CONCEPTS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

“The wise man doesn't give the right answers, he poses the right questions.”
Claude Levi-Strauss
Introduction

There are two major approaches of knowing the world:

1. Everyday experience (Non-Scientific Ways to Acquire Knowledge) and
2. Scientific Ways to Acquire Knowledge

1. Non-Scientific Ways to Acquire Knowledge

As we live in this world and interact with our surrounding we may be confronted with new ideas that may
have important impact on our lives. We get access to this information through our senses- the most
immediate way of knowing something. This we call sensory knowledge.

We may also use the opinion of others as sources of knowledge. We might have experienced a stimulus with
our senses but we want to check on the accuracy and authenticity of these sensations. We often ask: Does this
food taste delicious to you?

Exercise: Do you rely on your senses and trust the data you collected because it has been said, ‘’seeing is
believing’’? How is reliable are your senses?

There are also other ways of knowing from our every day experiences. These are presented below:

The method of Tenacity

It refers to the acceptance of a belief based on the ideas that ‘’we have always known it to be this way’’. In
other words, it represents the automatic acceptance of the prevailing traditional beliefs and customs in which
we have been socialized. We accept those beliefs and customs as true without exploring them and then
behave with it. Even when we come across evidences that contradict our beliefs, we still tend to cling
(adhere) to our traditional belief.

This method has two problems:

i. The information may gain wide acceptance through its familiarity alone
ii. It offers no means for correcting erroneous ideas
 For example, in some cultures Female genital Cutting (FGC) is an accepted practice.

The method of Authority

If we enter in to a new culture, we ask someone in that culture who is supposed to have knowledge- an
authority figure. We may then accept a new idea or information stated by this figure. Remember that the
authority may be incorrect and may lead to wrong directions. As a result it is important to check the validity
of knowledge of the authority.
 Exercise: Is there a problem if we unquestioningly accept the knowledge and expertise of
others?

The prior method

In this method first we develop general knowledge, opinion, or belief about the world through the
aforementioned methods or personal observations of things around us and then we draw new and specific
conclusion from the general knowledge. As a result it is also known as a deductive reasoning.

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Reason and logic are the basic tools of a prior method and often take the form of a logical syllogism such as:
All men are tall; Alemu is a man; Therefore, Alemu is tall. Hence, logical conclusions may not necessarily
lead to correct conclusions.
 Exercise: Draw your syllogistic conclusion. Ethiopia has the best long distance runners in the
world.

Common sense
Common sense is based on our own past experiences and our perceptions of the world. It originates from our
day to day practical experiences and in turn guides our daily interaction with our surrounding. It may help us
to deal with routine aspects of daily life. Note that our perception of the world may be quite limited or may
be seriously misleading. It may prevent us from understanding new ideas.

Weaknesses of non-scientific approaches

 It is difficult, if not impossible to resolve conflicts
 Which does not facilitate progress
 Knowledge derived tends to be space-specific, source-specific, time-bound, not universal, and highly
perishable.

2. Scientific Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Science is a body of systematized knowledge. In this method, ideas are evaluated and corrected through
dispassionately(analytically) observing the means of senses or measuring devices- in this case science can
been seen as a systematic and controlled extension of common senses- and using reason to compare various
theoretical conceptualization based on experience- which represents a direct application of the principle of
logic. The scientific method of knowing is the scientific research, and its goal is the discovery of regularities
of nature and their representation in theories from which predictions can be made

Scientific methods:
 Find general rules
 Collect objective evidences
 Make testable statements
 Adopt a skeptical (unconvinced) attitude about all claims
 Are creative
 Are public, and
 Are productive

It follows the following logical steps:

 Defining the problem
 Making tentative explanations
 Gathering information
 Testing the validity of the hypotheses
 Making conclusions as to whether the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected

Limitations of the method:

 Cannot answer all questions
 Its application can never capture the full richness of the individual and the environment
 The measurement devices always have some degree of error

