Meaningful Work

How the History Research Paper

Prepares Students for College and Life

By Will Fitzhugh A junior from a public high school wrote these words as part
of her grand-prize-winning essay in a national civics competition.

“W
ithout history, there is no way to learn from The competition asked students to write about what history meant
mistakes or remember the good times to them in 500 to 700 words. What it did not ask students to do was
through the bad. History is more than a read any history books or journal articles or primary sources on
teacher to me; it’s an understanding of why which to base their writing, nor did it ask students to give refer-
I am who I am. It’s a part of my life on which I can never turn ences for the works they used. The competition did not ask stu-
back.... In a sense, history is me, and I am the history of the future. dents to develop a thesis statement or a narrative, support it with
History does not mean series of events; history means stories and research, or write numerous drafts—all hallmarks of good writing.
pictures; history means people, and yet, history means much And so, the prize-winning essay excerpted above is really no prize.
more. History means the people of yesterday, today, and tomor- The student who wrote it read nothing to prepare for her short
row. History means me.” “essay” and so wrote nothing substantive.
ILLUSTRATIONS BY PAUL ZWOLAK

Our students’ academic writing will rise, or fall, to the level of

Will Fitzhugh is the founder and editor of the Concord Review, a quarterly our expectations. Competitions like this one have low expecta-
journal of history research papers by high school students, available at tions. In so doing, they convey the idea that academic, expository
www.tcr.org. Previously, he taught history for 10 years at Concord-Carlisle
Regional High School in Concord, Massachusetts. His education writing
writing based on research is neither valued nor necessary to a
has appeared in EducationNews.org, the Washington Post’s The Answer good education.
Sheet, and the New York Times’ Room for Debate. Writing competitions like this do not require so little of stu-

32 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012

dents in a vacuum; they base their standards on those set by our states and 38 foreign countries.
schools. All too often, students are required to read far more fic- When I graduated from Harvard in 1962 with a degree in Eng-
tion than nonfiction, and to write no more than five paragraphs lish literature, I had no idea that one day I would edit a unique
about themselves, their families, or their neighborhoods. As a journal. I’m a former corporate manager who worked for Pola-
result, reading and writing have become diluted parts of the cur- roid, Pan Am, and North American Aviation. After 11 years in
riculum from elementary through high school. This is especially industry, I became a history teacher at Concord-Carlisle Regional
true in history, a discipline that requires close reading of sources High School in Concord, Massachusetts. While on sabbatical in
(even an occasional actual history book) and carefully researched my 10th year, I started the Concord Review with $100,000 of an
writing that seeks to understand, inform, and persuade. inheritance and the principal of my teacher retirement account.
For the lack of serious academic writing by our students, teach- The exemplary work of some of my own students suggested that
ers are not to blame. A study I commissioned in 2002 found that there were many others in the English-speaking world who were
95 percent of U.S. public high school history teachers consider it doing academic papers their peers might learn from. I wanted
important for students to write research papers in history and the secondary students to see that they might be capable of serious
social sciences. But the focus on standardized tests and superficial historical scholarship.
writing skills has left educators with little time to teach students
how to write serious research papers and even less time to correct
and grade them. As a result, this same study found that 81 percent
of history teachers never assign a 20-page paper, and 62 percent
never assign a 12-page paper, even to high school seniors. Reading is the path to knowledge,
Yet college professors continue to assign research papers. And
they complain when the majority of students turn in mediocre (or and writing is the way to make
abysmal) work. When college professors were asked in a 2006 knowledge one’s own.
survey conducted for the Chronicle of Higher Education about
students’ preparation for college-level writing, reading, and
research, only 6, 10, and 4 percent (respectively) said students
were very well prepared. For many colleges and universities, this
lack of preparation has shifted their focus from higher education When I first began teaching in 1977, I assigned five- to seven-
to remediation. According to Diploma to Nowhere, a report pub- page papers in my 10th-grade classes. Often, a couple of students
lished by Strong American Schools in 2008, more than one million would find a topic so fascinating that they would read and write
of our high school graduates take remedial courses at our colleges more than I had asked them to; they would turn in longer papers
each year. Periodically, the U.S. Department of Education tracks that were based on serious study and were well written. One
the percentage of students nationwide who are required to take 28-page paper that I still remember focused on the nuclear arms
remedial writing courses at two- and four-year colleges. According race between the United States and the Soviet Union. I figured
to recent estimates, between 7 and 14 percent of students take such there were students elsewhere who could also produce papers of
classes. In fact, postsecondary institutions aren’t the only ones that caliber and who would jump at the chance to have them
offering them. A report published in 2005 by the National Commis- considered for publication. I also hoped that by publishing the
sion on Writing found that state governments spend nearly a quar- very best papers by high school students, I could motivate their
ter of a billion dollars each year on remedial writing instruction for peers to do similar work. Indeed, more than a few students over
their employees. the years have told me that reading the essays in the Concord
By not preparing students for academic reading and writing, Review inspired them to try writing research papers themselves.
we set them up for failure in college and in the workplace. When Students who wish to be published in the Concord Review often
we only ask that they read textbooks and write journal entries, we submit papers they have written for the few classes that still require
are not educating them. We are cheating them. We deny them the them. For instance, the International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma
opportunity to see that reading is the path to knowledge, and that Programme, a rigorous curriculum for the junior and senior years
writing is the way to make knowledge one’s own. The history of high school, requires that students write a 4,000-word research
research paper can help restore the importance of academic read- paper. Students choose a question to investigate for the paper,
ing and writing in our schools, and in turn, refocus the purpose known as the “extended essay,” that relates to one of the six aca-
of education. demic areas they study in the IB curriculum: language and litera-
ture, language acquisition, individuals and societies, experimental

