Pharmacognosy DEFINITION E.

German
1. CA Seydler (1815)
• Applied science that deals with the biological, biochemical, and economic features
of drugs of biological origin and their constituents • Coined (but steal intellectual property) pharmacognosy from “pharmakon”
(drug) & “gnosis” (knowledge) in Analecta Pharmacognostica
• Medicinal products in crude/unprepared form
2. JA Schmidt (1811)
• NOT just plants, but also animals (Sus scofa, etc)
• First used the word pharmacognosy in his Lehrbuch de Materia Medica
• *focus on local sources
(NOT yet a registered word)
3. Friedrich Serturner
HISTORY • Morphine
A. Babylonians F. Others
• Clay human models of human body 1. Fluckiger on Pharmacognosy
• Medicinal effect of plants • “Simultaneous application of scientific disciplines with the object of
• Names ending with ‘-zar’ acquiring drugs from every point of view”
B. Ayurveda (India) 2. Pelletier & Caventou
• Traditional medicine • Quinine
• Literal meaning: “the science of life”
• Mother of all healing arts TERMS
• (2) texts: 1) Crude drugs
1) Charaka
• Vegetable/animal drugs of natural substances that had undergone only
§ book on internal medicine (~Harrison’s)
collection & drying
2) Sushruta
2) Natural substances
§ Considered as “book of symptoms”
• Whole plants and their parts; animals and excised their organs
§ 184 chapters; 1120 illnesses
• No molecular modifications made
§ Many chapters because 1 chapter per human body part (e.g. palm)
• e.g. oils
C. Egyptians
3) Derivatives or Extractives
• George Ebers – Papyrus Ebers
• Chief principles/constituents of crude drugs that are separated and used in a
• Introduced embalming – preservation of flesh (mummification) because they
specific manner
believed in afterlife
• Solvent/Menstruum – liquid-liquid mixture used to extract active principles
• Human anatomy & use of plants
• Marc – undissolved portion of drug that remains after extraction is completed
D. Greeks
4) Indigenous plants
1. Dioscorides (78 AD)
• Grow in their native countries
• Wrote De Materia Medica
§ Aka “The Medicinal Material” • e.g. balete, rafflesia
5) Naturalized plants
§ 600+ plant descriptions with pressed plant samples (thick!)
§ Aloe, belladona, colchicum, ergot, opium • grow in foreign land other than their native homes
2. Claudius Galen (131-200 AD) • e.g. blueberries
• Descibed methods and processes of preparing formulas containing plant
and animal drugs (“galenicals”) PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
• Father of Pharmaceutical Compounding 1) Collection
• Collecting not just samples but also data/information (difference from
harvesting, you don’t harvest data!)
• Ensuring the true natural source of the drug


Pharmacognosy
§ Improper collection – if researcher does not know his plant sample, not 6) Packaging, Storage & Preservation
enough data • Protection and marketability
§ Collection time • To avoid insect attacks:
o Flowers – dawn (when flower just starts to bloom or still a bud) a) Simplest method: Expose the drug to 65℃
o Bark – between spring (moist) & summer (dry) because very rich in b) Fumigation with methyl bromide (CH3Br)
constituents c) Add a drop of chloroform or carbon tetrachloride
o Root crops (potato, carrots) – when upper ground portions are
withered
EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
2) Harvesting
• Determines quality and quantity
• Specific or proper season
§ Quality – intrinsic value of drug; types of AI present
• Manual labor (for delicate plants) vs. mechanical devices (e.g. tractors)
§ Quantity – amount
o Coffee beans – floating (not good) à plant again
• Involves qualitative and quantitative assays
o Strawberries – handpicked bec. succulent
• PARAMETERS:
o Digoxin
1) Organoleptic Evaluation
3) Drying
• Uses the organs of (5) senses (visual, odor, taste, sound, texture)
• Most important step because it removes moisture to prevent bacterial &
fungal growth and enzymatic degradation • Evaluates the macroscopic appearance
2) Microscopic Evaluation
• Fixes constituents, facilitates grinding & milling
• Plant samples under microscope
• Convert plants to more convenient form
• Crystals (rice, potato starch), cells, precipitate
• Types:
3) Pharmacologic Evaluation
a) Sun drying
b) Oven drying • Bioassay – assays that uses living animals or excised organs to evaluate
c) Air drying the effects of drugs
4) Curing (not considered as a step in some references) § Rooster – oxytocin
o Oxytocin for homeostasis, labor (uterine contraction),
• Could be under drying
vasodilation
• Special drying process that enhances properties of plant’s active ingredients
o Tie crown à blue (vasoconstriction) à administer oxytocin to
• Examples:
rooster’s crown
a) Cascara sagrada
§ Pigeon – digitalis (heart rate)
§ Anthraquinone glycosides (cathartic)
§ Cat – atropine (easy to see mydriasis)
§ If NOT cured (fresh) à too irritating 2+
§ Dog – PTH à Ca (bones for dogs)
§ Cured in MgO solution for 1 year à convert to reduced glycosides
4) Chemical Evaluation
(active)
• Assay of active constituents using chemicals (e.g. titration)
b) Vanilla planifolia
§ Sweating – process of curing vanilla • Best method of determining official potency
5) Physical evaluation
§ Gray if cured, red if NOT
§ Wrapped in cloth at night, expose to sun during daytime. Repeat • Determination of various physical characteristics/parameters with the use
until it releases odor. of physico-chemical techniques
5) Garbling • e.g. solubility (sparingly, etc), flowability
• Final step in the preparation of crude drugs
• Removal of extraneous matter


Pharmacognosy CLASSIFICATION OF DRUGS CARBOHYDRATES [CH2O]n

1) Morphology ● Polyhydric aldehyde or ketone alcohols that contain C,H,O [C●H2O]n
• “morph” – forms (named based on what thing does it resemble) ● H & O has the same ratio as that of H2O, thus they are named as “carbo+hydrates”
st
• Plant part used ● 1 product of photosynthesis
• Leaf and flower arrangement § Transport system: Xylem – water (l for liquid)
2) Taxonomic Phloem – food (phood)
• Carolus Linnaeus – Father of Taxonomy
• “King Plays Chess On Fuzzy Green Stools” Classification of Sugars
• Phylogeny I) Monosaccharides
§ Natural relationship that occurs among plants and animals II) Disaccharides
§ Important for pharmacognosy III) Oligosaccharides
3) Pharmacologic IV) Polysaccharides
• Based on therapeutic effect on the body A) Homoglycans
• NOT the most preferred 1) Starch – glucosan (yields glucose units)
4) Chemical 2) Inulin – fructosan (yields fructose units)
• Preferred method of classification – more specific than pharmacological 3) Cellulose – glucosan (yields glucose units)
• Based on active constituents B) Heteroglycans
§ Considered as secondary metabolites 1) Gums and mucilages
§ Drug biosynthesis or biogenesis – process of producing secondary 2) Glycosides
metabolites
Monosaccharides
BIOGENESIS • Monosaccharide
• (3) Factors: § Simplest carbohydrate units
1) Ontogeny or Stage of Development § Cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler sugars
• e.g. Cannabis sativa aka MJ, Mary Jane, Ashes, Marijuana § Names based on # of carbon atoms
§ Tx of lung conditions (asthma, COPD) #C NAME EXAMPLE
§ Disposal: incineration or bury (never burn!) ATOMS
§ Constituents: a) Cannabidiol – young plant 2 Diose Hydroxyacetaldehyde
b) Cannabinol – mature plant 3 Triose Dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde
9 9
c) 𝛥 -Tetrahydrocannabinol (𝛥 -THC) & nabilone 4 Tetrose Erythrose
2) Heredity 5 Pentose Arabinose, xylose, ribose
• Menthol content: Japanese peppermint – 50% > normal peppermint 6 Hexose*** Glucose, fructose, galactose
3) Environment 7 Heptose Sedoheptulose
• Sunlight, soil, moisture 8 Octose D-glycero-D-mannotulose***
• Periwinkle or chichirika (Catharanthus roseus) Octoses have been synthetically prepared, they do NOT
§ Vinca alkaloids occur in nature
§ Same sp., diff. environment à diff. colors 9 Nonose Neuraminic acid (Sialic acid)
o Wild – blue-violet
o Domesticated – pink


