Physics 202 Lab Manual

Electricity and Magnetism, Sound/Waves, Light

R. Rollefson, H.T. Richards, M.J. Winokur

July 26, 2014

NOTE: E=Electricity and Magnetism, S=Sound and Waves, L-Light

Contents
Forward 3

Introduction 5

Errors and Uncertainties 8

I Electricity and Magnetism 13

E-1 Electrostatics 13

E-2 Electric Fields 21

E-3 Capacitance 25

E-4 Electron Charge to Mass Ratio 30

E-5 Magnetism 36
E-5a Lenz’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
E-5b Induction - Dropping Magnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
E-5c Induction - Test Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
E-5d Induction - Faraday Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

E-6 Oscilloscopes and RC Decay 46

E-7 LRC Circuits 51

E-8: Transistors 54

II Sound and Waves 57

S-1 Transverse Standing Waves on a String 57

1
CONTENTS 2

S-2 Velocity of Sound in Air 61

III Light 62

L-1: Diffraction and Interference 62

LC-2: Mirrors and Lenses 66

L-3: Optical Instruments 71

L-4: The optics of the eye and resolving power 75

L-5: Spectrometer and the H Balmer Series 78

L-6: Polarization 85

Appendices 89
A. Precision Measurement Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
B. The Travelling Microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
C. The Optical Lever . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
D. PARALLAX and Notes on using a Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
E. PASCO c Interface and Computer Primer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

NOTE: E=Electricity and Magnetism, S=Sound and Waves, L-Light

 FORWARD 3

Forward
Spring, 2005

This version is only modestly changed from the previous versions. We are gradually re-
vising the manual to improve the clarity and interest of the activities. In particular the
dynamic nature of web materials and the change of venue (from Sterling to Chamber-
lin Hall) has required a number of cosmetic and operational changes. In particular the
PASCO computer interface and software have been upgraded from Scientific Workshop to
DataStudio.
M.J. Winokur

In reference to the 1997 edition

Much has changed since the implementation of the first edition and a major overhaul
was very much in need. In particular, the rapid introduction of the computer into the
educational arena has drastically and irreversibly changed the way in which information is
acquired, analyzed and recorded. To reflect these changes in the introductory laboratory
we have endeavored to create a educational tool which utilizes this technology; hopefully
while enhancing the learning process and the understanding of physics principles. Thus,
when fully deployed, this new edition will be available not only in hard copy but also as
a fully integrated web document so that the manual itself has become an interactive tool
in the laboratory environment.
As always we are indebted to the hard work and efforts by Joe Sylvester to maintain
the labortory equipment in excellent working condition.
M.J. Winokur
M. Thompson

From the original edition

The experiments in this manual evolved from many years of use at the University
of Wisconsin. Past manuals have included “cookbooks” with directions so complete and
detailed that you can perform an experiment without knowing what you are doing or
why, and manuals in which theory is so complete that no reference to text or lecture was
necessary.
This manual avoids the“cookbook” approach and assumes that correlation between
lecture and lab is sufficiently close that explanations (and theory) can be brief: in many
cases merely a list of suggestions and precautions. Generally you will need at least an el-
ementary understanding of the material in order to perform the experiment expeditiously
and well. We hope that by the time you have completed an experiment, your understand-
ing will have deepened in a manner not achievable by reading books or by working ”paper
problems”. If the lab should get ahead of the lecture, please read the pertinent material,
as recommended by the instructor, before doing the experiment.
The manual does not describe equipment in detail. We find it more efficient to have
the apparatus out on a table and take a few minutes at the start to name the pieces and
give suggestions for use. Also in this way changes in equipment, (sometimes necessary),
need not cause confusion.
 FORWARD 4

Many faculty members have contributed to this manual. Professors Barschall, Blan-
chard, Camerini, Erwin, Haeberli, Miller, Olsson, Visiting Professor Wickliffe and former
Professor Moran have been especially helpful. However, any deficiencies or errors are our
responsibility. We welcome suggestions for improvements.
Our lab support staff, Joe Sylvester and Harley Nelson (now retired), have made
important contributions not only in maintaining the equipment in good working order,
but also in improving the mechanical and aesthetic design of the apparatus.
Likewise our electronic support staff not only maintain the electronic equipment, but
also have contributed excellent original circuits and component design for many of the
experiments.

R. Rollefson
H. T. Richards
 INTRODUCTION 5

Introduction
General Instructions and Helpful Hints

Physics is an experimental science. In this laboratory, we hope you gain a realistic

feeling for the experimental origins, and limitations, of physical concepts; an awareness of
experimental errors, of ways to minimize them and how to estimate the reliability of the
result in an experiment; and an appreciation of the need for keeping clear and accurate
records of experimental investigations.
Maintaining a clearly written laboratory notebook is crucial. This lab notebook, at a
minimum, should contain the following:

1. Heading of the Experiment: Copy from the manual the number and nameof the
experiment.
Include both the current date and the name(s) of your partner(s).

2. Original data: Original data must always be recorded directly into your notebook
as they are gathered. “Original data” are the actual readings you have taken. All
partners should record all data, so that in case of doubt, the partners’ lab notebooks
can be compared to each other. Arrange data in tabular form when appropriate.
A phrase or sentence introducing each table is essential for making sense out of the
notebook record after the passage of time.

3. Housekeeping deletions: You may think that a notebook combining all work would
soon become quite a mess and have a proliferation of erroneous and superseded
material. Indeed it might, but you can improve matters greatly with a little house-
keeping work every hour or so. Just draw a box around any erroneous or unnecessary
material and hatch three or four parallel diagonal lines across this box. (This way
you can come back and rescue the deleted calculations later if you should discover
that the first idea was right after all. It occasionally happens.) Append a note to
the margin of box explaining to yourself what was wrong.
We expect you to keep up your notes as you go along. Don’t take your notebook
home to “write it up” – you probably have more important things to do than making
a beautiful notebook. (Instructors may permit occasional exceptions if they are
satisfied that you have a good enough reason.)

4. Remarks and sketches: When possible, make simple, diagrammatic sketches (rather
than “pictorial” sketches” of apparatus. A phrase or sentence introducing each
calculation is essential for making sense out of the notebook record after the passage
of time. When a useful result occurs at any stage, describe it with at least a word
or phrase.

5. Graphs: There are three appropriate methods:

A. Affix furnished graph paper in your notebook with transparent tape.

B. Affix a computer generated graph paper in your notebook with transparent
tape.
C. Mark out and plot a simple graph directly in your notebook.
 INTRODUCTION 6

Show points as dots, circles, or crosses, i.e., ·, ◦, or ×. Instead of connecting points

by straight lines, draw a smooth curve which may actually miss most of the points
but which shows the functional relationship between the plotted quantities. Fasten
directly into the notebook any original data in graphic form (such as the spark tapes
of Experiment M4).

6. Units, coordinate labels: Physical quantities always require a number and a dimen-
sional unit to have meaning. Likewise, graphs have abscissas and ordinates which
always need labeling.

7. Final data, results and conclusions: At the end of an experiment some written
comments and a neat summary of data and results will make your notebook more
meaningful to both you and your instructor. The conclusions must be faithful to
the data. It is often helpful to formulate conclusion using phrases such as “the
discrepancy between our measurements and the theoretical prediction was larger
than the uncertainty in our measurements.”

PARTNERS
Discussing your work with someone as you go along is often stimulating and of educa-
tional value. If possible all partners should perform completely independent calculations.
Mistakes in calculation are inevitable, and the more complete the independence of the
calculations, the better is the check against these mistakes. Poor results on experiments
sometimes arise from computational errors.
CHOICE OF NOTEBOOK
We recommend a large bound or spiral notebook with paper of good enough quality
to stand occasional erasures (needed most commonly in improving pencil sketches or
graphs). To correct a wrong number always cross it out instead of erasing: thus //////3.1461
3.1416 since occasionally the correction turns out to be a mistake, and the original number
was right. Coarse (1/4 inch) cross-ruled pages are more versatile than blank or line pages.
They are useful for tables, crude graphs and sketches while still providing the horizontal
lines needed for plain writing. Put everything that you commit to paper right into your
notebook. Avoid scribbling notes on loose paper; such scraps often get lost. A good plan
is to write initially only on the right-hand pages, leaving the left page for afterthoughts
and for the kind of exploratory calculations that you might do on scratch paper.
COMPLETION OF WORK
Plan your work so that you can complete calculations, graphing and miscellaneous
discussions before you leave the laboratory. Your instructor will check each completed
lab report and will usually write down some comments, suggestions or questions in your
notebook.
Your instructor can help deepen your understanding and “feel” for the subject. Feel
free to talk over your work with him or her.
INTRODUCTION 7

Expt. M1 Systematic and Random Errors, Significant Figures,

Density of a Solid
NAME: Jane.Q. Student Date: 2/29/00
Partner: John Q. Student

Purpose: To develop a basic understanding of systematic and random errors in a

physical measurement by obtaining the density of metal cylinder.
Equiment: Venier caliper, micrometer, precision gauge block, precision balance
Theory: ρ= mass/( π∗ r**2 h)

∆ρ= (∆ m /m)**2.+( ∆ h/h)**2.+( 2 ∆ r/r)**2. ρ

DATA:
1. Calibration of micrometer
Reading with jaws fully closed:

1. 0.000013 mm -+ 0.000001 mm
2. 0.000014 mm
3. 0.000012 mm
4. 0.000014 mm Micrometer exhibits a systematic zero offset
5. 0.000015 mm

Ave, -+ Standard Deviation Plot of micrometer error

Measure four calibraton gauge blocks vs. gauge block length
0.002

Micrometer
0.000
error (mm)

-0.002

0 6 12 18 24
Measure of cylinder diameter:
Gauge block length (mm)
Measure of cylinder height:
Measure of cylinder mass

CALCULATIONS:
Density= ??? Uncertainty from propagation of error.

RESULTS and CONCLUSIONS:

 ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES 8

Errors and Uncertainties

Reliability estimates of measurements greatly enhance their value. Thus, saying that the
average diameter of a cylinder is 10.00±0.02 mm tells much more than the statement that
the cylinder is a centimeter in diameter. The reliability of a single measurement (such as
the diameter of a cylinder) depends on many factors:
FIRST, are actual variations of the quantity being measured, e.g. the diameter of
a cylinder may actually be different in different places. You must then specify where the
measurement was made; or if one wants the diameter in order to calculate the volume,
first find the average diameter by means of a number of measurements at carefully selected
places. Then the scatter of the measurements will give a first estimate of the reliability of
the average diameter.
SECOND, the micrometer caliper used may itself be in error. The errors thus intro-
duced will of course not lie equally on both sides of the true value so that averaging a large
number of readings is no help. To eliminate (or at least reduce) such errors, we calibrate
the measuring instrument: in the case of the micrometer caliper by taking the zero error
(the reading when the jaws are closed) and the readings on selected precision gauges of
dimensions approximately equal to those of the cylinder to be measured. We call such
errors systematic, and these cause errors in accuracy.
THIRD, Another type of systematic error can occur in the measurement of a cylin-
der: The micrometer will always measure the largest diameter between its jaws; hence if
there are small bumps or depressions on the cylinder, the average of a large number of
measurements will not give the true average diameter but a quantity somewhat larger.
(This error can of course be reduced by making the jaws of the caliper smaller in cross
section.)
FINALLY, if one measures something of definite size with a calibrated instrument,
one’s measurements will vary. For example, the reading of the micrometer caliper may
vary because one can’t close it with the same force every time. Also the observer’s esti-
mate of the fraction of the smallest division varies from trial to trial. Hence the average
of a number of these measurements should be closer to the true value than any one mea-
surement. Also the deviations of the individual measurements from the average give an
indication of the reliability of that average value. The typical value of this deviation is
a measure of the precision. This average deviation has to be calculated from the absolute
values of the deviations, since otherwise the fact that there are both positive and negative
deviations means that they will cancel. If one finds the average of the absolute values of
the deviations, this “average deviation from the mean” may serve as a measure of
reliability. For example, let column 1 represent 10 readings of the diameter of a cylinder
taken at one place so that variations in the cylinder do not come into consideration, then
column 2 gives the magnitude (absolute) of each reading’s deviation from the mean.
 ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES 9

Measurements Deviation from Ave.

9.943 mm 0.000
9.942 0.001
9.944 0.001
9.941 0.002
9.943 0.000
9.943 0.000
9.945 0.002 Diameter =
9.943 0.000
9.941 0.002 9.943±0.001 mm
9.942 0.001
Ave = 9.943 mm Ave = 0.0009 mm≈0.001 mm P
Expressed algebraically, the average deviation from the mean is = ( |xi − x̄|)/n),
where xi is the ith measurement of n taken, and x̄ is the mean or arithmetic average of
the readings.
Standard Deviation and Normal Distribution:
The average deviation shown above is a measure of the spread in a set of measurements.
A more easily calculated version of this is the standard deviation σ (or root mean square
deviation). You calculate σ by evaluating
v
u n
u1 X
σ=t (xi − x)2
n
i=1

where x is the mean or arithmetical average of the set of n measurements and xi is the
ith measurement.
Because of the square, the standard deviation σ weights large deviations more heavily
than the average deviation and thus gives a less optimistic estimate of the reliability. In
fact, for subtle reasons involving degrees of freedom, σ is really
v
u n
u 1 X
σ= t (xi − x̄)2
(n − 1)
i=1

σ tells you the typical deviation from the mean you will find for an individual measure-
ment. The mean x̄ itself should be more reliable. That is, if you did several sets of n
measurements, the typical means from different sets will be closer to each other than the
individual measurements within a set. In other words, the uncertainty in the mean should
√
be less than σ. It turns out to reduce like 1/ n, and is called the error in the mean
σµ : v
u n
σ 1 u 1 X
σµ = error in mean = √ = √ t (xi − x̄)2
n n n−1
i=1

For an explanation of the (n−1) factor and a clear discussion of errors, see P.R. Bevington
and D.K Robinson, Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences, McGraw
Hill 1992, p. 11.
If the error distribution is “normal” (i.e. the errors,  have a Gaussian distribution,
2
e− , about zero), then on average 68% of a large number of measurements will lie closer
 ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES 10

than σ to the true value. While few measurement sets have precisely a “normal” distri-
bution, the main differences tend to be in the tails of the distributions. If the set of trial
measurements are generally bell shaped in the central regions, the “normal” approxima-
tion generally suffices.
How big should the error bars be?
The purpose of the error bars shown on a graph in a technical report is as follows: if the
reader attempts to reproduce the results in the graph using the procedure described in
the report, the reader should expect his or her results to have a 50% chance of falling
with the range indicated by the error bars.

If the error distribution is normal, the error bars should be of length ±0.68σ.

Relative error and percentage error:

Let  be the error in a measurement whose value is a. Then ( a ) is the relative error of the
measurement, and 100 ( a )% is the percentage error. These terms are useful in laboratory
work.
UNCERTAINTY ESTIMATE FOR A RESULT INVOLVING MEASUREMENTS OF
SEVERAL INDEPENDENT QUANTITIES
Let R = f (x, y, z) be a result R which depends on measurements of three different
quantities x, y, and z. The uncertainty ∆R in R which results from an uncertainty ∆x
in the measurement of x is then
∂f
∆R = ∆x ,
∂x
and the fractional uncertainty in R is
∂f
∆R
= ∂x ∆x .
R f
In most experimental situations, the errors are uncorrelated and have a normal distribu-
tion. In this case the uncertainties add in quadrature (the square root of the sum of the
squares): v
u ∂f !2 ∂f
!2 !2
∂f
∆R u ∂x ∂y ∂z
= t ∆x + ∆y + ∆z .
R f f f
Some examples:

A.) R = x + y. If errors have a normal or Gaussian distribution and are indepen-

dent, they combine in quadrature:
p
∆R = ∆x2 + ∆y 2 .
Note that if R = x − y, then ∆R/R can become very large if x is nearly equal to y. Hence
avoid, if possible, designing an experiment where one measures two large quantities and
takes their difference to obtain the desired quantity.
B.) R = xy. Again, if the measurement errors are independent and have a Gaussian
distribution, the relative errors will add in quadrature:
s
∆R ∆x 2 ∆y 2
= ( ) +( ) .
R x y
 ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES 11

Note the same result occurs for R = x/y.

C.) Consider the density of a solid (Exp. M1, Physics 201):
m
ρ =
πr2 L
where m = mass, r = radius, L = length, are the three measured quantities and ρ =
density. Hence
∂ρ 1 ∂ρ −2m ∂ρ −m
= 2 = 3 = 2 2 .
∂m πr L ∂r πr L ∂L πr L
Again if the errors have normal distribution, then
s
∆m 2 ∆r 2 ∆L 2
    
∆ρ
= + 2 +
ρ m r L

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Suppose you have measured the diameter of a circular disc and wish to compute its
area A = πd2 /4 = πr2 . Let the average value of the diameter be 24.326 ± 0.003 mm
; dividing d by 2 to get r we obtain 12.163 ± 0.0015 mm with a relative error ∆r r of
0.0015 2 = 147.938569, with a relative
12 = 0.00012. Squaring r (using a calculator) we have r
error 2∆r/r = 0.00024, or an absolute error in r2 of 0.00024 × 147.93 · · · = 0.036 ≈ 0.04.
Thus we can write r2 = 147.94 ± 0.04, any additional places in r2 being unreliable. Hence
for this example the first five figures are called significant.
Now in computing the area A = πr2 how many digits of π must be used? A pocket
calculator with π = 3.141592654 gives

A = πr2 = π × (147.94 ± 0.04) = 464.77 ± 0.11 mm2

Note that ∆A ∆r
A = 2 r = 0.00024. Note also that the same answer results from π = 3.1416,
but that π = 3.142 gives A = 464.83 ± 0.11 mm2 which differs from the correct value by
0.06 mm2 , an amount comparable to the estimated uncertainty.
A good rule is to use one more digit in constants than is available in your measure-
ments, and to save one more digit in computations than the number of significant figures
in the data. When you use a calculator you usually get many more digits than you need.
Therefore at the end, be sure to round off the final answer to display the correct
number of significant figures.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. How many significant figures are there in the following numbers?

(a) 976.45
(b) 4.000
(c) 10

2. Round off each of the following numbers to three significant figures.

(a) 4.455
ERRORS AND UNCERTAINTIES 12

(b) 4.6675
(c) 2.045

3. A function has the relationship Z(A, B) = A + B 3 where A and B are found to have
uncertainties of ±∆A and ±∆B respectively. Find ∆Z in term of A, B and the
respective uncertainties assuming the errors are uncorrelated.

4. What happens to σ, the standard deviation, as you make more and more measure-
ments? what happens to σ, the standard deviation of the mean?

(a) They both remain same

(b) They both decrease
(c) σ increases and σ decreases
(d) σ approachs a constant and σ decreases
 13

Part I
Electricity and Magnetism
E-1 Electrostatics

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Content goals:
(1) To use an electroscope to study electrostatic phenomena. (2) To measure potential
(voltage) differences (i.e. the work per unit charge to move a small test charge between
two conductors) and thus, in an indirect fashion, charges.

Scientific Inquiry Skills:

(1) Making qualitative observations. (2) Generating explanations that connect those ob-
servations to a conceptual model.

PART I: THE ELECTROSCOPE

Apparatus:
1. aluminum-leaf electroscope
2. insulated hollow conducting sphere
3. proofball
4. two rods: lucite and hard rubber
5. two cloths: rabbit fur and silk cloth.

Introduction:
In this part of the lab you will use a deceptively simple device, an electroscope, to study the
nature of charge. The electroscope’s primary working parts are two connected conducting
foil leaves that are free to move at one end. Figure 1 show a schematic of the electroscope
when it is (a) discharged (or neutral) and (b) charged with a net charge. (For reference,
on the electroscope, a 1kV potential results in the foil leaves fully deflecting.) Recall
that charge appears in two forms (positive and negative) and like charges repel. The
electroscope also has a case that must be grounded during the experiment in order to
protect the foil leaves from unwanted stray charge. A conductor allows charge to flow
whereas insulators do not.