I
n 1987, I founded the Concord Review, the only quarterly sciences, mathematics and computer science, and the arts. The IB
journal that publishes history research papers by high school program provides explicit steps, such as constructing an argu-
students from across the country and around the world. The ment, referencing sources, and setting deadlines that students
papers, which average 5,500 words with endnotes and bibli- must take to complete the essay, the purpose of which is to help
ographies, focus on a variety of topics and times, such as the hijab them “develop the skills of independent research that will be
in Islam, the Bar Kokhba revolt, the Alaska pipeline, Irish national- expected at university,” according to the program’s website. In
ism, and Chinese immigration. I receive nearly 400 submissions addition to teachers in the IB program, some Advanced Placement
for each issue, and I have the pleasure of selecting the best to (AP) teachers still assign research papers, even though the College
publish. So far, essays in the Concord Review have come from 44 Board, which runs AP, does not require them.

AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012 33

 While I have published many such IB and AP essays, I often for 20-page research papers, they would have to guide 180 stu-
publish papers that students have spent several months, even an dents in researching 180 individual topics. Who knows how many
entire year, working on outside of class, usually with the guidance thousands of pages of rough drafts they would have to read, cor-
of a teacher. I have found that the more students learn about rect, and comment on? At the end of term, each teacher would
something, the more likely they are to want to write about it—and have to assess 3,600 pages of final papers. The one teacher with
to strive to do it well. more than 210 students would have at least 4,200 pages of final
While I admire these self-starters, I don’t believe we should papers to grade.
leave high standards for academic writing up to the students who It frustrates me that these willing teachers, who want to prepare
set them for themselves. But this is what we have done in many of their students for higher education by assigning them research
our public schools, where overburdened teachers do not have the papers, may not be able to do so. I share this story to illustrate that
time to guide students in writing history research papers. Having our educational priorities and practices must change. I applaud
talked to hundreds of teachers over the years, I can attest that these public school teachers who invited me to Florida and the
while many teachers may not have the time to devote to such ones elsewhere who work with students on history research
papers, they do have the interest. papers outside of class. Their predicament explains the dearth of
public school students published in the Concord Review. Of the
11 papers published in each issue, usually two to four are written
by students in public schools. The rest come from students in
private schools. This was not always the case. In the first 10 years
I have found that the more students of the Concord Review, more than a third of the papers I published
learn about something, the more likely came from public school students. I have published and continue
to publish several excellent papers by students from public
they are to want to schools where teachers through
write about it—and the years have been able to
encourage academic research
to strive to do it well. and writing. These schools
include Richard Montgomery
High School in Rockville, Mary-
land; Horace Greeley High
Last summer, I gave a three-day School in Chappaqua, New
workshop on student history York; and Hunter College High
research papers for middle and School in New York City, for
high school English and social instance. But all too often, pri-
studies teachers in Collier County, vate school teachers seem to
Florida. I showed these teachers have more opportunities to
how to assess four high school engage students in this kind of
students’ research papers using work. As a result, publishing few
the procedures of the National public school students is one of
Writing Board, a service I created the criticisms I continually face,
to provide high school students but I can publish only the papers
with independent assessments of students send me.
their history research papers. The I often wonder what insight-
board employs a few high school teachers we have trained to ful history papers students like Laura Arandes could have written
assess each research paper for the author’s understanding of the had their teachers had time to challenge them with reading non-
topic, use of sources, evidence, and language. After reviewing fiction books, analyzing dozens of primary sources, and writing
each paper, the board provides each student with a four-page history research papers. Arandes graduated from a public high
report of the paper’s strengths and weaknesses. Students often school in Los Angeles where she never wrote more than five
ask us to send this report to college admissions officers if the stu- paragraphs. About a decade ago, when she arrived as a freshman
dents believe the assessment will strengthen their college at Harvard, she was shocked at how poorly prepared she was.
applications. “I thought a required freshman writing course was meant to
The Florida teachers and I discussed the advantages students introduce us to college paper-writing.... In reality, the course was
have in college—strong research and writing skills, deep knowl- a refresher for most of the other students in the class,” she wrote
edge of a historical topic—if they have researched and written a in a letter to me. “At a high-level academic institution, too many
serious paper in high school. Still, the teachers could not fully of the students come from private schools that have realized that
commit to assigning their students a 20-page history research it would be an academic failure on their parts to send their stu-
paper, the typical length of the ones I publish in the Concord dents to college without experience with longer papers, ... expo-
Review. Each teacher had six classes of about 30 students, and one sure to non-fiction literature, and knowledge of bibliographic
teacher was asked to teach seven classes that year, with more than techniques.
30 students in each class. If teachers with six classes were to ask (Continued on page 40)

