, stimulus-stimuli;
(For the pronunciation, see Appendix 4.)
lady-bird – lady-birds
bookcase – bookcases,
writing table – writing tables,
tooth brush – tooth brushes,
handful – handfuls,
postman – postmen
policewoman – policewomen
Englishman – Englishmen
but German – Germans, Norman – Normans, Roman –
Romans
Note 3: When the first component is man or woman, the plural may be
expressed twice:
man servant – men servants, woman doctor –women doctors
passer-by – passers-by
runner up – runners up
looker-on – lookers-on
200
d) verb+ adverb particle. The plural is formed by adding –s
to the word.
drawback – drawbacks
breakdown - breakdowns
forget-me-not –forget-me-nots,
merry-go-round – merry-go-rounds
12. There are some nouns that are usually uncountable in English but
often countable in other languages. For example:
201
The television news is at ten o’clock.
13. There are a number of nouns in English which are used only in
the plural.
b) nouns which have the form of the singular but agree with a
plural verb:
public, police, clergy, gentry, people, jury, cattle etc.
202
c) nouns which may have either the singular or the plural form:
family, crew, group, committee, delegation, government,
team, board, staff, company, firm;
ACTIVITY
Ex. 1. Complete the sentences using one of the nouns in the list.
204
Ex.3. Most of these sentences are wrong. Correct them where
necessary; put “Right” if the sentence is already correct.
1. The staff at the school (not to be) happy with their new working
condition. 2. His staff (to be) very small last year. 3. When he came
the baseball team (to practise) on the school field. 4. The team (to
have) baths at the moment and then (to come) back here for tea. 5.
The clergy (to be) generally dressed in black. 6. The government (to
want) to increase taxes. 7. The government (to decide) to pass the
bill. 8. There (to be) two fish in his basket. 9. “Surely I have caught
205
all the fish that (to swim),” he said to himself and laughed. 10. The
board (to be) going to consider your application at the next sitting.
11. The board (to be) extraordinarily kind to you. 12. That day the
committee (to be) to meet at her friend’s house. 13. I had to find out
whether the committee (to be) competent enough to consider the
project. 14. The public (to request) not to leave litter in the woods.
15. Close by, a group of men (to sit). 16. A group of students (to go)
on a tour to Poland in summer. 17. The job is unpaid, but a number
of persons (to be) willing to undertake it. 18. The number of the
unemployed (to rise) very fast. 19. Con’s family who (to be)
occupied each with their particular guest didn’t notice anything. 20.
Monty’s family (to be) of about the same social status as my own.
21. Can I borrow your scissors? Mine (not to be) sharp enough. 22. I
need more money than that. Ten pounds (not to be) enough to buy it.
23. Three days (not to be) enough for a good holiday. 24. Everybody
says that the Swiss police (to be) great at finding people. 25. Twenty
thousand pounds (to steal) in the robbery.
206
UNIT XV
English nouns may have two case forms- the common case and the
genitive case.
The genitive case is formed by means of the suffix-’s or the
apostrophe (’)
207
4. The –’s structure is often used for products from living animals:
6. The noun + noun is normally used to say what things are made of:
7. The –’s may be found with nouns denoting inanimate things and
abstract notions:
The sun’s rays, the ocean’s tide, the ship’s crew, the
island’s outline, the play’s title, Nature’s sleep
9. For things, ideas etc. we normally use of (the page of the book,
the door of the car). Sometimes we can use the structure noun +
noun:
the top of the page, the back of the car, the bottom of the
glass, the end of the film.
11. The suffix –’s may be added not only to a single noun but to a
whole group of words. It is called the group genitive:
12. We do not always use –’s for people. For example, we would use
of… in this sentence:
What is the name of the man who brought this letter? (“the
man who lent us the money” is too long to be followed by –
’s)
ACTIVITY
209
4. the shade of the tree …………………
5. the book of the film …………………
6. a delay of an hour ……………………
7. at the door of death …………………
8. the price of success …………………
9. the company of the ship ……………
10. the surface of the earth…………….
210
Example: - Where can we buy medicine or medical goods?
- At the chemist’s.
211
UNIT XVI
THE ARTICLE
Pronunciation
Use:
212
It’s an interesting article.
4. a/an may have the meaning of one: (note that a/an and one are not
always interchangeable.
213
2. Before uncountable nouns: (they are often preceded by: some,
any, a little, a piece of, a lot of & c.)
Pronunciation
The is pronounced [ðə] before words beginning with a consonant
and [ðɪ] before a vowel:
the gardener, the artist
[ðə] [ðɪ]
The earth goes round the sun and the moon goes round the
earth.
214
Note that we say space (without “the”) when we mean “space in the
universe”:
His car struck a tree; you can still see the mark on the tree.
215
The male lion is lazy.
The aeroplane has made the world a small place.
The violet is a lovely flower.
9. Before the points on the globe and with the names of geographical
areas:
The North Pole, The South Pole, the Equator, the East,
the West, the North, the South, the Middle East, the Far
East, the Far West, the Orient, the Occident
She learnt to play the piano when she was five years old.
but The Ukraine, the Caucasus, the Crimea, the Hague, the
Vatican, the Strand, the High Street,
Hudson Bay, Lake Baikal, Lake Sevan (or the Baikal, the
Sevan when the word ‘lake’ is omitted)
but The Bay of Biscay, The Great lakes, The Finger Lakes
217
5. No article with names of diseases:
6. These nouns are used without ‘the’ when they are visited or used
for their primary purpose: home, chapel, church, market, college,
school, hospital, court, prison, work, sea, bed
we go to church to pray to market to buy or sell
to school to study to hospital as patients
to college to study to prison as prisoners
to bed to sleep to court as litigants
to sea as sailors to work as workers
When these places are not visited for their primary purpose the
article the is used:
218
to speak in a whisper to keep the bed
to have a lovely/good time to play the piano/guitar
to take a fancy to smb. in the original
to fly into a rage to take the trouble to do smth
to tell a lie to be out of the question
in a hurry on the one hand… on the other hand
a bad lot (immoral, unkind person) to be at a loss (for smth. /to
do smth.)
to be paid by the hour to get to the bottom of smth.
Zero Article
219
ACTIVITY
Aesop was … very clever man who lived many hundreds of years
ago in
… Greece. He wrote many fine stories. He was well known as …
man who was fond of … jokes. One day, as he was enjoying …
walk, he met … traveler, who greeted him and said: “…kind man,
can you tell me how soon I shall get to?” “Go” Aesop answered. “I
know I must go,” protested … traveler, “but I should like you to tell
me how soon I shall get to … town. ”
“Go,” Aesop said again angrily. “This man must be mad,” … traveler
thought and went on. After he had gone some distance, Aesop
shouted after him. “You will get to … town in two hours.” …
traveler turned round in … astonishment. “Why didn’t you tell me
that before?” he asked. “How could I have told you that before?”
answered Aesop. “I didn’t know how fast you could walk.”
221
10. We didn’t manage to visit Houses of parliament/the Houses
of parliament.
High Flyer
222
10. I don’t usually have … lunch, but I always eat … good
breakfast.