Preliminary Questions:
1. Draw a picture of how the charges are distributed on the electroscope before you
start your experiment.
2. Draw a picture predicting what the charge distributions and electroscope will look
like if a charged object is brought close to (but does not touch) the conducting knob?
Will the net charge on the knob be of the same or opposite sign? What will be the
sign of the charge on the foil leaves be?
 E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 14

(a) (b)
Figure 1: Schematic of the electroscope (a) without charge and (b) with charge.

3. Draw a picture predicting what the electroscope will look like if a charged object
touches the conducting knob. Will the net charge on the knob be of the same or
opposite sign? What will be the sign of the charge on the foil leaves?
4. How will you know if your predictions are correct?

Experiments:
For each experiment you should record everything in your note book: briefly explain what
you did and how, as well as all you observed. Use pictures and diagrams as necessary.
The questions included below can be used as a guide, but should not be considered a
sufficiently complete record of what you did and observed. If you find you are having
difficulty getting reliable results, check the troubleshooting guide for solutions or ask your
TA.
1. Charge the rubber rod by rubbing with fur, and transfer some of the charge to the
electroscope leaves by touching the rod to the electroscope knob. This is known as
charging by conduction. Note what happens when said charged rod approaches the
knob in your notebook. (For reference, the rubber rod when rubbed with rabbit
fur acquires a negative charge, although there is no way to determine this with the
electroscope.) How does this compare to your prediction?
2. Touch the electroscope knob with your hand. Record your observations. How can
you explain your observations in terms of the movement of electric charge?
3. Again, transfer some charge to the electroscope using the rubber rod and fur. With-
out grounding the electroscope, observe and diagram what happens when a lucite
rod rubbed with silk approaches the knob. Can you make any inferences about the
sign of charge acquired by the two rods?
 E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 15

4. (First discharge the electroscope by touching the knob and case simultaneously.)
Charge one of the rods. Make the leaves diverge by bringing the charged rod close
to the knob, but do not touch the electroscope with the rod. While keeping the
rod at a fixed location, ground the knob to the case, break the ground and then
remove the rod. This is known as charging by induction. Explain what happens
when the same rod is brought near the knob, and what happens when the other rod
is brought near the knob (after charging the rods). Explain each step in this process
using diagrams and a brief description.
5. In the following give the proofball a charge by contact with a charged lucite or
rubber rod. Keep in mind that the lucite and rubber rods acquire opposite charges,
and use diagrams to explain and record results.

a. Connect the hollow conductor to the electroscope knob by fine wire. Discharge
them. Charge proofball by touching (avoid rubbing) it to a charged rubber or
lucite rod, then introduce the proofball into the hollow conductor but without
contacting the conductor. Ground the hollow conductor by touching it. Note
behavior of electroscope. Break the ground and remove the proofball. Test the
relative sign of charge on the electroscope (note whether it matches the sign of
the rod you chose or the other one).
b. Repeat part a, but now ground the hollow conductor by touching it only on
the inside with your finger or a short conductor.

Record and explain your observations in terms of the movement of charge, using
diagrams to aid you.

PART II: THE ELECTROMETER

Apparatus:
1. PASCO electrometer
2. two hollow conducting spheres and one open hollow sphere
3. two charge producing paddles (white & blue) and one aluminum paddle
4. proofball
5. insulated cup and Faraday Cage. (Do not carry the cup and Faraday Cage by the
top cover. It may separate causing the cup to drop and become damaged.)
6. heat gun
7. alcohol lamp.

Introduction:
In this part of the lab, you will use an electrometer, a very sensitive voltmeter, to explore
charge distributions and the sign of charge. Connect the insulated cup and Faraday Cage
to the electrometer using a shielded coaxial cable. The electrometer will now measure
the potential difference between the cup and grounded Faraday cage. This potential is
proportional to the quantity of charge on the cup as long as the Faraday Cage furnishes
a perfect shield from external charged objects. Be sure to zero the electrometer before
 E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 16

making your measurement. Choose a voltage range on the electrometer that gives a large
but less than full scale deflection.

Shield
(Faraday cage)

Cup

Insulator
shielded coaxial cable

Figure 2: Schematic diagram of electrometer and relevant connections.

Preliminary Questions:
1. Will the electrometer allow you to discern the absolute sign of a charge? Explain.
2. If you are given a charged spherical conductor where does the excess charge reside?
Draw a picture of your prediction. Does it matter if the spherical conductor is hollow
or solid? Explain.

3. How might you determine whether your results are trustworthy?

Experiments:
Explain the following experiments with diagrams showing charge distributions. Some
sample diagrams appropriate for this experiment are shown in Figure 3. Again, if you find
you are having difficulty getting reliable or accurate results, check the troubleshooting
guide for solutions or ask your TA.

1. Discharge both the blue and the white paddles. Gently rub the white and the blue
surfaces of the paddles together. Then:
a) Hold one of them near the bottom of the cup, but don’t let it touch.
b) Take the paddle out.
c) Put it back in, touching the cup this time.
d) Remove the paddle.

Record the electrometer reading after each step. Explain the results and draw the
diagrams (as shown above). Was there any charge left on the paddle at the end?
Which paddle has a positive charge? Which paddle has a negative charge?
 E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 17

A: cup C:
meter
- + +- - -
-
- - + - +
- + -- -+
- - 3 2
1012 - - 1012
- + 3 3 2 3
+ --
- - - -
+ + + +
- - - - - - - -
B: D: - -
- + - +
1012 - - 1012
3 2 3 3 2 3
- -
- - - -

Figure 3: Example diagrams of various charge distributions and the corresponding elec-
trometer responses.

2. Momentarily ground the cup. Charge one of the paddles, then:

a) Place paddle in cup without touching.
b) Again momentarily ground the cup.
c) Remove the paddle.

Note the reading after each step. Explain what happened at each step and draw the
diagrams (as shown above).

3. Start with both paddles discharged. Then rub them together. Measure the charge
on each using the electrometer. Explain. Compare the amount of charge produced
by rubbing two paddles of the same kind (borrow one from another group), or
by rubbing a metal paddle on a metal paddle, etc. (Surface “dirt” on one paddle
may mean you are rubbing dissimilar paddles. Sometimes cleaning the paddles with
alcohol makes a big difference.) Record your observations and draw the diagrams
to explain what you observed.

4. Discharge the cup and the blue and white paddles. What happens if you place the
paddles inside the cup (without touching the cup) and,
a) you charge them by rubbing while they both are inside the cup?
b) Take out one paddle?
c) Put it back in?
d) Take out the other?
e) Take them both out?

Observe electrometer reading after each step. Explain using diagrams as necessary.

5. Rub the aluminum paddle on the white (or blue) paddle. Do only insulators acquire
charge by rubbing? If there is a charge acquired, determine the sign. Arrange the
white, blue and aluminum paddles in a series of acquired charge from most positive
to most negative. (This is called a “triboelectric” series. Tribology is the study of
friction.)
 E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 18

6. Ask your TA to charge up your open sphere using a Fun Fly Stick. Discharge the
proofball and test that it (and the handle) have zero charge, then touch it to the
outside of the hollow sphere and measure its charge. Do the same experiment but
touch inside the sphere. Record your observations. What can you conclude about
the distribution of charge in this system?
7. Ask your TA to charge an isolated solid metal sphere using the Fun Fly Stick.
Measure the relative charge density σ at various points of the sphere. Charge density
σ is ∆Q/∆A where ∆Q is the charge on a small element ∆A of the surface. Since it
is not practical to remove a piece of the surface, we place the aluminum paddle flat
against the surface and measure the charge on the paddle after it is removed. This
measurement gives a number only approximately proportional to the charge density
(Why?) but does give a good idea of the relative charge distribution.
OPTIONAL: Repeat step 7 but with the paddle perpendicular to the surface in-
stead of flat. Can you explain the differences?
8. Discharge the second solid sphere when it is far from the charged sphere. Then move
it within a few centimeters of the charged sphere. Explore the charge distribution
on both spheres with the paddle and record your observations. What do you observe
about the sign of the charge on different parts of the second sphere? Is it the same
everywhere? Explain your observations.
9. Does a grounded conductor necessarily have no net charge? Momentarily ground
the second sphere when it is near the first one, then move it away and see whether
it is charged. What is the sign of the charge? Explain.

PART III: CONCLUSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between charging by induction and charging by conduction?
What is the net charge on the electroscope in each case?
2. Why does touching the electroscope with your hand ground it? Do you end up with
a net charge? If so, how can we see the effects of this?
3. Can the electroscope differentiate between positive and negative charges? Explain
based on your observations.
4. What is the relationship between the potential difference measured by the electrom-
eter and the quantity of charge on the cup?
5. Why is it necessary to discharge the paddles and cup before starting an experiment?
How would your observations be different if you skipped this step?
6. Do only insulators acquire charge by rubbing? Explain.
7. You measured the charge density σ of the solid sphere using the paddle. Why does
this method only give us an approximate measure of the relative charge density?
What would you have to do to get a more exact measurement?
8. Electrostatics experiments often do not work well in humid weather. Explain why
this might be so.
E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 19

9. In very dry or cold weather, objects such as clothing, table tops, etc. that somehow
acquire a charge tend to hold that charge for a long time, i.e. they are slow to
discharge. How might this affect the observations in these experiments?

10. Where might you observe the effects of a net charge in your everyday life?

TROUBLESHOOTING
1. In humid air insulators may adsorb enough moisture that charges leak off rapidly.
If so, dry all insulators with a heat gun. Their large surface charges may influence
nearby unshielded instruments. If so, ask your instructor for help; e.g. use grounded
foil to shield against them. Also remove any clinging loose bits of fiber (e.g. silk or
rabbit fur) that may disturb results.

2. The fragile leaves of the electroscope may tear if charged too heavily. Do not
disassemble electroscope to attempt repair: see your instructor.

3. To remove charges on the glass windows of the electroscope, lightly rub your hands
over the windows while grounding your body.

4. When instructed to touch the hollow sphere with the proofball, avoid rubbing which
may result in inaccurate results. (Remember that rubbing is how you created the
charge separation on the lucite or rubber rods. Here, we want to charge by conduc-
tion.)

5. In humid weather or if there is excess charge on the handle, your proofball may not
hold charge. If this happens you can try cleaning or heating the handle (as described
in the next item), or putting the lucite rod into the hollow conductor directly.

6. Charges on the insulating handle of a proofball can cause serious measuring errors.
Test the handle by grasping the ball with one hand (while the other hand touches
the electroscope ground), and then bring parts of the insulating handle close to the
electroscope knob. If the leaves move, the handle is charged. To discharge it, hold
the handle in a source of ionized air. The charged insulator will attract ions of the
opposite sign until it is neutral. An open flame is a simple source of both positive
and negative ions. The heated air convects these ions upward such that the handle
will attract the correct sign to make it neutral. Hold the insulator at least 10
cm above open flame to avoid heat damage to the handle.

7. Avoid unnecessary handling of insulators because handling may impair their insu-
lating capability. (Perspiration is a salt solution which is a conductor.)

8. If your clothing or hair has a net charge, the electrometer reading may change if
you move around. Hence, during a given measurement, change position as little as
possible and ground yourself.

9. To remove all charge from the cup, press the ‘Zero’ button. (This connects the
electrometer terminals to each other so that any charge flows from/to ground). If
the meter does not read within a few percent of zero, notify your instructor.
E-1 ELECTROSTATICS 20

10. Cleaning your paddles before beginning may produce better results. Dirt on the
paddles will affect how much charge is transferred (and how actually the same two
paddles of the same type are).

11. Always discharge paddles and cup before starting an experiment. To test if an
object is charged, put it into the cup and see whether the electrometer deflects.
Conductors discharge easily by touching them to a grounded conductor. To discharge
an insulator, you must create sufficient ions in the surrounding air. The insulator
will then attract ions of the opposite charge until all charge is neutralized. An open
flame is a simple source of ionized air; the ions in the flame convect upward with the
hot gas. To avoid damage to the insulator, keep it at least 10 cm above
the flame!

12. You may measure charge and still avoid spurious effects from charges on the in-
sulating handles if you will touch the charged proofball (or paddle) to the bottom
of the cup and then remove it from the cup before reading the electrometer. But
remember to discharge the cup (by momentarily grounding) before taking the next
reading! However, if the potential of the insulating handle is too large (e.g. way off
the least sensitive scale), one can still get spurious effects from leakages.
 E-2 ELECTRIC FIELDS 21

E-2 Electric Fields

INTRODUCTION:
In this lab you will map equipotential lines and electric field lines between charged con-
ductors. Mapping is done by applying a potential difference between two conducting
electrodes and probing the potential in the region between them with a Digital Multime-
ter (DMM). Once you have mapped the equipotentials, you can use your knowledge from
class to determine the characteristics of the electric field lines.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Content goals: (1) To develop an intuitive understanding of relationship between electric
fields and equipotential contours and (2) physically map both in two dimensions. Inquiry
goals: To make and interpret graphical (visual) representations of data.

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS:
1. Do electric fields extend through a vacuum?

2. Do electric fields extend through the interior of an insulator?

3. Do electric fields extend through the interior of a conductor?

4. What is the relationship between electric field lines and equipotential lines?

5. Draw what you expect the equipotential and electric field lines to look like for a
point charge. What do you expect them to look like for a dipole? A conducting
plate?

APPARATUS:
1. Power supply (18V, 3A Max)

2. Fluke 115 Digital Multimeter (DMM) & test probes

3. Conductive paper with various conducting electrode configurations

4. Field plotting board

5. Carbon paper

6. White paper

7. Red and Black Banana Cables

 E-2 ELECTRIC FIELDS 22

Figure 1: Experimental Setup

Fluke DMM
To use the Fluke DMM, choose the DC voltage indicator, , from the dial of measure-
ments. Place one probe on the electrode that is grounded and place the other at a differ-
ent location on the conductive paper. The Fluke will now read the difference in electric
potential between those two locations. Pressing harder will not improve your mea-
surement! Note that although the DMM will measure the potential difference between
arbitrary points, one probe should always be referenced to ground for the purposes of this
lab.

EXPERIMENTS:
1. Place white paper on the field plotting board, then a piece of carbon paper. On top
of those, place the conductive paper with a dipole electrode configuration.

2. Record the shape of the electrodes on the white paper by tracing them with a hard
pencil or a ball point pen.

3. Using the power supply, place 18 volts across the terminals of the plotting board (as
in Fig. 1). Check the quality of the electrodes you are using with the DMM to make
sure there are no appreciable potential differences between various locations within
the electrodes. If you find any, ask your TA to find you a new one or fix the silver
paint quality.
 E-2 ELECTRIC FIELDS 23

4. Map the equipotential line which corresponds to +3 volts by exploring the region
of the grounded electrode with one probe while keeping your other probe on your
reference. Make several dark marks where you find a potential of +3V, and make
those recorded points are close enough together that you can later draw a smooth
line through the points. Note: the points only need to be close together when the
direction of the equipotential changes rapidly.

5. Map another 8 other equipotential lines. Chose voltages that are spread out evenly
to 18V. Remove the white paper when completed.

6. On the white paper, connect the dots representing individual equipotentials with
smooth lines.

7. Repeat steps 1-7 for the two configurations shown in Fig. 2. In each case map about
ten equipotentials.

A B A B

0 Volts 0 Volts
18 Volts 18 Volts

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Electrode configurations for (a) parallel plates and (b) a lightning rod.

QUESTIONS:
1. Explain in a sentence or two how you mapped the equipotential lines.

2. For two different electrode configurations, calculate the mean magnitude of the elec-
tric field strength in the region where the field is largest. This can be done by picking
adjacent equipotential contours and measuring the distance between them.

3. What is the relationship between electric potential lines and electric field lines? Hint:
Consider the relationship between electric potential and electric field:
Z b
Vb − Va = − ~ · d~l
E
a

and note that Vb = Va for any points b and a on the equipotential.)

4. Using your answer in the previous questions, draw about 5 electric field lines on each
of the equipotential maps. Do they look like what you might expect?

5. Where in Fig. 2(b) is the electric field strength the highest? Lowest? Why do
experts recommend that if you are caught outside during a thunder shower and
cannot obtain shelter that you find a low spot, and curl up your body, while standing
E-2 ELECTRIC FIELDS 24

on one foot if possible? Note: there are three effects here, two from shape and the
other from size, arising from the fact that lightning is caused by excessive electric
fields (> 5000 V/cm), and that currents flow through the paths of least resistance.

6. For the sketch below see if you can sketch out the electric field lines. Afterwards
check your answer at http://badger.physics.wisc.edu/lab/java/E2-2.html.

24 V 24 V
0 Volts

7. Using the applet at http://badger.physics.wisc.edu/lab/java/E2-3.html,

randomly place five unknown charges in a small region of space. Use any infor-
mation available to determine the relative strength and sign of these five charges.
 E-3 CAPACITANCE 25

E-3 Capacitance

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Content goals: (1) Understand the parallel-plate model of capacitance. (2) Understand
the differences between capacitors in series and parallel. Inquiry goals: (1) Comparison
of models to data. (2) Estimations of error.

PART I: Parallel Plate Capacitors

INTRODUCTION:
We will explore the most common model of the capacitor: the parallel plate. This device
allows us to experiment with aspects of capacitance that are not normally available to us
in commercially produced electronics. We will use the parallel plates to test our model of
capacitance and find the limitations of this technique.

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS:
1. If the charge on a capacitor is doubled, what is the change in the voltage on that
capacitor?

2. If the separation between the plates is doubled, what happens to the capacitance?

3. The parallel-plate model only holds when the separation between plates is small
compared to the size of the plates. Using what you learned in last week’s lab, draw
a set of electric field lines for a capacitor with a separation comparable to the plate
size. How does this help you understand the limits of the model?

APPARATUS:
1. Pasco parallel-plate capacitor

2. Electrometer and Cable

3. Power supply

EXPERIMENTS:
1. Draw a schematic of your experimental setup as outlined in the next four steps.

2. Connect the two plates of the capacitor to the electrometer as shown in figure 1.

3. Separate the plates by half a centimeter. This gap keeps the charge from leaking
between the plates on dry days.

4. Charge the plates to 15V by momentarily connecting the positive lead of the power
supply to the input plate and the other lead to the grounded plate.
 E-3 CAPACITANCE 26

Figure 1: Experimental Setup

5. With the supply leads disconnected, slowly change the plate spacing. Be sure to
span at least 5cm. Observe the changes in voltage as you move the plates farther
apart.
NOTE: Stray static charge will affect your results. Remove ”Static-y” clothing and
move as little as possible while performing the experiment.

6. Describe qualitatively what you observe. Address the functional dependence of the
data (linearly increasing, exponentially decreasing, etc.). Be sure to mention any
deviation from that dependence.

7. Return the plates to a half-centimeter spacing and recharge them to 15V

8. Record a table of voltage vs separation out to 5cm in 0.5cm increments. Make

a scatter plot of your result in Excel. Be sure to add error bars to your voltage
measurements.

QUESTIONS:
1. Based on the extent of the error bars, which parts of of the plot are most consistent
with the parallel plate model: C = 0 A/d? Which parts are inconsistent and why?
 E-3 CAPACITANCE 27

2. Calculate the charge on the non-grounded plate of the capacitor in its initial con-
figuration (assume a dielectric constant of 1). Based on your data, calculate the
charge at a separation of 2.5cm and 5cm. Be sure to propagate your errors due to
uncertainties in your measurements (see the error analysis section at the beginning
of your lab manual). Are these values consistent?

3. What is the energy stored in the capacitor, U = 12 CV 2 , in its initial configuration?

How does that change as a function of separation?

PART II: Capacitor circuits

INTRODUCTION:
Now we will use commercially manufactured capacitors identical to what you find in
modern circuitry. The construction of these devices is quite complicated and is designed to
largely mitigate the inconsistencies that you saw with the parallel plate. The capacitances
of these devices are fixed and usually very reliable. Here we will look at how capacitors
behave in series and parallel configurations.

