CHAPTER 9

Analog Links

In telecommunication networks the trend has been to link telephone exchanges with digital circuits.
A major reason for this was the introduction of digital integrated-circuit technology, which offered a
reliable and economic method of transmitting both voice and data signals. Since the initial applications
of fiber optics were to telecommunication networks, its first widespread usage has involved digital
links. However, in many instances it is more advantageous to transmit information in its original analog
form instead of first converting it to a digital format. Some examples of this are microwave-multiplexed
signals,1 subscriber services using hybrid fiber/coax (HFC), video distribution, radio-over-fiber antenna
remoting,1–10 and radar signal processing. Most analog applications use laser diode transmitters, so we
concentrate on this optical source here.
When implementing an analog fiber optic system, the main parameters to consider are the carrier-
to-noise ratio, bandwidth, spur free dynamic range, and signal distortion resulting from nonlinearities
in the transmission system. Section 9.1 describes the general operational aspects and components of
an analog fiber optic link. Traditionally, in an analog system a carrier-to-noise ratio analysis is used
instead of a signal-to-noise ratio analysis, since the information signal is normally superimposed on a
radio-frequency (RF) carrier. Thus in Sec. 9.2 we examine carrier-to-noise ratio requirements. This is
first done for a single channel under the assumption that the information signal is directly modulated
onto an optical carrier.
For transmitting multiple signals over the same channel, a subcarrier modulation SCM technique can
be used. In this method, which is described in Sec. 9.3, the information signals are first superimposed
on ancillary RF subcarriers. These carriers then are combined and the resulting electrical signal is used
to modulate the optical carrier. A limiting factor in these systems is the signal impairment arising from
harmonic and intermodulation distortions.
In SCM techniques the RF subcarriers are multiplexed in the electrical domain and then are superimposed
on an optical carrier. For example, these could be the 6-MHz video signals used in CATV systems. As a result
of the emerging use of broadband wireless communication devices, schemes have been investigated and
implemented for using analog optical fiber links for distributing broadband microwave-frequency signals
in a variety of applications. The methods for transmitting microwave analog signals in the 0.3 to 300-GHz
range over an optical fiber link have become known as RF-over-fiber techniques. Section 9.4 examines
the basics of these techniques. Section 9.5 gives an example of radio-over-fiber links used for in-building
distributed antenna systems to provide wireless LAN and mobile telephony services over a single fiber.
 Analog Links 351

To enable the efficient application of RF-over-fiber techniques, the field of microwave photonics
came into existence. Research in this field encompasses the study and applications of photonic devices
operating at microwave frequencies. In addition to device developments, microwave photonics also
addresses optical signal processing at microwave speeds and the design and implementation of RF
photonic transmission systems. Section 9.6 gives a brief overview of microwave-photonic components
and their uses.

9.1 Overview of Analog Links

Figure 9.1 shows the basic elements of an analog link. The transmitter contains either an LED or a laser
diode optical source. As noted in Sec. 4.5 and shown in Fig. 4.39, in analog applications, one first sets
a bias point on the source approximately at the midpoint of the linear output region. The analog signal
can then be sent using one of several modulation techniques. The simplest form for optical fiber links is
direct intensity modulation, wherein the optical output from the source is modulated simply by varying
the current around the bias point in proportion to the message signal level. Thus the information signal
is transmitted directly in the baseband.
A somewhat more complex but often more efficient method is to translate the baseband signal
onto an electrical subcarrier prior to intensity modulation of the source. This is done using standard
amplitude-modulation (AM), frequency-modulation (FM), or phase-modulation (PM) techniques.11 No
matter which method is implemented, one must pay careful attention to signal impairments in the optical
source. These include harmonic distortions, intermodulation products, relative intensity noise (RIN) in
the laser, and laser clipping.12
In relation to the fiber optic element shown in Fig. 9.1, one must take into account the frequency
dependence of the amplitude, phase, and group delay in the fiber. Thus the fiber should have a flat
amplitude and group-delay response within the passband required to send the signal free of linear distortion.
In addition, since modal-distortion-limited bandwidth is difficult to equalize, it is best to choose a
single-mode fiber. The fiber attenuation is also important, since the carrier-to-noise performance of the
system will change as a function of the received optical power.
The use of an optical amplifier in the link leads to additional noise, known as amplified spontaneous
emission (ASE), which is described in Chapter 11. In the optical receiver, the principal impairments are
quantum or shot noise, APD gain noise, and thermal noise.