Pharmacognosy
A) PENTOSE 3) Ingredient in fructose injection nutrient
1) Xylose aka “Wood sugar” 3) Galactose
• Obtained from boiling corn cobs straw • Aldohexose
• Diagnostic aid in intestinal malabsorption • C4 epimer of glucose (C2 epimer – mannose)
• Aldehyde • Gaucher’s disease – cannot metab. galactose
§ *Note: for ketone form, just add ‘u’ • *Lactose intolerant – cannot metab. lactose
o Xylose à xylulose • milk : lactose :: neuronal fibers : galactosides
o Ribose à ribulose

B) HEXOSE – most important monosacch; can’t oseàulose

1) Glucose aka “Blood, Grape, Physiologic Sugar”(bec. common in body)
• Aldohexose
• Aldehyde group in C1
• Reducing sugar as det. by Benedict’s test
• Occurs as linear & cyclic
• 𝛽-D-Glucose – most abundant and important
§ D-glucose aka dextrose
§ Use: source and storage of energy, structure of plants
• Uses of glucose:
1) Parenteral
• Rigorously purified/sterile
• Nutrient Disaccharides
• Disaccharides – composed of 2 monosaccharides formed via dehydration
synthesis which forms glycosidic bonds (dictate what bond - ɑ, β, 1,3, etc)
2) Pharmaceutic necessity – less rigorous (just a sweetener)
A) Sucrose aka “Table Sugar”
a) Liquid glucose aka syrup
• Glucose + Fructose, 𝛼-1,2 bond
• Syrupy liquid, almost colorless, tastes sweet
• Sources of sucrose:
• Incomplete acid hydrolysis of starch
1) Sugar cane – Saccharum officinarum
b) Dextrose excipient aka sugar/glucose powder
§ Boil with dilute acid (to ppt albumin) à pure sucrose
• Crystalline sweetening agent
§ + SO2 – to remove color
• For oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT): 75 g
2) Sugar beet – Beta vulgaris
2) Fructose aka “Levulose, Fruit Sugar”
§ Cosettes – limp slivers (very fine)
• Aka Levulose, the sweetest monosaccharide but bitter aftertaste
3) Sugar maple – Acer saccharum
• Fruit sugar – sweet fruits and honey
§ Indigent in Canada
§ Mango – highest fructose content
• Non-reducing, unlike its components (gluc, fruc)
§ *Grape – highest glucose content
• Uses of fructose:
• ɑ-Ketohexose
1) Demulcent
• Ketone group in C2
2) Sweetening agent; masks taste
• Reducing sugar as det. by Seliwanoff’s test 3) Coating agent
• Uses of fructose: (but glucose is used more) 4) Preservative (85% sugar)
1) For diabetic Pt 5) Production of syrups
2) Ingredient in infant feeding formula


Pharmacognosy
6) Retards oxidation • Normal dose: 30 cc OD HS
§ Honeys don’t expire (found in pyramids) • *Omeprazole
§ Light yellow – baby, NOT therapeutic § For PPI (stressed-induced gastritis)
§ Darker – more therapeutic § 20 md OD PO
• Molasses § Prescribed to all hospital Pt (abused)
§ Residual dark colored syrup after complete crystallization of sucrose § Just standard bowel time (evening)
§ Food and EtOH industry
§ Burnt taste Products of Oxidative Metabolism
§ Horse’s comfort food
1) Cherry juice
B) Maltose aka “Malt sugar”
• Ripe fruit of Prunus cerasus (Rosaceae)
• Produced during the germination of barley
• Contains pectin & malic acid
• Glucose + Glucose, 𝛼-1, 4 bond (*3 Glucose – maltotriose)
• Use: cherry syrup as flavorant to mask salty taste (e.g. PCT & cough syrup)
• Major degradation product of starch
2) Plant Acids
• Reducing sugar
• Uses of plant acids:
• e.g. Milo, Nesvita, Energen, cereals, beer, Colt 45
a) Acidulant in effervescent formulations
C) Lactose aka “Milk Sugar”
b) Component of buffer systems
• Glucose + Galactose, 𝛽-1,4 bond
a) Citric acid (aka TCA)* - isolated by Scheele from lemon juice in 1784
• Obtained from cow’s milk (Bos taurus) +
b) Lactic acid – acidulant in infant feeding formula, feminine wash ( masculine
• Reducing sugar wash – Freshman®)
• Milk products c) Tartaric acid (DCA)* - by-product of wine industry
d) Ferrous fumarate - hematinic
2
• *Differentiation test: Denige’s test & TaWi
3) Alcohol or Ethanol
• 95% ethanol by volume @ 15.56℃
• Product of fermentation
• Undergo the process of distillation to concentrate the alcohol content to 40-
55%
§ Brandy (Brown) – distillation of wine
§ Whiskey – Malted grain (W à M)
§ Rum – molasses
• Concentrations:
§ 70% (aka rubbing alcohol) – disinfectant
o Isopropyl – more effective
D) Lactulose (Lilac®, Duphalac®) o EtOH – less irritation
• From alkaline rearrangement of lactose § 48.4-49.5% EtOH @ 15.56℃(aka dilute alcohol)
• Cathartic & laxative • Uses of alcohol:
• Converted to lactic & acetic acid, which causes irritation of the intestines and § LOW concentration – CNS stimulant
subsequent catharsis § HIGH concentration – CNS depressant
• Initially used for MI/stroke Pt to help them poop with no stress thus, Px another • Drink caffeine (energy) or alcohol (concentration)?
MI/stroke
• Lactulose + omeprazole – most abused


Pharmacognosy
Products of Reductive Metabolism b) Antidote for iodine poisoning
• Starch preparations:
1) Mannitol
a) Pre-gelatinized starch
• From manna (means life), Fraxinus orus
§ Chemically or mechanically processed to rupture all or part of the
• Osmotic diuretic, osmotic laxative, assess GFR
granules
2) Sorbitol aka “D-glucitol”
§ Tablet binder
• From berries of mountain ash, Sorbus aucuparia
b) Sodium starch glycollate
• Taste half as sweet as sucrose
§ Disintegrating agent
• Manufacture of toothpastes and chewing gums c) Hetastarch (Voluven®)
§ Plasma expander for shock, hypovolemia (low blood volume)
Polysaccharides § Hydroxyethyl starch: 6% on the market
A) HOMOGLYCANS: yield one type of monosaccharide unit upon hydrolysis § 99% amylopectin
1) Starch • Glutens
• Temporary storage form of photosynthetic products § If starch has glutens à poor angle of repose (poor flowability) bec. it
• (Official) sources of starch: has tacky proteins
a) Corn – Zea mays § Meat substitute, NOT easily digested
b) Wheat – Triticum aestivum 2) Glycogen
c) Potato – Solanum tuberosum • Storage polysaccharide in animals
d) Rice – Oryza sativa • Stored in liver and skeletal muscles (glycogen can provide 8-12 hr of energy)
• (Unofficial) source - arrowroot (rootcrop) • More branched than starch (every 10)
- aka Kuraro (Marinduque) • Red color with iodine
- aka Maranta arundinacea 3) Inulin
• Starch constituents: • Chicory root – Chicorum intybus (Asteraceae)
DIFFERENCE ON: AMYLOSE AMYLOPECTIN • Polyfructan of fructofuranose
Structure • Linear • Branched • Uses of inulin:
• 250-300 D- • ≥1000 glucose units a) Ingredient in culture media
glucose units • α-1, 4 and α-1, 6 b) Evaluation of renal function
• α-1, 4 glycosidic glycosidic bonds at c) Component of Nutrilin® - appetite stimulant
bonds every 25 glucose unit d) Improves digestion
Solubility in H2O Insoluble Soluble 4) Dextran
Iodine test Deep/dark blue Blue violet/purple • Leuconostocme senteroides
Ratio 25% 75% • Glucosan
• Plasma expander
• Enzymes that break down starches: • Diff. from dextrin (bread turns brown)
a) 𝛼-amylase 5) Cellulose
§ Present in pancreatic juice and saliva • Most abundant organic matter
§ Metabolism/breakdown of carbohydrates starts in the mouth • Structural polysaccharide in plants
b) 𝛽-amylase a) Purified/absorbent cotton
§ Hydrolyses starch to nearly pure maltose § From the hair of the seeds of Gossypium hirsutum (has toxic
§ Only in fungi, NOT found in humans constituents)
• Uses of starch: b) Soluble guncotton/pyroxylin
a) Tablet filler, binder and disintegrant § Formed by the action of HNO3 and H2SO4 on cotton