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Definitions of Research

Research is one concept which has several definitions depending upon the needs and interests of the
individual concerned. But the following definitions seem to capture the essence of research in terms of the
objectives of this course.
 Research is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.
 Research is seeking through methodical processes to add to the body of knowledge by the discovery
of none trivial facts and insights – it is a foray into the philosophy of knowledge. (Cooper &
Schindler, 2006)
 Research consists of an investigation that:
seeks answers to a question
systematically uses a predefined set of procedures to answer the question
collects evidence
produces findings that were not determined in advance
produces findings that are applicable beyond the immediate boundaries of the study
In both academia and industry/professions, ideas have to be understood, new information has to be
accumulated, plans have to be made and discoveries have to come out of the scientific processes.

Research therefore is the systematic and scientific vehicle through which both the communication and
utilization of the results of research can be done both effectively and efficiently. It requires systematic
planning within a structured framework, and hence the need for some guidelines to enable upcoming coming
cope with its demands of rigor, critical analysis and synthesis of multitudes of information.

Research is the scientific way of knowing things and a scientific research is:
 Systematic: so ordered, planned, and disciplined (closely controlled);
 Controlled: the researcher can have confidence in his/her research outcomes;
 Empirical: putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to a test;
 Critical: many truths are tentative and are subject to change as a result of subsequent research.

While bad research is poorly planned and carried out, good research is that which is guided by the scientific
method standards which are the utilization of systematic and empirical methods that produce research which
is replicable.

Importance of research

All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry
leads to invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which the significance of research can well be
understood. Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business
and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.

In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood keeping in
view the following points:
 To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure;
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  To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
 To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;
 To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and creative work;
 To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.

Motivation for research

What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The possible
motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
 Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical problems
initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies. Many more
factors such as:
 directives of government,
 employment conditions,
 curiosity about new things,
 desire to understand causal relationships,
 Social thinking and awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to
perform research operations.

Characteristics of good research

1. Purpose clearly defined:

The purpose of the business research-the problem involved or the decision to be made-should be clearly
defined and sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible. The statement of the decision problem
should include its scope, its limitations and the precise meanings of all words and terms significant to the
research. Failure of the researcher to do this adequately may raise legitimate doubts in the minds of research
report readers as to whether the researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem to make a sound
proposal attacking it. This characteristic is comparable to developing a strategic plan for achieving an
objective before developing a tactical plan or an action map.

2. Research process detailed:

The research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat
the research. Except when secrecy is imposed, research reports should reveal with candor (openness) the
sources of data and the means by which they were obtained. Omission of significant procedural details makes
it difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data and justifiably weakens the
confidence of the reader in the research itself as well as any recommendations based on the research. This
characteristic is comparable to developing a tactical plan.

3. Research design thoroughly planned:

The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as objectives as
possible. When a sampling of the population is involved, the report should include evidence concerning the
degree of representativeness of the sample. A survey of opinions or recollections ought not to be used when
more reliable evidence is available from documentary sources or by direct observation. Bibliographic
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searches should be a thorough and complete as possible. Experiments should have satisfactory controls.
Direct observations should be recorded in writing in as soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be
made to minimize the influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data. This characteristic is
comparable to developing detailed action plans for each tactic.

4. High ethical standards applied:

Researchers often work independently and have significant latitude (autonomy) in designing and executing
research projects. Careful consideration must be given to those research situations in which there is a
possibility of physical or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and/or loss of dignity. The
research need must be weighted against the potential for adverse effects.

5. Limitations frankly reveled:

The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate their effect
on the findings. There are very few perfect research designs. Some of the imperfections may have little effect
on the validity and reliability of the data; others may invalidate them entirely. A competent researcher should
be sensitive to the effects of imperfect design. The researcher’s experience in analyzing data should provide a
basis for estimating the influence of design flaws. As a decision maker, you should question the value of
research where no limitations are reported.

6. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs:

Analysis of the data should be extensive enough to reveal its significance, what managers call “insights.”The
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently a good
measure of the competence of the researcher. Adequate analysis of the data is the most difficult phase of the
research for the novice. The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully. The data should be
classified in ways that assist the researcher in reaching pertinent conclusions and clearly reveal the findings
that have led to those conclusions. When statistical methods are used, the probability of error should be
estimated and the criteria for statistical significance applied.

7. Findings presented unambiguously:

Generalizations that outrun (escape) the evidence on which they are based, exaggerations, and unnecessary
verbiage tend to be leave an unfavorable impression. Such reports are not valuable to managers for an
organizational decision making. Presentation of data should be comprehensive, easily understood by the
decision maker, organized so that the decision maker can readily locate critical findings.

8. Conclusions justified:
Conclusions should be limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Researchers also may
be tempted to rely too heavily on data collected in a prior study and use it in the interpretation of a new
study. Such practice sometimes occurs among research specialists who confine their work to clients in a
small industry. These actions tend to decrease the objectivity of the research and weaken reader’s confidence
in the findings. Good researchers always specify the conditions under which their conclusions seem to be
valid.

9. Researcher’s experience reflected:

Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research, and is a person of integrity. Were it possible for the reader of a research report to obtain sufficient
information about the researcher, this criterion perhaps would be one of the best bases for judging the degree
of confidence a piece of research warrants and the value of any decision based upon it. For this reason the
research report should contain information about the qualifications of the researcher.

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The following table summarizes some of the features of good and bad research:
Not so Good” Research “Good” Research
“Not so good” research is full of inaccurate data and “Good” research uses systematic procedures to
inaccurate conclusions. This may be due to the collect and analyze data, which may include:
following reasons:  The researcher is open to new and
 The researcher’s is unwilling to consider unexpected findings.
evidence that contradicts her personal opinions.  The researcher uses a predefined set of
 The researcher uses inconsistent procedures procedures.
with different participants or in different  The researcher uses sampling techniques
situations. which ensure different people are
 The researcher’s sampling does not ensure that represented.
different people are represented.  The researcher uses different methods of
 The researcher’s method of data collection data collection to see if they give the
leads to a particular type of answer. (A bias in same answers (this is called
the method.) “triangulation of data”).
 The researcher does not record and maintain the  The researcher records the data and keeps
data properly. it in a safe and secure place.

“Not so good” research does not follow ethical “Good” research follows ethical guidelines.
guidelines.

Classification of Research

When carrying out research, our purposes are different. Therefore research types will vary according to our
purposes and bases. Research can be classified in terms of:
 Goal of research
 Specific objectives of research
 Approach of research
 Designs
 The type of data used in research
 Field of study

Classification of research based on the goal of research

The goal of research is problem solving. The nature of problem that the research attempt to solve could be
theoretical or practical – building a theory or solving immediate practical problems. These two types of
problems that the research tries to solve leads to two broad classification of research:
a. Basic research, and
b. Applied research

A. Basic research:
It also called fundamental or pure research, has as its primary objectives the advancement of knowledge and
the theoretical understanding of the relations among variables. Its major aim includes obtaining and using
empirical data to formulate, expand, or evaluate theory, and discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of
knowledge. Hence, basic research may take any of the following forms:
 Discovery: where a totally new ideas or explanation emerges from empirical research which may
revolutionalize thinking on that particular topic
 Invention: where a new technique or method is created
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  Reflection: where an existing theory, technique or group of ideas is re-examined possibly in a
different organizational or social context.

In general basic research:

 Represents a rigorous (accurate) and structured type of analysis
 Employs careful sampling procedures in order to extend the findings beyond the group or situation,
and
 Has little concern for the application of the findings or social usefulness of the findings.