PRELIMINARY QUESTIONS:
1. When adding two capacitors in series, do you expect the resulting capacitance to
be higher or lower than the capacitance of the components? What if they are in
parallel?

2. What is the relative charge of two capacitors in series if one is double the capacitance
of the other? What if they are in parallel?

APPARATUS:
1. Plug Board

2. Circuit element kit

3. Power Supply

4. Electrometer

5. Voltage Probes and BNC cables

EXPERIMENTS:
Use the electrometer and probes to measure voltages. Connect the red probe to the
electrometer input connection, and the black probe to the electrometer ground input with
black coaxial cables (not the banana plug cables).

Series capacitors:
1. Temporarily short out each capacitor, by plugging it into the metal holder. This
ensures that there is no residual charge on the capacitors.

2. Build the circuit in Figure 2 (note that the voltage source is not connected).
 E-3 CAPACITANCE 28

3. Touch the black and red voltage source leads across the series circuit, then discon-
nect the leads.

4. Measure the voltage drops across each capacitor individually. Be sure to include
estimates of error. Compare these to the predicted value.

Figure 2: Capacitors in Series

Parallel capacitors:
1. As in the previous experiment, temporarily short out each capacitor.

2. Build the new circuit in Figure 3 (again, the voltage source is not initially con-
nected). Do not place the second capacitor!

3. Charge up the 0.47µF capacitor to 12V and disconnect the supply leads.

4. Add the 1.0µF capacitor to the circuit in parallel

5. Measure the voltage drop across each capacitor. Be sure to include estimates of
error. Compare these to the values predicted by the model.
E-3 CAPACITANCE 29

Figure 3: Capacitors in Parallel

 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 30

E-4 Electron Charge to Mass Ratio

OBJECTIVES:
To observe magnetic deflection of electrons, at fixed energy, in a uniform magnetic
field and then use this information to obtain e/m, the electron charge/mass ratio.

APPARATUS:

Figure 1: Foreground: dip-needle magnetic-field sensor sitting on power supplies with

built-in digital meters; Background: Sargent-Welch e/m equipment and black cardboard.

INTRODUCTION
Your e/m vacuum tube contains a number of features for producing and visualizing
a thin uniform electron beam. Refer to Figs. 2 & 3 for schematic details. Passing
current through a wire filament (F) causes it to become hot. If the filament becomes
hot enough, electrons spontaneously leave the surface (a process called thermionic
emission). The filament is in close proximity to a higher-potential electrical element
(the anode C), and so some of the electrons accelerate through the vacuum towards
the anode. The current between the filament and anode is called the “anode current”.
To allow a narrow beam of electrons to leave the vicinity of the anode a thin slit, S,
has been cut in the anode cylinder.

Normally the electron beam is invisible to your eye. However the e/m tube also
contains Mercury (Hg) vapor. When electrons with energies in excess of 10.4 eV
collide with Hg atoms, some atoms become ionized or excited, and then quickly
recombine and/or de-excite to emit a bluish light. Hence the bluish light marks
the path taken by the electron beam (the electrons which collide with atoms are
permanently lost from the beam).

The potential difference V between the filament and anode (Fig. 2 and 3) accelerates
electrons thermionically emitted by the filament. Those electrons traveling toward
 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 31

the slit S emerge with a velocity v given by

1
V e = mv 2 (1)
2
provided that the thermal energy at emission is small compared to V e.

Preliminary Questions:
1. What is purpose of the Helmholtz coil? (read through the appropriate section first)
2. If you double the filament voltage, what would you expect to happen: A. beam gets
brighter; B. radius of electron trajectory gets bigger.
3. If you double the filament current, what would you expect to happen: A. beam gets
brighter; B. radius of electron trajectory gets bigger.

B F is a hot filament emitting electrons

C is a cylindrical anode at potential +V with respect to F
S is a vertical slit thru which electrons emerge
C B is the electron path in the magnetic field
S A is a rod with cross bars at known distances from the filament
+
F Electron beam trajectory in presence of Earth’s
magnetic field

Figure 2: The e/m tube viewed along the earth’s magnetic field (i.e., Bearth is perpendicular
to the page).

A is a rod with cross bars at known distances

from the filament A
L , L are insulating plugs in the end of the anode cylinder
D is the distance from the filament to the first cross bar
G , G function as the filament leads and support
E is the anode lead. It supports the anode C
D
and the rod with cross bars L L
C is the anode cylinder
S F
filament filament
current out current in
G EG

Figure 3: Side view of Figure 2.

 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 32

If the tube is properly oriented, the velocity of the emerging electrons is perpendic-
ular to the magnetic field. Hence the magnetic force vector F~ , which is described as
~ supplies the centripetal force mv2 for a circular path
a cross product F~ = e (~v × B), r
~
of radius r. Since ~v is perpendicular to B

mv 2
evB = (2)
r
Eliminating v between (1) and (2) gives
2V
e/m = (3)
B 2 r2
Our digital voltmeter measures accurately the accelerating voltage V . The radius
of curvature, r or D/2, is half the distance between the filament F and one of the
cross bars attached to rod A. The cross bar positions are as follows:

Crossbar No. Distance to Filament Radius of Beam Path

1 0.065 meter 0.0325 m
2 0.078 meter 0.039 m
3 0.090 meter 0.045 m
4 0.103 meter 0.0515 m
5 0.115 meter 0.0575 m

To find e/m we still need to know the magnetic field strength B. Instead of measur-
ing B, we calculate it from the dimensions of the Helmholtz coils and the measured
coil current, I, needed to bend the beam so that it hits a given cross bar.

Helmholtz coils consist of two identical R

coaxial coils which are separated as in
Fig. 4 by a distance R equal to the ra-
dius of either coil. They are useful because R X2 + R2
near the center (X = R/2) the field is X
nearly uniform over a large volume. (Most
textbooks assign this proof as a problem. R
Hint: Find how dB/dX changes with X
for a single coil at X = R/2, etc.)
Figure 4: Helmholtz coil geometry.

The field at X = R/2 is in fact: 1

 
8 N µ0 I
B=√ teslas (4)
125 R

as one sees by adding the axial fields B(x) from each of the single coils:

N µ0 IR2
B(X) = .
2 [R2 + X 2 ]3/2
1
The actual B at the maximum electron orbit is only ∼ 0.5% less. See Price, “Electron trajectory in
an e/m experiment”, Am. J. Phys. 55, 18, (1987)
 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 33

Thus when X = R/2, then

N µ0 I 2 R 2
 
N µ0 I 8 N µ0 I
B = 2B(X) = =  5 3/2 = √ .
[R2 + R2 /4]3/2 R 4 125 R

In Eq. 4,
N = number of turns on each coil (72 for these coils)
I = current through each coil in amperes
R = mean radius of the coils in meters (approximately 0.33 m but varies slightly
from unit to unit)
µ0 = 4π × 10−7 tesla meter/ampere.

Finally if we substitute (4) into (3) we obtain

2
 
12 R V
e/m = 2.47 × 10 2
coulombs/kg . (5)
N I r2
2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Fig. 5 should help you hook up the components. The current must
have the same direction in both sets of Helmholtz coils.

1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 21.3 06.4 2.19
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
ANODE Volts ANODE milliAmps FIELD Amps
Helmholtz To
Power 44 V. Filament On

Coils Supply
2 Amps 22 .V Overload

1111111111111111
0000000000000000
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 ANODE Filament Field
0000000000000000
1111111111111111 Power
0000000000000000
1111111111111111
GND POS GND POS
1
0
0 E/M POWER SUPPLY
1

Filament
To Helmholtz Coils
Anode Cylinder
with slit

Figure 4: Basic wiring layout.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE:
1. Set the axis of the Helmholtz coils along the local direction of the earth’s field, Be ,
as determined with a compass and dip needle. The axis should point towards the
geographic north but at an angle about 60 degrees from the horizontal. Thus the
axis should point deep under Canada. Put the long axis of the e/m tube in the
north-south direction and with the cross bars up.

CAUTION: Nearby ferromagnetic material (e.g. steel in the power

supply, the table and in the walls) can alter the local direction of Be .
As long as the field direction does not change during the experiment,
there should be no problem.

2. Set the filament supply knob to zero before turning the power on.
 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 34

3. Since e/m depends on V /I 2 , one needs high quality meters for V and I. Our digital
meters have an accuracy of ± one digit in the last displayed digit.

4. Start with ∼ 22 V between filament and anode. The anode current is displayed on
the “anode” display. With the room dark, gradually turn up the filament control
until the beam is visible. The anode current should remain zero until the filament
is sufficiently hot, perhaps hot enough that you can see the glowing filament. The
filament dial will often be well beyond the halfway position before the anode current
departs from zero. You should not expect to see the beam until the anode current is
at least a few milliamps. To make the beam more visible, use black cloth and black
cardboard to block out stray light: place the black cardboard inside the Helmholtz
coils and view from the top. When the beam appears, adjust the filament control to
give 5-10 mA of anode current. Do not exceed 15 mA! With no current through
the Helmholtz coils, the earth’s magnetic field should slightly curve the beam (like
the dotted line in Fig. 2).

5. Correction for the earth’s magnetic field: Increase I through the Helmholtz coils until
the beam deflects. If the sense of deflection is the same as that from the earth’s field
(i.e. when I = 0), reverse the leads to the Helmholtz coils; the curvature should then
be like B in Fig. 2. The field from the coils then opposes the earth’s field; hence
adjust the coil current until the beam path is straight. Since light travels in straight
lines, the beam should then hit the glass at the center of the area illuminated by
light from the filament.

This field current which just cancels the earth’s field, we will call Ie . Clearly the I
for Eqn. 5 must have Ie subtracted: Let the correct field current for crossbar n be
In , and let In0 be the measured current to bend the beam around so that the outside
sharp edge of the beam hits the center of the nth crossbar. Hence In = In0 - Ie is
the correct current to bend the beam to the appropriate radius, rn .

MORE ACCURATE METHODS TO ELIMINATE THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH’S

FIELD:
Uncertainty in Ie can dominate the uncertainty in e/m, so consider using the fol-
lowing more accurate methods to eliminate the effect of the earth’s field:
i. Take two readings of coil currents at n = 3, I30 and I300 : one with the earth’s field
opposing that of the Helmholtz coils, the other with it aiding. To accomplish
this, first (with the cross bars up) measure I30 (as described above); then rotate
just the e/m tube 180◦ about its long axis.

CAUTION: Always rotate the tube in the sense to REDUCE the

TWIST in the filament and anode leads. Otherwise one can twist
the leads off.

Next reverse the current in the Helmholtz coil and adjust it so that the beam
again hits the same cross bar. Call this reading I300 . Then

I30 − I300 = 2Ie .

 E-4 ELECTRON CHARGE TO MASS RATIO 35

ii. Or better yet, for each cross bar record an In0 and In00 reading. The average

In0 + In00
= In
2
is the current required if the earth’s field were absent. You may find it easier to
measure In0 for n = 1 to 5 and then rotate the e/m tube just once to measure
In00 .

MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS: (If time is short, measure only two cross bars at
each voltage.)

1. Make two determinations of e/m for each cross bar.

2. Repeat for an accelerating voltage of ∼ 44 volts. (Note Ie should remain the same
and one can measure it more precisely at the lower accelerating voltage.)
SUGGESTED DATA TABULATION: {If you use the alternative method (ii. above),
replace Ie by In00 and In = In0 − Ie by In = 21 (In0 + In00 ).}

Volts bar radius Ie In0 In = In0 −Ie e/m

3. Estimate the reliability of your value of e/m and compare to 1.76 × 1011 C/kg.

OPTIONAL:
Note that the electron beam expands in a fan shape after leaving the slit. Interchange
the filament leads and note how the fan shape flips to the other side of the beam.

Explanation: The fan shape deflection arises from the filament current’s magnetic field
acting on the beam. Our filament supply purposely uses unfiltered half wave recti-
fication of 60 Hz AC so that for half of the cycle no current flows thru the filament
but which is still hot enough to emit sufficient electrons. The electrons emitted in
this half cycle constitute the sharp beam edge which we use for measurement pur-
poses. This trick not only avoids deflection effects for this part of the beam, but
also avoids the uncertainty in electron energy arising from electrons being emitted
from points of different potential along the filament. (During this half cycle of no
filament current the filament is ∼ an equipotential.) The fan shape deflection relates
to electrons emitted during the other half cycle when filament current flows. [See:
F.C. Peterson, Am. J. Phys. 51, 320, (1983)]
 E-5 MAGNETISM 36

E-5 Magnetism
E-5a Lenz’s Law
OBJECTIVES:
1. To observe the eddy currents induced by the magnetic field in a moving conductor.
2. To follow how the eddy current intensity depends on the shape of the conductor.
YOU NEED TO KNOW: You must understand and be able to use the Right
Hand Rule in order to determine the direction and sense of the forces involved.
APPARATUS:
A Permanent Magnet; four different paddle pendulums; two small red and green
magnets. (There is only a single one of these set-ups per room and so, if it is in use,
proceed to the next section first.)

Z
1 2

3 4

Figure 1: The magnet and the paddle pendulum.

PROCEDURE I: (10 min)

1. Using one of the small magnets determine
the direction of the magnetic field between A
the jaws of the permanent magnet. z
2. Observe and describe the behavior of the
four pendulums when dropped between the
jaws of the permanent magnet.
3. Reverse the magnet. Observe and de-
scribe the behavior of two pendulums when
dropped between the jaws of the permanent
magnet. y

4. Set pendulum #1 between the jaws of the

magnet. Move the magnet rapidly in a B
direction parallel to the pendulum plate
(i.e. without touching jaws). Describe what Figure 2: Paddle moves in the +y
happens. direction
 E-5 MAGNETISM 37

QUESTIONS:
Q1: Use the right hand rule to determine the motion of electrons at the moment when
pendulum # 4 enters the magnetic field region. Is it from A to B? Or from B to A?
Q2: What is the direction of the current flowing in the pendulum? Is it from A to B?
Or from B to A?
Q3: Use the right hand rule to determine the direction of the force exerted on the current
that flows in the arm of the pendulum by the magnetic field. Is it along the positive
or the negative y axis?

E-5b Induction - Dropping Magnet

OBJECTIVE:
To show that a moving magnet induces an emf within a coil of wire.

INTRODUCTION:
After discovering the phenomenon of induction using two coils wrapped around an
iron ring, Faraday was able to show that plunging a magnet into a coil of wire
also generated a momentary induced current. Faraday did not use the concept of
Changing Flux instead he thought of the ‘lines of force’, and concluded that when
these lines move across a wire an emf is induced. Can you see the correspondence
of this concept with the concept of flux? Think about this.

Figure 3: A moving magnet - lines move across a wire

EXPERIMENT:
You will be repeating Faraday’s experiment by observing the emf induced in a coil
by a fast moving magnet, and you will check that the emf you observe obeys the
‘right hand rule’. If you have the time you can see the effect of changing the speed
and the polarity of the magnet.

YOU NEED TO KNOW: Lenz’s Law and the use of the right hand
rule. A varying magnetic field induces a current that opposes the
magnetic field change.

EQUIPMENT:
 E-5 MAGNETISM 38

• PC, PASCO interface and power amplifier module.

• A voltage sensor is connected to the coil and to port A of the interface. Be sure the
red wire is connected to the top of the coil. In this way a positive voltage corresponds
to a current in the direction of the arrow on the top of the coil.
• A stand holding a plastic tube and a coil.
• A long bar magnet, this magnet has a small cut at one end, that is the North pole.
• A pair of red and green bar magnets

PRECAUTIONS:
• The bar magnet is very fragile. DO NOT DROP IT!
• The bar magnet is easily depolarized. KEEP OTHER MAGNETS AWAY!
• When dropping the magnet, hold the tube and stopper together.

PROCEDURE I: (15 min)

1. Click on the Launch E-5b icon below (web version) to initiate the PASCO software
window. Click “setup” (brings up “Experiment Setup” window); click appropriate
channel; set sensitivity to “Low (1x)”. Make sure sampling rate is no less than
500Hz.
2. Set the distance d1 ∼ 15 cm between the top of the plastic tube and the top of the
coil. Record this in your lab notebook. Be sure that the red terminal of the voltage
sensor is plugged on the top plug of the coil.

3. The long bar magnet has a narrow cut

at one end, this is the North pole of the
magnet.
4. Hold the long bar magnet at the top of
the tube; the end with the cut should
be down, and just one centimeter or so
inside the tube.
5. CLICK on the START icon and drop
the magnet immediately afterwards.
6. to see the whole graph, and mea-
sure the heights h1 and h2 of the
two peaks using the cursor cross-hairs
[see PASCO Interface and Computer
Primer section (Appendix E.)].
7. Slide the tube upwards, remove the
rubber stopper and the magnet, replace
the rubber stopper at the bottom of the
plastic tube, and slide the tube down
again.
8. Print the graph on printer.
Figure 4: The setup

QUESTIONS: (10 min)

 E-5 MAGNETISM 39

Q1: The graph you obtained has a fall, a rise, a diminished slope, then a rise and finally
a fall. Explain what is happening at these various times.
Q2: Explain why the two voltage peaks you measured in 1.6 are not the same size. Can
you give an approximately quantitative justification for the √ratio h1 /h2 ? HINT:
remember Newtonian mechanics formula for free fall v = 2gh where g is the
acceleration due to gravity .
Q3: Examine the direction of the winding in the coil; verify that the directions of the
peaks is what you would expect using the right hand rule (curled fingers = cur-
rent; thumb = magnetic field).

PROCEDURE II: (10 min)

Repeat procedure I with the magnet inverted (the South Pole at the bottom).
QUESTION:
Q1 Explain in what way(s) and why the new graph is different.

PROCEDURE III: (20 min)

1. Move the coil further down on the tube making the new distance d2 at least about
two and a half times larger than d1 . Record this new distance d2 .
2. Repeat procedure I. Measure and record the heights h01 and h02 of the new peaks.
QUESTIONS:
Q1 Explain the reason for the difference between this graph, and the one obtained
in procedure I.
Q2 Can you give an approximate quantitative explanation for the ratio h01 /h1 ?

E-5c Induction - Test Coil

OBJECTIVES:
1. To observe the emf induced in a small detecting coil by the varying magnetic field
produced by the varying current in a separate large coil.
2. To follow how this emf depends on the shape, and the frequency of the inducing
current. The computer will produce a voltage varying with time in the form of a
triangular waveform with amplitude Vmax = 3 V and a frequency f = 10 Hz.
V
3 c

0
b

-3 a

0 100 200 t(ms)

Figure 5: The triangular waveform

INTRODUCTION:
 E-5 MAGNETISM 40

1. The applied voltage varies linearly from Vmin = −3 V to Vmax = 3 V in 50 ms. The
slope of the voltage curve is therefore ∆V /∆t = 120 V /s.
The resistance of the large coil is R ' 7Ω so current flowing in the large coil will
vary linearly from Imin = −3/7 = −0.43 A to Imax = 3/7 = +0.43 A in 50 ms,
Correspondingly ∆I/∆t = 17.2 A/s. The strength of the magnetic field produced
by the large coil is proportional the the voltage applied on it, and therefore the rate
of change ∆B/∆t is proportional to the slope of the curve that shows the voltage
versus time.

YOU NEED TO KNOW: The emf induced in a coil is then E =

−N A∆B/∆t where N is the number of turns in the small coil and
A its cross-sectional area.

EQUIPMENT:
• PC and PASCO CI-750 interface.
• Power amplifier module.
• A stand holding a small detecting coil.
• Two large back-to-back coils with an ohmic resistance R = 7Ω. The radius of the
coil pair is r = 0.105 m. The output signal from the PASCO goes to the input of the
Power Amp and then the output from the Power Amp goes to the large coil (using
the RED and BLACK banana jacks).