Optical signal CNR

Electrical Electrical
analog Optical analog
Optical Optical Optical
input fiber output
transmitter amplifier detector
signal channel signal to
RF receiver
Harmonic distortion Modal distortion ASE noise Shot noise
Intermodulation Attenuation Thermal noise
RIN GVD Amplifier noise
Laser clipping APD gain noise

Fig. 9.1 Basic elements of an analog link and the major noise contributors
 352 Optical Fiber Communications

9.2 Carrier-to-Noise Ratio

In analyzing the performance of analog systems, one usually calculates the ratio of rms carrier power
to rms noise power at the input of the RF receiver following the photodetection process. This is known
as the carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR). Let us look at some typical CNR values for digital and analog
data. For digital data, consider the use of frequency-shift keying (FSK). In this modulation scheme, the
amplitude of a sinusoidal carrier remains constant, but the phase shifts from one frequency to another
to represent binary signals. For FSK, BERs of 10–9 and 10–15 translate into CNR values of 36 (15.6 dB) and
64 (18.0 dB), respectively. The analysis for analog signals is more complex, since it sometimes depends
on user perception of the signal quality, such as in viewing a television picture. A widely used analog
signal is a 525-line studio-quality television signal. Using amplitude modulation (AM) for such a signal
requires a CNR of 56 dB, since the need for bandwidth efficiency leads to a high signal-to-noise ratio.
Frequency modulation (FM), on the other hand, only needs CNR values of 15–18 dB.
If CNRi represents the carrier-to-noise ratio related to a particular signal contaminant (e.g., shot noise),
then for N signal-impairment factors the total CNR is given by
N
1 1
CNR
= ∑ CNR (9.1)
i =1 i

For links in which only a single information channel is transmitted, the important signal impairments
include laser intensity noise fluctuations, laser clipping, photodetector noise, and optical-amplifier noise.
When multiple message channels operating at different carrier frequencies are sent simultaneously over the
same fiber, then harmonic and intermodulation distortions arise. Furthermore, the inclusion of an optical
amplifier gives rise to ASE noise. In principle, the three dominant factors that cause signal impairments
in a fiber link are shot noise, optical-amplifier noise, and laser clipping. Most other degradation effects
can be sufficiently reduced or eliminated.
In this section, we first examine a simple single-channel amplitude-modulated signal sent at baseband
frequencies. Section 9.3 addresses multichannel systems in which intermodulation noise becomes
important. Problem 9.10 gives expressions for the effects of laser clipping and ASE noise.
9.2.1 Carrier Power
To find the carrier power, let us first look at the signal generated at the transmitter. As shown in
Fig. 9.2, the drive current through the optical source is the sum of the fixed bias current and a time-varying
sinusoid. The source acts as a square-law device, so that the envelope of the output optical power P(t)
has the same form as the input drive current. If the time-varying analog drive signal is s(t), then
P(t) = Pt[1 + ms(t)] (9.2)
where Pt is the optical output power at the bias current level and the modulation index m is defined by
Eq. (4.56). In terms of optical power, the modulation index is given by
Ppeak
m= (9.3)
Pt
where Ppeak and Pt are defined in Fig. 9.2. Typical values of m for analog applications range from
0.25 to 0.50.
 Analog Links 353

Laser optical output power

Optical output
waveform
Ppeak

Pt

ΔI ΔI

Ith IB
Diode current

Modulating current
waveform

Fig. 9.2 Biasing conditions of a laser diode and its response to analog signal modulation