B. Applied Research:
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire
knowledge for knowledge’s sake. It is type of research conducted in relation to actual problems and under
the conditions in which they are found in practice. It employs methodology that is not as rigorous (exact) as
that of basic research. Besides, applied research yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local
applicability and not in terms of universal validity.

Classification of research based on the specific objectives of research

Research also addresses specific purposes. Your interest could be describing phenomena of interest or
explaining causal link between two variables. Or you may be interested in comparing two or more group on
the basis of particular phenomena.

According to the specific objectives research can be classified as:

A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Non-experimental

A. Experimental
This involves the deliberate manipulation of an intervention in order to determine its effects. The intervention
might involve individual, organizations, teachers, schools or some other unit. Again, if the researcher is also
a participant (eg a teacher) this could be described as ‘action research’. An experiment may compare a
number of interventions with each other, or may compare one (or more) to a control group. If allocation to
these different ‘treatment groups’ is decided at random it may be called a true experiment; if allocation is on
any other basis (eg using naturally arising or self-selected groups) it is usually called a ‘quasi-experiment’.
Issues of generalisablity (often called ‘external validity’) are usually important in an experiment, so the same
attention must be given to sampling, response rates and instrumentation as in a survey. It is also important to
establish causality (‘internal validity’) by demonstrating the initial equivalence of the groups (or attempting
to make suitable allowances), presenting evidence about how the different interventions were actually
implemented and attempting to rule out any other factors that might have influenced the result.

B. Quasi-experimental
Mention that in a quasi experimental design, the researcher can control when measurements are taken and on
whom they are taken, but the researcher is lacking control over the scheduling of the treatments and the
ability to randomly expose test units to the treatments. Quasi experimental designs are quicker and less
expensive than true experimentation, but should only be used when a true experimental design is not feasible.
Quasi Experimental Designs lacks control over the scheduling of treatments and the ability to randomly
expose test units to treatments.

C. Non-experimental
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Nonexperimental research is research that lacks the manipulation of an independent variable, random
assignment of participants to conditions or orders of conditions, or both. In a sense, it is unfair to define this
large and diverse set of approaches collectively by what they are not. While experimental research can
provide strong evidence that changes in an independent variable cause differences in a dependent variable,
nonexperimental research generally cannot.

Descriptive, Explanatory, and Exploratory Research

Descriptive
A lot of market and social research is about description as well as exploration – finding the answers to the
Who? What? Where? When? How? and How many? questions. While exploratory research can provide
description, the purpose of descriptive research is to answer more clearly defined research questions.
Descriptive research aims to build a picture – of a market, a set of customers, a social phenomenon, a set of
experiences, for example. It aims to identify, describe and in some cases count things. It can be used to
examine some of the key issues facing marketers and policy makers.

Descriptive research sets out to describe and to interpret what is. It looks at an individual, groups,
institutions, methods and materials in order to describe, compare, contrast, classify, analyze and interpret
the entities and the events that constitute the various fields of inquiry. It aims at describe the state of affairs
as it exists.

The methods that come under this method are:

 Surveys
 Correlation studies
 Observation studies
 Case studies

Surveys:
 Gather data on a one- shot (at a particular point in time) and hence is economical and efficient
 Represents a wide range of target populations
 Generates a numerical data
 Provides descriptive, inferential (the of deriving conclusion from some premises) and explanatory
information
 Manipulates key factors and variables to derive frequencies, and
 Presents material which is uncluttered (in order) by specific contextual factors

Correlational studies:
 Traces relationship among two or more variables in order to gain greater situational insight
 Its purpose is not to establish cause-effect relationship among variables but to determine whether the
variables under the study have some kind of association or not
 Variable being studied may have positive, negative relationship or they may not have relationship at
all
 Example: studying whether there is a relationship between gender and choice of field of study

Observational study:
 Involves observing and recording of behavior or trait or attribute as it occur in its natural settings.
 It has the following important features:
Non interference
Involves the observation and detection of invariants or behavior patterns or other phenomena
that exist in the real world
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 Useful when we know little or nothing about a certain subject
It is basically descriptive, it cannot tell us why the phenomenon occurred

Case study:
 Emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their
relationship.
 They are largely descriptive examinations, usually of small numbers of sites (small towns, hospitals,
schools).
 Provides very engaging, rich explorations of a project or application as it develops in a real world
setting.

