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Unit -1 HUMAN LEARNING

1.2 LEARNING THEORIES

Topic

Unit -1 HUMAN LEARNING

Objectives:
By the end  of this  Topic you should be able to.

Define Human Learning and its process

List out the types of Human Learning
Describe the Concepts of  Different Human  Learning Theories
understand the meaning of concepts
Analyse the different levels of  concept  Attainment
Identify the Needs of Different Human  Learning Theories in Teaching 
Understand Different Perspectives of Theories
Take part in different learning situations
Compare Human learning with different Examples
Participates in group discussions and give additional examples

Human learning :
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare the simple,
crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his
skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what difference learning has made to
the individual.The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment.
This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it.
Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated above
the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics are all the
result of learning.Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent change in behaviour that
occurs as a result of practice and experience”. This definition has three important elements.
 

Meaning :
Human learning is a process of acquiring knowledge. Our behavior, skills, values and ethics are
acquired when we process information through our minds and learn. Human learning may occur
as part of education, personal development or any other informal/formal training. Children learn
while they play, experiment, and interact. However, the process of learning is a continuous
process. We constantly learn, unlearn and relearn through our experiences. To express ideas, to
inform people, to communicate, to create etc we need to learn.Learning is “a process that leads
to  change, which occurs as a result of  experience  and increases the potential for improved
performance and future learning” (Ambrose et al, 2010). The change in the learner may happen at
the level of knowledge, attitude or behavior. As a result of learning, learners come to see concepts,
ideas, and/or the world differently.Learning is not something done  to students, but rather
something students themselves do. It is the direct result of how students interpret and respond to
their experiences.While there are disciplinary differences in what students learn, it is important to
keep in mind that learning content or information constitutes only one part of learning in
university courses.Regardless of the field of study, students need to have significant opportunities
to develop and practice intellectual skills/thinking processes (e.g. problem-solving, scientific
inquiry), motor skills and attitudes/values that are important to their fields of study. In addition,
students need opportunities to develop interpersonal and social skills (often referred to as soft
skills) that are important for professional and personal success. Examples of these skills include
teamwork, effective communication, conflict resolution and creative thinking. As teaching
assistants and instructors, we need to keep in mind that there is much more to learning than
content and that we should pay attention not only to the content but also to thinking processes and
other types of learning.

Definitions 
  1. “A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a period of time and is not simply
ascribable to processes of growth". Robert Gagne.

 2 “Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience. This
definition has three components:
1) the duration of the change is long-term rather than short-term;

2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or the behavior of the learner;

3) the cause of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs,
physical condition or physiologic intervention.”  Richard E. Mayer 

3. “We define learning as the transformative process of  taking in information that—when internalized and
mixed with what we have experienced changes what we know and builds on what we do. It’s based on input,
process, and reflection. It is what changes us.”  Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner

4. “It has been suggested that the term learning defies precise definition because it is put to multiple uses.
Learning is used to refer to

(1) The acquisition and mastery of what is already known about something,

(2) The extension and clarification of meaning of one’s experience, or

(3) An organized, intentional process of testing ideas relevant to problems. In other words, it is used to
describe a product, a process, or a function.”  R.M. Smith

5. “Acquiring knowledge and skills and having them readily available from memory so you can make sense of
future problems and opportunities.” Peter C. Brown, Henry L. Roediger III, Mark A. McDaniel.

6.“A  process  that leads to  change, which occurs as a result of  experience  and increases the potential of
improved performance and future learning.”  Susan Ambrose, et al.

7..“The process of gaining knowledge and expertise.”  Malcolm Knowles.

8..“Learning involves strengthening correct responses and weakening incorrect responses. Learning involves
adding new information to your memory.  Learning involves making sense of the presented material by
attending  to relevant information, mentally reorganizing it, and connecting it  with what you already
know.”  Ruth C. Clark and Richard E. Mayer.

9. “A persisting change in human performance or performance potential…[which] must come about as a result
of the learner’s experience and interaction with the world.”  M. Driscoll.