For a sinusoidal received signal, the carrier power C at the output of the receiver (in units of A2) is

1
C = ( mR M P )2 (9.4)
2
where R is the unity gain responsivity of the photodetector, M is the photodetector gain (M = 1 for pin
photodiodes), and P is the average received optical power.
9.2.2 Photodetector and Preamplifier Noises
The expressions for the photodiode and preamplifier noises are given by Eqs. (6.16) and (6.17),
respectively. That is, for the photodiode noise we have

iN2 = σ N2 ≈ 2q( Ip + ID ) M 2 F (M ) Be (9.5)

Here, as defined in Chapter 6, Ip = R 0 P is the primary photocurrent, ID is the detector bulk dark current,
M is the photodiode gain with F(M) being its associated noise figure, and Be is the receiver bandwidth.
Then, the CNR for the photodetector only is CNRdet = C /σ N2 .
 354 Optical Fiber Communications

Generalizing Eq. (6.17) for the preamplifier noise, we have

4 kBT
iT2 = σT2 = BF (9.6)
Req e t
Here, Req is the equivalent resistance of the photodetector load and the preamplifier, and Ft is the noise
factor of the preamplifier. Then, the CNR for the preamplifier only is CNR preamp = C /σ T2 .
9.2.3 Relative Intensity Noise (RIN)
Within a semiconductor laser, fluctuations in the amplitude or intensity of the output produce optical
intensity noise. These fluctuations could arise from temperature variations or from spontaneous emission
contained in the laser output. The noise resulting from the random intensity fluctuations is called relative
intensity noise (RIN), which may be defined in terms of the mean-square intensity variations. The resultant
mean-square noise current is given by
2
iRIN = σ RIN
2
= RIN (R P )2 Be (9.7)
Then, the CNR due to laser amplitude fluctuations only is CNR RIN = C /σ RIN
2
. Here, the RIN, which is
measured in dB/Hz, is defined by the noise-to-signal power ratio

( Δ PL )2
RIN = (9.8)
PL2
where ( ΔPL )2 is the mean-square intensity fluctuation of the laser output and PL is the average laser light
intensity. This noise decreases as the injection-current level increases according to the relationship
−3
⎛I ⎞
RIN ∝ ⎜ B − 1⎟ (9.9)
⎝ I th ⎠
Vendor data sheets for 1550-nm DFB lasers typically quote RIN values of –152 to –158 dB/Hz.
Substituting the CNRs resulting from Eq. (9.4) through Eq. (9.7) into Eq. (9.1) yields the following
carrier-to-noise ratio for a single-channel AM system:
1
C ( mR M P )2
= 2
(9.10)
N RIN(R P )2 Be + 2q( I p + ID ) M 2 F ( M ) Be + ( 4 kBT Req ) Be Ft

9.2.4 Reflection Effects on RIN

In implementing a high-speed analog link, one must take special precautions to minimize optical
reflections back into the laser.2 Back-reflected signals can increase the RIN by 10–20 dB as shown in

Example 9.1 Figure 9.3 shows an example of sufficiently above threshold (i.e., for IB/Ith > 1.2), the
Eq. (9.9) for two buried-heterostructure lasers.13 The noise RIN of these index-guided lasers lies between –140 and
level was measured at 100 MHz. For injection currents -150 dB/Hz.
 Analog Links 355

1
– 120
2

– 130
RIN (dB/Hz)

– 140

– 150

– 160

1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2

IB/Ith

Fig. 9.3 Example of the relative intensity noise (RIN) for two buried-heterostructure laser
diodes. The noise level was measured at 100 MHz. (Reproduced with permission
from Sato,13 © 1983, IEEE.)

Example 9.2 Figure 9.4 shows the RIN of an 60 mA, which gives a 5-mW output, the RIN is typically
InGaAsP buried-heterostructure laser as a function of less than -135 dB/Hz for modulation frequencies up to
modulation frequency at several different bias levels.1 8 GHz. For received optical signal levels of -13 dBm
The relative intensity noise is essentially independent of (50 mW) or less, the RIN of buried-heterostructure
frequency below several hundred megahertz, and it peaks InGaAsP lasers lies sufficiently below the noise level of
at the resonant frequency. In this case, at a bias level of a 50-W amplifier with a 3-dB noise figure.