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is, as its name suggests, research undertaken to explore an issue or a topic. It is
particularly useful in helping to identify a problem, clarify the nature of a problem or define the issues
involved. It can be used to develop propositions and hypotheses for further research, to look for new insights
or to reach a greater understanding of an issue. For example, you might conduct exploratory research to
understand how consumers react to new product concepts or ideas for advertising, or what business
executives mean when they talk about ‘entrepreneurship’, or to help define what is meant by the term ‘elder
abuse’. Exploratory Research is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies to which references can
be made for information. It provides insight to and comprehensions of an issues or situations for more
rigorous investigations later. It is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly
defined. Its purpose is to gain background information and better understand and clarify a problem.
However, are not usually useful for decision making by themselves. It helps to:
 Determine the best research design
 Develop hypothesis
 Develop question to be answered
 Understand how to measure variables
 Determine data collection method, and
 Determine selection of subject

Causal or explanatory research

Causal or explanatory research addresses the why questions: Why do people choose brand A and not brand
B? Why are some customers satisfied with our service and others not? Why do some prisoners use drugs
and others not? What might explain this? We design explanatory or causal research to answer these types of
questions, to allow us to rule out rival explanations and come to a conclusion, to help us develop causal
explanations. It involves:
 Explaining things not just reporting. Why? Elaborating and enriching a theory explanation
 Determining which of several explanation is best.
 Determine the accuracy of the theory: test a theory’s predictions or principles.
 Providing evidence to support or refuse an explanation or prediction
 Testing a theory’s predictions or principles

There are two types of explanatory research:

 Experimental research
 Ex post facto research

Experimental research: As discussed above experimental research involves comparing two groups on one
outcome measures to test some hypothesis regarding causation. The key element in true experimental
research is scientific control and the ability to rule out alternative explanations. It is the best method when the

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purpose of research is to determine causal influences between variables. In experimental research, the
researcher intentionally manipulates one variable to measures its effect on the other.

Ex post facto research: Is the method of testing out possible antecedents (preceding) of events that have
happened cannot, therefore, be engineered manipulated by the investigator. Ex post facto in research means
after the fact or retrospectively and refers to those studies which investigate possible cause and effect
relationship by observing an existing condition or state of affairs and searching back in time of for plausible
causal factors.

Classification of research based on type of data

Depending of the type of data generated and used research can be classified primary research (also called
field research) and secondary research (also known as desk research). Primary research involves collection of
data that does not already exist whereas secondary research involves the summary, collection and/or
synthesis of existing data rather than generating primary data, where data are collected from, for example,
research subjects or experiments.

Primary research is designed to generate or collect data for a specific problem; the data collected – primary
data – do not exist prior to data collection. Secondary data are data that were originally collected for a
purpose other than the current research objectives – in revisiting them you are putting the data to a second
use. Searching for, analyzing and using secondary data is called secondary research.

The role of primary research is to generate data to address the information needs in relation to a specific
problem or issue. If there are no pre-existing data available, you need to conduct primary research. For
example, say that you have just devised a new advertisement for your product, you will need to conduct
primary research to understand how it is working. Or say that you have introduced a health screening service
and you want to find out how satisfied users are with it, then you need to conduct primary research. No data
exist which will address either of these issues.

The role of secondary research is very often exploratory and/or descriptive. For example, secondary research
might be used to explore the background to a problem or issue, to describe its wider context, to help define
the problem or issue, or to generate hypotheses or ideas. For example, consulting the data from a study you
conducted the last time you made changes your product or service – to help you understand or set in context
issues related to current changes – is a form of secondary research. Analyzing sales data to determine the
impact of the changes is secondary research. Searching the literature on a topic to reach a greater
understanding of the issues involved, or to help develop interview questions or a framework for analysis is
secondary research.