PROCEDURE I: (10 min)

1. Click on the Launch E-5c icon below (web version) to initiate PASCO software
window. The monitor should now show a scope window and a window for the
control of the signal generator. If necessary set the frequency to 10 Hz and the pull
down menu to choose the triangular (or sawtooth) waveform. In the oscilloscope
window set the trigger level to 1 V.
2. If necessary adjust the signal generator amplitude to 3 V.
3. Analog channels A and B are used to sense the voltage drop across the large coil
(A) and the voltage induced in the small coil (B). For both coils, connect RED to 1
and BLACK to 2 (see Fig. 6).
4. Turn on the signal generator and initiate data acquisiton by CLICKing on the
START icon. You should now see the voltage induced in the small coil together
with the one applied to the large coil.
5. Adjust the size of the waves you see in the scope window using the size controls on
the side of the scope window, then measure the height h1 of the square wave using the
cursor [see PASCO Interface and Computer Primer section (Appendix E.)]. Record
this height.

QUESTIONS
(a) Explain why the induced voltage is a square wave.
(b) Observe the direction of the winding in the large coil. What is the direction of
the magnetic field during the rising part of the triangular wave? Explain your
thoughts.
 E-5 MAGNETISM 41

Figure 6: The layout with the Pasco CI and back-to-back coil assembly.

(c) Observe the direction of the winding in the small coil. What is the direction
of the induced emf during the rising part of the triangular wave? Explain your
thoughts.

PROCEDURE II:
Move the small detecting coil 5 centimeters away from the large coil, measure the
amplitude of the induced voltage. Repeat at distances of 10 and 15 centimeters.
Make a simple graph using Microsoft Excel or any other suitable application.
QUESTION
How does the strength of the magnetic field depend on distance? ∼ 1/r ?∼
1/r2 ? ∼ 1/r3 ? Or something else?

PROCEDURE III:
1. Replace the detecting coil to its original position at the center of the large coil.
Decrease the amplitude of the triangular wave to 2 V.
2. Measure the height of the square wave and record this value.
QUESTIONS
Q1: Did the slope of the triangular wave change? By how much?
Q2: Is the change in amplitude of the square wave what you would expect? Why?

PROCEDURE IV:
1. Repeat procedure III with a frequency of 15 Hz.
2. Compare the result with those of procedure I and III

PROCEDURE V:
 E-5 MAGNETISM 42

1. Return the voltage and frequency to the values used in procedure III. Rotate the
detecting coil 90◦ so that it is in the horizontal plane. Observe the resulting induced
voltage.
2. Rotate the coil another 90◦ so that it is in the vertical plane again. Observe the
resulting induced voltage. Compare the result with procedure III.

E-5d Induction - Faraday Discovery

INTRODUCTION:
Michael Faraday (1791-1867) was a bookbinder journeyman (English for appren-
tice). He read some of the books he was supposed to bind, and became interested
in ‘natural philosophy’ (the term science did not exist in the XVIIIth century).
In 1813 he applied for a job as a technician in the laboratories of the Royal Labora-
tories to professor Davy, he got the job. Some people say that this was the greatest
discovery Davy ever made! He worked all his life in the laboratories, starting as a
technician, became Director of the Laboratories, was elected to The Royal Society
of London, and became a Professor at the Royal Institution. Some of you will be
pleased to know that he knew no math, and never used math in his researches.
Faraday performed many kinds of experiments, in chemistry, optics, and metallurgy,
but perhaps the most important experiments were on electricity and magnetism.
Having learned of Oersted’s experiments on the magnetic fields produced by an
electric current, he wondered if the reverse could be true: perhaps magnetic fields
could in turn produce an electric current. His first experiments were unsuccessful,
until he realized that it was the change in magnetic field that produced a momentary
current.
His first experiments were similar to the one you will be doing today: two separate
coils were wound on an iron ring, the current in the primary coil was interrupted,
and the momentary current in the secondary was observed.
The explanation of this effect is, as you know, that the change in current in the pri-
mary circuit produces a change in the magnetic field that exists inside the secondary
coil, the electromotive force in the induced secondary is then

E = −AN · (∆B/∆t)

where N is the number of turns, and A is the cross-sectional area of the secondary
coil.

OBJECTIVES:
To observe the induced momentary emf that appears in a secondary circuit when
the current in the primary circuit is turned on, or interrupted. This is the original
Faraday discovery: induction of a current by a varying magnetic field.
In procedure II you will observe that induced momentary emf appears also in the
primary circuit itself when the current is turned on, or interrupted; you will be
observing the self induction of a coil. Faraday used a switch to interrupt or start
the current as shown in Fig. 7; you will use the computer to do the same job: the
computer will produce a square wave, the voltage will change abruptly from 0 volts
 E-5 MAGNETISM 43

Figure 7: Faraday’s experiment

V

Figure 8: The square wave

(current off = switch open) to a value of about 3 Volts (current on = switch closed)
as shown in Fig. 8.
EQUIPMENT:
• PC and PASCO CI-750 interface, again with Output connected to the power ampli-
fier input.
• Two voltage sensors are plugged in the interface. The voltage sensor plugged in the
A port measures the voltage across the external resistor; the voltage sensor plugged
in the B port measures the voltage across the coil (see Figs. 9 and 10).
• Computer controlled Power Amplifier Module.
• A pair of nested coils. The outer one is the ‘primary’. It has about 2600 turns of
fine wire and has a resistance of ∼ 95 Ω. The primary coil is insulated from the
inner secondary coil, an iron bar fits inside the inner coil.
• A plug board and a 100 Ω resistor.
PROCEDURE I:
1. Click on the Launch E-5d icon below (web version) to initiate the PASCO DataS-
tudio software window. Set sensitivity setting (in Experiment Setup window) for
Channel A to “Low (1x)” and for Channel B to “High (100x)”. Make sure the iron
bar is inserted in the inner coil.
2. Check that the power amplifier is on, (the yellow pilot light labeled ‘Power’ should
be on and the red pilot light labeled ‘Distorting’ on the power amplifier should off).
3. Check that the amplitude is ∼ 4 Volts, and the frequency is ∼ 10 Hz. CLICK on
the ON button of the Signal Generator, then CLICK on START icon.
4. The computer monitor should now display two curves:
- one curve (curve A) looks like a square wave, but not quite; it shows the voltage
across the external 100 Ω resistor, and therefore tells you the current flowing in the
coil.
-the other curve (curve B) shows the induced voltage across the secondary coil.
 E-5 MAGNETISM 44

Science Workshop 750 A B C

1 2 3 4 Output
+
POWER

DIGITAL CHANNELS ANALOG CHANNELS

Red
Red

100 Ω to Port A
Black
Short
Red
P R Red

to Port B
Q
S Black

Figure 9: The schematic setup

Power R
Red
Port B
Amp. P Q Black
S

Red Black

Port A

Figure 10: The physical setup

5. Then print the graph for one of the peaks [instructions are in the PASCO Interface
and Computer Primer section (see Appendix E.)].
QUESTIONS:
Q1: The shape of curve A is not quite a ‘square wave’. Why not? HINT: this is an
LR circuit with a time constant τ = L/R
Q2: Are the peaks of voltage across the secondary coil, (curve B) that correspond
to current on vs. current off about the same size? Explain.
Q3: Are the peaks of voltage across the secondary coil, that correspond to current
on vs. current off of the same polarity? Explain.
PROCEDURE II: (15 min)
1. Remove the voltage sensor banana pins from the terminals R and S of the sec-
ondary coil and insert them into the terminals P and Q of the primary coil, without
disconnecting these terminals from the power supply.
2. Change the sensitivity of Channel B to “Low (1x)” and change the scale of scope 2
to 1 V/div.
E-5 MAGNETISM 45

3. CLICK on the ON button of the Signal Generator, next CLICK on START and
then, after a second or so, CLICK on STOP.
4. The Monitor now displays two curves:
- one curve (curve A) looks like a square wave, but not quite; it shows the voltage
across the external 100 Ω resistor, and therefore tells you how the current flowing
through the primary coil varies with time.
-the other curve (curve B) shows the voltage across the primary coil.
The two curves look very similar: they should have about the same height, and
should rise and fall at the same times.
If curve B is inverted relative to curve A, exchange the banana pins in terminals P
and Q and repeat item 1.2 of this procedure.
5. Adjust the graph axes so that just one full cycle may be seen and then print out
copies for your lab manual [instructions in PASCO Interface and Computer Primer
section (refer to Appendix E.)].

QUESTIONS
Q1: The shape of curve A is not quite a ‘square wave’, why not? HINT: this is an
LR circuit with a time constant τ = L/R
Q2: The curve that describes the voltage across the primary coil, (curve B) is similar
to curve A. Why? HINT: think of two approximately equal resistors in series.
Q3: The curve that describes the voltage across the primary coil, (curve B) is similar
to curve A, but it shows ‘spikes’. Why? HINT: the voltage across this coil is
due to two factors, R and L.
 E-6 OSCILLOSCOPES AND RC DECAY 46

E-6 Oscilloscopes and RC Decay

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Content goals: (1) Learn the basic operation of an oscilloscope. (2) Use the oscilloscope
to understand RC Decay. Inquiry goals: (1) Comparison of models to data.

PART I: THE OSCILLOSCOPE

Introduction:
The oscilloscope is basically a high-speed graph-displaying device – it draws a graph of
an electrical signal called a waveform. In most applications the graph shows how signals
change over time: the vertical (Y) axis represents voltage and the horizontal (X) axis
represents time. This simple graph can tell you many things about a signal. Here are just
a few, you can ...

• determine the amplitude and frequency

• tell how often a particular portion of the signal is occurring relative to other portions.

• find out how much of a signal is direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC).

• tell how much of the signal is noise and whether the noise is changing with time.

Basic Functions:
In this section, you’ll set up the oscilloscope to display a waveform as shown in figure 1.
Power on the scope and press the “Default Setup” button on the second row of buttons
at the top of the panel. If you ever get lost, you can press Default Setup and start from
scratch. Connect the Channel 1 probe to the gold contacts. These contacts output a
continuous 5V@1kHz square wave. The probe itself should be clipped to the top contact
and the alligator clip ground should connect to the bottom contact. You should initially
see a very unsteady display that is not scaled properly.
To stabilize the graph, adjust the “Trigger Level” knob. The trigger level is indicated
graphically by an arrow on the right side of the display. It is also displayed numerically
on the bottom right. You should now see a stable plot that is clipped at the top.
Use the Channel 1 “Vertical” scale knob to display the entire waveform. The numerical
value for this scale is displayed in Volts on the bottom left corner of the display. You may
have to readjust the trigger level after scaling.
Use the “Horizontal” scale knob to scale the waveform horizontally to match the figure.
This scale is displayed in µ-seconds on the bottom center of the display above the date.
Play around with all three knobs until you understand what they are doing. What is
the function of each knob and how do they relate to the numbers displayed? What is the
relationship between the scales and the grid that the waveform is plotted against? How
does the trigger level need to relate to the amplitude of the waveform to display a stable
graph?
 E-6 OSCILLOSCOPES AND RC DECAY 47

Figure 1: Initial Setup

Measurement
While the display grid will allow you to make crude measurements of amplitude and period,
our oscilloscopes offer more sophisticated measurement tools in the form of cursors.
Press the “Cursor” button on the second row of buttons on the top of the panel.
Change the Type to Amplitude. Using the knob at the top left, adjust the cursor position
to line up with the maximum amplitude of the square wave. Note that the position of this
cursor is displayed on the right side under Cursor 1. Now highlight Cursor 2 and adjust
the position to the minimum amplitude of the square wave. The difference between the
two cursor positions is displayed at ∆V and should be 5V in this case.
Change the Type to Time. Using the same mechanics as above, measure the period
and frequency of the displayed waveform. Estimate the error on this measurement and
the amplitude measurement above.
Probe the gold contacts with the Fluke Multimeter set to measure AC Volts and record
the result. Why is this number different from the amplitude measured with the cursors?
Are the two measurements consistent?

External Signals
Disconnect the probe from the gold contacts and connect them to the output of the func-
tion generator using the BNC to micro-grabber adapter. Always use the oscilloscope
probes to connect to the inputs. Never use a BNC cable. Turn the function gen-
erator on. Its default output 5V@1kHz sine wave should be displayed on your oscilloscope.
The amplitude given by the function generator is the Peak amplitude, or the maximum
absolute value of the signal. Measure the Peak-to-Peak amplitude and the Frequency of
 E-6 OSCILLOSCOPES AND RC DECAY 48

the waveform. Do they agree with the function generator to within your measurement
uncertainties?
Now connect the Fluke Multimeter to the function generator output and record the
RMS amplitude. Is this measurement consistent with the oscilloscope?
Experiment with several different types, amplitudes and frequencies of waveforms cre-
ated using the function generator. What is the difference between the 5V@1kHz square
wave you first observed and the 5V@1kHz square wave generated by the function gener-
ator? Be sure you are confident in your abilities to accurately display several types of
waveform on the oscilloscope before moving on.

PART II: RC DECAY

Now we will use the scope to characterize an RC Circuit. Build the series RC circuit with
the plug board kit as shown figure 2. Be sure to match the raised bump indicating
ground with the figure. Drive the circuit with a 5V@1kHz square wave. Monitor the
function generator output with the oscilloscope as you’ve done in previous sections. Plug
a second probe into Channel 2 of the oscilloscope and use that probe to measure the
voltage drop across the capacitor. You’ll need to press the blue “2” button. You should
see something similar to figure 3.

47 nf

Vin
47 NF

1 KΩ VR

to red
1K

to black
to ch. 1 to ch. 12

Figure 2: RC Circuit Schematic

Using the cursor feature, measure the time constant for this circuit. Does it agree with
the calculated value to within your measurement precision? For five different combinations
of resistors and capacitors, measure the time constants and compare them to the calculated
values. You will need to change the driving frequency of the function generator and the
horizontal scale of the oscilloscope accordingly.

PART III: DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS

Amplifiers are devices which usually increase the amplitude of the output signal compared
to the input signal. The customary symbol for an amplifier is a triangular shape:
 E-6 OSCILLOSCOPES AND RC DECAY 49

Figure 3: RC Circuit Trace

Vin (volts) Vout (volts)
Vin Vout 2 10
1 5

−1 −5
−2 −10

Figure 4: Amplifier Function

In the sine wave example above, the gain is 10 and the input signal is between an input
terminal and ground. The internal oscilloscope amplifiers for channels 1 and 2 are of this
type and have a common ground. Because of this common ground, one has problems in
using a scope to examine simultaneously voltages across individual circuit elements that
are in series.

Amplifier Differential amplifier

Vin Vout
Vin

Vout

Figure 5: Amplifier vs. Differential Amplifier

We can avoid these problems by interposing “differential amplifiers” which have two inputs
V 0 and V 00 , (neither at ground), and which amplify only the voltage difference (V 0 − V 00 ).
 E-6 OSCILLOSCOPES AND RC DECAY 50

See figure 5. Note now that the ground of the output signal is independent of any input
ground.
Connect the resistor and capacitor signal to the differential amplifiers as shown in
the figure below. Connect the outputs of the differential amplifiers to the scope inputs,
and set both gains to 1. You should see something similar to figure 7. Describe what
is happening to the voltage drop across the resistor when the capacitor is charging and
discharging. What is the relative phase of the two components? Now press the pink
“Math” button to bring up a selection of mathematical operators. Change the operation
to “+”. Describe the significance of what is now displayed. How is it consistent or
inconsistent with Kirchoff’s laws?

Figure 6: Inputs to differential amplifiers

Figure 7: Differential Amplifier Outputs

 E-7 LRC CIRCUITS 51

E-7 LRC Circuits

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Content goals: (1) Study voltage and phase relationships in LRC circuits. (2) Explore
concepts of impedence and resonance. Inquiry goals: (1) Comparison of models to data.

INTRODUCTION:
In the previous oscilloscope lab, we learned the basic functionality of the oscilloscope
and used it to characterize several RC circuits. In this lab we’ll add inductors to the
experiments and use more sophisticated concepts to aid with the analysis. We’ll need to
introduce the concepts of impedance and resonance before we get to the experiments.
We define the impedance Z of any part of a circuit is the ratio of the voltage across
that part and the current though that part. Because impedance is defined as a ratio of
voltage/current, impedance is measured in Ohms.
Recall that:

• The impedance XR of an resistor R is XR

• The impedance XL of an inductor L is XL = 2πf L

1
• The impedance XC of a capacitor C is XC = 2πf C

• The impedance of the entire circuit (shown in Fig. 1) is

q
Z = XR 2 + (X − X )2
L C

Note that the impedance Z of the RLC series circuit is a minimum for XL = XC . The
frequency for which this occurs is the resonant frequency. Derive an expression for this
frequency in terms of the inductance and capacitance of the circuit.
At resonance, the current through R is maximum, but the voltage VLC across the
LC series combination is a minimum and in fact would be zero if the inductor had no
resistance.

LRC Circuits
Create the circuit in figure 1 using the plug board kit. The function generator supplies
VAC . By default it generates a sine wave at a displayed amplitude of 5V (10V Peak-to-
Peak) and displayed frequency of 1 kHz.

Voltage relationships
Use the DMM to measure the RMS voltage drop across the resistor, capacitor, inductor
and all three together (Yes, you should be writing this down). Recall that the current
through all of these components is identical as they are in series. Are these measurements
consistent with your expectations? Explain this in terms of the measured voltage drops
in terms of the impedances of each component.
 E-7 LRC CIRCUITS 52

R =103 Ω VR

VAC
L=1H
VL V

C =0.047µf VC

Figure 1: A Series LRC Circuit

Repeat these measurements at 700 and 400 Hz. How and why do the voltage drops of
each component change as a function of frequency? How and why does the voltage drop
of the entire circuit change?
Use the oscilloscope to carefully search for the resonant frequency. Be sure to use the
differential amplifier (as in lab E-6) for each of your signals. Measure the voltage drop
across the resistor with Channel 1. Adjust the frequency until the signal is maximized.
Is your measurement of the resonant frequency consistent with the calculated resonance?
Measure the resonances for the 0.47 and 1 µF capacitors (Sorry, we only have the one
inductor!) and note the differences.
For several different frequencies on either side of resonance, create a table of the voltage
drop across the resistor. Add a third column to the table and calculate the power dissipated
at each frequency. Use this table to create a plot of power vs frequency. Fit a Gaussian to
this plot and record the width of the distribution and the maximum amplitude. Replace
the 1KΩ resistor with a 100Ω resistor and repeat the above experiment. What is the
difference? Radio and mobile phone transmitters are designed to transmit as much power
in as narrow a frequency band as possible. Which of these circuits would make a better
transmitter?

Phase Relationships
Switch back to the 1KΩ resistor and use channel 2 of the scope to look at the voltage drop
across the combination of the inductor and capacitor. Use the Math feature to add the
two waveforms. As you change the frequency, note the phase change between the different
waveforms. Figure 2 shows this relationship. Set the signal generator near resonance.
What is the phase relationship between the resistor part and the capacitor-inductor part
of the circuit? Try to make a more accurate determination of the resonance frequency
using the relative phase.
With f = fr , short out the capacitor by a jumper, (e.g. with metal bridge connector).
Note what happens. Un-short capacitor and then short the inductor. Explain results in
terms of Fig. 2. Does current lead or lag the applied voltage in each case?
E-7 LRC CIRCUITS 53

VL =I X L V=I Z

φ VR =I R
VL - VC
=I X LC ωt

VC = I XC

Figure 2: Phase Relations

Remove the shorts and try f < fr and f > fr . Explain the phase behavior.
 E-8: TRANSISTORS 54

E-8: Transistors
OBJECTIVE:
To experiment with a transistor and demonstrate its basic operation.
APPARATUS:
An npn power transistor; dual trace oscilloscope & manual; signal generator &
frequency counter; power supply (±15 V fixed/±9 V variable); circuit plug board &
component kit; two digital multimeters (DMM); differential amplifiers.
INTRODUCTION:
Our junction transistor (Fig. 1) is like two back to back np diodes (see E-8 Part
C, #3). Hence there are two possibilities, an npn transistor and a pnp transistor.
Our npn transistor has a central p-type layer (the Base) between two n-type layers
(the Emitter and Collector). There are other type transistors which we will not
discuss, (e.g. a MOSFET: Metal-Oxide Semiconductor-Field-Effect-Transistor).