11. “Can you pass … sugar, please?” “But … sugar isn’t very good
for you.”
12. Some people think that … bicycle is … excellent means of
transport.
13. When I studied at … University, … Professor Williams used to
say, “… young have the future in their hands.”
14. Do you know that in many places people are in … prison
because of their political opinions?
15. The other day the fire brigade were called to … prison to put
out … fire.
16. … Nile is in … Egypt. … Lake Titicaca is in … South America.
17. … Mediterranean Sea is between … Europe and … Africa.
18. … English is an international language. … English of
Shakespeare is often difficult to understand.
19. She told the boy to go down … Kingston Street and turn right
into … Mill Road.
20. … Mt Everest is … highest mountain in … world. It is in …
Nepal.
21. … milk is good for babies. … milk in … refrigerator is bad.
22. Travel through … space to other planets interests many people
today.
223
10. I can’t take a summer vacation right now, but … next year I will.
11. If you look into … north on a clear night, you will see Polaris,
the North Star.
12. Most airlines can travel at 600 miles … hour.
13. Our club is going to have a picnic at … Audubon Park.
14. … arthritis is a painful disease.
15. There is one musical instrument I truly love; … violin.
16. … Art Museum is located in the James Fisher Building.
17. I wonder what happened to … old camera that my grandfather
used to have.
18. Many wonderful works of literature are written in … Spanish
language.
19. ... Gobi Desert is located in Mongolia.
20. … Urals are a major range of mountains in Europe.
21. And then they formed a musical group called … Crickets
22. I want to buy … computer with a lot of memory.
23. I want you to clean … top of the refrigerator.
24. The doctors at Mercy Hospital give … patients excellent care.
224
REVISION
OF NOUNS, ARTICLES
225
where were plenty of delousing (32. apparatus). Our American (33.
brother) do nothing by halves, and do not care sixpence for
anybody’s opinions of their methods.
We landed with every manifestation of high spirits and the
customs people examined our (34. effect). The (35. hanger-on)
stared at us as though we were curious (36. phenomenon).
On the day we landed, the news got around that an armistice
had been signed, and New York was beside itself with joy. Nobody
then guessed how many world (37. crisis) would follow in the years
to come; and what small consolation there would be for the men who
had performed their (38. duty) like (39. hero) in “a war to end war”.
Example: Jack fell in love with Clair when first saw her.
Jack fell in love with Clair at first sight.
226
9. We traveled during the day and camped every night.
10. He has studied Plato in the language it was first written.
11. He didn’t have a desire to eat but he had to eat the soup.
12. I’m very grateful to you. You have done a lot to help my son
13. He has lost people’s respect and liking.
14. It gives me such pleasure to talk to a person like you
227
UNIT XVII
THE ADJECTIVE
a) nice, strong, blue, important (show the quality of the nouns and
have degrees of comparison).
b) woolen, wooden, silk, Italian, European, daily, monthly,
preparatory…(show the relation to materials, to place, to time, to
some action). Relative adjectives do not have degrees of comparison
Comparison
228
2. irregular comparison
Positive Comparative Superlative
good better (the) best
bad worse worst
far farther/further farthest/furthest
old older/elder oldest/eldest
late later latest/last
little less least
many/much more most
near nearer nearest/next
229
recent – more recent – most recent
honest – more honest – most honest
When the children heard that their father was coming, they
were more afraid than glad.
Note 1: Most when used before an adjective does not always form the
superlative degree. It may have the meaning of very, extremely.
Then it is preceded by the indefinite article.
230
9. double comparative:
…er and…er
more and more
10. The…the (to say that things change or vary together or that two
variable quantities are systematically related).
11. When a group only has two members we use the comparative:
231
Who is the best player in your team?
I think he is the most generous man in the town.
The Nile is the longest river in the world.
14. as… as is used to show equality (to say that people, things are
equal in a particular way).
15. Adjectives of quality used as nouns: The poor, the rich, the
young, the living, the dead, the wounded, the blind etc. They are
used to represent a class of persons.
232
none the less = ³Ù»Ý ¹»åùáõÙ, ѳٻݳÛÝ ¹»åë
so much the better/the worse (for) = ß³ï ³í»ÉÇ É³í
/³í»ÉÇ í³ï
to be the worse for = ³í»ÉÇ í³ï³óÝ»É
no (none the worse for) = ³í»ÉÇ í³ï / íݳë ãÇ ÉÇÝÇ
if the worst comes to the worst = í³ï³·áõÛÝ ¹»åùáõÙ
to go from bad to worse = í³ïóñ³Ý³É, ³í»ÉÇ í³ï³Ý³É
as best = É³í³·áõÛÝë, Ñݳñ³íáñÇÝë ɳí
at (the) best/at worst = É³í³·áõÛÝ ¹»åùáõÙ/ í³ï³·áõÛÝ
¹»åùáõÙ
ACTIVITY
233
2. The wine at the dinner party last night was bad, but the food
was even (bad).
3. Mercury is (close) planet to the sun and Pluto is (far) planet
from the sun.
4. He is (talkative) than his sister. I think he won’t tire you so
much.
5. At first I thought you were nice but really you are as (bad) as
everybody else.
6. You looked depressed this morning but you look a bit (happy)
now.
7. Everybody thinks that Jack is the (clever) of the three brothers.
8. I don’t think it matters in the (little) which seat I choose.
9. “Today I am no (wise) than yesterday,” said Uncle George
smiling.
10. The (near) house is three miles away.
11. The (near) item on the program is a piano sonata.
12. “Of the two evils let us choose the (little),” joked father.
13. He is a far (intelligent) person than his brother.
14. The Browns have got three daughters. The (old) is 14 years old.
15. She had to wait a very long time. The longer she waited (much)
impatient she became.
16. I am afraid the problem is much (complicated) than it seems.
17. It is a lot (easy) to learn a foreign language in the country
where it is spoken.
18. Sometimes adults are (childish) than children.
19. I was (amazed) at the news than her parents.
20. We had a great holiday. It was one of (enjoyable) holidays we
have ever had.
21. I thought she was younger than me but in fact she is slightly
(old).
22. When the thief broke into their house, Julia was (afraid) than
her husband.
23. I think money is (important) than love.
24. This bag is too small. I need something much (big).
234
Ex. 3. Complete the sentences with ‘the+ comparative…the
+ comparative’ construction.
Example: The bigger the house is, the more money it will cost.
Ex. 5. Complete the sentences for each situation. Use the word
given + the ending –ing or –ed.
The Champion
The two men were sitting at the bar. The one (near)………. to me
was the (big) ……... and (strong) …….. man I have ever seen. The
one (far) …….. from me was the (small/little) ……… and
(weak)…….. They were having the (violent) ……. Argument I had
ever heard. Suddenly the little man said, “It’s a case of the
(small)….. brain in the world fitted into the (big)……. head!” They
were his (last/latest)10……. words. The little man didn't know what
hit him as he fell to the floor. “When Shortie wakes up, tell him that
236
was my (better/ best)11…….. Karate chop,” the big man told the
barman as he left. The next evening, King Karate was at the bar as
usual when Shortie crept in quietly, swung his arm and the champ
fell to the floor. “When Karate wakes up, ” Shortie said, “tell him it
was my (oldest/eldest)12……. Land Rover starting handle.”