Pharmacognosy § Other ingredients: • Upon hydrolysis, they yield arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose and
i) Castor oil – flexibility other uronic acid derivatives
ii) Camphor – waterproof • Lead acetate and alcohol – solubilizers
§ Use of pyroxylin: topical protectant • Gum + water à dissolves
c) Other cellulose derivatives • Mucilage + water à sticky/paste
i) Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) • Pectin + water à gel
§ coating agent
ii) Methyl cellulose and ethyl cellulose A) PLANT EXUDATES
§ Theratears® PLANT BOTANICAL
§ Artificial tears NOTES
EXUDATES SOURCE
§ *Eye-Mo® & Vicine® Acacia aka Acacia senegal • Constituent: Arabin
o phase out due to non-GMP compliance (can cause Gum arabic • Suspending agent (33-35%)
glaucoma)
• Stable at 60% w/ alcohol
o all: irrigating NSS
Tragacanth Astrolagus • Constituent:
6) Chitin
aka Gum gummifer 1) Tragacanthin (⅓, dissolves)
• Structural polysaccharide in animals
tragacanth 2) Bassorin (⅔, swells)
• Exoskeleton: mollusks and arthropods
• Suspending agent (5-6%)
• Homoglycan of N-acetylglucosamine
• 3 grades:
• Mushrooms, arthropods (cockroach), crustaceans (chitin turns them orange
1) Vermiform - worm
when cooked) yellow-
brown 2) Sorts - tear shaped
3) Flakes - man made, preferred bec. clear
B) HETEROGLYCANS
Karaya aka Sterculia urens • Most fetid gum
• Polysaccharides that yield >1 type of monosaccharide unit upon hydrolysis
Sterculia • Laxative
• e.g. glycoproteins, glycolipids, etc.
gum
Indian aka Anogeissus • Substitute for acacia
QUIZ #1 Indian gum latifolia
1) Coined the term “pharmacognosy” Ghatti gum
2) Storage of glycogen in the body
3) Hydrolytic product of sucrose B) MARINE GUMS
4) Milk left after separation of cream GUM SOURCE CONSTITUENTS
5) Skimmed milk from coagulum when treated with ______. Agar aka Algae • Agarose
6) T/F: Lactulose is a trisaccharide. Japanese • Gelidium cartilagineum § high SO4
7) Aka wood sugar Isinglas • Gracilaria confervoides • Agaropectin
8) Aka dextrose
§ higher SO4
9) Used as 6% plasma expander
Algin Brown seaweeds • Mannuronic acid
10) Cut limp silvers of Beta vulgaris
• Macrocystis pyrifera
Carageenan aka Red algae • Kappa & Iota
GUMS & MUCILAGES Irish moss • Chondrus crispus § Gelling component
• Natural plant hydrocolloids that may be classified as anionic or nonionic • Gigartina mamillosa § Stable helix & straight chain
polysaccharides • Lambda
• Produced by plants as protective after injury (~platelets) § Non-gelling component


Pharmacognosy § No stable chain & helix Calamansi Citrus microcarpa

§ Dissolves Lemon Citrus limon
Danish agar Furcellaria fastigiata • Kappa Apple Pyrus malus

C) SEED GUMS GLYCOSIDES aka “SUGAR ETHERS”

GUM SOURCE NOTES • Heteroglycans (produces sugar upon hydrolysis)
Psyllium Seed coat of: § Glycone – non-sugar portion
• Plantago psyllium – Spanish § Aglycone aka Genin
o Sugar portion; vehicle/base
• Plantago ovate – Blonde o Dictates what type of glycoside
Cydonium aka Quince seed Ripe seed of Cydonia vulgaris Thixotropic agent o e.g. CPPP – saponin, cardiac, steroidal (diff. R)
Guar gum aka Guaran Endosperm of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus • Beta forms occur in plants
Locust bean gum aka Carob Endosperm of the seed of Sub. for chocolate • N-, S-, C-, O, alpha or beta
pulp, St. John’s Bread Ceratonia siliqua • Regulatory, protective and sanitary compounds

D) MICROBIAL GUM A) Cardiac or Cardioactive Glycosides

GUM SOURCE NOTES • Unsaturated steroidal aglycone tests:
Xanthan Action of Xanthomonas • Has pseudoplastic activity 1) Liebermann-Burchard (blue green) – most sensitive
gum campestris on carbohydrates • Enables toothpastes and ointments 2) Salkowski (red)
to spread readily • 2-deoxy sugar glycone test:
1) Keller-Kiliani test
E) PLANT EXTRACTIVES CARDENOLIDES BUFADIENOLIDES
1) Pectin More common in nature Rare (only in Bufo spp.)
• Intercellular cementing material Active Inactive
• Partially methoxylated galacturonic acid (reason why it swells) C-23 𝛼 and 𝛽 C-24
• Extract of the inner portion of the rind of citrus fruits and apple pomace 5 membered lactone rings 6 membered lactone rings
(e.g. pomelo has the highest pectin content bec. ↑↑ rind) * diff. on carbon and lactone rings
• Antidiarrheal agent • Examples of Cardiac Glycosides
§ Kaopectate (Polymagma®) = kaolin + pectin CARDIAC G. CONSTITUENTS
§ Replaced by loperamide 1) Digitalis § Digoxin – water soluble ✓
• When to harvest: (D. lanata, D. § Digitoxin – lipophilipic à stored in fats ✘
§ Protopectin – from unripe fruit purpurea) § Desllanatoside – for emergency digitalization
§ Pectin – just ripe (smells sweet)
(rapid digitalis loading)
o *Avocado –seed separates (sound)
o *Banana – with freckles (maitim) 2) Convallaria § Convallatoxin
v ↑↑freckles à ↑↑TNF aka Lily of the
Valley
v Piling supply enzyme TNF for ripening
§ Pectinic acid – overripe 3) Apocynum aka § Cymarine toxin
Dogbane
OFFICIAL SOURCES OF PECTIN
4) Adonis aka § Adonitoxin
Pomelo (biggest exporter –
Citrus grandis Pheasant’s Eye
Lucban, Davao)
5) Black Hellebore § Hellebrin
Grapefruit (CYP inhibitor) Citrus paradisi
aka Christmas
Orange aka Kahel Citrus aurantium
Rose
Ponkan Citrus sinensis (fr. China)
6) Strophanthus § K Strophantin - nontoxic
Dalanghita Citrus nobilis § G Strophantin (aka Oubain) - toxic