Collector Collector
Collector
N NPN PNP

Base P
Base Base
Emitter I
N

Emitter Emitter

Figure 1
For an npn transistor the collector is positive relative to the emitter. The base-
emitter circuit acts like a diode and is normally conducting (i.e. forward-biased). The
base-collector circuit also acts as a diode but is normally non-conducting (reverse
biased) if no current flows in the base-emitter circuit. However when current flows
in the base-emitter circuit, the high concentration gradient of carriers in the very
thin base gives an appreciable diffusion current to the reversed biased collector. The
resulting collector current Ic depends on the base current Ib . We write Ic = βIb
where β is the current amplification factor.
PRECAUTIONS: Although our power transistor is fairly indestructible, its
characteristics are temperature sensitive. Hence avoid exceeding the voltages
suggested; also leave the power supply off when not making measurements;
read currents and voltages to two significant figures only.

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS: DMM 2

mA
Variable
Voltage
DC Supply
+

µA
1. CURRENT Amplification:
DMM 1
Measure β for various emitter
to collector voltages, Vec . Set
up the circuit as in Fig. 2.
Figure 2
E-8: TRANSISTORS 55

Start with the voltage divider completely counter-clockwise so that the emitter-base
voltage Veb is a minimum. With the variable power supply set to 3 V, record the Ib
measured on DMM1 and the Ic on DMM2
Repeat the readings for ten reasonably spaced (higher) settings of the voltage divider
(i.e. higher Veb and hence higher Ib .
Calculate β(= Ic /Ib ) and plot it against Ib . Over what range of Ib is β reasonably
constant? Repeat the above but with emitter to collector voltage Vec now at 7 V.
2. (Optional) MEASUREMENT OF Ic vs Veb : Remove the multimeter DMM1 (used
as a microammeter) from the circuit of Fig. 2 and use it instead as a voltmeter to
measure the emitter to base voltage Veb . With the variable power supply set to give
7 V for Vec , use the voltage divider to vary Veb . Read and record both Veb and Ic
for 10 reasonably spaced values of Veb . Plot Ic vs Veb . The results are very similar
to a diode curve (as expected since Ic is proportional to Ib over the region where β
is a constant).
3. VOLTAGE Amplification: By adding a large load resistor in series with the col-
lector, one can convert the current amplification β observed earlier into a voltage
amplification. Hook up the circuit plug board as in Fig. 3.

1 kΩ

10 kΩ

Variable
Voltage +15V
DC Supply 4.7 kΩ
+

Vout
DMM 2
GND Vin
DMM 1

Figure 3

The input voltage to the transistor Vin includes the drop across the 4.7 kΩ protective
resistor. The voltage gain is G = ∆Vout /∆Vin . Record input voltages Vin and output
voltages Vout (= Vec ) for ten reasonably spaced values of Vin from 0 to 5 volts.
Graph Vout vs Vin and calculate the voltage gain G at the steeply changing part
of your graph. The value of Vin at the center of this region we call the “operating
voltage” of the amplifier. How would the gain change if the load resistance was
2.2 kΩ instead of 10 kΩ?
4. Distortion effects when amplifier is overdriven: Set up the circuit plug board as in
Fig. 4. Connect Y1 and Y2 to the scope. To connect the signal generator to the
board, use the BNC to banana plug adapter and remember that the side with the
bump goes to ground.
E-8: TRANSISTORS 56

1 kΩ

10 kΩ

Variable
Voltage +15V
DC Supply 4.7 kΩ

+
+
GND 0.047 µ f

Y2
+
Vin
Y1
DMM

Figure 4
Adjust the voltage divider until the Vin is close to the “operating voltage” found in
#3.
Vary (and record) the amplitude of the input signal from small values to those which
overdrive the amplifier and produce considerable distortion in the output Y2 .
Observe and record the effect of changing Vin to values outside of the operating
range (where β is constant).
 57

Part II
Sound and Waves
S-1 Transverse Standing Waves on a String
OBJECTIVE: To study propagation of transverse waves in a stretched string.

INTRODUCTION:
A standing wave in a string stretched between two points separated by a distance L
is equivalent to superposing two traveling waves on the string of equal frequency and
amplitude, but opposite directions. The distance between nodes (points of minimum
motion) is one half wavelength, (λ/2). Since the ends of the string are fixed, the
only allowed values of λ are λn = 2L/n, n = 1, 2, 3 . . ..
p
The wave velocity, v, for a stretched string is v = F/µ where F = tension in
the string and µ = mass per unit length. But v = fλ and hence only certain
frequencies are allowed, p
F/µ
fn = . (1)
λn

N N First mode

A
λ
N N Second mode 2
N

N N Fourth mode

Figure 1: The Modes of a String Figure 2: A close-up

PART A: Waves from a mechanical driver (i.e. a speaker)

APPARATUS:
Basic equipment: Electrically driven speaker; pulley & table clamp assembly; weight
holder & selection of slotted masses; black Dacron string; electronic balance; stro-
boscope.
Computer equipment: Personal computer; PASCO c interface module; power am-
plifier module; various electrical connectors.
The set-up consists of an electrically driven speaker which sets up a standing wave
in a string stretched between the speaker driver stem and a pulley. Hanging weights
on the end of the string past the pulley provides the tension.
 S-1 TRANSVERSE STANDING WAVES ON A STRING 58

The computer generates a digitally synthesized sine wave with adjustable frequency
and amplitude (max: ∼10 V). The PASCO interface transforms the digital signal
into a smooth analog signal. This is fed into the power amplifier, which puts out
the same signal, but with a current large enough to drive the loudspeaker.

Precautions: Decrease the amplitude of the signal if the speaker makes a rattling
sound, or if the red pilot light on the amplifier is lit. The generator is set to produce
sine waves; do not change the waveform.
Note: Although the speaker is intended to excite string vibrations only in a plane,
the resultant motion often includes a rotation of this plane. This arises from non-
linear effects since the string tension cannot remain constant under the finite ampli-
tude of displacement. [See Elliot, Am. J Phys. 50, 1148, (1982)]. Other oscillatory
effects arise from coupling to resonant vibrations of the string between pulley and
the weight holder; hence keep this length short.

Speaker
Bridge

Table

Figure 3: The apparatus

SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS:
PROCEDURE I: Checking Equation (1)
1. Place the sheet of paper provided on the table; this will make it easier to see the
vibration of the string. Measure accurately the distance, L, between the bridge and
the pin of the speaker using the two meter ruler; record this in your lab notebook.
Click on the LAUNCH EXPERIMENT icon (i.e., the telescope), from the on-line
lab manual. The computer monitor will appear as shown in Fig. 4.

2. You will see that the computer is set to produce a 60 Hz sine wave with an amplitude
of 2 V . To start the string vibrating CLICK the “ON” button.

3. CLICK on the up/down arrow in order to change the amplitude or the frequency of
the signal although this produces rather large steps. NOTE: The nominal step sizes
for adjusting the amplifier frequency and voltage may be much too large. To alter
the step size use the J or I buttons. To alter the current or voltage (which of
these depends on configuration) use the + or - buttons. You can also change the
value directly by CLICKing the mouse cursor in the numeric window and entering
a new value with keyboard number entry.
 S-1 TRANSVERSE STANDING WAVES ON A STRING 59

DataStudio
File Edit Experiment Window Help

Summary Setup Start

Signal Generator

Sine Wave

Amplitude Frequency
Adjust
step size 2.000 V 60.000 Hz
1.000 10
Measurements And Sample Rate

Figure 4: The PASCO DataStudio display.

4. At 60 Hz check Eq. 1 by first calculating the necessary string tension to produce

a standing wave in the third or fourth mode. Weigh the string to get µ. Your
instructor will provide you with a one meter length of string. (Dacron 30# has ∼
0.283 g/m.) Note that the hanger itself has a 50 g mass so it may not be easy to
access the fourth mode (depending on L).
Check your results by adjusting the string tension by increasing/decreasing the
weight to find the tension which results in the largest amplitude vibrations. How do
the two values (calculated and measured) compare?
5. Now put a 200 g mass on the mass hanger and restart the signal generator. Record
the total mass and tension in your lab book.
6. Adjust the frequency so that the amplitude of the oscillation is at its maximum by
changing the frequency in 1 Hz steps. This is best done as follows: First decrease
the frequency until the amplitude of the string is very small.
Then increase the frequency in 1 Hz steps, observe that the amplitude first increases
and then decreases. Record the best frequency f2 in your table.
7. Change the frequency to observe the third mode. Find and record the best frequency
(using 10 Hz steps at first may be faster).
8. Find and record the frequency of the higher modes.
9. OPTIONAL: Check the frequency f of the string in its 2nd mode with the strobo-
scope. Note that the stroboscope is calibrated in RPM or cycles per minute, NOT
Hz (cycles per second). You should find a value close to 70 Hz.

ANALYSIS:
1. Divide the various frequencies fn by n and enter the values in a table. Calculate the
average value of fn /n; this is the expected value of the frequency of the first mode.

2. Calculate the velocity of propagation on the string using the appropriate equation.

3. Calculate the mass per unit length of the string. How do the two values for the
string mass per unit length compare?
 S-1 TRANSVERSE STANDING WAVES ON A STRING 60

PROCEDURE II: fn vs string tension

In this section you will investigate the dependence of the resonant frequency of a
string as a function of the applied tension.
1. Choose six masses between 100 gm and 1 kg and enter the values in the data table.
2. Determine the resonant frequency of the second mode of the string under these
different tensions and record your results. √(Hint: increasing the mass by a factor of
two increases fn by nominally a factor of 2.)
3. Plot a graph of frequency versus mass, m, and include the zero value.
√
4. Plot a graph of frequency versus m and again include the zero value.
QUESTIONS:
1. Which of the two graphs can be fitted with a straight line? A parabola? Why?
2. From the slope of the graph having the linear relationship obtain the mass per unit
length of the string and compare to your previous result.

PART B: “Virtual” waves on a drum head

PROCEDURE III: (If time permits)

Vibrations of a circular drum head. In this section you will examine, via a virtual
demonstration, the vibrational modes of a two dimensional drum head.

1. Click on the icon at left to down-load and initiate the

MPEG movie viewer to observe the “first” mode.
2. Use the replay and step frame functions to view the mo-
tion.
The [0,1] mode. 3. Where is the displacement at a maximum? Always at a
minimum?
1. Click on the icon at left to down-load and initiate the
MPEG movie viewer to observe the first of the two “sec-
ond” modes.
2. Use the replay and step frame functions to view the mo-
tion.
The [0,2] mode. 3. Where is the displacement at a maximum? Always at a
minimum?
1. Click on the icon at left to down-load and initiate the
MPEG movie viewer to observe the second of the two
“second” modes.
2. Use the replay and step frame functions to view the mo-
tion.
The [1,1] mode. 3. Where is the displacement at a maximum? Always at a
minimum?
JAVA APPLET:
If time permits and you are interested the web version of the lab has a link to
an applet ../java/ph14e/stwaverefl.htm which animates transverve 1D motion for a
propagating wave incident on a fixed or or a free boundary.
 S-2 VELOCITY OF SOUND IN AIR 61

S-2 Velocity of Sound in Air

OBJECTIVE:
To calculate the velocity of sound from measurement of the wavelength in air for
sound of a certain frequency.
APPARATUS:
Resonance tube with arrangement for varying water level (use only distilled water);
rubber tipped hammer; tuning fork; Hg thermometer.
INTRODUCTION:
For a closed tube, resonance occurs at tube lengths of an odd multiple of one-fourth
wavelength, i.e. at λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4 etc.
SUGGESTIONS:
1. Find the positions of the water level in the tube for the first three of these
resonances. Use these readings to calculate the speed of sound, v = |~v |. Initially
have enough water that you can raise the level above the first resonance position.
The tuning fork frequency is on the fork.

Since the effective end of the resonance tube is not at the tube’s end, do
not use the position of the tube’s top in your calculations, but rather take
differences between the other readings.
p
2. Sound waves in gases have apspeed v = γRT /M . (Recall the formula for the speed
of sound on a string, v = T /µ (e.g., Lab S-1)). Correct your value of v to 0◦ C
(T = 273.16 K) and compare with that accepted for dry air at 0◦ C: 331.29 ± .07 m/s,
[Wong, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 79, 1559, (1986)]. For humid air see 3. below.
3. We quantify proportions in gas mixtures by the pressure each gas contributes to the
total pressure. This is called the “partial” or “vapor” pressure. Think of the speed
as resulting from an average < γ/M >,

< γ/M > = [(γa /Ma )Pa + (γw /Mw )Pw ] /(Pa + Pw ) ,

so that

vdry ∼
p
= vhumid (γa /Ma )/ < γ/M > ,

where γair = 1.40, γw = 1.33, Pa is the partial pressure of air, Pw is the vapor
pressure of water, Ma ∼ 29 kg and Mw = 18 kg.
How should the v.p. of water, Pw , in the tube affect the speed?
OPTIONAL: Humidity changes will affect tuning of what musical instruments?
4. What effect does atmospheric pressure have on the velocity of sound in dry air?
(Assume air at these pressures is an ideal gas.)
5. Viscosity and heat conduction in the tube may reduce v by ∼0.1%. See N. Feather,
“The Physics of Vibrations and Waves”, Edinburgh Univ. Press, (1961), p. 110-120;
this reference also has a delightful historical account (including Newton’s famous
goof).
 62

Part III
Light
L-1: Diffraction and Interference
OBJECTIVES:
To observe diffraction and interference and to measure the wavelength, λ, of laser
light.

APPARATUS:
Optical bench; Diode laser assembly; two Pasco accessory disks; short focal length
lens; screen; Pasco Interface with light and rotation sensors, mounting bracket, light
aperture module
Interference demonstrations: optical flats (2), Newton’s rings, 18 mm gauge blocks
(2), interferometer & Na lamp.

INTRODUCTION:
The diode laser provides plane light waves of wavelength 650 (±10) nm. The waves
in a perpendicular cross section of the beam are in phase (i.e. the light is said to
be “coherent”). Any finite plane wave will spread by diffraction. The spreading is
rapid if the beam is narrow, e.g. after passing the narrow slit in Part I below. If we
illuminate two closely spaced narrow slits (narrow relative to the slit to slit spacing)
by the same laser beam, the two spreading beams will overlap and interfere: Part
II.

CAUTION:
The laser is a very bright source. Do not allow the laser beam to enter the eye
and do not point the beam at anyone!

Experiment I: Single Slit Diffraction:

destructive interference m=2

slit width a m=1

y
θ
LASER
all in phase
m=−1
θ
a D ( > 1 meter) m=−2

mλ
Diffraction minima at θ = m λ/a

Figure 1: Schematic of single slit diffraction

 L-1: DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE 63

THEORY:
The angular separation in radians of the first minimum from the center of the pattern
is
θ = λ/a
where a is the width of the slit. (For your derivation you may refer to the text and
remember that for small θ, sin θ ∼ = θ).

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the laser and variable width slit on the optical bench as shown in Fig. 1.
The laser light should fully illuminate the wheel pattern. Observe the pattern on
the supplied white screen and qualitatively explain why in your lab book that the
first minimum occurs as shown in Fig. 1 at m = 1.

QUESTIONS:
Q1. Qualitatively, how does the pattern vary as the slit width narrows (i.e., rotate
the wheel)?
Q2. Qualitatively, how do you expect the pattern vary if the wavelength, λ, could
decrease from red to blue-violet?
Click on the Single Slit Diffraction link immediately below (web-version only)
to test your prediction.

2. To enable more quantitative observations the PASCO interface module has been
configured to provide an Intensity (0 to 100%) vs. Linear position of the light sensor
plot and table. Launch the experiment by CLICKing on the telescope icon below
(web-version only). After the PASCO experiment window pops up, start the data
acquisition by CLICKing on the START icon. Move the combined light and rotary
motion sensor in the lateral direction gently and smoothly by hand. Practice starting
on one side of the diffraction pattern and move smoothly towards the other.

3. There are two aspects for configuring the light sensor: aperture size and detector
gain. Using a larger aperture lets more light reach the detector. A larger gain
increases the sensor output but can more easily saturate the output at maximum
and increase the noise. To set the gain: 1) CLICK on the SETUP icon 2) DCLICK
on the yellow light bulb icon (or Light Sensor) 3) In the Sensor Properties window
click on the “Calibration” tab and 4) CLICK on Sensitivity pull-down menu. Ask
your instructor for a brief demonstration if you are at all uncertain. Adjust and
record the gain setting which give you reasonably good results.

4. Turn the PASCO wheel to a single slit width of a=0.08 mm.

5. Let y be defined as the linear distance between the detector position and the location
of the central maximum. Using the cross-hair feature of the PASCO graph display,
measure θ = y/D for m= 1 and -1. Plot m vs θ. From the slope and known value
of a, calculate λ. Is your value of λ comparable with the stated value of the diode
laser?
 L-1: DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE 64

Experiment II: Two-Slit Interference

For double slit interference, shown in Fig. 2, the distance y to the nth bright fringe
from the midpoint, y = 0, is

y = D tan θ ∼
= Dθ and θ∼
= nλ/d

Hence
λ = yd/nD,
(For more information refer to the text and recall that for small θ, θ ∼
= sin θ ∼
= tan θ.)

in phase m=1
y
θ n=2
n=1
LASER n=0
n=−1
n=−2

in phase
a θ m=−1
d d
D ( > 1 meter)
a
mλ
(a << d) Interference maxima at θ= n λ/d

Figure 2: Schematic of double (or multiple) slit interference.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE:
1. Mount the slide containing the four electroformed slits in the slit holder (or rotate
the PASCO wheel) and illuminate one of the slit pairs with the diode laser.

2. Note the difference in pattern and spacing of the resulting interference fringes on the
screen. From Experiment I you know that individually these slit exhibit diffraction
effects. Thus you will observe both (i.e., a combination of single and double slit
diffraction) interference effects in all patterns. Observe the interference pattern for
four slit pairs.

3. Choose one pattern for careful measurement and measure the separations between
a number of adjacent maxima (n= -1, 0, 1, etc.) and calculate λ using the same
general procedure as experiment I.

4. Compare you calculated result with the stated value.

 L-1: DIFFRACTION AND INTERFERENCE 65

Experiment III (optional): Fresnel Bright Spot and Other Interference Pat-
terns

Diffraction from a small circular object The Fresnel bright spot (also called
Poisson’s bright spot) is a bright spot in the center of the shadow cast by every
circular obstacle in the path of a plane wave. The effect is implicit in Fresnel’s
representation of a coherent plane wave by half-period zones (e.g. see Shortley and
Williams, “Elements of Physics” 5th ed. p. 737 or, if this is the web-version, see this
example at
http://www.physics.ucla.edu/∼dauger/fresnel/PoissonAragoStory.html ), but was
first pointed out by Poisson (a disbeliever in the wave theory) in an attempt to
ridicule Fresnel’s wave theory. Arago subsequently showed experimentally that the
spot existed.
Diffraction from a small circular opening: By analogy with the Fresnel bright
spot in a circular shadow, you might expect a dark spot centered in the image of
a circular opening. In this case the situation is more complex: the on-axis Fresnel
bright spot in the shadow results from superposition of a large number of higher
Fresnel half-period zones whereas the light from a small circular aperture comes
only from a few low Fresnel half-period zones whose superposition on axis may
result in either a dark or bright spot: Dark for an even number of zones, bright for
an odd.
Test this using the 2 circular apertures on the PASCO Slit Accessory wheel. Illumi-
nate the hole with the diverged laser beam in the same manner as described above.
By varying the hole size and/or distance from hole to screen you may change the
small number of half-period zones contributing and hence see the central point on
axis as either a bright or a dark spot, e.g. see Fig. 13, Shortley and Williams, p. 740.
Again careful alignment is important to obtain a clean symmetric image.
If time permits you may find it interesting to view the four addition two-dimensional
diffraction patterns.