237
UNIT XVIII
THE ADVERB
Spelling: (-ly)
238
but true – truly, due – duly, whole – wholly
tragic – tragically (if the adjective ends in –ic, the adverb
ends in –ically [ikli]
but public – publicly
terrible – terribly (when adjective ends in ble, ple and dle
the le is dropped before adding -ly)
idle – idly, noble – nobly… (le changes to ly after a
consonant)
3. These words are both adjectives and adverbs: fast, hard, late,
straight, quick, early, daily, enough, close, low;
adjective adverb
4. Some other adverbs have two forms – the adjective form and the
form in -ly. In most cases the two forms differ in meaning:
Note 1: There are a few adverbs and adjectives in English which have the
same form in –ly. They have been derived from nouns, e. g. daily,
weekly, monthly, hourly, etc.
daily duty, to appear daily
5. You should remember that after the link – verbs to feel, to smell,
to taste, to sound, to look, to appear, etc. we use an adjective as
predicative.
Comparison
7. One – syllable adverbs and the adverb early form the comparative
and the superlative degrees by adding the suffixes –er and –est.
240
slowly – more slowly – most slowly or slow – slower -
slowest
beautifully –more beautifully – most beautifully
Much is not very often used with affirmative verbs, (as almost
always in the accusative and in the nominative), it is replaced by a
lot (of) a great deal (of)
241
They had a great deal of talking yesterday.
a) when they modify the subject of the sentence, b) when much and
many are modified by adverbs of degree, too, so, as and how, c)
when much is used alone as an object:
Both little and few have a negative implication – they mean not
enough, and a little/a few have a positive meaning. They mean some
though not much (many)
Note 3: Note that ‘only a little’ and ‘only a few’ have a negative meaning”
242
I enjoyed the play very much.
I don’t like it much. or I don’t much like it.
Interrogative adverbs
These are: why, when, where and how
Why were you late? (I was late because I missed the train.)
When do you get up? (I usually get up at 8 a. m.)
Where do you work? (I work at the office)
How did you come here? (I came here by bus.)
how can also be used a) with adjectives b) with adverbs and c) with
much and many:
ACTIVITY
Ex.1. Supply the right adverb. Some adverbs end in –ly and some
do not.
243
12. I get a monthly bill. I pay …………………………………
13. The plane is very high. It’s flying ……………………….
14. She is an eager helper. She helps …………………………..
244
Ex.3. Make appropriate adverbial forms out of the adjectives in
the following list and supply them in the blanks.
245
6. We enjoyed the film. It was a ……… amusing film. (high,
highly)
7. And ……… but not least I’d like to thank you all for coming.
(last, lastly)
8. ………, I’d like to thank my father. (last, lastly)
9. He is ……… interested in the subject. (deep, deeply)
10. We had to dig ……… to find water. (deep, deeply)
11. The post was brought ……… this morning. (late, lately)
12. I haven’t got any letters ………. (late, lately)
REVISION
246
2. The boy fell off the roof, but he feels none the (bad) for it.
3. Sue has worked for the company for ten years, she is much
(experienced) than Mike.
4. His interest in this matter is far (serious) than we at first
thought.
5. Don’t praise him. He is (little) musical than his sister.
6. I didn’t really like him when we first met. But the more I got to
know him, (much) I like him.
7. I’m surprised Catherine is only 28. I thought she was (old).
8. Their little boy is as (sly) as a monkey.
9. Both of them are clever, but Tom is (clever) of the two.
10. It’s becoming (hard and hard) to find a job.
11. Mary is (patient) person I have ever met. Besides, she is one of
(nice) person I know.
12. The patient seems a little (lively) this morning.
13. “Why didn’t you close the door?” “Bob was (late) to come.”
14. I saw him no (late) than 9 o’clock this morning.
15. You have (good) accent in English than me.
16. “I can’t let you in.” “But will you at (little) tell me if she is at
home or not?”
Example: I don’t like a lot of salt on my food. I add little/a little salt
to my food.
After Peter tasted the soup, he added a little/little salt to it.
247
7. The stadium was overcrowded. There were a great deal of/a
great number of supporters.
8. He has had to spend a good deal of/a great number of money
on medicines.
9. It’s an interesting exhibition. There are plenty of/a great deal
of things to see.
10. The conference hall was crowded. There were too lots of/
many people.
11. I’m not very busy today. I haven’t got much/a lot to do.
12. I have so many/a lot of things to do that I don’t know which to
do first.
13. Nowadays he is very busy and sees many/few of his friends.
14. You eat too much/a great deal of food, that’s why you are so
fat.
15. Virginia returned to England at the moment when many/a lot
were leaving it.
16. What much/a lot of time you take to dress!
17. I’d like to ask you a few questions. I need a little/a few more
information.
18. The village was very small. There were only a few/few houses.
19. We must be quick We’ve only got little/a little time.
20. The professor lectured very clearly. As a result few/a few
students had questions at the end of the class period.
248
“Well, the person expecting you is (certain) not here,” said the
secretary (impolite). “Good day, sir.”
“Will you at least tell me where the Department of Chemistry is?”
asked the man “I drove all the way from Bigcity.” He looked
(exhaust).
“This is the Chemistry Department,” answered the secretary, “ – but
did you say Bigcity? Are you …?”
“I am Dr. James Crawford,” the man replied.
The frown on the secretary’s face disappeared and she smiled
(sweet). “Oh, what a pleasure it is to meet you, Professor Crawford.
Welcome! Welcome to Littletown,”
A few minutes later the secretary entered with a coffee and (fresh -
squeeze) orange juice. She looked at Professor Crawford (shy) and
went out.