Fig. 9.5. These curves show the increase in relative intensity noise for bias points ranging from 1.24
to 1.62 times the threshold-current level. The feedback power ratio in Fig. 9.5 is the amount of optical
power reflected back into the laser relative to the light output from the source. As an example, the dashed
line shows that at 1.33Ith the feedback ratio must be less than –60 dB in order to maintain an RIN of less
than –140 dB/Hz.
 356 Optical Fiber Communications

–110
Bias:
–120 30 mA
RIN (dB/Hz)

–130
40

–140
50
60
70
–150
100 mA

–160
0 5 10 15 20
Modulation frequency (GHz)

Fig. 9.4 The RIN of an InGaAsP buried-heterostructure laser as a function of modulation

frequency at several different bias levels. (Reproduced with permission from
Olshansky, Lanzisera, and Hill,1 © 1989, IEEE.)

–120
RIN (dB/Hz)

–130

–140 1.24
1.33
1.43 I/Ith
–150
1.62
–160

–40 –50 –60 –70 –80

Feedback power ratio (dB)
Fig. 9.5 The increase in RIN due to back-reflected optical signals. (Reproduced with
permission from Sato,13 © 1983, IEEE.)

9.2.5 Limiting Conditions

Let us now look at some limiting conditions. When the optical power level at the receiver is low, the
preamplifier circuit noise dominates the system noise. For this, we have
1
⎛C⎞ ( mR MP )2
= 2
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠ ( 4 k B T Req ) Be Ft
(9.11)
limit 1
 Analog Links 357

In this case, the carrier-to-noise ratio is directly proportional to the square of the received optical
power, so that for each 1-dB variation in received optical power, C/N will change by 2 dB.
For well-designed photodiodes, the bulk and surface dark currents are small compared with the shot
(quantum) noise for intermediate optical signal levels at the receiver. Thus, at intermediate power levels
the quantum noise term of the photodiode will dominate the system noise. In this case, we have
1 2
⎛C⎞ mRP
= 2 (9.12)
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠ 2qF (M ) Be
limit 2

so that the carrier-to-noise ratio will vary by 1-dB for every 1-dB change in the received optical power.
If the laser has a high RIN value so that the reflection noise dominates over other noise terms, then
the carrier-to-noise ratio becomes
1
⎛C⎞ ( mM )2
= 2 (9.13)
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠ RIN Be
limit 3
which is a constant. In this case, the performance cannot be improved unless the modulation index is
increased.

Example 9.3 As an example of the limiting carrier-to-noise ratio, Fig. 9.6 shows a plot of C/N as
conditions, consider a link with a laser transmitter a function of the optical power level at the receiver. In
and a pin photodiode receiver having the following this case, we see that at high received powers the source
characteristics: noise dominates to give a constant C/N. At intermediate
levels, the quantum noise is the main contributor, with
Transmitter Receiver a 1-dB drop in C/N for every 1-dB decrease in received
optical power. For low light levels, the thermal noise of
m = 0.25 R = 0.6 A/W
the receiver is the limiting noise term, yielding a 2-dB
RIN = -143 dB/Hz Be = 10 MHz
rolloff in C/N for each 1-dB drop in received optical
Pc = 0 dBm ID = 10 nA
power. It is important to note that the limiting factors
Req = 750 W
can vary significantly depending on the transmitter and
Ft = 3 dB
receiver characteristics. For example, for low-impedance
amplifiers the thermal noise of the receiver can be the
where Pc is the optical power coupled into the fiber. dominating performance limiter for all practical link
To see the effects of the different noise terms on the lengths (see Prob. 9.1).