DEMONSTRATIONS ON THE DISPLAY TABLE:

A. Interference between optical flats, gauge blocks, etc.
B. Newton’s rings
C. Michelson’s interferometer
 LC-2: MIRRORS AND LENSES 66

LC-2: Mirrors and Lenses

OBJECTIVES:
To study image formation and focal lengths of mirrors and lenses.
APPARATUS:
PASCO Optical Rail; Lenses & mirrors, telescope, illuminated arrow light source &
12V power supply, sharply pointed rod, desk lamp, white screen.
INTRODUCTION:
We will design, test and then measure mirror and lens assemblies by several tech-
niques. In all instances it will be possible to use a simple interactive Java applet
to perform a virtual pre-lab exercise. For the physical set-ups it will require testing
location of image by absence of parallax, and others require focusing a telescope for
parallel rays. For both techniques see Appendix D. Please master this material: your
instructor is available for help.
Experiment I. Radius of curvature and focal length of a concave mirror:
VIRTUAL PRE-LAB:
1. If using the web-lab manual launch the virtual application by clicking on the Concave
Mirror Application button below.
2. After clicking on “Start Me” you should observe a concave mirror, an object and its
image. On the lower left corner is a cursor position readout.
3. With respect to the figure below and the mirror equation, find the focal length.
4. Adjust the object to get p = q, and obtain the focal length again.
5. Move the object so that p = f . Do you see an image?
6. Move the object so that p < f . Is there an image? Is it real or virtual? Is the image
height smaller or larger than the object?
The Mirror Equation is given by:
1 1 2 1 q
+ = = screen
p q R f
p
where f is the focal length and illuminated
arrow
R is the mirror radius curvature. Mirror

Note that when the object and

image are equally distant from
the mirror, p = q = R. You Figure 1: Layout of concave lens
can use this condition to get an experiment.
approximate value for R and f .

NOTE: The mirror holder contains a concave and a convex mirror

on opposite sides. Be sure you use the concave mirror!

NOTE: You will need to place the white screen off to the side of the
track and slightly twist the mirror mount to image the arrow.

SUGGESTED PROCEDURE
I. By using object and image distances:
 LC-2: MIRRORS AND LENSES 67

1. Resolve the image of the illuminated arrow formed by the concave mirror on
the white screen. Experiment with varying object distances, p, until you able
to follow how the image distance, q, varies with the object distance. You will
need to slightly twist the mirror mount to make the image appear on either
side of the light source.
2. Measure the image distance at several different positions of the illuminated
arrow object. From each pair of conjugate object and image positions calculate
f for the mirror. Make a table of the results in your lab book, but leave space
to compare with the results of II. and III. below.
II. Obtaining f = R/2 by imaging at
center of curvature (q = p = R): Re-
place the illuminated arrow and screen
Mirror
with the rod and place the rod at R. If Image
the tip of the rod is at the center of cur-
vature, a real inverted image will appear
just above it with the tip and its image eye
coinciding. An absence of parallax (see illuminate Object (quite far back)
Appendix D.)) between the tip and im- side facing mirror

age is the most sensitive test for coinci-

R
dence. When the parallax vanishes, the
distance between the tip and the mir-
Figure 2: Object and image at center of
ror is the radius of curvature R. From
curvature, R.
several determinations of R, (switching
roles with your lab partners estimate the
reliability of your results.)
III. By placing object at the principal
focus (p = f ): If the tip of the rod is
at f , rays from the tip will reflect from
the mirror as a parallel bundle and give Mirror telescope focussed for
parallel rays
a sharp image of the tip in a telescope
focused for parallel rays (see appendix
D). Keep the distance between tip and
telescope small or the reflected light may
illuminate
miss the telescope. The best test for lo- side facing mirror
cating the focal point is absence of paral- Object
lax between the tip’s image and the cross f keep small
hairs in the telescope, but the telescope
must already be focused for parallel rays Figure 3: Object at f , image at infinity.
(e.g., focus on something out the win-
dow). From several settings estimate the
reliability of your f measurement.
Experiment II: LENSES
VIRTUAL PRE-LAB:
1. If using the web-lab manual launch the virtual application by clicking on the Con-
verging Lens Application button below.
 LC-2: MIRRORS AND LENSES 68

2. After clicking on “Start Me” you should observe a convex lens, an object and its
image. On the lower left corner is a cursor position readout.
3. With respect to the figure below and the lens equation. Find the focal length.
4. Move the object so that its inverted image has the same height. Find the focal
length at this point.
5. Move the object so that p = f . Do you see an image?
6. Move the object so that p < f . Is there an image? Is it real or virtual? Is the image
height smaller or larger than the object? What is the sign of q?

1. Converging lens with short focal length:

From the thin lens formula
1 1 1 1 1
+ = + =
object distance image distance p q f
Measure f using the two methods diagrammed below (by adjustments in the object
distance). Compare the results from the various methods.
I. p q

lens

Object illuminated
arrow screen

Note: p+q > 4f

II.
lens

Object
telescope focussed for
illuminate
side facing telescope parallel rays

p=f keep small

2. Focal length of a diverging lens:

Since the image is always virtual it is necessary to combine it with a converging lens
and configured so that the final image is real.

VIRTUAL PRE-LAB:
1. If using the web-lab manual launch the virtual application by clicking on the Di-
verging Lens Application button below.
2. After clicking on “Start Me” you should observe a concave lens, an object and its
virtual image. On the lower left corner is a cursor position readout.
3. With respect to lens equation and starting positions, find the focal length. Can you
find an object distance for which the image height and object height are the same?
LC-2: MIRRORS AND LENSES 69

4. Now restart the simulation with a combination of a convex and concave lens by
clicking on the “Add 2nd lens” link.
5. This 2nd lens will render a final image which is real. The image with a “1” by it is
that of just the convex lens while the image with a “2” next to it is that of the pair.
Move the object and alter its height, if necessary, so that the first image has the
relationship q1 ≈ 2p2 . (In this simulation |f2 | = 3|f1 | and qualitatively resembles
the figure shown below.)
6. Now repeat the last step with |f2 | = |f1 | by clicking on the “Another 2nd lens” link.
Finally reset to the “Another 2nd lens” and then click on the convex lens and drag
it past the diverging lens.

I. Use the set-up sketched below. First adjust Lens1 so that with Lens2 removed,
q1 ∼ 2p1 . Measure q1 , insert the diverging Lens2 reasonably close to Lens1 and
then locate the new image distance q2 . From p2 = d − q1 (a virtual object) and q2
calculate f2 .

p1 q1
Lens 1 Lens 2
Image 1 Image 2
&
Object 2

Object 1 illuminated
arrow
screen

d p2
q2

II. OPTIONAL: Find f2 by this more sensitive method: With the pointed rod as object
now detect the image by a telescope focused for parallel rays. (As shown in the
following figure.)
If using the web-lab manual, launch the virtual application by clicking on the Dual
Lens Test Application button below to obverse a point source in action.
To align all the objects: tape a piece of paper with a lot of markings on it to the
pointed rod. Look through the telescope and move the diverging lens forward and
backward until you can see some markings clearly in the telescope. Then move the
rod up or down, as necessary, and rotate the telescope from side to side, as necessary,
until you can see the tip of the pointed rod. Then move the diverging lens a small
amount until the tip is in focus.
As a last step you will move the pointed rod (i.e. vary p1 and hence q1 ) until a
sharp image appears in the telescope with no parallax relative to the cross hairs.
(This occurs only if parallel rays leave the diverging lens.) The image from the
converging lens at q1 serves as a virtual object for the concave lens, Lens2 . After
properly adjusting p1 this virtual object will be at the focal point of the diverging
lens, Lens2 . Obtain q1 by setting p1 and using the known value of f1 . (Make sure
 LC-2: MIRRORS AND LENSES 70

that q1 is large enough to accommodate d + |f2 |). Now look for the image in the
telescope and adjust p1 . Note that since q2 = ∞, f2 = p2 and p2 = d − q1 .

p1 q1
Lens1
Lens2
Object1

telescope
illuminate focussed for
side facing parallel rays
telescope

d p 2=f 2
q2 to

OPTIONAL
Experiment III: Focal Length of a Convex Mirror
Once again, since convex mirrors give virtually images it is necessary to study the
mirror in combination with a converging lens.
Measure the focal length of the convex mirror by combining it with a converging
lens. Set the pointed rod at twice the focal length of the lens (p1 = 2f1 ). Next
adjust the mirror position until the inverted image position shows no parallax with
the object. Then R = d − 2f1 and

fmirror = f2 = R/2.

Of course the lens must have f1 > f2 , so use a long focal length lens.

mirror
Image
lens

eye
(quite far back)
illuminate
from this side Object

R= 2f2 d p1 = 2f1
q1= 2f1
 L-3: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 71

L-3: Optical Instruments

OBJECTIVE:
To construct a number of optical instruments and measure magnification.
APPARATUS:
Identical to the of L-2 plus white board, achromatic doublets, Ramsden eyepiece.
SUGGESTION: In constructing an optical instrument catch the real image formed
by the first lens on paper. This location can tell where the next lens goes;
e.g. for a telescope or microscope place the next lens slightly less than its focal
length beyond the first image.
EXPERIMENTS:
1. Inverting Telescope
A. First measure the f of a weak converging lens (25 ≤ f ≤ 50 cm) and of a
strong converging lens (f ∼ 5 cm). The first lens (f large) typically has the
virtue of intercepting and focusing a fairly large area of light while the second
lens can be positioned to give a large virtual image (and hence magnification.)
Notice that if the first image, q1 is at a point p2 > f2 with respect to the second
lens you get a real, erect second image. If you are using the web-based lab
manual and desire a demonstration, click on the Inverting Telescope Demo
button immediately below.
Use you will use these two lenses to construct an astronomical (inverting) tele-
scope. As an object, use the white board and scale while illuminated by a
bright light. As a procedure for measuring the magnification, vary the space
between the objective L1 and the eyepiece L2 until the virtual image I2 of scale
S seen through L2 lies in the plane of S (i.e. p1 + d = |q2 |). As a sensitive test
of this there should be no parallax between the scale as seen directly by your
eye 2 and the scale image seen by eye 1 thru the telescope as shown in Fig. 2.
Generally a person will adjust the eyepiece so that the virtual image appears
at the distance of most distinct vision (∼25 cm).
p1 q1 p2
Scale
d
Object L1 f1 f2 L2

I1 eye
I2 (virtual)
(real)
Eyepiece
Objective lens (not to scale) lens

Figure 1: The inverting telescope (not drawn to scale).

Scale L1 L2

eye 1

eye 2
Figure 2: View scale with one eye, then the other.
L-3: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 72

B. Adjust the telescope direction until these images

superimpose (as in Fig. 3). The number of divisions
4 Real
on the scale as viewed directly (by eye 2) which fall 1
2 scale
in one division of the image as seen through the 3 object
3 4
telescope (by eye 1) is clearly the magnifying power 5
6
of the telescope. 2 7
8
Compare your measured magnification M with that Virtual
scale
calculated for an astronomical telescope, namely image
M = f1 /f2 where f1 is the focal length of the ob-
jective and f2 that of the eye piece. Why are the Figure 3:
two different? Calculate the magnification from the
actual measured object and image distances. Com-
pare with the measured M .
2. Erecting telescope
I3 L3
(virtual) L2
L1

I2
I1 (real) eye
(real)

Figure 4: Configuration of a three lens erecting telescope.

A. Measure the focal length, f , of a second strong converging lens and use it as the
inverting lens L3 (Fig. 4) to form an erecting telescope. L2 must be adjusted
to give a real image, I2 . Notice that varying the space between I1 and the
inverting lens L3 changes the magnification. If you are using the web-based
lab manual and desire a demonstration, click on the Erecting Telescope Demo
button immediately below. In this simulation your are now able to readjust
both the positions and focal lengths!
B. What position of the inverting lens makes the shortest possible telescope, (i.e. it
makes the distance between I1 and I2 a minimum)?
3. Simple microscope or magnifier: Experiment with one of the strong converging lenses
as a magnifier until you can make the virtual image appear at any distance you
choose: vary the object distance from zero to the focal length. The parallax test
described in Part 1 will enable you to locate the virtual image. When the parallax
between the object and the virtual image (seen through the lens) vanishes, the object
and virtual image are in the same plane.
4. Compound microscope: Use
the two strong converging L1 L2
lenses to form a compound I1 (real)
microscope.
eye

I 2 (virtual)

Figure 5: Setup for compound microscope.

 L-3: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 73

5. Galilean telescope (or opera glass): Make use of the weak converging lens and a
strong diverging lens.
OPTIONAL:
1. Ramsden eyepiece
A. Ask the instructor for the holder containing a Ramsden eyepiece, a crosshair,
a diaphragm, and an objective lens. See Fig. 6.
S
1
0 f
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1 2 0
1
0
1

d I

f
2/3f

Figure 6: Construction of a Ramsden eyepiece.

The Ramsden eyepiece consists of lenses 1 and 2, plano-convex lenses of f =
85 mm. Spherical aberration is less than for a single lens because the ray
bending is spread over four surfaces. It is a minimum if the curved surfaces
face one another as shown. (In addition if the two lenses were their focal length
apart, chromatic aberration would be a minimum. But, since dirt specks on
lens 1 then would be in focus, lenses 1 and 2 are usually set 2f /3 apart). The
tube also contains an objective lens to convert the tube into a telescope or
microscope.
B. Use the Ramsden eyepiece with d = 2f /3 in the telescope and microscope.
Note improvement in image over that of a single eyepiece lens. Adjust eyepiece
for a sharp image of the cross hairs. Then move the objective lens until the
image shows no parallax with respect to the cross hairs.

2. Huygens eyepiece: A common eyepiece in which the image (and hence cross hair)
is within the eyepiece. It also employs two plano-convex lenses but both convex
surfaces are toward the incident light. Minimum lateral chromatic aberration exists
for a separation of (f1 + f2 )/2. Usually f1 ∼ 3f2 .
00S
11
00
11
00
11
00
11 f2
00
11
00
11
I1
00
11

I2
f2

f1 (f1 + f 2 ) / 2
Figure 7: Construction of a Huygens eyepiece.
L-3: OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 74

3. Eye ring.

A. Point the astronomical telescope at a lamp and explore with a screen the il-
lumination back of the eyepiece. [Or remove diaphragm from telescope or
microscope of optional (1)].
O I

ER
Figure 8: Position of eye ring.

The light coming through the telescope has a minimum cross section at ER.
This area ER is the image of the objective formed by the eyepiece. Obviously
all light which gets through the telescope must go through this image, and thus
ER is the best spot to place the pupil of the eye. Hence the name “eye ring”.
Note that if one places a diaphragm with aperture appropriately larger than
the eye ring a little ahead of the eye ring, then an observer looking through the
aperture would position the pupil of her/his eye on the eye ring.
B. Using the Ramsden eyepiece, place the diaphragm at the appropriate distance
in front of the eye ring. Note the improvement in the ease of observing through
it, especially for the compound microscope.

4. OPTIONAL telescope: Use an achromatic objective lens, of long focal length and a
commercial Ramsden eyepiece (from instructor). Note the quality of the image.

5. OPTIONAL microscope: Use a short focal length achromatic objective and a com-
mercial Ramsden eyepiece (from instructor). Note the quality of the image.
It is interesting that one does not need an achromatic eyepiece because the virtual
images for red and blue, though at different distances (e.g., red at 2 m, blue at
∼ ∞), subtend almost the same angle at eye. As a result the eye doesn’t notice the
aberration.
 L-4: THE OPTICS OF THE EYE AND RESOLVING POWER 75

L-4: The optics of the eye and resolving power

OBJECTIVES:
To study eye optics and how resolving power depends on aperture.

APPARATUS:
PART I: Eye model, (fill with distilled water to simulate the aqueous & vitreous
humors); light source, lens set, 6“ plastic ruler.
PART II: (2) Optical benches, Na lamps, transparent mm slides, vernier calipers,
L-2 telescopes; (1) 15 meter tape.

iris
ciliary muscle
S1 and
G1 cornea suspensory
ligaments
fovea optic
C L Rh R Rm lens nerve
pupil retina

S2 G2 vitreous
aqueous humor
humor

Figure 1: Various schematics for the eye

You may fix the moveable retina (cylindrical) in one of three positions:
R for the normal eye,
Rh for the hypermetropic (farsighted) eye,
Rm for the myopic (nearsighted) eye.

(An eye retina is actually spherical, but for small images the results are similar.)

The eye model has a fixed cornea C and racks for other lenses.

A lamp box serves as source for most of the experiment.

Set of lenses: (Strength in diopters = 1/f where f is in meters.)

Diopters Focal lengths in air

1. Converging spherical + 7. 0.14 m
2. Converging spherical +20. 0.05 m
3. Converging spherical + 2.00 0.50 m
4. Diverging spherical - 1.75 -0.57 m
5. Diverging cylindrical - 5.50 -0.182 m
6. Converging cylindrical + 1.75 0.57 m
7. Diaphragm with small hole . .
L-4: THE OPTICS OF THE EYE AND RESOLVING POWER 76

PART I - EXPERIMENTS WITH THE EYE MODEL

1. ACCOMMODATION: With the retina in the normal position, point the eye model
at a window or other bright object 4 to 5 meters away. Insert the +7 diopter lens
in the water at the inside mount farthest from the cornea. An image of the bright
object should be in focus on the retina.
Next use as object the lamp box and place it about 30 cm from the cornea. The
image is blurred until one replaces the +7 diopter lens by the +20 diopter lens. This
change illustrates accommodation. Eye muscles make the lens thicker for close vision.
(Under relaxed conditions the ligaments supporting the lens are in radial tension and
hence thin the lens. The ciliary muscle contracts against these ligaments allowing
the lens to thicken for viewing near objects. See Fig. 1.)
2. NEAR and FARSIGHTEDNESS (MYOPIA and HYPERMETROPIA): With lamp
box at 30 cm and the 20 diopter lens at L, place the retina in the position Rm .
Decide which lens placed in slot S1 or S2 will bring the image into focus. Try it.
Make the eye farsighted by moving the retina to Rh , and pick the proper lens to
place in front of the eye to bring the image into focus.
Focus again on a window 4 to 5 meters away when the +7 diopter lens is in the
normal position L and the retina in position R.
Make the eye nearsighted by moving the retina to Rm . Decide which lens will bring
the image into focus. Try it.
Remove the correcting lens; the image again blurs. At S2 place the diaphragm with
hole and note image improvement. With sufficient light try a smaller hole (e.g. a hole
thru masking tape on the diaphragm). Explain the effect of the reduced aperture.
3. ASTIGMATISM: With the +20 diopter lens at L in the eye and the retina in the
normal position, adjust the distance to the lamp box to get a sharp image on the
retina. Then produce astigmatism by placing the strong diverging cylindrical lens
in mount G1 . (In the human eye astigmatism generally results from a cornea with
different curvatures in the horizontal and vertical directions.) Turn this lens and
note the effect on the image.
s
Correct this defect by placing axi
the converging cylindrical lens in
front of the cornea and turning
it to the position for which the
image becomes sharp. Note the
directions of the axes of the two
cylindrical lenses. (They are not
necessarily aligned with the tab.) Figure 2: Cylindrical lens.
4. COMPOUND DEFECTS: Combine tests 2 and 3, i.e. make a nearsighted astigmatic
eye. Correct by using both a cylindrical and spherical lens in front of the cornea.
How is this double correction managed in actual spectacles?
5. CATARACTS and LENS REMOVAL: A cataract results from a cloudy lens. A
cataract operation involves removal of the lens. An implanted plastic lens or a
strong convergent lens in front of the eye restores vision. Remove the eye lens (L)
of the model and place the +7 diopter lens in front of the cornea. A clear image
reappears for nearby objects.
 L-4: THE OPTICS OF THE EYE AND RESOLVING POWER 77