10. “Learning is a process that occurs within nebulous environments of shifting core elements – not entirely
under the control of the individual. Learning (defined as actionable knowledge) can reside outside of ourselves
(within an organization or a database), is focused on connecting specialized information sets, and the
connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of knowing.”  George
Seimens

A Step Ahead
 watch a video

What is Human Learning? How d…

d…

Nature of Human Learning:

A new born child is helpless at birth. He depends upon others. But in due course, he learns a
number of things. He learns to crawl, stand, walk, run, eat, speak, dress etc. The process of
learning continues till death. Even an adult during the course of his daily routine goes on learning
and adding to his experience. Why does a person learn? He learns because he has to make
adjustment in the changing environment. The stimulus from the environment is there on the one
hand.On the other hand, there are innate dispositions instincts and emotions. Guided by these
dispositions a person goes on learning i.e., constructing and reconstructing his experience
throughout his life, at all its stages.Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is
learning. If we compare the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the
complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will
know what difference learning has made to the individual.The individual is constantly interacting
with and influenced by the environment. This experience makes him to change or modify his
behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour,
influenced by previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes,
interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.All learning involves
activities. These activities involve either physical or mental activities. They may be simple mental
activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may be
very simple involving one or two activities of mind or complex which involve higher mental
activities.What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For example,
habits, skills, facts, etc. 

Types of  Learning:

1. Motor learning:

Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn
them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving,
climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.

2. Verbal learning:

This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs,
pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words
for communication.

3. Concept learning:

It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and
attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning
involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in
recognising, identifying things.

4. Discrimination learning:

Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is
called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car,
ambulance, etc.

5. Learning of principles:

Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or
more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.

6. Problem solving:
This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as
thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome
difficult problems encountered by the people.

7. Attitude learning:

Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different
attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour
may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her
profession, patients, etc.

Levels of Human Learning

There are four levels of Human Learning:

1.Unconscious Incompetence:

Unconscious Incompetence is a stage where we don’t know what we don’t know. This means that
we are not even aware of certain things in this universe. We have no awareness of the existence of
certain kind of knowledge. The individual does not understand or know how to do something and
does not necessarily recognize this.

2.Conscious Incompetence.

conscious Incompetence This means we know what we don’t know. There are certain things
which exist and which we are aware of however, we consciously know for a fact that we don’t
know it. Though the individual does not understand or know how to do something, he or she does
recognize this. The making of mistakes can be integral to the learning process at this stage.
Example: a person knows that he or she does not know how to drive.

3. Conscious competence.

Conscious competence Here individuals are aware of the learning that has taken place. We know
what we know. The individual understands or knows how to do something. Execution of the skill
plays an important part in this learning process. It requires a lot of concentration. Example: An
individual knows for a fact that he or she can cook and when they do that, they must perform the
process with concentration.

 4.Unconscious competence
Unconscious competence This means that we don’t know what we know. Sometimes, we as
individuals have had so much practice with a particular skill that it almost becomes our second
nature. And this we can perform with utmost ease. As a result, the skill can be performed while
doing other things as well. These skills may be taught to other individuals as well, depending
upon how and when it was learned.

Concept formation:
Concepts are mental categories used to group objects, events, information, etc. For example,
despite the various available designs, brands, and unique structures of chairs, you know a chair
when you see one. That is because you have a concept of what a chair is. Another example is the
concept of clothes. Clothes may be in the form of a dress, a shirt, jeans, shorts, etc., and may be
worn by different people, even by animals and toys. Despite these variations, you can easily
identify which of the things you see around you are clothes and which are chairs. That is because
you have clear concepts of what chairs and what clothes are supposed to be. Concepts are defined
as abstract ideas or general notions that occur in the mind, in speech, or in thought. They are
understood to be the fundamental building blocks of thoughts and beliefs. They play an important
role in all aspects of  cognition.  As such, concepts are studied by several disciplines, such as
linguistics, psychology, and philosophy, and these disciplines are interested in the logical and
psychological structure of concepts, and how they are put together to form thoughts and
sentences. The study of concepts has served as an important flagship of an emerging
interdisciplinary approach called cognitive science.