9.3 Multichannel Transmission Techniques

So far, we have examined only the case of a single signal being transmitted over a channel. In broadband
analog applications, such as cable television (CATV) supertrunks, one needs to send multiple analog
signals over the same fiber. To do this, one can employ a multiplexing technique where a number of
baseband signals are superimposed electronically on a set of N subcarriers that have different frequencies
f1, f2, ..., fN . These modulated subcarriers are then combined electrically through frequency-divison
multiplexing (FDM) to form a composite signal that directly modulates a single optical source. Methods
for achieving this include vestigial-sideband amplitude modulation (VSB-AM), frequency modulation
(FM), and subcarrier multiplexing (SCM).
 358 Optical Fiber Communications

RIN limit
58 Quantum noise

Carrier-to-noise ratio (dB)

limit

54 Total C/N

Receiver
noise
50 limit

4
46
0 –4 –8 –12 –16 –20
Received optical power (dBm)

Fig. 9.6 Carrier-to-noise ratio as a function of optical power level at the receiver. In this
case, RIN dominates at high powers, quantum noise gives a 1-dB drop in C/N
for each 1-dB power decrease at intermediate levels, and receiver thermal noise
yields a 2-dB C/N roll-off per 1-dB drop in received power at low light levels

Of these, AM is simple and cost-effective in that it is compatible with the equipment interfaces of
a large number of CATV customers, but its signal is very sensitive to noise and nonlinear distortion.
Although FM requires a larger bandwidth than AM, it provides a higher signal-to-noise ratio and is less
sensitive to source nonlinearities. Microwave SCM operates at higher frequencies than AM or FM and
is an interesting approach for broadband distribution of both analog and digital signals. To simplify the
interface with existing coaxial cable systems, fiber links in CATV networks primarily use the AM-VSB
scheme described in Sec. 9.3.1.
9.3.1 Multichannel Amplitude Modulation
The initial widespread application of analog fiber optic links, which started in the late 1980s, was to
CATV networks.14–17 These coax-based television networks operate in a frequency range from 50 to
88 MHz and from 120 to 550 MHz. The band from 88 to 120 MHz is not used, since it is reserved for
FM radio broadcast. The CATV networks can deliver over 80 amplitude-modulated vestigial-sideband
(AM-VSB) video channels, each having a noise bandwidth of 4 MHz within a channel bandwidth of
6 MHz, with signal-to-noise ratios exceeding 47 dB. To remain compatible with existing coax-based
networks, a multichannel AM-VSB format is chosen for the fiber optic system.
Figure 9.7 depicts the technique for combining N independent messages. An information-bearing
signal on channel i amplitude-modulates a carrier wave that has a frequency fi, where i = 1, 2..., N.
An RF power combiner then sums these N amplitude-modulated carriers to yield a composite
frequency-division-multiplexed (FDM) signal that intensity-modulates a laser diode. Following the optical
receiver, a bank of parallel bandpass filters separates the combined carriers back into individual channels.
The individual message signals are recovered from the carriers by standard RF techniques.
For a large number of FDM carriers with random phases, the carriers add on a power basis. Thus, for
N channels the optical modulation index m is related to the per-channel modulation index mi by
 Analog Links 359

Composite
Composite FDM
f1
FDM Optical signal f1
Modulated signal channel
carrier Laser Optical
frequencies transmitter receiver
fN
fN
RF power Bandpass
combiner filters
Fig. 9.7 Standard technique for frequency-division multiplexing of N independent
information-bearing signals