Pharmacognosy
7) Squill § Scillarenin (a bufadienolide) Cultivated in wet
lands resembling
§ White squill – good rice paddles
§ Red squill– bad 6) Chrysarobi From Goa powder, • Only anthraquinone that is NOT
n Andira araroba used as a cathartic bec. it is very
B) Anthraquinone Glycosides irritating
• Used as keratolytic
• Aglycone: Anthracene • Hot benzene is used to extract this
• Use: cathartics (drastic) substance
• Derivatives are orange in color
• Test for aglycones: Borntrager’s test (official ID test) C) Saponin Glycosides
• Official ID Test: Froth test (shake à 2 cm froth)
• Examples Anthraquinone Glycosides:
• Bitter, acrid taste
(BOTANICAL)
ANTHRAQUINONE CONSTITUENTS OTHER NOTES • Sternutatory: irritates mucous membrane à makes you sneeze
SOURCE
1) Cascara Rhamnus purshianus Cascarosides • Destroy RBC’s of cold blooded animals à fish poisons (blood agar test)
• Lane’s pill
sagrada or • A&B – optical • aka casanthol • Aglycone: sapogenin
Sacred bark isomers of • Purified mixture § Toxic aglycone: Sapotoxin
barbaloin of anthranol • Steroidal in nature (e.g. Diosgenin)
• C&D – optical glycosides • Examples of Saponin Glycosides:
isomers of
SAPONIN G. &
chrysaloin CONSTITUENTS USES, etc.
(BOTANICAL) SOURCE
2) Frangula or Rhamnus frangula Present in Movicol
1) Glycerrhiza/Licorice § Glycirrhizin § Tx of Addison’s disease
Buckthorn • karaya + frangula § Dried roots of § Glycirrhizic acid § CI: Pt w/ HTN & CHF bec.
bark (laxative) (cathartic)
• Like lactulose Glycyrrhiza glabra ↑ Na & H2O retention
§ Males should NOT eat
3) Aloe vera or • Dried latex or juice of • Barbaloin • USES:
Sabila >100g/day à sterility
Aloe barbadensis or • Aloe emodin 1) burn Tx (2%
Aloe vera (Curacao ointment) § ↑ foaminess of beer
aloe) 2) Compound § Mask quinine taste
• Hybrid of Aloe ferox benzoin § Steroidal
with Aloe africana & tincture (CBT) 2) Dioscorea
Aloe spicata (Cape • Curacao (sabila)- a) D. spiculiflora § Diosgenin § Anti-inflammatory
aloe) commercial as (glucocorticoid
conditioner precursor)
*gugo - shampoo b) D. floribunda aka § Best source of
4) Rhubarb • Rheum or Chinese rhubarb (official medicinal rhubarb) Mexican yam (ube) steroids
• Indian or Himalayan rhubarb (ornamental rhubarb) 3) Ginseng § Panaxosides § Aphrodisiac &adaptogen
Rheum or Chinese Indian or Himalayan a) Panax ginseng - Asian § Ginsenosides (to cope with stress)
b) Panax quinquefolius- § Chikusetsusaponins
§ Medical § Ornamental
American
§ Rheum officinale § Rheum emodi
§ Rheum palmatum § Rheum webbianum
5) Senna Dried leaflet: Sennosides Med. Preparations: D) Cyanophoric or Cyanogenic Glycosides
(Senokot®, • Cassia acutifolia • A, B, C, D • Alexandria – • Cyanophoric or cyanogenic glycosides – produce CN upon hydrolysis
Sennalax®) (Alexandria) broken leaflets § Detection of CN (USP ID Test): Guignard’s Test
• Cassia angustifolia • Tinnevelly –
(Tinnevelly) whole leaflets


Pharmacognosy
1) Amygdalin (water and amygdalase) à mandelonitrile glucose (water + prunase) 5) Gingko (Glutaphos®, • Gingkolides • Memory enhancement
à mandelonitrile + glucose à benzaldehyde + HCN Memoplus®) • Bilobalides incorrect term bec. it only
• Family Rosaceae Ginkgo biloba dilates BV in the brain)
• Amygdalase & Prunase are collectively known as Emulsin (A+P=E)
• Source of laetrile or Vitamin B17 – controversial Tx sickle cell anemia G) Alcohol Glycosides
• Substance with Amygdalin: 1) Salicin
a) Bitter almond – Prunus amygdalus • Salix sp. and Populus sp. (Willow bark)
b) Wild cherry – Prunus serotina; flavored vehicle, expectorant, sedative • Salix purpurea, Salix fragilis
c) Apricots – Prunus armeniaca • Aglycone: Saligenin
§ Antirheumatic
E) Isothiocyanate Glycosides § Anti-inflammatory

ISOTHIOCYANATE G. CONSTITUENTS OTHER NOTES G) Aldehyde Glycosides

1) Black mustard (Brassica • Sinigrin More volatile oils 1) Vanilla
nigra, Sinapis nigra) • Allylisothiocyanate • Cured fruit of Vanilla planifolia (Mexican, Vera Cruz, Bourbon)
2) White mustard (Brassica • Sinalbin *enzyme for both:
• Constituent: Vanillin
alba, Sinapis alba) • Acrynylisothiocyanate Myrosinase
• Use: Flavoring agent (substitute: ethyl vanillin)
Δ,myrosin ase
Sinigrin ⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯⎯→ volatile a↑↑y↑isoCN (more volatile)
oils:
H) Phenol Glycosides
Δ,myrosin ase
Sinalbin ⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ acryny↑isoCN (abc)
+ glucose + susapine acid sulphate PHENOL G. BOTANICAL SOURCE CONSTITUENTS
1) Uva-ursi aka “Bear Dried leaf of • Arbutin (whitening
F) Flavonol Glycosides berry” Arctostaphylos uva-ursi agent)
• Use: astringent,
• Flavonoids/Bioflavonoids from Citrus fruits and Soya: diuretic
FLAVONOL G. & 2) Poison Ivy Rhus radicans • Urushiol – delayed
CONSTITUENTS USES
BOTANICAL SOURCE 3) Poison Oak Rhus toxicondendron contact dermatitis
1) Rutin and Hesperidin • Vitamin P or permeability
factors
• Tx of capillary bleeding 2° H) Lactone Glycosides
to capillary fragibility
2) Hesperitin, Diosmin, & • Tx, Px to common colds BOTANICAL
Naringen/Echinacea LACTONE G. CONSTITUENTS USES, etc.
SOURCE
3) Rutin & Quercetin • *Vitamin C –take only 1) Coumarin Dipteryx odorata • Dicoumarol aka • USE:
(yellow pigment) when you have disease (Tonka beans) Bishydroxycoumari anticoagulant
(1g 1x) n (first oral • Burning
• Should be Zn anticoagulant) aromatic taste
• Male: Se & Cr (peanuts) • *Deriv: warfarin • Racumin for
• Female: Fe & Ca (for (2.5 & 5.0 mg) rats, NOT
bone) humans
4) Milk thistle • Silibinin • Hepatoprotective (↑↑SE)
Silybum marianum • Silymarin 2) Cantharide Dried insect Cantharidin • Causes
s Cantharis priapism -


Pharmacognosy vesicatoria § irritant, vesicant, prolonged & • Chemical Classes:

(Spanish/Russia rubefacient painful erection HYDROLYZABLE TANNINS NONHYDROLYZABLE TANNINS
n blistering fly) (6-24 hrs) • Pyrogallotannins • Phlobatannins/Condensed tannins
• Mature, • Because of • Readily hydrolyzed to yield • Results from the condensation of
metallic, metabolite: NO phenolic acids & sugars catechin & leucocyanidin
shiny, green
• Pyrogallol (metabolic • When treated w/ hydrolytic agents,
luster
product) tends to polymerize yield
3) Psoralens Ammi majus • Methoxsalen – • Photosensitizin phlobaphenes (red, insoluble polymers
(Bishop’s flower) repigmentation in g
à leather, Tanner’s red, corn)
vitiligo furocoumarins
FeCl3 test: Blue-black FeCl3 test: Green-black
• Trioxsalen • CI: Sunlight
Br2 test: (-) Br2 test: (+)
Leather: Bloom Leather: Tanner’s red
QUIZ #2 e.g. Gallic acid
1) Sugar portion of glycosides Red & green is the color of Christmas J
2) General use of anthraquinone glycosides
3) Test to detect the presence of 2-deoxysugars TRUE TANNINS PSEUDO TANNINS
4) Considered as fish poisons Polyhydroxyphenolic compounds Phenolic compounds of plant origin
5) Aka Christmas Rose which convert animal hide to leather that don’t convert animal hide to
by precipitating proteins and give Gold leather but do give Gold beater’s skin
6) Aldehyde glycoside used as flavorant
beater’s skin test (+) test (-)
7) Aka Vitamin P or Permeability factor
MW: 1000-5000 MW: < true tannins
8) Solvent to isolate chrysarobin
9) Present in Movicol
BOTANICAL
10) Test for liberated cyanide TANNINS CONSTITUENTS USES
SOURCE
1) Hammamelis Dried leaf of Hammameli- • Anti-hemorrhoidal
TANNINS leaf /Witch Hammamelis tannins (enlarged BV at
Hazel leaf virginiana anus, commercial)
• Tannins
• Insect bites
§ Non-crystallizable polyphenols (boiled leaves)
§ Complex substances or polypeptides that are difficult to separate because • Astringent
they do NOT crystallize 2) Nutgall • Excresence • Best source of Universal antidote:
§ Toxic obtained from the tannic acid in • MgO – redox
§ Found in bark & roots, NOT fruits so fruits can be eaten bloated, young the market • Tannic acid –
§ Leather, ink twigs of Quercus • *Composite astringent; ppt
infectoria acids: Gallic > protein
• Characteristics of tannins:
(Fagaceae) Ellagic = • Activated Carbon
1) Acidic
• When a Tannic acid – adsorption
2) Sharp puckering taste (like yuckee chewing gum) hymenopterous *NOT that effective
3) Causes precipitation of alkaloids insect, Cynips bec. self-interation
4) Can precipitate proteins; used in the tanning industry tinctoria bores a à Mx: know the
5) Astringent – GI or skin hole to deposit its exact poison
6) Tx of burns ova
• Official sources of tannins in the Philippines: 3) Chinese • (plant) Rhus Gallic acid
/Japanese chinensis
1) Psidium guajava (Guava)
Gall • (insect) Aphis sp.
2) Pithecolobium dulce (Kamatchile)
à Gallic acid
3) Syzigium cumini (Duhat )


Pharmacognosy 4) *Ester value =

mg KOH
LIPIDS saponify ester only in 1g
§ *Not official
FIXED OILS FATS WAXES § S = E+A
Long chain FA + HMW • Extraction:
OH (e.g. cetyl OH, stearyl 1) Expression – for fixed oils only
Long chain FA + glycerol Long chain FA + glycerol
OH) a) Cold-pressed oil: at room temperature; virgin oils
Heavier
b) Hot-pressed oil: any type of heat applied; majority of oils in market
From animals & plants
From vegetables From animals 2) Rendering – for fats only
e.g. human – earwax
Liquid at room temp. Solid at room temp. Semi-solid at room temp. § Sample fat subject to high pressure à separate layers à clarification
Except: (solid) Except: (liquid) Except: § Fatty layer à ozone à rendered fat
• Theobroma • Cod liver • Jojoba (liquid) 3) Solvent extraction – for fats
• Myristica § Best solvent: Hexane
*FA – fatty acid; OH – alcohol • Types of oils:
Fixed oils and fats have almost the same structures. 1) Ability to absorb oxygen
2) O2 saturates double bonds forming oxides that polymerize to form films
• Saturated Fatty Acids: CaLaMyPaStAr 3) Paint industry
1) Caprylic acid IODINE VALUE EXAMPLES
2) Lauric acid Non-drying <100 Olive, almond (NOA)
3) Myristic acid *Noah’s Arc: flood à nondry
4) Palmitic acid Semi-drying 100-120 Cottonseed, sesame (SeCoSe)
5) Stearic acid Drying >120 Linseed, cod liver (LiCod)
*LiCod ay palaging dry
6) Arachidic acid
∆3, 9, 12 • Reaction of Lipids: (based of temperature: ↑ or ↓ temp)
• Unsaturated – with double bonds (e.g. 18:3 )
1) Hydrogenation
• Uses of Lipids:
§ Liquid oil to semi-solid fat
1) Emollients
§ Passing of H with Pd/Ni in 160-200°C
2) Vehicles for IM injection - corn, cottonseed, peanut, sesame (COCOPESE)
§ Shortening and cooking fat
3) Cathartic (castor oil)
2) Sulfation
4) Soap production = lipid base (olive, coconut) + strong base (KOH, NaOH)
§ Reaction with H2SO4 (NOT stable at ↑ temp à temp. at chilling)
5) Increase caloric value for TPN (coma Pt, can’t enteral and oral feed)
§ Sulfates adds to double bonds à surfactants
§ Prepared TPN
§ Commercial TPN – (3) divisions:
a) Carbohydrates – largest A) Fixed oils - mostly concentrated in seeds
b) Amino acid 1) SEED OILS – olive oil NOT included (pericarp)
c) Lipids – top; main source: soya BOTANICAL
SEED OILS CONSTITUENTS TEST, NOTES
• USP tests: *memorize definitions! SOURCE
mg KOH 1) Cottonseed Gossypium Gossypol (0.6%) Halphen-Bevan
1) Acid value/number = oil hirsutum • Male sterility
neut. FA in 1g
(sesame & corn
2) Saponification value/Kottsdorfer/Köettsdorfer = mg KOH only for males –
neut. FA + saponify ester in 1g edible oils)
3) Iodine value = g of I2 absorbed under prescribed conditions of 100g I2 2) Sesame seed Sesamum indicum Sesamol (phenol) Baudouin
oil/Teel/Benne – self-preserving


Pharmacognosy
/Linga Sesamol + lignin = sesamolin ⎯⎯ adjunct
⎯⎯→ pyrethrine • Extracted with less pressure
(pyrethrine aka Lizealiz® – insecticide, antilice) 2) Second grade virgin Olive oil
• Pulp in #1 is extracted with more
3) Coconut Oil Cocos nucifera • Lauric acid Serger’s -
pressure
• Myristic acid hydrogenated
3) Technical oil
• TGC volatile oils
• Extracted with hot water
4) Castor oil/ Ricinus communis • Ricin – toxic Millon’s 4) Sulfur grade
Tangan- • Ricinoleic acid – * Tangan-tangan • Extracted with carbon disulfide
tangan good; cathartic means hawak-
• Inferior quality
hawak)
5) Tournant oil
2 toxic beans:
• Fallen and decomposing fruits
1) Castor bean
2) Crab’s eye/Rosary beads (can sip in the skin)/Jequirty
• Constituent: abrin (toxin, allergy) ü Before drinking alcohol, eat greasy foods to ↓ transport. In Europe, olive oil and
• Red and black portions on the bean beer are taken concomitantly. J