Inquiry mode (qualitative and quantitative)

The inquiry mode of research can be categorized as qualitative and quantitative:

Qualitative research involves studies that do not attempt to quantify their results through statistical summary
or analysis. Is seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and other factors studied in the social sciences
and humanities. It typically involves in-depth interviews, group discussions, artifact (made by human)
studies, projective techniques, and observations without formal measurement. Qualitative research is
characterized by adherence to diverse array of orientations and strategies for maximizing the validity of
trustworthiness of study procedures and results. It is thus a type of empirical enquiry that entails purposive
sampling for gathering data. Qualitative research is research undertaken to gain insights concerning attitudes,
beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals, to explore a social or human problem. Qualitative
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research methods include focus groups, in-depth interviews, observation research, and case studies. You can
use qualitative research to study past events or current events. When you use it for past events, it is
specifically called historical research. The salient features of qualitative research are:
 Conducted to have an insight and better understanding of not only about the current situation is but
also why it is so.
 More open and responsive to the research participants.
 Uses a variety of methods and data collection strategies,
 Offers opportunities for descriptive and exploratory studies.

On the other hand, quantitative research is the systematic and scientific investigation of quantitative
properties and phenomena and their relationships. It concentrates on measuring or counting and involves
collecting and analyzing numerical data and applying statistical tests. Quantitative research is research
concerned with the measurement of attitudes, behaviours and perceptions. It includes interviewing methods
such as telephone, intercept, and door-to-door interviews, as well as self-completion methods such as mail
outs and online surveys. Quantitative research:
 Means the data is analyzed in terms of numbers.
 Involves the collection of numerical data.
 Predicts and explains data in the form of statistical analysis.
 Uses the numerical method to analysis and interpret the results.
 Finds out the relationship among quantifiable variables and the results are inferred.

The main differences between qualitative and quantitative research are summarised in the Table 1.1 below.
Quantitative research Qualitative research
Research enquiry Exploratory, descriptive and causal Exploratory and descriptive
Nature of questions and Who, what, when, where, how many? Why?
responses Relatively superficial and Below the surface and
rational responses emotional responses
Measurement, testing and validation Understanding, exploration and
idea generation
Sample size Relatively large Relatively small
Data collection Not very flexible Flexible
Interviews and observation Standardised Interviews and observation Less
More closed questions standardized
More open-ended questions
Data Numbers, percentages, means Words, pictures
Less detail or depth Detailed and in-depth
Nomothetic description Ideographic description
Context poor Context rich
High reliability, low validity High validity, low reliability
Statistical inference possible Statistical inference not possible
Cost Relatively low cost per respondent but Relatively high cost per
relatively high project cost respondent but relatively low
project cost

Neither qualitative nor quantitative research is inherently better than the other. One or other may be better
suited to addressing a particular research problem, however. For example, a strength of qualitative research
is in providing rich and detailed description (ideographic), understanding and insight; a strength of
quantitative research is in addressing the ‘how many’ type questions, in measuring and providing accurate
estimates of population parameters. The less structured and less standardised approach taken in qualitative
research can mean that findings are relatively low in reliability (this is something that qualitative researchers
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acknowledge and take steps to address). Also, because of the small sample sizes common in qualitative
research, findings are not representative in the statistical sense, although it is possible to generalise the
findings from the sample to the wider population. Quantitative research is not as flexible as qualitative. The
structured, standardised approach can produce superficial rather than detailed description and understanding.
There is a risk of losing out on ‘real’ responses as well as context and detail through the use of closed
questions; with standardisation there is a chance of missing slight differences in response between
respondents. Both of these can contribute to low validity.