249
13. ܳ í³ï ѳÝÓÝ»ó ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ` ³í»ÉÇ í³ï ù³Ý Ù»Ýù
ëå³ëáõÙ ¿ÇÝù:
14. ºë ã¿Ç áõ½áõÙ áã áùÇ ³ñÃݳóÝ»É, ³Û¹ å³ï׳éáí Ý»ñë Ùï³
áñù³Ý Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿ñ ³Ý³ÕÙáõÏ:
15. ´áµÇ ³ß˳ï³í³ñÓÁ ³ÛÝù³Ý µ³ñÓñ ã¿, áñù³Ý ²ÉÇëÇÝÁ,
û¨ Ýñ³ ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ ß³ï ³í»ÉÇ íï³Ý·³íáñ ¿:
16. îÇÏÇÝ êÙÇÃÁ ѳٳñÛ³ ÝáõÛÝ ï³ñÇùÝ áõÝÇ ÇÝã-áñ Çñ
³ÙáõëÇÝÁ, µ³Ûó ݳ ß³ï ³í»ÉÇ »ñÇï³ë³ñ¹ ¿ »ñ¨áõÙ ù³Ý Çñ
³ÙáõëÇÝÁ:
17. ÂáÙÁ ã¿ñ áõ½áõÙ éÇëÏÇ ¹ÇÙ»É: ֳݳå³ñÑÝ»ñÁ ë³éó³å³ï
¿ÇÝ ¨ ݳ Ù»ù»Ý³Ý ß³ï ½·áõÛß ¿ñ í³ñáõÙ:
18. – ¸áõù å»ïù ¿ ³Ù»Ý³áõßÁ ÙÇÝ㨠»ñÏáõß³µÃÇ ³Ûëï»Õ ÉÇÝ»ù:
- ´³Ûó Ù»Ýù É³í³·áõÛÝ ¹»åùáõÙ ÙdzÛÝ »ñ»ùß³µÃÇ ûñÁ ï»Õ
ÏѳëÝ»Ýù:
19. ºÏ»ù ³°Ûë Ù»ù»Ý³Ý í³ñÓáí í»ñóÝ»Ýù: ²ÛÝ áãÝãáí ³í»ÉÇ
í³ï ã¿ ù³Ý »ñ»Ïí³ Ù»ñ ï»ë³ÍÁ ¨ µ³óÇ ³Û¹, »ñ»ù ³Ý·³Ù
³í»ÉÇ ùÇã µ»Ý½ÇÝ ¿ ͳËëáõÙ (û·ï³·áñÍáõÙ):
20. Üñ³Ýù ëïÇåí³Í ¿ÇÝ ËáñÁ ÷áñ»É, áñå»ë½Ç ËÙ»Éáõ çáõñ
·ïÝ»ÇÝ:
250
THE PRONOUN
Personal pronouns
I we me us
you you you you
he him
she they her them
it it
Use:
The personal pronouns are used as nouns in the sentence. They have
the category of case.
The forms of the nominative case function in the sentence as
subjects:
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“I need a secretary to dictate my piece to.” “I’ll be her.”
My brother and me went to the station. (instead of My
brother and I….)
He is as clever as him. (or as he is).
but It was he who told us about it. (the pronoun is followed by a
clause)
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Now that you’ve said everything, beat it. (= go away)
Possessive Pronouns
I form II form
(determiners) (absolute form)
his his
her their hers theirs
its its
(+ noun) (- noun)
Use:
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Defeat stared her in the face.
I am sure he is not right in the head (= to be behaving
strangely)
He patted his wife on the shoulder.
Jack gripped him by the throat.
Yours sincerely/truly/faithfully…
ACTIVITY
1.“I am writing another article about the young. … take such big
decisions and … don’t worry about money and status and … aren’t
afraid to live in the present,” Laura said. 2. Jonny Fontane reached
down and lifted the bride up on the bandstand so that Connie stood
between … and Nino. 3. “What was that noise?” asked the lady.
“…was the wind,” the maid answered. 4. It is much easier to cycle
with the wind behind …. 5. “I think, Tom,” Uncle Harold had said, “it
was because of the wound. Your father took … very hard.... brought
out the dark side in ….” 6. What a lot of questions … ask in these
application forms. 7. If … see a giraffe once a year … remains a
spectacle; if … see … daily … becomes part of the scenery. 8. I have a
wonderful family. I love … very much and … love me. 9. Just
between you and …, I think Bob is going to lose his job. 10. “Our aim
256
is to keep Italy out of the war until … is strong enough to come in on
our side,” said the colonel. 11. She considers … important that I sit the
exam. 12. … say she has had the baby and … is a girl. 13. When the
waiter came up to his table he didn’t at once realize … was Paul. …
was as handsome as ever. 14. Boys came and went, especially two. I
thought of … as “students” though … studied nothing but pleasure.
Ex.2. Fill in the gaps with of where necessary, and my, your, etc.
own.
1. She doesn’t travel by bus any more because she’s got … car.
2. I don’t need to borrow your umbrella. I’ve got one ….
3. My job includes doing research in ….
4. Don’t let the dog sleep on your bed. It has got a bed ….
5. Sam is tired of using his friends computer, so he is going to buy
one ….
6. The couple moved into … house after they got married.
7. Jane doesn’t live with his parents any more. He’s got a flat ….
1. I’m sorry I can't help you. The decision is now out of … hand. 2.
He tried but gave up as … heart wasn’t in it. 3. The doctors were
unable to save his life. He was shot through … heart. 4. You can
argue until you are blue in … face but I’ll never agree. 5. Everyone
knew his mother had been to prison, but his wife continued to throw
it in … face. 6. After she refused to help me, I washed … hands of
her. 7. She got to … feet and began to brush off … dress. 8. Sue
refused to go to the theatre that evening. She had a pain in … knee.
9. The critics were very sever and the young writer was very hurt by
… criticisms. 10. Fred had a sip of whisky and put … glass back on
the table. 11. He took me by … hand and led out of the room. 12.
“He is laughing up … sleeve right this minute,” she said. “They
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never found the body, did they?” 13. The Isle of Man is an island off
the coast of Britain. It is not completely independent but it has …
own parliament. 14. Learner drivers are not allowed to drive on …
own. 15. Ann invited some friends of hers to … flat. 16. She tried to
bite his hand and he grabbed her by … hair to lift … head up. 17. He
got a nasty knock on … head when he fell. 18. Jonny sat on the floor
with his face in … hands.
258
UNIT XX
Reflexive Pronouns
Singular Plural
myself ourselves
yourself yourselves
himself
herself themselves
itself
Use:
259
something, (= to be pleased and satisfied about something) to
avail oneself of something.
260
to leave smb. to himself/herself etc.
as for myself
among ourselves/themselves etc.
Emphatic pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns
2. Both each other and one another can be used when speaking of two
persons. However, when more than two persons are meant, only one
another is normally used.
261
Note: Compare the difference between – selves and reciprocal pronouns
each other/one another:
ACTIVITY
Ex. 1. Put in a reflexive or a personal pronoun.
1. Whenever she comes to visit us she always brings her son
with ….
2. I give him a key to my house so that he could let... in.
3. It was a great party. We enjoyed ….
4. Let them take some money with ….
5. Don’t worry about …. They can take care of ….
6. “Can I take another biscuit?” “Of course. Help….”
7. We’ve got a problem. I hope you can help ….
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6. Yesterday Fred’s car ran out of gas. Fred had to walk two miles
to a gas station. He is still … for forgetting to fill the tank.
7. The children played very well without adult supervision. They
… by playing school.
8. Some time later he came round and … in hospital.
9. It is not always easy … on holiday.
10. Now that children are grown, Mr. and Mrs. Grayson ….
11. It is important for all of us ….
12. People might think you’re a little crazy, but … is one way to
practice using English.
13. Bob’s father wanted to know if my father ….
14. All of you did a good job. You should be ….
15. A man down the street committed suicide. We were all
shocked by the news that he ….
16. At the party Frank came up to me and said, “You … today. Has
anything happened to you?”
17. You did a good job, Mr. Williams. You should … on the back.
18. When Ann’s parents heard the news, they … with anger at the
news.
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13. We promised … that we would stay together.
14. When he entered the café he saw the people wink at ….
15. In their letters they made it a rule to inquire after … relatives.
16. You may think Stan is telling the truth but I … don’t believe
him.