B) Fats & Related Compounds

BOTANICAL
FATS USES NOTES
SOURCE
1) Theobroma Theobroma • Cocoa syrup – • Food for the Gods
5) Peanut oil Arachis hypogaea Aflatoxin Recall – Oil cacao beverage (Aztec & American);
• Fungi growth Nagaraya (yellow) • Cocoa butter – only in celebrations
due to improper suppository base • Nibs
drying because it melts § broken cacao
• Usu. in steamed at 30-35°C kernels (nips,
6) Soybean oil Glycine soja Lecithin M&M’s)
• Regulates § ~cossettes
buildup of • Prepared /breakfast
cholesterol cacao/powdered
• Drink at night cocoa –
(except champorado, Milo,
rosuvastatin) Swiss milk
7) Corn oil Zea mays
8) Safflower oil Catharmus Increase HDL 2) Lanolin Purified fat-like • Water absorbable • Contains 25% H2O
tinctoria substance from ointment base • Anhydrous lanolin
9) Sunflower oil Helianthus anuus Increase HDL the wool of • Emollient (wool fat) - only
Sun – phototropism sheep, Ovis 0.25% H2O (best
10) Ethiodized I2 addition product aries (Bovidae) water absorbable
injection oil of ethyl ester of ointment base)
FA of poppy seed
3) Cod liver oil Gadus morrhua • Sclerosing agent
2) PERICARP OILS to obliterate
varicose veins
PERICARP BOTANICAL
NOTES • Best source of Vit.
OILS SOURCE
A & D (Scott’s
Olive oil Olea europea Grades:
emulsions)
ID test: Millon’s 1) First grade virgin olive oil


Pharmacognosy
4) Undecylenic Pyrolysis of Has antifungal 4) Pinaceae & Rutaceae Pine Family & Lysigenous and
acid ricinoleic acid property Citrus Family schizogenous passages
from castor oil (respectively)
5) Azelaic acid Ozonolysis of • Anti-acne
Castor oil • Component of • PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
lipstick 1) Posses characteristic odor
2) ↑ refractive index (bend light immediately)
C) Waxes § If ↓: NOT fresh (resinified) or w/ contaminant
(bound light)
BOTANICAL CONSTITUENT 3) Optically active
WAXES NOTES
SOURCE S 4) Immiscible w/ H2O but they can be sufficiently soluble
1) Spermaceti Head of spermwhale, Cetyl ester wax to impart their odor in H2O à “aromatic waters”
Physeter § Synthetic spermaceti
macrocephalus § To create candles
• VOLATILE OILS vs FIXED OILS
(first candles) § White candle(Sperma®)
§ Can be distilled from their natural sources
2) Jojoba oil Seeds of Simmondsia Eicosanoic • Only liquid wax
chinensis (Buxaceae) acids: • Hydrogenated form § NO permanent grease on spot test
1) Eicosanol resembles spermaceti § Do NOT become rancid (can no longer be used),
(weak acid) • Along with beeswax: Tx they resinify (oxidized, can still be used)
2) Docosenol hair split ends (but
temporary so use daily) • METHODS OF OBTAINING VOLATILE OILS
3) Beeswax Honeycomb of bees, Myricyl • Yellow wax – unbleached 1) Distillation
or Yellow Apis mellifera palmitate • White wax – bleached TYPE OF DISTILLATION TYPE OF SAMPLE EXAMPLE
Wax yellow wax 1) Water distillation For dry sample Turpentine oil
• USE: Stiffening agent in 2) Water and steam For not too dry & not Clove & cinnamon
plasters and cerates distillation too fresh oils
4) Carnauba Leaves of Copernicia Myricyl USE: Substitute for 3) Steam distillation For fresh samples only Peppermint &
wax punifera cerotate beeswax (economical & spearmint oils
environment friendly – only
4) Destructive Empyreumetric oils Only Pinaceae &
found in leaves; can’t take
distillation aka (heat w/o access of air) Cuppresiaceae
beeswax bec. it’s found at
Incineration
home of bees)
2) Enzymatic actions e.g. mustard (myrosinase)
3) Expression
D) Volatile oils a) Ecuelle a piquer – rolling a fruit rind in a tough lined with sharp tiny
• VOLATILE OILS projections enough to puncture the rind and not the fruit (Rutaceae)
§ Aka Ethereal oils, Essential oils, Essences b) Enfleurage – flower petals on a fatty pomade à Ethanol extraction
§ Odorous principles in various plants (alcohol-based perfume)
§ Colorless and photosensitive (amber bottle)
§ Undergoes: 1)auto-oxidation 2) resinification • COMPONENTS OF VOLATILE OILS
§ Light resistant tight containers in a cool, dry place STEREOPTENE ELEOPTENES
Solid oxidized hydrocarbon portion Liquid hydrocarbon portion
• PLANT FAMILIES (where volatile oils can be found) Examples: MATS Examples: MEEEl
1) Lamiaceae (Labiatae) Mint Family Glandular hair or trichomes • Menthol • Methylsalicylate
2) Piperaceae Pepper Family Modified parenchymal cells • Anethole • Eucalytol
3) Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) Dillweed Family Oil tubes or vittae • Thymol • Eugenol


Pharmacognosy 2. Aromatic compounds

• MEDICINAL AND COMMERCIAL USES: Fabrication of perfumes • Shikimate pathway
1. Top notes
• Most volatile products; they leave skin readily MONOTERPENES
• Lemon, lavender, anise oil MONOTERPENES BOTANICAL SOURCE CONSTITUENTS USES
HYDROCARBON VOLATILE OILS
• Limonene - most commonly used volatile oil in the market
Turpentine oil Pinus palustris • 𝛼 &𝛽-pinene Terpinol
2. Middle notes
• Terpinol (Terpinhydrate®)
• Intermediate tenacity and volatility • Rectified • Expectorant
• Thyme, Neroli and Rose oil turpentine =
• Herbs and spices Turpentine oil +
3. Base note NaOH
• Low volatility and high tenacity ALCOHOL VOLATILE OIL
Peppermint oil Mentha piperita Menthol • Antripruritic
• Aka fixatives: staying power
Mentha arrensis • (+) synthetic (Menthol)
• Most oil-based perfume • Japanese • (-) natural • Flavorant
• Sources: Peppermint) • Carminative
a. Musk • Higher menthol • Stimulant (White
• Dried secretion from the preputial follicles of the male musk deer conc. Flower®)
of asia • Counter-irritant
• Moschus spp. ALDEHYDE VOLATILE OILS
Cinnamon oil (aka • Cinnamomum Cinnamaldehyde • Flavor
Cassia oil) cassia • Carminative
b. Civet
• Cinnamomum • Antiseptic (for
• A glandular secretion appearing outwardly discharging pockets
zeylanicum sore throat)
of Civet cats (Paradoxus hermaphroditus) • Cinnamomum • Chai (masks the
toureirii smell coffee)
c. Ambergris
• Most valuable and most expensive base note Lemon peel oil Rind of the fruit • Citral
• Pathologic product formed in the stomach of spermwhale when it (aka Lemon oil) Citrus limon • Limonene
feeds on squid or cattlefish
Citronella oil Leaves of Citronellal • Teas
• Ambrein – sweet smell Cymbopogon • Insect lotion/
winterianus spray (crushed
• CONSTITUENTS OF VOLATILE OIL leaves)
1. Terpenes
• Natural products whose structures are made up of isoprene units (C5) Hammamelis oil Hammamelis 2-hexanal Hemorrhoidal
[building blocks] virginiana preparation
KETONE VOLATILE OILS
• Acetate-mevalonate pathway
Camphor Cinnamomum • Natural • Anti-pruritic,
NAME # OF ISOPRENE UNITS # OF CARBONS camphora camphor: (+) rubefacient,
Monoterpenes 2 10 anti-infective
• Synthetic
Sesquiterpenes 3 15 camphor: • Camphor +
Diterpenes 4 20 racemic (±) menthol =
Triterpenes 6 30 eutectic mixture
Tetraterpenes 8 40 = lower m.p.