12
⎛ N ⎞
m = ⎜ ∑ mi2 ⎟ (9.14a)
⎝ i =1 ⎠
If each channel modulation index mi has the same value mc, then
m = mc N 0.5 (9.14b)
As a result, when N signals are frequency-multiplexed and used to modulate a single optical source,
the carrier-to-noise ratio of a single channel is degraded by 10 log N. If only a few channels are
combined, the signals will add in voltage rather than power, so that the degradation will have a 20 log
N characteristic.
When multiple carrier frequencies pass through a nonlinear device such as a laser diode, signal
products other than the original frequencies can be produced. As noted in Sec. 4.4, these undesirable
signals are called intermodulation products, and they can cause serious interference in both in-band and
out-of-band channels. The result is a degradation of the transmitted signal. Among the intermodulation
products, generally only the second-order and third-order terms are considered because higher-order
products tend to be significantly smaller.
Third-order intermodulaton (IM) distortion products at frequencies fi + fj - fk (which are known as
triple-beat IM products) and 2fi - fj (which are known as two-tone third-order IM products) are the
most dominant, since many of these fall within the bandwidth of a multichannel system. For example,
a 50-channel CATV network operating over a standard frequency range of 55.25 - 373.25 MHz has
39 second-order IM products at 54.0 MHz and 786 third-order IM tones at 229.25 MHz. The amplitudes
of the triple-beat products are 3-dB higher than the two-tone third-order IM products. In addition, since
there are N(N - 1)(N - 2)/2 triple-beat terms compared with N(N - 1) two-tone third-order terms, the
triple-beat products tend to be the major source of IM noise.
If a signal passband contains a large number of equally spaced carriers, several IM terms will exist at
or near the same frequency. This so-called beat stacking is additive on a power basis. For example, for
N equally spaced equal-amplitude carriers, the number of third-order IM products that fall right on the
rth carrier is given by18,19

1⎧ 1 N r⎫
D1, 2 = ⎨ N − 2 − [1 − ( −1) ]( −1) ⎬ (9.15)
2⎩ 2 ⎭
 360 Optical Fiber Communications

Table 9.1 Distribution of the number of third-order triple-beat intermodulation

products for the number of channels N ranging from 1 to 8

r
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0
2 0 0
3 0 1 0
4 1 2 2 1
5 2 4 4 4 2
6 4 6 7 7 6 4
7 6 9 10 11 10 9 6
8 9 12 14 15 15 14 12 9

for two-tone terms of the type 2fi - fj, and by

r 1⎧ 1 ⎫
D1,1,1 = ( N − r + 1) + ⎨( N − 3)2 − 5 − [1 − ( −1) N ]( −1) N + r ⎬ (9.16)
2 4⎩ 2 ⎭
for triple-beat terms of the type fi + fj - fk .
Whereas the two-tone third-order terms are fairly evenly spread through the operating passband, the
triple-beat products tend to be concentrated in the middle of the channel passband, so that the center
carriers receive the most intermodulation interference. Tables 9.1 and 9.2 show the distributions of the
third-order triple-beat and two-tone IM products for the number of channels N ranging from 1 to 8.

Table 9.2 Distribution of the number of third-order two-tone intermodulation

products for the number of channels N ranging from 1 to 8

r
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 0
2 0 0
3 1 0 1
4 1 1 1 1
5 2 1 2 1 2
6 2 2 2 2 2 2
7 3 2 3 2 3 2 3
8 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
 Analog Links 361

Example 9.4 Figures 9.8 and 9.9 show the predicted the frequency range 50–450 MHz. The effect of CSO
relative second-order and third-order intermodulation is most significant at the passband edges, whereas CTB
performance, respectively, for 60 CATV channels in contributions are most critical at the center of the band.

The results of beat stacking are referred to as composite second order (CSO) and composite triple
beat (CTB) and describe the performance of multichannel AM links. The word composite means that the
overall distortion is due to a collection of discrete distortions. CSO and CTO are defined as20
peak carrier power
CSO = (9.17)
peak power in composite 2nd-order IM tone
and
peak carrier power
CTB = (9.18)
peak power in composite 3rd-order IM tone

9.3.2 Multichannel Frequency Modulation

The use of AM-VSB signals for transmitting multiple analog channels is, in principle, straightforward
and simple. However, it has a C/N requirement (or, equivalently, for AM, an S/N requirement) of at least
40 dB for each AM channel, which places very stringent requirements on laser and receiver linearity. An
alternative technique is frequency modulation (FM), wherein each subcarrier is frequency-modulated
by a message signal.2,21 This requires a wider bandwidth (30 MHz versus 4 MHz for AM), but yields a
signal-to-noise ratio improvement over the carrier-to-noise ratio.
20
Reserved
10 log [number of (f 1 ± f 2) products]

for FM radio
60 standard channels

15

10

6
0 200 400 600
CATV channel carrier frequency (MHz)