In contemporary philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what a concept
is:

Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities that exist in the mind (mental
objects)

Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitive agents (mental states)

Concepts as Fregean senses (see sense and reference), where concepts are abstract objects, as

opposed to mental objects and mental states

Concepts can be organized into a hierarchy, higher levels of which are termed "superordinate" and
lower levels termed "subordinate". Additionally, there is the "basic" or "middle" level at which
people will most readily categorize a concept.  For example, a basic-level concept would be
"chair", with its superordinate, "furniture", and its subordinate, "easy chair".
The Process of Concept Formation
Concepts are formed in two ways - according to its defining properties (classical model), and
according to the typical characteristics of its members (prototype model). The classical model
clearly defines a triangle as a geometric shape with three sides and 180 degrees interior angles.
The prototype model, on the other hand, defines a concept according to the general characteristics
of its members. The prototype model is particularly useful when not all the members share the
same characteristics, only similar ones. For example, it is often difficult to think of whales and
bats as mammals because most mammals walk on land. However, all of them have mammary
glands, don't lay eggs, and have fur. The prototype model was proposed by Eleanor Rosch (1993)
when she argued that membership in a concept is often graded according to how the members
meet the defining characteristics of the prototype.

Steps of Concept Attainment:

1. Select and define a concept
2. Select the attributes

3. Develop positive and negative examples

4. Introduce the process to the students

5. Present the examples and list the attributes

6. Develop a concept definition

7. Give additional examples

8. Discuss the process with the class

9. Evaluate

The Functions and Purpose of Concepts

We use concepts for different purposes:

1. For generalizing information. We use concepts to generalize from membership patterns

and relationships. To illustrate, suppose we don't have a concept for ball pens. Every time we
see one, we would go through a lot of effort to know how it works, how to use it, and what it
is for, similar to a baby seeing a ball pen for the first time.
2. For making associations and discriminations. Some concepts are sub-concepts of a more

general concept. For example, the general concept of a book has sub-concepts for novels,
textbooks, dictionaries, etc. These sub-concepts are associated with each other in terms of
 the general concept of "book", but they are discriminated to different sub-concepts in such a
way that you can distinguish them from each other.
3. For speeding up memory. Suppose you're reading a fiction novel titled "All About Jamie".

In the first paragraph, the author describes what Jamie looks like. Despite mentioning
Jamie's name only once, and further using "she" to refer to her, you know that the paragraph
is about Jamie because you have a concept of what pronouns are and how they are being
used in a text.
4. For guiding actions and behaviors.  Your concept of food tells you what to eat; your

concept of chair tells you where to sit; and, your concept of bed tells you where to sleep.
Imagine if you don't have concepts for each of those; you would eat just about anything, and
sit and sleep just about anywhere. An infant is an example of someone who has undeveloped
concepts of food, chair, and bed.

Bruner’s Cognitive Development Theory

According to Jerome S. Bruner, “A theory of instruction, is concerned with how, what one wishes
to teach, can best be learned, with improving rather than describing learning  Bruner in his book
‘The process of Education’ explained the theories of instruction.  According to him it is
prescriptive since it prescribe rules for achieving knowledge or skills and guiding techniques for
measuring or evaluating the outcomes.  It will be of normal type since it aims at goals to be
achieved and deals with conditions to meet them.

Bruner has also suggested four important features of the theory of instruction.  They are:

1. Predisposition to Learn  : Predispose means, “liable before the event”. This theory is
concerned with the experiences and contexts which will tend to make the child willing and
able to learn when he enters the school.
2. Structure of Knowledge: It must prescribe the ways in which a body of knowledge is to be

structured so that it will be easily learnt by the learner.

3. Sequence : A theory of instruction would specify the most effective sequence in which the
learning materials are to be presented to the students effectively.
4. Reinforcement : A theory of instruction must specify the nature of rewards, moving from

extrinsic rewards to intrinsic rewards.

          The developmental aspect of Bruner’s theory centres around his interest in

cognitive development.