Pharmacognosy
Spearmint Mentha spicata (-) carvone ESTER VOLATILE OIL
***(+) carvone has Gaultheria oil/ • Gaultheria Methyl salicylate Methyl salicylate
same odor as Wintergreen oil/ procumbens (Efficascent®,
Caraway Betula Oil/ Sweet • Betula lenta Katinko®)
Birch oil
Buchu oil Berosma betulina Diosphenol • For menstrual
problems (by
shortening RESINS & RESIN COMBINATIONS
periods of
cramps)
• Carminative Resins
• Anti-rheumatic • Amorphous products with complex chemical nature
PHENOL VOLATILE OILS • Hard transparent or translucent but when heated, they soften and melt
Thyme Thymus vulgaris Thymol Antifungal & • End product of resinification of volatile oils, do not become rancid
antibacterial • Complex mixtures of:
o Resin acids
Clove Oil Eugenia Eugenol Toothache drops: o Resin alcohols
caryophyllus dental analgesic o Resinotannols
(used by “old” o Esters
dentists) • Resenes - B-complex neutral substances devoid of characteristics

Creosote oil Facus grandiflorus Creosole Hospital Resin Combinations

disinfectant like 1. Oleoresin = Resin + VO
Guiacol 2. Oleo-Gum-Resin = Resin + VO + Gum
3. Balsams = resin + any aromatic compound (cinnamic, benzoic or esters of these
Juniper tar Juniperus Cadinene Anti-eczema in acids
oxycedrus Polytar® 4. Resin acids = oxyacids (-COOH and phenol)
PHENOL VOLATILE OILS 5. Glycoresin = resin + carbohydrate
Nutmeg or Myristica fragrans • Safrole Hallucinogen
Myristica Oil • Myristicin (date-rape drug) A) Resins
Anise Pimpinella anisum • Trans- Flavoring RESINS BOTANICAL ORIGIN USES
anethole 1. Rosin/Colophony Pinus palustris • Sharp fragments
• Anisaldehyde • Amber in color
2. Podophyllum Podophyllum peltatum • Podophyllum
Fennel Foeniculum • Fenchone (American mandrake/May o Caustic agent for
vulgare • Trans- apple) warts
anethole • Peltatin
o Purgative
Chinese star anise Illicium verum Trans-anethole NOT atsuete (Bixa • Podophyllotoxin
orellana) o Anticancer
OXIDE VOLATILE OILS o Etoposide,
Eucalyptus Eucalyptus Cineole = cajuptol Cineole (Vicks®) Teniposide
Oil/Cajuput oil globulus + eucalyptol • Most innovative 3. Yerba Eriodictyon californicum Paralysis of bitter
(Myrtaceae) • Sternutatory – santa/Eriodictyon tastebuds for masking the
inhaler, irritant bitter taste of quinine
4. Jalapin or Purganol From root of Exodonium Drastic purgative
purge (Jalap)


Pharmacognosy
5. Masticin Pistacia lentiscus (Mastic) • ~Mastic bone D) Balsams
• Used to seal dental
6. Styrylpyrones: Piper methysticum (Kava- • Tranquilizer (NOT BALSAMS BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES
Methysticin, Yangonin, kava) kinakavahan J) Storax/ Styrax Liquidambar • Storesin 𝛼&𝛽 For preparation
Kawain • Smooth muscle relaxant orientalis • Levant’s storax of Compound
7. Resin: Hashish Tops of Cannabis sativa Medical Marijuana – w/o (official Benzoin Tincture
Constituents: THC, (Cannabis/Indian addictive substance commercial (w/ Aloe)
Cannabidiol, Nabilone hemp/Marijuana/Pot) source of
𝛼&𝛽storicin)
Peru balsam Myroxylon pereirae Parasiticide

B) Oleoresins Tolu balsam Myroxylon balsamum • Expectorant

• Flavorant
BOTANICAL ORIGIN OLEORESIN & USES
Pinus palustris Turpentine/Gum Turpentine Benzoin Styrax benzoin Major component
• Sumatra - of Compound
Capsicum frutescens Capsaicin Indonesia Benzoin Tincture
(Capsicum/Cayenne Pepper) • Rich in Vit. C • Siam - Thailand
• African chilies: Labuyo • Irritant
• Louisiana long pepper: Siling Haba

Zingiber officinale (Ginger) Bisabolene, zingeberol ALKALOIDS

• Carminative, stomachic, mouthwash

Pinus strobus (White Pine) Alkaloids

• Bitter, basic, nitrogenous compounds
Copaifera spp. Balsam of Copaiba • Physiologically active
• NOT TRUE balsam • Most of them end in –ine

*All alkaloids are solid except for:

1) Coniine (Coniium maculatum)
C) Oleo-Gum-Resins • “Poison Hemlock”
• Killed Socrates
OLEO-GUM-RESINS BOTANICAL ORIGIN USES 2) Arecoline
Myrrh/Gum myrrh Commiphora molmol • Embalming agent 3) Nicotine
• Astringent 4) Spartein
• Astring-o-sol - preserves • Anti-arrhythmic
tissues & integrity of
mouth • (2) Official Sources:
a) Lupinus mutabilis (Lupin)
Asafetida Ferula asafetida (Devil’s Most fetid resin b) Cysticus coparious (Scotch Broom)
Dung)
Alkaloidal reagents:
• Form double salts with compounds of mercury, gold, platinum and other heavy
metals


Pharmacognosy REAGENT COMPOSITION MNEMONICS

B) Tropane Alkaloids
Wagner’s reagent Iodine in KI WIKI
COMMON NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES & NOTES
Mayer’s reagent Potassium mercuric iodide MaMeKI 1) Belladonna Atropa belladonna (-) hyoscyamine Anticholinergic, mydriatic
(Deadly à atropine à blindness
Valser’s reagent Mercuric iodide - Nightshade)
ATROPINE
Dragendorff’s reagent Potassium bismuth iodide DraKBIO • Antispasmodic
• Antisialogogue
Bouchdart’s reagent Iodine in KI, most sensitive • Mydriatic and cycloplegic
- paralysis of upper lids
Marme’s reagent K cadmium iodide MM • Antidote for
cholinesterase inhibtors
Sonnencheim’s reagent Phosphomolybdic acid Son in PMA • (+) inotropic agent

Scheibler’s reagent Phosphotungstic acid Sch in PTA 2) Hyoscyamus Leaves of Scopolamine, Toxic to swine
or Henbane Hyoscyamus niger, hyoscyamine
Hager’s reagent Picric acid 0.04%

Gold compounds - - 3) Egyptian Hyscyamus

hyoscyamus muticus, 1.5%
Tannic acid - -
4) Duboisia Duboisia Commercial source of
myoporoides atropine
A) Pyridine - Piperidine
5) Withania Withania Commercial source of
COMMON NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES somnifera atropine
1) Nicotine Leaves of Nicotine • CNS stimulant
Nicotiana tabacum 6) Stramonium Datura Hyoscine/ • Tx of motion sickness
• Smoking deterrent
or Jimson stramonium Scopolamine (Trans-scop® or
(Nicorette®)
weed or (Solanaceae) Transderm®)
Jamestown • Burnt: inhale à help in
***CYP inducer
weed respiratory distress
2) Areca / Dried ripe seed of Arecoline • Anthelminthic-taenicide
Areca Nut / Areca catechu (Arecoline) 7) Mandragora Roots of Mandragorin Emetic (Mandragorin)
Betel Nut • Tannin content causes or European Mandragora
Mandrake officinarum
oropharyngeal cancer
• “Nganga”
8) Coca • Erythroxylon Cocaine aka • Psychomotor stimulant,
o Masticatory
coca (Huanuco “Crack”, “coke” local anesthetic
stimulant (gives
heat, Mt. Province) coca) • Brompton’s cocktail
o Causes salivation • E. truxillense o For alcoholic
o Stains teeth (Truxillo coca) o Before: for cancer
3) Lobella / Lobella inflata Lobeline patients (analgesic)
• CNS stimulant
Indian o Now: Morphine
• Smoking deterrent
tobacco • (Bantron®)