6. Action of a SIMPLE MAGNIFIER: With the lamp box at 35 cm, the +20 diopter
lens and the retina in the normal position, measure the size of the image. Now place
the +7 diopter lens in front of the cornea and move the lamp box toward the eye
until the image becomes clear. Record the increased size of the image. With the
lamp box at 35 cm, the 20 diopter lens and the retina in the normal position, note
the size of the image. Now make the eye nearsighted and bring the lamp box toward
the eye until the image becomes clear. Note the increased size of the image in the
nearsighted eye.
NOTE: For a real eye and lens the index of refraction, µ, of the lens varies from 1.42 at
its nucleus to 1.36 at its edges, and these values are not so different from those of the
adjoining aqueous and vitreous humor (µ = 1.330 and µ = 1.337). Hence the real eye lens
is very weak and is primarily for fine focus adjustment. Most of the refraction in the eye
actually occurs at the cornea where µ changes from 1.0 (in air) to 1.37 in the cornea.
PART II - RESOLVING POWER
Before doing this part, read in your text about resolving power.
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS:
1. Use as a source a slide with mm divisions and illuminated by a sodium discharge
lamp. The wavelength of the sodium yellow light is 589.3 nm.
2. Back away from the slide until the mm lines become indistinct. Then advance far
enough so that they are just clearly visible; this procedure insures that eye defects
or the density of rods and cones do not (for this measurement) limit the resolving
power.
Observing now with only one eye, place a vernier caliper2 in front of the eye pupil
with the caliper jaws parallel to the mm marks and open about 3 mm. Slowly close
the jaws until the mm marks disappear. Note the separation of the jaws, w, and
measure the distance, D, to the slide from the jaws.
Compare your measurements of the angular separation α of the mm marks at your
observing distance,
1 mm
α= ,
D (in mm)
with the expression θ = λ/w where θ is the angular limit of resolution, (Rayleigh’s
criterion).
3. Mount a telescope so its objective is at the same distance from the slide. Repeat the
experiment with the caliper in front of the objective.3 How do the results compare
to your measurement without the telescope?
4. Move the telescope ≥ 4 m from the slide and repeat the experiment.
5. Turn the vernier jaws perpendicular to the mm lines and repeat experiment #1.
Comment on the result.
QUESTIONS:
1. Would an eye without any defects of vision have better resolving power at dusk or
in bright sunlight? Explain.
2. Discuss how a contact lens functions. Would a “soft” contact lens correct well for
astigmatism?
2
In all the following be sure you are not looking through the hole at one end of the jaws. It is advisable
to cover the hole with masking tape.
3
Be sure no light enters the telescope except through the slit jaws. (You may need masking tape on
the caliper jaws to prevent this from happening.)
 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 78

L-5: Spectrometer and the H Balmer Series

NOTE: Consult your instructor for assignment of parts suitable for a single lab, e.g. do
Part I, II (A or B), Part IV or Part V).
OBJECTIVES:
To become familiar with a precision spectrometer and some of its uses.

APPARATUS:
Precision spectrometer; mercury and hydrogen discharge tubes; prism; diffraction
grating; light source for Gaussian eyepiece & its 12V power supply (L-2); ring stand
& achromatic lens.

M) prism table
E) Telescope I, J) angle scale levelling
& vernier A) grating screws C) Collimator

F) focus ring B) adjustable slit

(twist)
K) prism table clamp
I, J) angle scale
G,H) telescope { clamp
fine adjust
& vernier

L) prism table { clamp

fine adjust

Figure 1: The spectrometer (side view).

INTRODUCTION and ADJUSTMENTS

PART I - A
1. Become familiar with the clamping and fine adjustment controls for telescope and
prism table angles. Never force a motion - you may damage the instrument.
If at the end of a fine adjustment, loosen and reclamp! The prism table
clamp sets table elevation: no fine adjustment is necessary.
2. Note that 180◦ apart are two angle scale reading ports and verniers, I
and J. The verniers have 30 divisions per half degree. Hence each division is
(1/30)×(1/2) = (1/60)◦ or one minute (0 ) of arc.
3. The knurled ring about the collimator, B, controls the slit opening.
4. Staff have already focussed the collimator for parallel light and have set collimator
and telescope ⊥ to spectrometer’s rotation axis.
 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 79

REMINDER ON READING A VERNIER

1) Position and tighten the telescope.
0 10 20 30
2) Move the magnifying glass to see the scale marking
3) Look where the zero mark on the upper scale is lo-
cated. The degree reading is the first full degree mark
to the left of the zero (210◦ in the top figure; 229◦ in
the bottom figure). 210 220
4) Now make the minute reading: if the zero mark on
the upper scale comes after a 12 degree mark (the 210˚ 15'
short lines on the lower scale) then start at 300 , oth-
erwise at 00 . 0 10 20 30
5) Next look for the two lines which match up best be-
tween the two scales. Read the number of the appro-
priate line on the upper scale and add it to the zero
mark is just past a 21 degree mark so we begin with
300 . The 150 mark is the one that lines up best so we 230 240
get 210◦ 150 for the top reading and 229◦ 1460 for the
bottom one. 229˚ 46'
6) Now convert to decimal degrees, in this case 15/60 =
0.25, so θ = 210.25◦ . Figure 2: The verniers

PART I - B: FOCUS THE TELESCOPE FOR PARALLEL RAYS

1. i) Slide telescope eyepiece in or out until crosshairs are in sharp
ii) Sight telescope at a distant object (thru an open window); then focus telescope
by rotating its focus ring (Fig. 1) until the object’s clear image falls on the cross
hairs. The test for proper focus is absence of parallax between the image and
cross hairs (appendix 4). The telescope, now focused for parallel rays, will stay
so as long as the focus ring is unmoved; but one may still adjust the eyepiece
to suit the observer.
2. An alternative method to focus for parallel light is to use the Gaussian eyepiece +
light source as described below in PART II B.
3. With collimator and telescope both properly focused one should get a sharp image of
the slit and no parallax between slit image and cross hairs. If you still get parallax,
recheck your telescope focus and/or consult instructor.
4. Optimizing light thru the collimator: A properly located short focal length lens can
gather a large fraction of the light from a source and redirect it

thru the collimator thereby facilitating detection of weak spectral lines. For strong
lines it permits narrowing the slit width and thus improving resolution. Use such
a lens (mounted on a ring stand) to find an arrangement which fills the collimator
with light.
 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 80

a) Prism is in proper location b) Prism is not

located well reflected beam
Collimating lens is not centered
on telescope

reflected beam is
centered on telescope B1
A B2

B1 D B2

1st position of telescope 2nd position of telescope

Figure 3: Proper, a), and improper, b) prism locations.

PART II-A: MEASUREMENT OF PRISM ANGLE
1. Mount the prism (in holder) on the dowel pins (in the prism table) so that the prism
is far enough from the collimator that beams B1 and B2 are centered with respect to
the spectrometer axis; otherwise much of the reflected light may miss the telescope.
Turn the table so that the apex angle A (Fig. 3) splits the beam into nearly equal
parts.
2. Using the prism table levelling screws adjust the plane of the prism table so it is
close to horizontal.
3. With the prism table clamped at the proper elevation, set the telescope to receive
beam B1 and form an image of the slit on the intersection of the telescope cross
hairs. Record both VERNIER readings (in minutes). Average the two vernier
readings (to eliminate any systematic error from misalignment of the circle scale with
respect to bearing axis), and add the result to one of the angle scale readings. Note
that the angle scale reads in half-degree units and the vernier in minutes (not in
decimal degrees!). The zero position on the vernier determines the angle to the
nearest half-degree (30 minutes) and the vernier reads the number of minutes past
the half-degree mark.
4. Then with telescope in the 2nd position, set on the slit image. The change in reading
of the same angle scale should be the angle D. (See Fig. 3.) Be sure you don’t get the
angle scales mixed up and subtract the first reading of angle scale 1 from a reading
of angle scale 2. Also some students incorrectly handle the subtraction when the
scale passes through 360◦ or 0◦ .
5. OPTIONAL: Try to prove that angle D is twice the prism angle A.
PART II-B: ALTERNATE method for prism angle measurement using Gaussian eyepiece

A
Gaussian eyepiece cross hairs objective lens

Lamp
reflecting surface B

Figure 4: Spectrometer telescope

 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 81

Introduction: The Gaussian eyepiece (Fig. 4) has a partially reflecting glass plate G
set at 45◦ to telescope axis so that light from the lamp reflects down the telescope
tube, past the cross hairs and out the objective. If in front of the objective you place
a reflecting surface perpendicular (⊥) to the telescope axis, the light will reflect back
into the objective and form a real image of the cross hairs. If the cross hairs are in
the focal plane of the objective, their reflected image will form in the same plane.
Thus both the cross hairs and the image will be in focus through the eyepiece. When
one orients the reflecting surface so that the image coincides with the cross hairs,
the reflector is accurately ⊥ to telescope axis.

Thus the Gaussian eyepiece permits both focusing the telescope for parallel rays and
setting a reflecting surface ⊥ to the telescope axis.
1. To focus the telescope for parallel light:
a) Rotate the Gaussian eyepiece to open the hole between reflecting plate G and
lamp. Adjust eyepiece to give a sharp image of the cross hairs, but don’t turn
the eyepiece to block the light hole. Next, with prism on the table, adjust
the prism table screws to make the table nearly horizontal.
b) Now rotate the prism table until the prism face is approximately ⊥ to telescope
axis. Clamp the telescope and mount a light on the Gaussian eyepiece. (Check
that the light hole is still open). With no illumination on the prism except
that from the telescope, next rotate the prism table back and forth a few
degrees until maximum reflected light appears in the eyepiece. Clamp the
table in this position, and then focus the telescope (by turning the focus ring)
until the reflected image of the cross hairs appears and shows no parallax with
respect to the cross hairs. The telescope is now focused for parallel rays. Fine
adjustments of the prism table leveling screws may help the images coincide
and thus set telescope axis accurately ⊥ to the reflecting surface. See Part VI,
Sec. 3.
2. To find the prism angle set the telescope ⊥ to first one prism face and then the
other. The angle between these two positions is the supplement of the prism angle.
See Part IIA for detail about angle readings.

PART III: INDEX OF REFRACTION

Introduction: When the path thru a prism is symmetric, the deviation is a minimum.
At this angle of minimum deviation the index of refraction, n, is

sin [(A + d)/δ]

n=
sin (A/2) δ
where A = angle of prism
δ = angle of minimum deviation A
n = refractive index of the prism.
Devise your own methodology and determine the prism’s refractive index for one or
more lines of the Hg spectrum.
 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 82

PART IV: CALIBRATION OF PRISM SPECTROSCOPE

A P
source slit B C
D
R for red
R V for violet
S collimating lenses
V E

1. Set the prism for minimum deviation for a green line in the Hg spectrum.
2. Determine the angle readings for the yellow, green, blue-violet, and deep-violet Hg
lines. Repeat this for the red line from a hydrogen discharge.
3. Plot telescope angle vs accepted λ’s for these lines.
4. For the same setting of the prism table, find the angles for the blue-green and two
violet lines of the hydrogen spectrum.
5. Use your calibration curve to determine λ of the blue-green and violet lines in the
atomic hydrogen spectrum. Compare results to accepted values.

OPTIONAL: The calibration curve is very non-linear. Since a more linear plot facilitates
interpolation of an unknown λ, try plotting deviation vs 1/λ2 .

TABLE OF WAVELENGTHS:

Mercury lines Hydrogen lines

λ (in nm) (l/λ2 ) λ (in nm) (1/λ2 )
Yellow1 579.0e (unresolved) ×106 (nm)−2 ×106 (nm)−2
Yellow2 577.0c Avg. = 578 2.993 Red 656.3 2.322
Green 546.1 3.353 Blue-green 486.1 4.232
Blue 496.0∗ 4.065
49l.6∗ 4.138 Violet 434.0 5.309
Blue 435.8 5.265
-violet 434.7∗ Deep Violet 410.2 5.943
Deep- 433.9∗
violet 407.8∗ 6.013 NOTE: ∗ implies
404.7∗ 6.106 usually faint
 L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 83

PART V: DIFFRACTION GRATING

CAUTION: Do not touch grating surface under any circumstance!

1. Grating constant (number of lines per cm): The lines/cm marked on these replica
gratings is only approximate because the plastic often changes dimensions when it
is stripped from the master grating. To achieve quantitative results calibration of
the grating constant is desirable and can be performed using the known λ, 546.1
nm, of the Hg green line.

CALIBRATION PROCEDURE:

a) Align telescope with collimator so the slit image falls exactly on the vertical
cross hair.
b) Mount grating on the dowel pins in the prism table. Adjust and clamp the
table so the grating is approximately ⊥ to telescope-collimator axis.
c) Then adjust the table so that the front grating face is accurately ⊥ to tele-
scope. Use the Gaussian eyepiece (see Part II - B) for the final adjustment: the
reflected image of the cross hairs should fall on the cross hairs. (Two reflected
images can result if the sides of the grating glass are not parallel. If so, test
which image comes from the grating side by wetting the other side.) Clamp
prism table in this position and record telescope direction.
d) Next set telescope on the first and second orders of the Hg green line. Use
both ± angles. The ± angles should of course agree. Use them and λgreen =
546.1 nm to calculate the grating spacing d from

nλ = d sin θ.

2. Measurement of the wavelengths in the Balmer series in hydrogen:

a) Use the calibrated grating spectroscope to measure λ for three or four atomic
hydrogen spectral lines.
b) Compare these λ’s to those from the Balmer formula
 
1 1 1
= R 2 − 2 where R = 10, 967, 758 m−1
λ 2 n

or calculate the frequencies of these lines and compare to

 
1 1
f = cR 2 − 2 where R = 10, 967, 758 m−1 .
2 n

c) Use Planck’s relation, ∆E = hf , to calculate the energies in eV of the photons

for each frequency and, therefore, the energy change in the hydrogen atom
associated with each frequency.
d) Assuming that each observed ∆E leaves hydrogen in the n = 2 state, show
the observed transitions on a hydrogen energy level diagram (drawn to scale;
consult textbook).
L-5: SPECTROMETER AND THE H BALMER SERIES 84

PART VI: ADJUSTMENT OF A SPECTROMETER

NOTE: Not to be performed without permission of the instructor

1. Use Gaussian eyepiece and prism face method to focus telescope for parallel rays.
If necessary adjust prism table to make reflected image of the cross hairs coincide
with the cross hairs.

2. Remove prism from the table and align telescope and collimator approximately.
Focus the collimator until there is no parallax between the image of the slit and the
cross hairs. Adjust the ring on the collimator focusing sleeve so that the collimator
is in focus with the “V” in the slot. Clamp the telescope in line with the collimator
so that the image of the slit (vertical) falls on the vertical cross hairs. Now rotate
the slit through 90◦ as permitted by the “V” projection and slot. Adjust the level
of the telescope so that the image of the slit falls on the horizontal cross hair. The
axes of telescope and collimator are now in line but not necessarily perpendicular to
the axis of rotation of the instrument.

3. Replace the prism on the prism

table and clamp it relative to the B
adjusting screws as shown. (Line A
AB ⊥ face 1. Line AC ⊥ face
2. Thus screw B will adjust face
1 without disturbing face 2, and 1 2
screw C will adjust face 2 with-
C
out disturbing face 1.
Bring the telescope to within < 90◦ of the collimator and use a face of the prism
to reflect light from the collimator down the telescope tube. Adjust the prism face
so that the center of the slit image falls on the intersection of the cross hairs. The
prism face is now parallel to the instrument axis.

4. Set the telescope ⊥ to the adjusted prism face (use Gaussian eyepiece method).
Return to part 3 setup and adjust the collimator so that the center of the slit image
falls on the cross hair’s intersection. Telescope and collimator are now properly
focused and are perp to the instrument axis.

5. To adjust the second prism face ⊥ to the axis of the telescope (again use the Gaussian
eyepiece method). Turn only the proper screw on the prism table: otherwise one
disturbs the adjustment of the first face. Recheck the first face and, if necessary,
readjust it. Continue this process until both faces are parallel to the axis of the
instrument. Turn collimator slit to vertical position. The spectrometer should now
be in adjustment.
 L-6: POLARIZATION 85

L-6: Polarization
OBJECTIVE: To study polarization and double refraction of light.
APPARATUS:
Polarization kit plus a polariscope; Brewster angle assembly (laser + mount on M-2
force table, slotted pin & black piece of plastic).
SUGGESTED EXPERIMENTS:
1. Polarization by ABSORPTION: Observe a light source (desk lamp) thru each of
two polaroids, and then thru both together. Rotate one of the two about the line of
sight. Explain what occurs.
Orient the two polaroids of the polariscope so no light is transmitted. Then introduce
a third polaroid between the first two and rotate it about the line of sight. Explain
what happens.
HINT: there will be an amplitude component E cos θ in the direction of the trans-
mission axis.
2. Polarization by REFLECTION from a dielectric: Observe
thru the small polaroid (the one with the rim index marks)
Index
the light reflected from the black plastic (see figure at right).
mark
Rotate the polaroid about the line of sight. Note position of
the index marks (i.e. the E vector direction) on polaroid when
the transmitted reflected light is a minimum.

θB

A eye
polaroid
air
θB
θi θr
glass

air B

Figure 1: Reflection and transmision of light at Brewster’s angle.

Now find an incident angle θi (and reflection angle θr ) for which this minimum is
zero. Then θi is Brewster’s angle, θB , and tan θB = n2 /n1 . Estimate θB roughly.
What is the refractive index n2 of the plastic?
Alternatively for greater accuracy use a laser plus polaroid to prepare a beam
polarized in the plane containing the incident ray and the normal to the reflect-
ing surface. The reflected beam then vanishes at Brewster’s angle. Mount laser
plus polaroid on the M-2 force table and point it toward a dielectric (plastic
or microscope slide) in the slot of the central pin. Rotate the sample until the
reflected beam (on the wall) disappears. A thread from the center pin to this
point on the wall will help locate the angles on the M-2 table.
Observe any polarization of light reflected from painted or varnished surfaces, floor
tile, clean metal (e.g. aluminum foil) etc.
 L-6: POLARIZATION 86

3. Polarization by SCATTERING: Try to detect the polarization of skylight: one

needs a blue sky! Explain (use a diagram) in what direction relative to sunlight
should one look to see this polarization best.

4. Polarization by a DOUBLY REFRACTING CRYSTAL: Uniaxial doubly refracting

crystals (e.g. calcite) are highly anisotropic and, as such, contain an axis of symmetry
(the optic axis) for which the velocity of light depends on whether the E-field vector
(polarization plane) is ⊥ to this axis (the ordinary “o” ray) or parallel to the optic
axis (the extraordinary “e” ray). In the principal plane (i.e. a plane containing the
optic axis but ⊥ to the surface) the new wave front of the ordinary ray involves the
usual spherically expanding wavelets, but to construct the front for the extraordinary
ray requires ellipsoidally expanding wavelets where the two axes of the ellipse are
proportional to the velocities of the parallel and ⊥ vibrations to the optic axis.
Calcite (CaCO3 ) has a large velocity differences between the o and e rays, and its
optic axis is the direction at equal angles with the crystal edges at the obtuse corners.
Observe through the calcite crystal a dot on a piece of paper. Rotate the crystal
about the line of sight. Describe the behavior of the two images of the dot. Introduce
a polaroid between your eye and the crystal. Note how the appearance of the two
images changes as you rotate the polaroid about the line of sight. Explain.

NOTE: For the remaining experiments use the POLARISCOPE. The polaroid next to
the light is the “POLARIZER,” the other is the “ANALYZER.” Place the samples
to be studied on top of the polarizer.