Qualitative research is most useful in exploratory and descriptive research enquiries. It is useful in
developing ideas for products, services and advertising, for example, and for understanding social issues. It
is useful in providing information to help guide and develop policy and strategy – for business, for
marketing, advertising and communications, and for development of social policy. It is useful for evaluating
policies and strategies, and the implementation of them. It is also useful when used in conjunction with
quantitative research, to generate and develop ideas or hypotheses; to define the issues under investigation;
and to find out how people think and feel and behave, how they talk about an issue or a product. It is also
useful in exploring the findings of a quantitative study in greater depth, providing a wider context in which to
understand and interpret them.

The systematic process of Research

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering a multitude of
information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research
and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method (scientific method of inquiry, evaluation research,
or action research). In this process, the study is documented in such a way that another individual can
conduct the same study again. This is referred to as replicating the study. Any research done without
documenting the study so that others can review the process and results is not an investigation using the
scientific research process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where the steps are
interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes are made in one step of the process, the researcher
must review all the other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the process.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem
may be something the researcher identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by
the researcher, or the desire to identify a trend.

Step 2: Review the Literature

Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic under investigation.
To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem. This step provides
foundational knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the researcher about
what studies have been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area.

Step 3: Clarify the Problem

Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad in scope. In step
3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be
done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of literature guides the
researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project.
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Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts

Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the description of the
study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have
different definitions depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and
phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. By defining the terms or concepts
more narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the researcher, making it easier to collect the
necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more understandable to the reader.

Step 5: Formulating a hypothesis/ research question

A stabile step in research is formulation of a research question. A research question is a statement that
identifies the phenomenon to be studied. A research question is a clear, focused, concise, complex and
arguable question around which you center your research. You should ask a question about an issue that you
are genuinely curious about. Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through
the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid
the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.

A well-thought-out and focused research question leads directly into your hypotheses. What predictions
would you make about the phenomenon you are examining? This will be the foundation of your application.
Hypotheses are more specific predictions about the nature and direction of the relationship between two
variables. It is desirable to create strong hypothesis. What are the characteristic features of such hypothesis?
It should:
 give insight into a research question,
 be testable and measurable by the proposed experiments,
 spring logically from the experience of the staff

Normally, no more than three primary hypotheses should be proposed for a research study. Hypothesis is the
result of researcher's creativity. It is a rational assumption on the possible cause(s) of the observed
phenomenon. Hypothesis is a source of questions focused to the core of the research problem. Answers to the
questions may support (verify) or reject (falsify) formulated hypothesis. But we have to realise that research
process can never completely verify or falsify the studied hypothesis, it can be done with certain probability,
only. Researcher who has not any doubts on his own research results is not real researcher.

Step 6: Designing the study

This step is focused on created a research plan or overall approach on how you are going to solve the issue or
problem identified.  A research plan or approach is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the required information, and its purpose is
to design a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible answers to the research
questions, and provide the information needed for decision making.

Research design involves the following steps

a) Methodology Adopted: Indicate the methodological steps you will take to answer every question or to
test every hypothesis illustrated in the Questions/ Hypotheses section. Besides, specific approaches to
inquiry within design categories:
a. Quantitative: Experimental and quasi-experimental, surveys
b. Qualitative: Narrative, case study, ethnography, grounded theory
c. Mixed: Parts of both, in parallel, series, or combination
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 b) The population and sample: Specify the characteristics of the population and the sampling
procedure. This discussion will focus on essential aspects of the population and sample to describe in
a research plan. Identify the population in the study. Also state the size of this population, if size can
be determined, and the means of identifying individuals in the population.
 Identify the selection process for individuals.
 Discuss the procedures for selecting the sample from available lists.
 Indicate the number of people in the sample and the procedures used to compute this number.
 When a sample is drawn, rationale and limitations must be clearly provided.
 If available, outline the characteristics of the sample (by gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic
status, or other relevant group membership).
c) Developing instrument for collecting data: The plan for the study is referred to as the
instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying
who will participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the
research. The researcher develops the plan indicating what data will be collected, when and how the
data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The
instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the
research has carefully thought through all these decisions and that researcher provides a step-by-step
plan to be followed in the study.
d) Method of Data Analysis: Specify the procedures you will use in data analysis, and label them
accurately. Communicate your precise intentions and reasons for these intentions to the reader. This
helps you and the reader evaluate the choices you made and procedures you followed. Plan for data
processing and analysis and the justification behind selecting the data processing technique used.
Make sure that the type(s) of data analysis tools proposed relevant to achieve the proposed research
objective. Make sure that the analysis tools appropriate for the data type/nature to be collected.