Fig. 9.8 Predicted relative CSO performance for 60 amplitude-modulated CATV channels.
The 88- to 120-MHz band is reserved for FM radio broadcast. (Reproduced with
permission from Darcie, Lipson, Roxlo, and McGrath,4 © 1990, IEEE.)
 362 Optical Fiber Communications

36
Reserved

10 log [number of (f 1 ± f 2 ± f 3) products]

34 for FM radio
60 standard channels
32

30

28

26

24

22
0 200 400 600
CATV channel carrier frequency (MHz)
Fig. 9.9 Predicted relative CTB performance for 60 amplitude-modulated CATV channels.
The 88- to 120-MHz band is reserved for FM radio broadcast. (Reproduced with
permission from Darcie, Lipson, Roxlo, and McGrath,4 © 1990, IEEE.)

The S/N at the output of an FM detector is much larger than the C/N at the input of the detector. The
improvement is given by2
⎡ ⎛ Δ f pp ⎞ ⎤
2
⎛S⎞ ⎛C⎞ 3 B ⎥+w
= ⎜ ⎟ + 10 log ⎢ e
⎢ 2 f ⎜⎝ f ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠ (9.19)
⎝ N ⎠
out in ⎢⎣ v v
⎥⎦

where Be is the required receiver bandwidth, Dfpp is the peak-to-peak frequency deviation of the modulator,
fv is the highest video frequency, and w is a weighting factor used to account for the nonuniform response
of the eye pattern to white noise in the video bandwidth. The total S/N improvement depends on the
system design, but is generally in the range 36 - 44 dB.11,22 The reduced C/N requirements thus make an
FM system much less susceptible to laser and receiver noises than an AM system.
9.3.3 Subcarrier Multiplexing
There is also great interest in using RF or microwave subcarrier multiplexing for high-capacity lightwave
systems.1–3,23 The term subcarrier multiplexing (SCM) is used to describe the capability of multiplexing
both multichannel analog and digital signals within the same system.
Figure 9.12 shows the basic concept of an SCM system. The input to the transmitter consists of a mixture
of N independent analog and digital baseband signals. These signals can carry either voice, data, video,
digital audio, high-definition video, or any other analog or digital information. Each incoming signal si(t)
is mixed with a local oscillator (LO) having a frequency fi. The local oscillator frequencies employed are
in the 2- to 8-GHz range and are known as the subcarriers. Combining the modulated subcarriers gives
a composite frequency-division-multiplexed signal, which is used to drive a laser diode.
 Analog Links 363

Example 9.5 Figure 9.10 shows a plot B

of RIN versus optical modulation index per = 52 d
channel, comparing AM and FM broadcast – 100 FM-TV SNR
(30-MHz BW) dB
TV systems.2 The following assumptions = 60

RIN (dB/Hz)
were made in this calculation: SNR
dB
RIN noise dominates – 120 R = 40
S N
S/N = C/N + 40 dB for the FM system dB
AM bandwidth per channel = 4 MHz R = 50
S N
FM bandwidth per channel = 30 MHz – 140
If the per-channel optical modulation index AM-TV
is 5 percent, then a RIN of less than -120 (4-MHz BW)
dB/Hz is needed for each FM TV program – 160
to have studio-quality reception, requiring 10–2 10–1 100
S/N ≥ 56 dB. This is easily met with a typical Optical modulation index
packaged laser diode, which has a nominal Fig. 9.10 RIN versus the optical modulation
RIN value of -130 dB/Hz. On the other hand,
index per channel for AM and FM
for an AM system a laser with an RIN value
video signals for several different
of -140 dB/Hz can barely meet the CATV
reception requirement of S/N ≥ 40 dB. signal-to-noise ratios (SNR).
(Reproduced with permission from
Way,2 © 1989, IEEE.)
Example 9.6 Another performance factor 30
of AM transmission compared with FM is
the limited power margin of AM. Figure 9.11
Power budget (dB)