17. All the members congratulated … on the victory.
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UNIT XXI
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Use:
This/these, that/those
1. They can be used as adjectives and as pronouns:
this man, that shop (determiner)
2. When this and that are used as pronouns (without nouns) they
normally refer to things:
4. When more than one thing has been mentioned, it generally refers
to the main subject of discussion whereas, this/that generally
select the last thing mentioned:
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We keep the ice – cream machine in the spare room. It is
mainly used by the children. (the machine is used by the
children).
We keep the ice – cream machine in the spare room. That is
mainly used by the children. (the spare room is used by the
children).
5. Notice that only this can refer forward to something that hasn’t yet
been mentioned.
8. In an informal style this and that are often used with adjectives
and adverbs in the same way as so.
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Set phrases with this/that
(the) Same
1. The demonstrative pronoun (the) same can be used as an
adjective, adverb or a pronoun in the sentence.
Such
1. The pronoun such can be used as an adjective and as a pronoun in
the sentence.
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2. Such may mean a) the kind of person or thing already mentioned
b) high degree (it may also be used to emphasize a feeling, opinion
etc.)
3. Notice that such may be combined with some, any, no, every…
4. Very, great, extreme etc. are used when we are simply giving
information. Such is mainly used to refer to information which has
already been given, which is already known or is obvious.
Compare:
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“of the kind that we can see/hear now”, we prefer like this/that or this/that
kind/sort of
Look over there! Would you like to have a house like that?
269
ACTIVITY
Example: They are such nice people that everybody likes them.
270
Ex 3. Use one of the demonstrative pronouns in the following
sentences.
1. “I’m not coming with you and that’s …,” she said curtly. 2. “Now
… I’m home I’ll probably get it fixed. I couldn’t write you or
anything.” Michael said. “You have to understand … before
anything else.” 3. I’ll make a final explanation and … one will be
really final. 4. Hello, … is Elizabeth. Is … Ruth? 5. A dog’s
intelligence is much greater than … of a cat. 6. Thank you very
much. You have been … a help! 7. Joe and Carol went on a camping
holiday, and I think we’re going to do the …. 8. He dined there only
on Sundays, and not every Sunday at … 9. I believe you but there are
… who wouldn’t. 10. You can do it now or later; it’s all the … to
me. 11. You can visit me at any time you like. My services, … as
they are, are at your disposal.12. “What did she say?” “She gave
the… answer as before.” 13. Adeline was young and beautiful. More
than …, she was rich now. 14. Martin raised his voice, “I won’t have
you speak to me like …. I am an honest man.” 15. I remember now.
Some … story was told to me years ago. 16. “How is Christopher?”
said Laura. She took a maternal interest in my young people: “Much
the …. Harmless. Picturesque. Useless,” I said. 17. His behaviour
was… that everyone disliked him. 18.“There is no… person working
here.” Answered the secretary. 19. … three days at Robin hill had
been exciting, sad, embarrassing. 20. I want a shirt that’s the … as
the one in the window.
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UNIT XXII
QUANTITATIVE PRONOUNS
These are: some, any, no, none, one, much, many, little, few.
Use:
4. Some can also be used when the answer ‘Yes’ is expected. (or
when the question or negation contained in the sentence doesn’t
concern some) Compare:
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What’s wrong? Have you got something in your eye? (it
seems that you have got something in your eye and I expect
you to answer ‘yes’.)
I couldn’t answer some of his questions.
I couldn’t answer any of his questions.
8. Both some and any are common in if clauses (any is used when
some doubt or condition is implied):
273
9. A noun can be dropped after any, if the meaning is clear:
“Did you get the oil?” “No, there wasn’t any left.”
2. The compounds in –one and in body can have the genitive case:
No, none
1. No and none can be used with affirmative verbs to express a
negative. No is an adjective pronoun and is used as a determiner.
None can be used as subject or object (it’s a noun pronoun). Both
no and none are used with countable and uncountable nouns.
274
The doctor said that the child had none of the true signs of
the disease. (object)
3. None may mean not one or not any. The verb following none can
be singular or plural
Note1: The difference between none and no one (nobody) and nothing is
easily brought out with the help of questions.
No one (nobody) is used in answer to a who-question.
For any, no and none + the comparative see unit The Adjective)
One
1. The pronoun one in all of its uses refers to persons or things that
are countable.
One may have different uses:
a) It is used to stand for people or for any person. (see Unit XIX)
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Note 2: one is not used after own and after a superlative adjective preceded
by the definite article.
She won’t use your computer. She will use her own.
I’ll never forget that day. It was the loveliest day of my life
but His collection of paintings is a most valuable one. (a most is used
in the meaning of very, extremely)
all/some/any/most/much/many little/few/none/half/one/two
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Some of the students disagreed with the lecturer.
Any of you can use this computer.
None of them wanted to help her.
Some of Tom’s friends didn’t want to help him.
None of this money, none of his friends
Most of the tourists, most of these tourists
Note 4: Notice that we use most + noun without an article (countable nouns
are always plural after most e. g. most tourists, most people, most students)
278
ACTIVITY
1. “After all, a young man could always use … pocket money,” said
Uncle John. 2. It was unlikely that … of the members would agree to
his suggestion. 3. I had … confidence in my ability not to love a man
as cultivated as Larry. 4. “Please buy … fruit that looks fresh,” said
mother to me “And there are … matches left. You must buy ….” 5.
Isn’t there … way you can help him? 6. We can't go … further. It’s
getting dark. 7. I don’t think I’ll get that job. … fewer than 60 people
have applied for the job. 8. “Which song shall I sing?” “… song. I
don’t mind.” 9. Can you give me … information about places of
interest in the town? 10. Tom and Bob are very good friends. They
understand each other without … words. 11. What a stupid thing to
do! … intelligent person would do such a thing. 12. He was waiting
outside with two counselors and … of the other children when
Daphne and John arrived. 13. Go and ask for … more paper, Nick. I
haven’t … in my desk. 14 There was hardly … place in the house
where we could talk alone. 15. He wants... more pudding. You can
take it away. 16. You can cash these traveller’s cheques at … bank.
17. … of the cities I would like to visit are Rome and Venice. 18. “If
you have … objections to this, speak now and I’ll inform Don
Corleone”, said Hagen. 19. “I have … intention of placing my fate in
their hands,” said Michael. 20. You know … women can’t see the
telephone without taking the receiver off.
279
5. It’s hot in here. Does anybody/somebody mind if I open the
window.
6. Sally was upset about anything/something and refused to talk to
nobody/anybody.
7. Sometimes he would sit silent and abstracted, taking no notice of
someone/anyone.
8. We were somehow/somewhat disappointed when we heard the
news.
9. This medicine is very easy to use. Nobody/anybody can learn to
use it in a very short time.
10. The landlady doesn’t want to wait. We must find money for the
rent anyhow/somehow.
11. Nobody/somebody at the office could tell me
something/anything about the incident.
12. “What’s wrong with Jeff?” “I hear he has broken an arm or
anything/something.”