Pharmacognosy 2) Sanguinaria or Sanguinaria Sanguinarine • Expectorant

C) Quinoline Alkaloids Blood Root canadensis • Emetic
(bloody red)
3) Tubocurarine Strychnos Tubocurarine • Skeletal muscle
COMMON NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES & NOTES chloride aka castelnaei relaxant
1) Cinchona Cinchona Cinconine and (see below) Curare or South • Assay: Head Drop Assay
succirubra (Red Cinchonidine American Arrow in rabbits
Cinchona Bark) (Parent Poison
alkaloids: no 4) Opium/Gum Unripe poppy (see below) SE: Constipation
Cinchona calisaya alkaloids) à Opium aka “Stone seed capsules Only legal source is India
(Yellow Cinchona Quinine & of immortality” of Papaver
Bark) Quinidine somniferum

INDICATION TOXICITY OPIUM NOTES USES or SE

Quinine “Cinchonism” OPIATES - naturally-occuring
• DOC for Malaria • Cinchona toxicity a) Morphine • Most important Narcotic analgesic
• Artemisinin Combination • Temporary loss of hearing • Most abundant
Therapy (ACT) = Artemisinin + • Hallmark: tinnitus
Quinidine • Should taper dose b) Codeine aka • Pierre Robiquet Antitussive
o Artemisia annua Methylmorphine (Robitussin)
(Wormwood) • Most widely used
o Artemether - lipid soluble
opium alkaloid (cough
o Artesunate - water soluble syrup)
• Obtained from
Quinidine
methylation of
• Anti-arrhythmic Class IA
morphine
2) Cuprea Remijia pyrdiena Quinidine • Commercial source of c) Noscapine aka Only non-narcotic opium Antitussive
(Cupressaceae) quinidine Anarcotin/Narcotine alkaloid
• Destructive distillation
d) Papaverine • Smooth muscle
relaxant
D) Isoquinoline Alkaloids • Antitussive

e) Thebane No particular use

COMMON NAME BOTANICAL CONSTITUENT USES & NOTES
ORIGIN
OPIOIDS - derived, synthetic, direct affinity with opioid receptors à addiction
1) Ipecac Dried rhizome Emetine or • Most potent emetic a) Diacetylmorphine or Acetylation of morphine Increased danger of habit
root of Methylcephaelin (Ipecac Syrup) Heroin formation; very potent
Cephaelis o Ipecac fluidextract b) Hydromorphone • More potent analgesic
ipecacanhua (14x more potent
than syrup) • Less frequent SE
(constipation)
o Ipecac + Opium =
Dover’s powder • More addicting than
(diaphoretic) heroin
• Amoebic
(Methylcephaelin) c) Apomorphine Condensation of morphine Emetic
+ HCl
d) Hydrocodone Antitussive


Pharmacognosy
E) Indole Alkaloids F) Imidazole Alkaloids

NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES & NOTES 1) Pilocarpine

1) Rawolfia Dried root of Reserpine • Folkloric: Tx of • Leaflets of Pilocarpus jaborandii
serpentina Rauwolfia snakebites (NO!
• Treatment of Glaucoma (same MOA w/ eserine)
serpentina antivenom only) &
insanity (sedative)
• Hypotensive effects G) Steroidal Alkaloids
(proven)
• Sedating and NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN USES
tranquilizing properties 1) Green Hellebore/ From roots of Veratrum • Cardiac depressant
American Hellebore viride • (-) inotrope
2) Catharanthus Catharanthus • Vincristine Antineoplastic
or Vinca roseus • Vinblastine • Prostate Cancer ***Black Hellebore
alkaloids • Leukemia • Cardiac stimulant
• Hodgkin’s Lymphoma • (+) inotrope
3) Nux Vomica • Dried ripe seed of • Strychnine • Strychnine - toxic 2) White Hellebore Roots of Veratrum album Insecticide
Strychnos nux • Brucine central stimulant
vomica • Brucine - alcohol
• Official source: denaturant
Strychnos ignatii
(St. Ignatius H) Alkaloidal Amines
Bean)
NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN CONSTITUENT USES & NOTES
4) Calabar, Physostigma Physostigmine Tx of glaucoma (↓ Ephedra/Ma Overground portion Ephedrine • Nasal decongestant
Ordeal, or venenosum or Eserine intraocular pressure, ↑ Huang of Ephedra sinica • Bronchodilator
Esere bean prod’n of aqueous humor)
Colchicine Colchicum Colchicine • Can double
5) Ergot Dried sclerotium of • Ergonovine • Ergotamine autumnale chromosomes in DNA
Claviceps purpurea o Oxytocic agent o DOC for (Liliaceae) • Acute gout
on rye, Secale for labor Migraine
cereale o Derivatives: • Lysergic Acid Khat/Abyssynian Fresh leaves of Cathinone Only alkaloid that can
Ergometrine, Diethylamide (LSD) Tea Catha edulis mimic methamphetamine
Methylsergide o Most active and
• Ergometrine most specific Peyote/Mescal Dried tops of Mescaline • Hallucinogen
o Oxytocic agent psychomimetic Buttons Lophophora • Euphoric agent
for labor drug williamsii
• Methylsergide o Hallucinogen
o Prophylactic Tx o Prisoners of war
for migraine observed when
psychotic


Pharmacognosy SAMPUNG HALAMANG GAMOT

I) Purine Alkaloids / Methylxanthines TAGALOG NAME COMMON NAME
BOTANICAL
USE/S
SOURCE
Akapulko Ringworm Bush Cassia alata Antifungal
NAME BOTANICAL ORIGIN USES & NOTES Momordica
1) Caffeine aka 1,3,7- Kola/Kola Nuts • Decaffeinated: 0.08% Ampalaya Bittergourd Hypoglycemic agent
charantia
trimethylxanthines • Dried cotyledon of Cola • Caffeine + Chlorgenic Bawang Garlic Allium sativum Decrease cholesterol
mitida ∆ *+,-.
Bayabas Guava Psidium guajava Antibacterial
acid coffeole
5-leaved Chaste
Coffee bean Lagundi Vitex negundo Cough
Tree
• Dried seeds of C. arabica, Chinese
C. liberica, C. robusta Niyug-Niyogan Quisqualis indica Anthelminthic
Honeysuckle
Blumea
2) Theophylline aka 1,3- Leaf buds of Carmellia • Tx of bronchial asthma Sambong Ngai Camphor Diuretic
balsamifera
dimethylxanthines sinensis (prev; now: Scorpion Bush or
aminophylline) Tsaang-gubat Carmina retusa Antidiarrheal
Fukien Tea Tree
Tea • Tocolytic Ulasimang Bato / Peperomia
• Green tea Peperomia Gout
Pansit-pansitan pellucida
o China & Japan Aminophylline Marsh Mint or
o Brewed • For pediatric bronchial Yerba Buena Mentha xcordifolia Analgesic
Pepprmint
o Fresh asthma
• Black tea • Semi-synthetic How about the plants in the song “Bahay Kubo”? J Fill up the table.
o India & Sri Lanka theophylline derivative
o Decomposed TAGALOG NAME COMMON NAME BOTANICAL SOURCE
o Fermented 1) Singkamas
2) Talong
3) Theobromine aka 3,7- Seed of Theobroma cacao Diuretic in cardiac &
dimethylxanthines pulmonary edema 3) Sigarilyas
4) Mani
5) Sitaw
6) Bataw
7) Patani
8) Kundol
9) Patola
10) Upo
11) Kalabasa
12) Labanos
13) Mustasa
14) Sibuyas
15) Kamatis
16) Bawang
17) Luya
18) Linga