depicts the calculated power budget versus the FM SNR = 52 dB

optical modulation index (OMI) per channel for 20
distribution of multichannel AM and FM video
signals (see Sec. 4.5). The curves are given for
different signal-to-noise ratios. The following
assumptions were made in this calculation: FM 60 dB AM 50 dB
10
Laser power coupled into single-mode
fiber = 0 dBm AM 40 dB
RIN = –140 dB/Hz
pin Photodiode receiver with a 50-W front end 0
Preamplifer noise figure = 2 dB 10–2 10–1
AM bandwidth per channel = 4 MHz OMI per channel
FM bandwidth per channel = 30 MHz
Fig. 9.11 Power budget versus the optical
Again, assuming a per-channel optical modulation
index of 5 percent, the AM system has a power
modulation index (OMI) per channel for
margin of about 10 dB for a 40-dB signal-to-noise distribution of multichannel AM and
ratio, whereas the FM system has a power margin FM video signals. (Reproduced with
of 20 dB for S/N = 52 dB. permission from Way,2 © 1989, IEEE.)

At the receiving end, the optical signal is directly detected with a high-speed wideband InGaAs pin
photodiode and reconverted to a microwave signal. For long-distance links, one can also employ a
wideband InGaAs avalanche photodiode with a 50- to 80-GHz gain bandwidth product or use an optical
preamplifier. For amplifying the received microwave signal, one can use a commercially available
wideband low-noise amplifier or a pin-FET receiver.
 364 Optical Fiber Communications

Fig. 9.12 Basic concept of subcarrier multiplexing. One can send analog and digital signals
simultaneously by frequency-division multiplexing them on different subcarrier
frequencies.

9.4 RF over Fiber

Radio frequency (RF) signals at microwave and millimeter-wave frequencies are used in applications such
as radars, satellite links, broadband terrestrial radios, and cable television networks. The signal ranges
include the 0.3- to 3-GHz ultra-high frequency (UHF) band, the 3- to 30-GHz super-high frequency (SHF)
region, and the 30- to 300-GHz extremely high frequency (EHF) range. Traditionally these RF systems
used wireless or coaxial cable links for transporting the microwave signals from a receiving element (for
example, an antenna) to a signal processing center, which could be located hundreds of meters away.
As noted in Chapter 1, optical fibers offer certain advantages over coaxial cables, such as a smaller size,
lower losses, wider bandwidths, and insensitivity to electromagnetic interference effects. Compared to
coaxial lines, these factors allow easier deployment of fiber links over greater distances. Consequently,
there has been much interest in developing and deploying high-speed optical fiber links for transporting
microwave and millimeter-wave signals in their original analog format.
The methods for transmitting microwave analog signals over an optical fiber link have become known as
RF-over-fiber techniques. This section examines the basics of RF-over-fiber techniques. Section 9.5 gives an
application example of radio-over-fiber (ROF) systems for interconnecting antenna base stations with the central
controlling office. A radio-over-fiber system also can be used as an extension of a FTTH access network for
distributing RF signals to individual rooms in a home or other indoor environment. In addition to developing
analog signal transmission links, much work has been done on studying the interaction of microwave and
optical signals for the generation, distribution, control, and processing of microwave wave signals by means
of photonics. Section 9.6 discusses this discipline, which has become known as microwave photonics.
9.4.1 Key Link Parameters
Figure 9.13 shows the constituents of a generic RF-over-fiber link. The three major modules are an
RF-to-optical signal converting device at the transmitting end, an optical-to-RF signal converting device at the
receiving end, and an optical fiber that joins these two modules. The primary parameters used to characterize
the RF performance of the optical link are the gain, noise figure, and spur-free dynamic range (SFDR).