13. “If anything/something happens to her, I’ll blame you,” said
Nick to me.
14. It was winter and in winter he lived without doing
something/anything.
15. “What’s wrong? Have you got something/anything in your
eye?”
16. When we got there it was already too late to do
anything/something.
17. “You have hurt your arm, Ann.” “Don’t worry. It’s
something/nothing.”
18. I think nobody/somebody has any right to interfere in this
matter.
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anybody likes his paintings. 7. During that time he saw … who could
tell him what had gone wrong. 8. It was a public holiday, so there
were … any shops open. 9. We decided not to discuss that matter as
… of us were sure of the facts. 10. Let him do it himself. He is …
more ill than I am! 11. “Can you meet me later?” “I am afraid ….”
12. I wanted some more coffee but there was …. 13. She … only
looks beautiful but she dresses well. 14. I hope she is … the worse
for the accident. 15. Since … had an answer to his question, silence
fell in the room. 16. “How many tickets did you get?” “…. All the
seats were sold out.” 17. I am sure you heard it from Mary. … else
could tell you that. 18. Though he is growing old, he is … wiser than
he was yesterday. 19. When we were on holiday we took a few
photographs but … of them were very good. 20. “Don’t speak to me
about Frank. He is … friend of mine.” 21. He likes to live in other
people’s worlds and has … of his own.
1. Many teachers think that students who get the highest marks are
not always the … with the highest intelligence. 2. The girls school
was on … side of the road, the boys on the other. 3. … should always
try to be friendly to … neighbours. 4. His parents never appeared in
the parish church except on special occasions. Mr. Evans’ funeral
was such …. 5. I liked my old bike but I find this other …
uncomfortable. 6. “What is your opinion of the plan?” “The plan
seems a good ….” 7. It is the most natural thing to start talking to
someone who knows nothing whatever about … and who is never
likely to cross … way again. 8. “I don’t like it.” “But such … as you
want is very rarely seen.” 9. They are six in the family. … you saw
are David and Tommy. 10. He was rather pale, and the expression on
his face was … I had never seen before. 11. People can't be their best
if … is tired all the time. 12. “This mixer is much better than … we
saw yesterday.” “Yes, and it’s cheaper. Let’s buy it.”
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2. Would you like any … this cake?
3. How much milk is there in the jug? – None ….
4. How much … the milk have you used? – None … it.
5. Shall I buy six or seven eggs? - Six will be plenty ….
6. There is plenty … food for everybody.
7. There have been a lot … changes to our plans.
8. How’s Dad today? He’s feeling a lot … better today.
9. Some … students have complained about the canteen.
10. Some … my students have complained about the canteen.
282
2. There are no lazy students in your group.
3. Most of the students are deeply interested in the subjects they
take at the University.
4. Any student can use the internet to get necessary
information/material for his/her lessons.
5. Students with good knowledge will have much chance of finding
a good job.
283
UNIT XXIII
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS
Use:
All
1. The distributive pronoun all refers to three or more items.
Compare:
5. Before a noun with a determiner (for example the/ my/ this;), all
and all of are both possible. American English usually has all of.
7. Pronoun + all
285
They were all doing the same work.
The guests have all arrived.
The women were all singing.
They are all here.
all (of) the week/ the whole week, all (of) my life/ my whole life
but He can eat a whole chicken. (all is not generally used
before indefinite articles)
Note1: Before proper nouns (names) and pronouns we always use the
whole of, not whole. All (of) is also possible.
I have just read the whole of/all of ‘Gone with the Wind’
The whole of /All of Venice was under water.
Note 2: With plural nouns all and whole have different meanings. All is like
every: whole means entire, complete. Compare:
286
Notice the following idiomatic uses of all
Each, every
1. Each can be used as an adjective pronoun and as a pronoun
whereas every is used only as an adjective pronoun. Compare:
Note 4: But we can use all with place names and some singular countable
nouns to mean ‘every part of’, ‘the whole of’
All London was talking about her affairs. (every part of London)
We have been round all the village looking for the cow.
287
or more persons/things while every is not normally used for very
small numbers:
288
He has every faith in you.
3. We use both/neither/either
of+the…/these/those…/my/your/his/Tom’s
289
5. both…and, either…or, neither…nor constructions. We can say
You take this chair and I’ll take the other one.
3. The other + plural noun or the others without a noun mean the
rest, the remaining.
290
4. Other +a plural noun or others without a noun mean additional,
different, remaining.
291
He left after another few/six days.
You will have to wait another fifteen minutes.
ACTIVITY
Example: I spent the whole / all the money you gave me.
1. Please return the whole /all the six copies. I need them badly.
2. When the fire alarm rang, everybody / all left the building
immediately.
3. She didn’t say where she was going. All / everything she said
was that she was going away.
4. Our holiday was a disaster. Everything / all went wrong.
5. I have lived here whole my life / all my life.
6. On the all / whole I agree with you.
7. They did well in the examination. Everybody of/ all of them
passed.
8. Everyone in the team played well. In fact, the whole / all the
team played well.
9. He shouted at all / everybody of us although most of us had
done nothing.
10. I have wasted two hours because the whole / all the information
they gave was wrong.
11. Why are you so lazy? Why do you expect me to do everything /
all for you.
12. I waited for her a whole / the whole hour, but she didn’t turn up.
13. The whole / all London was talking about her affairs.
14. Julie felt bad. She spent the whole / all week at home.
15. He is a greedy person. Money means all / everything to him.
16. All / everything I have eaten today is a sandwich.
17. “What happened to her father? ” “He lost all / everything he
owned.”
18. Don’t take it to heart. All / all of children can be difficult.
292
Ex.2. Choose between “all”, “every”, and “each” to use it in the
following sentences.
293
need … five minutes. 8. Two countries border on the United States.
One is Canada. … is Mexico. 9. His father reads the New York
Times every day. He doesn’t read any … newspapers. 10. He is a
frequent guest. He comes here every … day. 11. They have three
children. One has graduated from college and has a job. … is in
school at the University of Arkansas. … is still living at home. 12.
Prices continually rise. Next year a new car will cost … three or four
hundred dollars. 13. Then I read the novels of George Meredith one
after …. 14. I think the first thing to do is to have … talk with your
sister. 15. “Where did you see them?” “Well, we met them in the
club … night.” 16. He was furious. Without … word he started up
the car. 17. The doctor said you are getting better but you should see
him every … week. 18. Well, that’s that. …day’s work finished.
Let’s go home.
294
Ex.5. Paraphrase the following sentences using both, both … and,
either … or / neither … nor.
295
Ireland?” “We went to …. A week in Scotland and a week in
Ireland.” 11. “What are you going to have, brandy or whiskey?” “….
I don’t have any desire for drink tonight.” 12. “Tell … your mother
and father that I’m expecting them tonight.” “I’m afraid I won’t see
… of them today.”