Concept Map 
It is a great use having the concept map in explaining the general principles formed out of many
related ideas.  Concept map is also used to explain the mutual relationships existing between the
various general principles.  The relationship between various ideas put forth in a lesson and the
way they lead to the general principles are understood with the help of concept map. Concept map
helps to understand how the different general principles are themselves related.  It is very useful in
preparing a classified summary of the ideas learnt in a lesson. Here, in the concept map, starting
from a general principle, every idea has to be put in a hierarchical order. ‘Linkage’ and Cross
Linkage’ between the different general principles are to be indicated.  In preparing the lesson for
his class, the teacher is helped to a large extent by this concept map.

The students can be given concept map as a follow-up activity.  So that it forms stimulated home
assignment.  The analytical thinking is students in promoted by it and their learning become
comprehensive and meaningful.  Thus, concept map is a helpful tool in the learning process.

 for more information  Please click here

What is the Concept Attainment Model?

The Concept Attainment model is an instructional strategy founded on the works of Jerome
Bruner. Built on the principle of concept formation, the Concept Attainment model promotes
student learning through a process of structured inquiry.The model helps students to understand
and learn concepts by identifying attributes or key features through a process of analysis,
comparison, and contrasting of examples. Two sets of examples are used in this strategy –  Yes
(examples that have attributes of the concept) and No (examples that do not have attributes of the
concept) examples.

Concept Attainment Model in Practice

 Teacher can Introduced as a whole-class activity, this instructional strategy can be implemented
using the following steps:

Preparation:

Choose a concept with well-defined attributes.

Prepare “yes” and “no” examples. Some of the yes examples should have a high attribute
value (meaning it should be a clear representative of the concept)

In the classroom:

Introduce and explain the strategy.

 Draw two columns on the board and title them as “Yes” and “No.”
Present each example and write them in the appropriate column. Start with three examples in
each column.
Instruct students to analyze and compare the examples, within the group (find similar
attributes in the “yes” group) and between the groups (find how “yes” and “no” examples
differ from each other). Write the attributes listed by the students on the other side of the
board.
Add three more examples to each column. Instruct students to refine the attribute list by
analysing the additional examples.
Ask students if they are able to identify the concept, but not to say it out aloud. Students who
have identified the concept can be encouraged to add more “yes” examples to the column.
Encourage other students to examine the student-generated examples to identify the concept.
Teachers can assist by modelling the thought process to help other students identify the
concept. Once identified, help students define it using the list of identified attributes.
To test for understanding, have students suggest more “yes” and “no” examples of the
concept with explanations. Or, teachers can present students with examples and instruct
them to categorize them as “yes” or “no”.

Practicing the Strategy

Divide the class into small groups or pairs and provide them with  Concept Attainment
Worksheets. (A sample is included at the end.)Instruct students to find the essential attributes of a
concept, identify the concept, and define it. An additional sheet with random examples can be
included which students can be instructed to categorize. At the end of the session, each group can
present and discuss their findings.

Teachers can combine the Concept Attainment model with the Carousel method, placing different
concept worksheets at different workstations. Each group starts from one workstation and
eventually visits each workstation identifying attributes and recording them. At the end of the
carousel, groups return to their original workstations and using the information recorded, try to
identify and define their concepts. Each group can then present their concept to the class, teaching
using the Concept Attainment model.

The Concept Attainment model serves as a powerful teaching and learning strategy. For teachers,
it is advantageous to use the model to introduce and teach new concepts through an active,
student-center  , inquiry-based approach. Simultaneously, the model as a learning strategy helps
students to:
 Link past knowledge with new information
Critically analyze, compare, and categorize information

Examine and understand a concept from multiple perspectives, strengthening understanding and
retrieval of the concept

watch a video lesson on concept attainment click here

Check your progress

1. What is learning? Give two definitions of learning?

2. Explain the Nature of Human  Learning ?

3. what are the types of Learning?

4. what are Concepts?Explain the different levels of Concepts Attainment?

5. How  Teacher can help the students in Concept Formation?

External links

How Did the Cognitive Revolution Take Place in Psychology?

How Are Concepts Formed?
How Do We Solve Problems?
What are the Higher-Order of Mental Processes?
Is Language Related to Thinking?
How Do We Acquire and Develop Language?

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