In general researchers are expected to answer the following questions in the research design phase:
 What data do I need to collect to answer this question?
 What is the best way to collect this data?
 What overall research design should I use? For example, a cross-sectional, experimental or
longitudinal design?
 Will I need to collect primary or secondary data?
 What methods, for example interviews, questionnaire surveys and so on, will be best to collect the
primary data?
 Who should participate in the research?
 How will I gain access to them?
 What are the exact procedures that I should adopt in my data collection to ensure reliability and
validity?
 Are there any ethical issues associated with the research?
Step 7: Collecting data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of data. The
collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer the research question. Every
study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is from the literature or from subjects—to
answer the research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire,
through observations, or from the literature. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is
ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Data preparation and analysis

Data preparation includes the editing, coding, transcription and verification of data. The process of data
preparation and analysis is essentially the same for both quantitative and qualitative techniques, for data
collected from both secondary and primary sources. Considerations of data analysis do not occur after data
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has been collected; such considerations are an integral part of the development of an approach, the
development of a research design, and the implementation of individual quantitative or qualitative methods.
If the data to be collected are qualitative, the analysis process can occur as the data are being collected, well
before all observations or interviews have been completed. An integral part of qualitative data preparation
and analysis requires the researcher to reflect upon their own learning and the ways they may interpret what
they see and hear. If the data to be analysed are quantitative, each questionnaire or observation form is
inspected or edited and, if necessary, corrected. Number or letter codes are assigned to represent each
response to each question in the questionnaire. The data from the questionnaires are transcribed or
keypunched into a proprietary data analysis package. Verification ensures that the data from the original
questionnaires have been accurately transcribed, whereas data analysis gives meaning to the data that have
been collected. Univariate techniques are used for analysing data when there is a single measurement of each
element or unit in the sample; if there are several measurements of each element, each variable is analysed in
isolation. On the other hand, multivariate techniques are used for analysing data when there are two or more
measurements of each element and the variables are analysed simultaneously.

Step 9: Drawing conclusions

Conclusions should relate back to the focused research question. You can evaluate how successful you have
been in achieving your research objectives, and highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the research. You
may also want to make recommendations for further research.

Step 10: Making recommendations

No matter how complete your study was, there will always be further research that will be required to shed
more light on the research question, particularly if there is an interest in generalizing the findings beyond the
study’s parameters. You will also have found areas within the literature itself that have considerable gaps that
should be addressed, and to which your study may or not have contributed. Therefore, a summary section
regarding recommendations for further study is appropriate.

If the research was undertaken on behalf of a client, then it is also important to provide the manager with a
set of recommendations that directly address the management situation that led to the research being
commissioned in the first place. However, as much as the manager may want far reaching recommendations,
care has to be exercised that they are indeed anchored in the findings of the study and do not exceed its
parameters.

Step 11: Report preparation and presentation

The entire project should be documented in a written report that addresses the specific research questions
identified, describes the approach, research design, data collection and data analysis procedures adopted, and
present the results and major findings. Research findings should be presented in a comprehensible format so
that they can be readily used in the decision making process. In addition, an oral presentation to management
should be made using tables, figures and graphs to enhance clarity and impact.

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