I’ve just heard the ………story of the Lewis twins from Ohio, who
were adopted by different families at birth and who met ……… for
the first time at the age of 39. ……… wanted to know if they had
……… in common. They had! They had ………married a woman
called Linda. ……… of them had been divorced and married ………
woman called Betty. The couples who adopted them had …………
called them ‘Jim’. Many similar things happened to them ……… in
their lives. The ………
list is endless. Almost ………experience they had had was the same:
there were exact parallels for ………… they had ever done. As Jim
said when he first met James, “ It wasn’t like meeting a stranger.”
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UNIT XXIV
RELATIVE PRONOUNS,
(Relative adverbs, Connective relatives)
Use:
297
3. Notice that that is more usual:
a) after superlatives
The people who live next door are very friendly. (the
subject)
298
The people who (whom) we met at the party were very
friendly. (the object)
The jacket that/which was bought yesterday doesn’t fit him
at all. (the subject)
The jacket that/which he bought doesn’t fit him at all. (the
object)
299
Non – defining relative clauses are placed after nouns which are
definite already. They give us extra information about the person or
thing. Unlike defining clauses, they are not essential in the sentence
and can be omitted without causing confusion. Also unlike defining
relatives, they are separated from their noun by commas.
2. Preposition + which
The preposition can be placed before the relative pronoun which, or
at the end of the clause:
The computer, for which she paid $ 500, can do many things.
The computer, which I paid $ 500 for, can do many things.
Connective relatives
1. Connective relatives are who and which
Similarly:
I bought this dictionary. It helped me a lot.
I bought this dictionary, which helped me a lot.
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He said that he had no money. This was perfectly true. =
He said that he had no money, which was perfectly true.
We had to sleep in our wet clothes, which was most
uncomfortable.
Relative adverbs
the day on which she arrived = the day when she arrived
he house in which he lived = the house where he lives
the reason for which he came = the reason why he came
Ann is going to spend a few weeks in Russia, where her
sister lives.
301
The reason (why/ that) I am phoning you is to invite you to
my party
Notice that you cannot leave out relative pronouns in non – defining
relative clauses.
ACTIVITY
302
14. I’ll never forget the day. I first met you then.
15. Fortunately we had a map. We would have got lost without a
map.
16. The woman stepped on my toe. I was dancing with her.
17. The computer can do many things. She paid $500 for it.
18. The picture was beautiful. She was looking at it with admiration.
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UNIT XXV
CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS,
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Conjunctive pronouns
The conjunctive pronouns are: who(m), what, whose, which, how
much, how many.
Use:
1. Who (m), what, whose, which are not only used in relative
clauses but also have conjunctive power, introducing different
kinds of clauses (subject clauses, object clauses, predicative
clauses.), except adverbial clauses and appositive clauses, which
are introduced only by conjunctions.
305
My guess is that he is in love. (predicative clause)
We know that she is smart. (object clause)
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in inquiry, to form special questions.
They are: who, whose, what, which, how many, how much
Use:
It was so dark that I couldn’t tell who’s who. (= couldn’t tell one
person from the other.)
You can find his name in Who’s Who. (= a reference book on
contemporary outstanding people.)
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What cassettes do you have at home? Which of them is
your favourite one?
What examination are you going to take this term? Which
of them do you find most difficult?
ACTIVITY
Example: What is the depth of this pool? How deep is this pool?
307
3. What size is your briefcase? How ….
4. What length is this room? How ….
5. What height is this wall? How ….
6. What’s the width of this street? How ….
1. Jack is about medium height and has red hair and freckles.
2. Sue is very serious and hardworking.
3. My sister takes her coffee with sugar.
4. It’s a building meant for offices.
5. My friend is nearly two metres high.
6. The girls called their step-mother “Cruella.”
7. I’m sixty kilos in weight.
8. The street I live in is called Aram Khachaturian.
9. This road is twelve metres wide.
10. It’s twenty kilometers to Echmiadzin from here.
1. How do you do? a) I’d love to. That’s very kind of you.
2. How are you? b) It was very enjoyable.
3. How have been? c) Not bad, but I had a cold last week.
4. How’s life? d) How do you do?
5. How’s the garden? e) Yes, that’s a nice idea. Let’s.
6.How about going to the f) Coming along nicely. The tulips are
cinema? coming out.
7. How was the concert? g) Very well, thank you. And you?
8. How would you like to have h) Fine! How’s life with you?
lunch with us?
308
Ex.5. Complete the sentences with appropriate relative,
conjunctive and interrogative pronouns.
REVISION
OF PRONOUNS
1. Mr. Smith didn’t catch the sense of our offer. We need to have
… talk with him.
2. … of us know how much he suffered. He doesn’t like to speak
about it.
3. I don’t believe that … of your friends is coming today.
4. Before leaving he gave … student a task.
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5. Do you see … trees over there?
6. “There are … matches left.” “ I’ll buy … on my way home.
7. We have O’Henry and Byron. Which of the books you’d like to
have? Oh, …will do.
8. Jacky and Suzie are … my friends. But … is with me now. They
are … abroad.
9. She is … busy or ill. … shall we do in … case?
10. I met him in the club the … day.
11. … who were absent will write the test today.
12. She saw him coming out of the station with a kit-bag in … hand.
13. Fleur was smiling, a little defiantly. It was … who uttered the
first words.
14. We asked them … company they represented and … sort of
goods they offer.
15. … I saw was a miracle.
16. I think after what John did yesterday he ought to be ashamed of
….
17. … … they want to tell is about Mary.
18. “I think... in … it has been a successful conference,” said the
professor.
19. When we get there it might be too late to do ….
20. He plays football perfectly. He can hit the ball by … leg.
21. … the money was spent. … is left there.
22. He invited us …, but we knew he wouldn’t like … of us at the
party.
23. You’re one of the people, … I’d like to know better.
24. On … occasions we usually make a cake
1. Johnny’s mother took him by... hand and walked him across the
street.
2. If anyone needs a pen, just ask; I have... few extras.
3. I have four dictionaries. Two are Japanese and... others are
English.
4. ... dog that growls will very often bite as well.
310
5. I bought more coffee because we have only... little left.
6. When the dog brought the duck, the hunter patted the dog on...
back.
7. I don’t have enough credits to graduate now, so I have to wait
until... next year.
8. The Custom Officer said to the lady, “ Could you open up...
suitcase for me please?”
9. It was Sunday.... shop was open, but all... others were closed.
10. After lunch we spent... time in... National Museum.
11. The climber broke... leg, not his both legs as we thought at first.
12. ... birds cannot fly.
13. ... most people don’t like snakes.
14. Almost all... cars have seat belts today.
15. “I perceive,” said Jolyon, “that you are trying to kill two birds
with … stone.”
311
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ã¿ñ ³ñ»É:
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Ñ»ï:
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Ñ»é³Ëáëáí, ³ë³ó, áñ ß³ï ¿ Ñ»ï³ùñùñíáõÙ Ù»ñ ݳ˳·Íáí:
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312
UNIT XXVI
NUMERALS
313
hundreds of dollars, thousands of demonstrators, millions of
years ago
314
e) How much is 5 into 20? 20 ÷5 =4
5 into 20 is 4. (or goes 4)
f) How much is 100 divided by 2? 100 ÷2=50
100 divided by 2 is 50.