5. CIRCULAR POLARIZATION: A thin doubly refracting crystal cut so that the optic
axis is parallel to a surface constitutes a retardation plate. The difference in velocity
of the o and e rays then gives a phase difference between the emerging orthogonally
polarized rays. If the phase difference is 90◦ , the retardation is λ/4: hence a “quarter
wave plate”.
Optic axis
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 45
000000
111111
000000
111111
E- vibration111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Unpolarized 000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
light 45
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 Analyzer
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111 Crystal plate
Polarizer O- vibration

Figure 2: Obtaining circularly polarized light from unpolarized light

Set the analyzer of the polariscope to transmit no light. Then place the λ/4 plate
between the polarizer and analyzer and rotate the λ/4 plate so that extinction again
results. You will find two such extinction positions 90◦ apart. Why?
HINT: When the optic axis is aligned with the polarization direction of the incoming
plane polarized wave, will there be any ordinary ray amplitude? Then when you
turn the plate (and thus the optic axis) thru 90◦ , will there be any extraordinary
ray amplitude.
L-6: POLARIZATION 87

Rotate the λ/4 plate to a position halfway between the two extinction positions; thus
the optic axis will make a 45◦ angle to the incident plane of polarization. Explain why
the plate now looks bright. Leaving the λ/4 plate in this position, rotate the analyzer
through 2π radians. Why does the brightness stay approximately constant∗ ?
HINT: Recall the conditions for a circular Lissajous figure (see E-8 Part B, Fig. 3).
∗ If it doesn’t, repeat the preceding operations. You may not have set the λ/4
plate close enough to the halfway or 45◦ position. Also remember that a λ/4
plate is exactly λ/4 only for a single λ.

6. TWO λ/4 PLATES: Place a λ/4 plate on the polarizer so as to produce circularly
polarized light. Place a second λ/4 plate on top of the first and similarly oriented.
Observe and explain what happens when you now rotate the analyzer. Turn the top
λ/4 through 90◦ about the line of sight. Observe and explain what happens now
when you rotate the analzyer.

7. COLOR EFFECTS: If the plate is thick enough for retardations of several (but not
too many) wavelengths, color effects may result. For a constant refractive index:
3
λred ∼ 660 nm ∼ (λ ∼ 440 nm).
2 blue
Thus a λ/2 plate for red is a 3λ/4 plate for blue. [In general, a n(λ/2) plate for
red ∼ 3n(λ/4) plate for blue where n is an odd integer.] Hence for white light such
a plate at 45◦ between parallel polaroids would completely extinguish the red but
pass the circularly polarized blue light. The resultant color is complementary to that
removed. The intensity (hue and saturation) will of course vary with the relative
orientation of polarizer, the retardation plate, and the analyzer. As n becomes large
the range of λ extinguished narrows. Hence that passed is more nearly white.

a) Place thin mica on the polarizer (with analyzer crossed). Try various mica
orientations. Explain.
b) Repeat a) for the mounted specimen of cellophane tape.

8. PHOTO-ELASTIC EFFECTS: Strained isotropic materials become doubly-

refracting.
With the polariscope set for extinction:

a) Insert and flex the U-shaped lexan (a polycarbonate resin) sample.

b) Insert a microscope slide vertically. View the long edge and stress the slide
by gently flexing it. Note result. (Glass blowers use polarized light to test for
residual glass strains).

9. LCD APPLICATIONS: Watches and calculators often use LIQUID CRYSTAL DIS-
PLAYS (LCD) in which nematic liquids (thread like molecules arranged nearly par-
allel to each other) can become optically active, rotate the plane of polarization
and thus permit light to pass thru crossed polaroids. A reflector after the analyzer
returns the light through the cell.
To produce the optical rotation: two glass plates, which have been rubbed in one
direction to produce invisible scratches, attach aligned nematic molecules. If a few
 L-6: POLARIZATION 88

Light Light
polarizer
glass glass
thin transparent
conductor

Liquid
crystal

thin transparent
conductor
glass glass

analyzer
bright dark

Figure 3: Construction of a liquid crystal display

micron thick nematic liquid separates the plates, and if one plate is rotated relative
to the other, then the helical arrangement of the nematic liquid produces a rotation
of the plane of polarization.
To extinquish the light one applies a voltage between the transparent (but conduct-
ing) tin-oxide coated glass surfaces. A sufficient voltage gradient will align the dipole
moments of the molecules and thus destroy the optical rotatory power. Voltages ap-
plied to segments of the seven segment pattern (see figure) permit display of any
numeral 0 to
The power consumption of such an LCD is almost negligible.

OPTIONAL QUESTIONS:

1. How experimentally can one tell whether a light beam is unpolarized? Plane polar-
ized? Circularly polarized?

2. How could you tell whether an object is a gray plastic, a polarizing sheet, a λ/4
plate or a λ/2 plate?

3. How could you change right circularly polarized light to left circularly polarized
light?

4. Why does the flexed lexan show colors but not the microscope slide?
 APPENDICES 89

Appendices
A. Precision Measurement Devices
Vernier Calipers:

fixed scale
inside calipers
INCH
1 2 3 4 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 cenco
mm

depth gauge
outside calipers
vernier scale

Figure 1: The vernier caliper

A Vernier consists of a fixed scale and a moving vernier scale. In a metric vernier
the fixed scale is marked in centimeters and millimeters, the vernier scale is nine mil-
limeters long, and is divided into ten parts each 0.9 millimeters long. The distances
of each line from the first are therefore 0.9, 1.8, 2.7, . . . ,mm or generally: di = 0.9×i,
where di is the distance between the zero line and the ith line of the vernier scale. If
the vernier caliper is closed, so that the two jaws touch each other, the zero of the
fixed scale should coincide with the zero of the vernier scale. Opening the jaws 0.03
cm = 0.3 mm will cause the fourth line (the three line which is a distance of 2.7 mm
from the zero line of the of the vernier scale) to coincide with the 3 mm line of the
fixed scale as shown below.

0
1

Figure 2: The vernier reads 0.03 cm

Below is another example of vernier reading; the arrow shows which mark on the
vernier scale is being used.

9 10

Figure 3: The vernier reads 9.13 cm

 APPENDICES 90

EXERCISES:

A. Close the vernier and observe that the first vernier mark coincides with the zero of
the centimeter scale.

B. Open the jaws of the vernier very slowly and observe how the different vernier marks
coincide successively with the millimeter marks on the fixed scale: the first mark
coincides with the 1 mm mark on the fixed scale; then the second mark coincides
with the 2 mm mark on the fixed scale; then the third mark coincides with the 3
mm mark on the fixed scale and so on.

C. Estimate the dimension of an object using a meter stick and then Use the vernier
caliper to measure the dimension precisely.

D. In the four examples of Fig. 4 determine the actual reading.

a) b)

3 4 4 5

c) d)

6 7 1 2

Figure 4: Test cases

Micrometer:
A micrometer can measure distances with more precision than a vernier caliper. The
micrometer has a 0.5 mm pitch screw, this means that you read millimeters and half
millimeters along the barrel. The sleeve is divided into 50 divisions corresponding
to one hundredth of a millimeter (0.01 mm) or 10 µ each. The vernier scale on the
micrometer barrel has ten divisions, marked from 2 to 10 in steps of two. The “zero”
line is not marked ‘0’, but is longer than the others. The vernier allows you to read to
the nearest thousandth of a millimeter, i.e., to the nearest micron (0.001 mm = 1 µ).

Great care must be taken in using the micrometer caliper; A ratchet

knob is provided for closing the caliper on the object being mea-
sured without exerting too much force. Treat the micrometer with
Precaution:
care, ALWAYS close the calipers using the ratchet knob, this pre-
vents tightening the screw too strongly. Closing the calipers too hard
damages the precision screw.
APPENDICES 91

sleeve
barrel ratchet
anvil spindle

0
10
8
6 5
4
2
0
0 5 45
40

spindle lock

0-25 mm 0.001 mm
Mitutoyo
frame

Figure 5: The micrometer calipers

Below are two examples of micrometer reading; the arrow shows which mark on the
vernier scale is being used.

0 0
8
6
4 45
2
40
0 5 10 15 20 25 35

Figure 6: The micrometer reads 20.912 mm

10
0
8
6 5
4
2
0

0 5 45
10 15 20 25
40

Figure 7: The micrometer reads 3 µ

In Fig. 7 the zero line on the barrel is barely visible, and the vernier reads 0.003 mm
= 3 µ; the zero error is 0 = 3µ.
APPENDICES 92

A negative zero error, as shown below requires a moment of thought.

10
0
8
6 5
4
2
0

0 5 45
10 15 20 25
40

Figure 8: The micrometer reads -4 µ

In Fig. 8 the zero line on the barrel of the micrometer is obscured by the sleeve,
(the “zero” line on the sleeve is above the “zero” line on the barrel) this corresponds
to a reading of -0.5 mm; the vernier reads 0.496 mm the zero error is then 0 =
−0.5 + 0.496 = −0.004mm = −4 µ.
 APPENDICES 93

B. The Travelling Microscope

The sliding carriage of the traveling microscope rides on carefully machined ways,
pushed by a nut under the carriage which rides on the micrometer screw. The nut
must not fit tightly on the screw or it will bind; hence there is always some slack
built into the mechanism.
When the nut is be-
ing pulled to the right Nut
(dial being turned toward
larger numbers), the screw
threads will press against
the threads in the nut as Screw
S
shown in Fig. 1, with the
screw threads in contact
with the back side of the
threads on the nut. When
the direction of turning re-
verses, the screw threads
then push on the front side Figure 1: Backlash in screw mechanism.
of the nut threads.

For the microscope set initially on the same line for both directions of motion, the
readings will differ by distance S, the backlash (slop) in the mechanism.

One way to avoid trouble with this slack is always to make settings after turning
the screw more than the slack in one direction, say the direction of increasing
readings. If one overshoots on a reading, go back by more than the slack and then
turn forward again. The screw will then always press on the same side of the nut
and no error arises.

A much better experimental technique is to take readings both ways. Suppose one
wants to measure the distance between two lines, 1 and 2. Call the reading turned
toward larger readings on line 1, D1 and when turning in the reverse direction, R1 ;
similarly for D2 and R2 . Then the distance between the lines will be D2 − D1 and
also R2 − R1 so that one has immediately two independent readings to compare.
More important, D1 − R1 is the slack in the mechanism; it should equal D2 − R2
and should be the same for all pairs of readings. If D − R changes by more
than the experimental error in setting, you know immediately you have made a
blunder in either setting or reading and can immediately repeat the measurement.
The constancy of D - R is actually an excellent measure of the uncertainty in the
measurements you are taking.
 APPENDICES 94

C. The Optical Lever

An optical lever is a convenient device to magnify a small displacement and thus
to make possible an accurate measurement of the displacement. Experiment M-11,
Young’s modulus, uses an optical lever to magnify the extension of a wire produced
by a series of different loads.

The plate P carries a mir- D

M
ror M. The mirror mount
has two points resting in
a fixed groove, F, and at
the other end has a single y0 θ
point resting on the ob- 2θ θ
∆L
ject whose displacement
P
one is measuring. Rais- y
F
ing the object through
a distance ∆L will tilt d

the mirror through an y1

angle θ or ∆L/d radi-

Scale
ans (approximately) but
will turn the light beam
through an angle 2θ.
Figure 1: Schematic of the optical lever.

Hence
1
∆L (y1 − y0 )
θ = ∼ 2
d D
if θ is small so that θ ∼ tan θ. Therefore
 
2∆L y1 − y0 d
2θ = = , and ∆l = (y1 − y0 ) .
d D 2D

Note that with the telescope nearly perpendicular to the scale at the beginning then
y0 is close to the telescope, and the difference between two elongations (∆L2 −∆L1 )
is very accurately given by

y2 d y1 d (y2 − y1 )d
∆L2 − ∆L1 = − =
2D 2D 2D

where yi is the scale reading. This relation holds so long as 2θ is small enough that
tan 2θ ∼ 2θ.
 APPENDICES 95

D. PARALLAX and Notes on using a Telescope

1. PARALLAX:
To do quantitative work in optics one must understand parallax and how it may be
eliminated. PARALLAX is defined as apparent motion of an object caused by actual
motion of the observer.
1
As the observer moves left and right, object 1
appears to move to the left and right of object
2. The amount by which object 1 appears to
move is proportional to the distance between 2
object 1 and object 2. If object 1 comes in
front of object 2, the direction of its apparent eye
motion reverses.
Try this with two fingers.
Note that if object 1 is an image and object 2 a cross hair, the absence of parallax
shows that the cross hairs are in the plane of the image.
2. Focusing a Telescope for Parallel Rays:
O = objective lens
B T eye
E= eye piece. It
may be a single
lens or several
lens.
O C E
C=cross-hairs

The eyepiece E slides back and forth in the tube T and one should first adjust the
eyepiece to give a clear image of the cross hairs. Then move the tube T back and
forth in the barrel B until the image of a distant object, formed by the objective
O, falls on the plane of the cross hairs. The test for this is the absence of parallax
between the cross hairs and image.
The rays from a distant object are nearly parallel. For viewing a distant object, use
an open window if the window glass is not accurately plane. Otherwise poor image
formation may result. You can check by trying it both ways. At night use a distant
object in the hallway.
The telescope, now focused for parallel rays, will stay so as long as the distance
between O and C is unchanged. One may still adjust the eyepiece position to suit
the observer.
3. Finding an Image in a Telescope:
If you have trouble finding an image in a telescope, locate the image first with your
unaided eye, and then pull the telescope in front of your eye, aligning it with your
line of sight. With high magnification it is difficult to find the image in the telescope
because the alignment must be nearly perfect before the image appears in the field
of view. The eye has a rather large field of view so that the image will be visible
over a range of positions.
 APPENDICES 96

E. PASCO
c Interface and Computer Primer
INTRODUCTION:
The Physics 201/207 207/208 laboratories utilize a Web-browser based display for-
mat in combination, when necessary, computer controlled data acquisition interface
(typically the PASCO CI-700 or 750). Various sensors are plugged into either digital
I/O (phone jack style inputs 1 to 4) or analog I/O ports (DIN-9 style inputs A, B
and C). To aid in the data acquisition and analysis PASCO module also requires
use of a special purpose software package which can be easily reconfigured for the
particular need of a experiment. In general all experiment starting configuration
will be preset and launched through a Web-browser button at the appropriate place
in the lab.
THE MOUSE
CLICKING: Most of the operations of your computer are controlled by locating the
cursor on the appropriate symbol (icon) and by clicking (CLICK) or double clicking
(DCLICK) the left button of the mouse.
If the operation you have to perform requires clicking the right button this will
be shown by CLICK-R or DCLICK-R. Double clicking means pressing the mouse
button twice in rapid sequence without moving the mouse. The image of an hour
glass appears momentarily indicating that the computer is loading the program,
that is, getting ready to do what you requested. It will not do this if you moved the
mouse while double clicking.
WINDOWS
The monitor usually displays various “windows” with a title bar. If you CLICK
anywhere inside the window, the title bar turns blue, and the window is “active”
(i.e. the computer will respond to any clicks on the “icons” on the border of the
window).
BASIC OPTIONS:
I. CLICK on the head bar to “drag” the window to a different position.
II. Enlarge the window by placing the cursor on the corner, a diagonal arrow will
appear, then CLICK and drag to change the size of the window.
Depending on which experiment you are performing you will see various windows.
These will be discussed separately.

SUMMARY SETUP START CALCULATE

Figure 1: The main PASCO Data Studio window

ICONS:
 APPENDICES 97

• SUMMARY: CLICKing on this alternately opens and closes the summary area
on left (i.e., frame with Data and Displays).
• SETUP: CLICKing on this open the “Experiment Setup” window.
• START: CLICKing on this begins the data acquisition and the icons changes
to “STOP”. CLICKing on the STOP ends the data acquisition.
• CALCULATE: CLICKing on this open a calculator window as shown.
THE GRAPH WINDOW:
Across the top of the graph window you will find a litany of icons: The icons that
appear at the top right of all windows are (see Fig. 2):
(a) EXIT: The window is removed permanently.
(b) RESIZE: The size is changed from large to small, or vice-versa.
(c) MINIMIZE: The window is shrunk and should appear as an icon in the Data
Studio workspace.

SCALE TO FIT [4] CALCULATE [12]

ZOOM IN [5] TEXT [13]
ZOOM OUT [6] DRAW PREDICTIONS [14] MINIMIZE 3]
ZOOM SELECT [7] SHOW STATISTICS[15] RESIZE[2]
EXIT [1]

CURVE FIT [11]

SLOPE TOOL [10] GRAPH SETTINGS [17]
SMART TOOL [9] REMOVE DATA [16]
ALIGN X SCALE [8]

Figure 2: The Graph Window

(d) SCALE TO FIT will rescale the x and y axes to fit the current data set.
(e) ZOOM IN will enhance the size of the graph features.
(f) ZOOM OUT will reduce the size of the graph features.
(g) ZOOM SELECT: After CLICKing on this icon move the cursor into the plot
and CLICK then DRAG to select a region of interest. All calculations will refer
to this region of interest.
(h) ALIGN X SCALE: If there are multiple graphs this will align all the X axes.
(i) SMART TOOL turns on cross hairs so that graph x,y positions are read out
directly.
(j) SLOPE TOOL determines the slope at a point
APPENDICES 98

(k)CURVE FIT
(l)
CALCULATE launches the calculator applications
(m) TEXT
(n)DRAW PREDICTIONS
(o)SHOW STATISTICS shows/hides statistics for a selected region of interest.
You must first select the area of the graph you want to analyze by CLICKing
on the ZOOM SELECT icon and the moving to the upper left corner of the
ROI. The drag the cursor (CLICK and hold) diagonally across the graph to
generate a rectangle that encloses the area chosen.
(p) REMOVE DATA:
(q) GRAPH SETTINGS: This icon allows for complete customization of the plot.
THE EXPERIMENT SETUP WINDOW:
Usually you will find this window in its “minimized” form but this window con-
trol the physical instrumentation connected to the PASCO computer interface

LIST OF SENSORS

FUNCTION GENERATOR OUTPUT

GROUND
ANALOG CHANNEL INPUTS
DIGITAL CHANNEL INPUTS

Figure 3: The Experimental Setup Window.

(a) Sensors Icon: CLICKing here alternately open and closes the sensor list on
left. A sensor must be “grabbed” from the list and then “dropped” onto the
appropriate PASCO channel.
(b) Options Icon: CLICKing here open a window for various custom data acqui-
sition options (Manual sampling, Delayed acquisition, Automatic start)
(c) Timers Icon: CLICKing, if active (by using e.g. the “Time of Flight” sensor),
will allow for a customized time sequence.
(d) Change Icon: CLICKing here will allow you to change the type of Pasco
computer interface (e.g., CI-750, CI-700, etc.)
(e) FUNCTION GENERATOR: Output from a built-in signal generator (e.g. sine
or square waves) and allows control of both frequency and amplitude.
(f) DIGITAL CHANNELS: These components produce or require signals (i.e., in-
put/output) that switch between two levels, typically 0 and 5 volts. NOTE:
Exceeding 10 volts may damage the port.
(g) ANALOG CHANNELS: These components produce or require signals that have
a large range of values. If voltage is specified then the range is typically between
-5 and 5 volts. NOTE: Exceeding 10 volts may damage the port.
(h) GROUND: Electrical access for signal ground. Note that this does not neces-
sarily mean the ground of the outlet.
APPENDICES 99

SHOW TIME
SHOW STATISTICS ADD/REMOVE DATA

SELECT STATISTICS REMOVE SELECTED DATA

EDIT DATA TABEL SETTINGS
INSERT ROWS
DELETE ROW

Figure 4: The Table Window

THE TABLE WINDOW:

(a) SHOW TIME: Alter the display to include time at which data was recorded.
(b) SHOW STATISTICS: Toggles off and on a display for various selected values
including: minimum, maximum, mean, standard deviation and the count.
NOTE: Subsets of the full data set can be analyzed by using the mouse and
highlighting (through a CLICK and drag motion) the rows of interest.
(c) Almost all of the headings are self explanatory.