Fractions
6. Common fractions are read in the following way:
1 3 5
3 = one third 8 = three eighths 12 = five twelfths
Areas
ACTIVITY
Ex.1. Read and write down the following dates and fractions.
a) 2/IV 1478, 14/VII 1990, 27/I 2001, 30/II 2003, 31/I 2004
315
b) 1, 1, 3, 2, 5, 8, 7, 10, 100, 260, 56
2 4 7 9 8 25 28 260 278 380 98
9–3= 4×6 = 9: 3 =
10 – 6 = 7×9 = 6: 2 =
12 + 8 = 3 × 17 = 20: 4 =
26 + 7 = 14× 12 = 100: 5 =
316
APPENDIX 1.
TENSE FORMS
317
circumstances. plane had already taken off.
They have finished their work. Past perfect II serves to express an
Present perfect II is used to express action which began before a given
an action which began before the past moment and continues into it or
moment of speaking and continues up to it.
into it or up to it. He began to do things that he
The United States has been wanted to do for years.
independent since 1776. Past perfect III is used in time
Present perfect III is found in time clauses to express a future action
clauses. viewed from the past.
It shows that the action of the We had to talk to him before he
subordinate will be accomplished had made a final decision.
before the action of
the principal clause starts.
I'll give the magazine to you when I
have read it.
318
Future time Future actions viewed from the
past
319
APPENDIX 2.
THE PASSIVE
320
APPENDIX 3.
321
I will be able to
help you.
322
shall (1) polite Shall I open the
questions to window?
make a
suggestion
323
would (1) polite Would you
request please pass the
salt? Would you
mind if I left
early.
324
APPENDIX 4.
NOUNS.
analysis analyses
axis axes
basis bases
crisis crises
diagnosis diagnoses
hypothesis hypotheses
neurosis neuroses
oasis oases
parenthesis- synopsis parentheses synopses
thesis theses
synthesis syntheses
On/um [ən / əm] a [ə]
criterion criteria
phenomenon phenomena
agendum agenda
stratum strata
bacterium bacteria
datum data
erratum errata
memorandum memoranda memorandums
symposium symposia symposiums
curriculum curricula curriculums
medium media mediums (has a
different meaning – a
person who claims to be
able to communicate
with the spirits of dead
people)
325
us [əs] i [aɪ]
alumnus alumni
alveolus alveoli
bacillus bacilli
cactus cacti cactuses
fungus fungi funguses
nucleus nuclei
stimulus stimuli
radius radii syllabuses
syllabus syllabi
terminus termini
genius genii (fabulous spirits geniuses (men of talent)
guarding a place)
us [əs] ora/era [ərə/ərə]
corpus corpora Corpuses
genera
genus
a [ə] ae [i:]
326
o [oʊ] i [ɪ]
tableau tableaux
bureau bureaux Bureaus
Gender
327
APPENDIX 5.
ADJECTIVES
Word Order
328
APPENDIX 6.
PRONOUNS
QUESTION WORDS
QUESTION ANSWER
WHEN (a) When did they arrive? Two days ago. When is used to ask
When will you come? Next week.. questions about time.
WHERE (b) Where is mom? In the kitchen. Where is used to ask
Where can I find a pen? In that drawer. questions about place.
WHY (c) Why did you come late? Because my car Why is used to ask
broke down. questions about reason.
Why aren’t you coming I don’t’ feel
with us? well.
HOW (d) How did you come to By bus. How generally asks
school? about manner.
How does he drive? Carefully.
329
(e) How much money does Twenty dollars. How is used with
it cost? Fifteen. much and many.
How many people
came?
(f) How old are you? Thirty. How is also used with
How cold is it? Five below zero. adjectives and adverbs.
How soon can you get In fifteen
home? minutes.
How fast were you 60 miles an
driving? hour.
(g) How long have you Three years. How long asks about
been here? length of time.
330
QUESTION ANSWER
WHOSE (1) Whose hair-dryer did Alice’s. Whose asks
you borrow? questions about
Whose key is this? It’s mine. possession.
(Whose is this)?
WHAT (m) What made you His rudeness. What is used as the
angry? subject of a question.
What went wrong? Everything. It refers to “things”
(n) What do you need? I need a good What is also used as
dictionary. an object.
What did Jane buy? A dish-washer.
(o) What did he talk
about?
About what did he (About) his
talk? (formal) grandchildren.
(p) What kind of soup is It’s chicken noodle What kind of asks
that? soup. about the particular
variety or type of
What kind of shoes did Sandals. something.
he buy?
(q) What did you do last I studied. What + a form of do
night? is used to ask
What is Mary doing? Listening to music. questions about
activities.
(r) What countries did Italy and Greece. What may
you visit? accompany a noun.
What time did she Seven o’clock.
come?
What colour is his Dark brown.
hair?
(s) What is your boyfriend He’s kind and What + be like asks
like? friendly for a general
description of
(t) What is the weather Hot and humid qualities.
like?
(u) What does your He’s tall and has What + look like
boyfriend look like? dark hair. asks for a physical
description..
(v) What does her house It’s a two-story
look like? tufa house.
331
WHICH (w) I have two scarves. Which is used
Which scarf do you The blue one instead of what when
want? a question concerns
Which one do you choosing from a
want? definite, known
Which do you want? quantity or group.
(x) Which book should I That one
buy?
(y) Which countries did France and Spain. In some cases, there
he visit? is little difference in
What countries did he meaning between
visit? which and what
(z) Which group are you This group. when they
in? accompany a noun,
What group are you as in (y) and (z).
in?
332
APPENDIX 7.
NUMERALS
333
vulgar fraction decimal fraction
¼ one-fourth 0,125 =(naught) point one two five
½ one-half 0,33 = (naught) point two five
⅓ one-third 2,12 = two point twelve
⅔ two- thirds 5, 16 = five point sixteen
+ plus
- minus
÷ divided by
times
x
multiplied by
= equals
334
BIBLIOGRAPHY
335
3. Galsworthy John, ‘To Let’, Moscow, Foreign Language Publishing
House, 1954.
4. English Story (Àíãëèéñêèå ðàññêàçû XX âåêà), Ìîñêâà
èçäàòåëüñòâî ‘Ìåíåäæåð’ 1993.
5. Eliot George, ‘Silas Miner’ Great Britain, Penguin Books, 1971.
6. Puzo Mario, ‘The Godfather’ New York, Fawcett World Library, 1969.
7. Ludlum Robert, ‘ The Matarese Circle’ Glasgo,; Grafton Books’ 1990.
8. Hemingway Earnest, ‘Selected Stories’ Moscow, ‘Progress Publishers’,
1971.
9. Steel Danielle, ‘Once In A Lifetime’, New York, Dell Publishing Co. Inc.
1983.
10. Sheldon Sydney, ‘A Stranger in the Mirror’ The USA.
11. Show Irwin. Rich Man, Poor Man, Great Britain, 1984.
12. Gage Nicholas, Greek Fire (The Story of Maria Callas and Aristotle
Onassis), Great Britain, Pan Books, 2001.
336
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îå³ù³Ý³Ïª 420
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337