34 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012

A Closer Look at Meaningful Work
As Will Fitzhugh makes clear in his article
(which begins on page 32), educators tend to
agree that writing history research papers is an
important learning experience for students. It
compels them to think deeply about a topic,
conduct detailed research, formulate an
argument, and organize their thoughts into a
coherent and persuasive piece of writing.
Of course, none of this would be possible
without the dedicated teachers who guide
students through the months of work needed
to research and write a serious paper. One such
teacher is Richard Luther of Tenafly High School

COURTESY OF DAVID DI GREGORIO

in Tenafly, New Jersey. A 40-year veteran
teacher who is retiring this year, Luther (at right)
always assigns his Advanced Placement (AP)
U.S. History students an extensive research
paper and integrates their research into their
coursework and preparation for the AP exam.
For teachers interested in learning how they,
too, can challenge students with such an
select a president for their research paper. 2. Description of character and personal-
assignment and better prepare them for
Between the March and June meetings, the ity. Explain how these attributes help or
college-level work, American Educator asked
students have to come up with a list of the hurt his presidency.
Luther to explain how he guides students
top five presidents they would like to 3. Nongovernment career (before and
through the research and writing process. And,
research. Several students do some quick after the presidency). How does this
to show both the fruits of Luther’s process and
reads concerning presidents before this prepresidency career prepare him for
the high-quality writing in the Concord Review,
meeting. By June, the master schedule for the presidency?
we have reprinted roughly half of “Young
each section of AP U.S. History is complete, 4. Government career (before and after
Hickory: The Life and Presidency of James Knox
and I obtain student rosters from the the presidency). How does this
Polk,” which Rachel Waltman wrote for Luther
guidance department so I know which prepresidency career prepare him for
during the 2009–2010 school year and which
students are in which section. At the June the presidency?
appeared in the Spring 2011 issue of the
meeting, I select students at random from 5. Detail and describe literary and other
Concord Review.
each list, and they announce their choices. achievements.
–EDITORS
Students in each section of AP U.S. History 6. Philosophy of life (provide examples).
Editors: You’ve spent the past 40 years must pick a different president; we don’t Relate to his presidency.
guiding students through the difficult duplicate. While a few students may be 7. Philosophy of government (provide
tasks of researching and writing a upset at first because they don’t get to examples). Relate to the presidency.
historical essay. No doubt you’ve research their top choice, by the end they
8. Analyze how the president handled
honed your methods over time, and would not have wanted to research
major problems/crises during his term
other teachers will benefit from another president.
of office (describe problems/crises, rank
learning about your process. Let’s start order them from most severe to least
Editors: Many students find writing an
with your basic requirements. severe, and then analyze solutions).
extensive research paper overwhelm-
Richard Luther: In AP U.S. History, each ing at first. How do you help them 9. How would you have solved these
student writes one major research paper on structure their research? problems if you were president?
an American president. The paper, which 10. Analyze the impact on the country
Richard Luther: I give them the following (both long- and short-term) of the
must be between 25 and 27 pages,
15 questions/topics to address about their president’s successes.
excluding bibliography, is a yearlong
president. This not only breaks the research 11. Analyze the impact on the country
project. I actually discuss the paper with
project into manageable chunks, it also (both long- and short-term) of the
students during their sophomore year
ensures that students will not overlook an president’s failures.
before they begin the course junior year. At
important facet of the presidency and helps 12. Analyze his relationships with the
a March meeting after school, I meet with
them spread the work over the year. And, American people and Congress.
all students interested in taking AP U.S.
this gives students a strategy for writing
History. I explain the goals, expectations, 13. Was he a mirror to the age in which he
research papers that they can use through-
and requirements for the course, including lived? Explain!
out college.
the research paper. I then tell the students 14. Imprint on U.S. and world history.
that there is a June meeting where they 1. Summary of family background and 15. Evaluate why and how your president
will all receive their textbooks and course childhood. How does this influence him did or did not change the power of the
assignments. At this meeting, they will also later as president? presidency. Explain!

According to Daniel T. Willingham, well-crafted questions

can increase learning. See www.aft.org/pdfs/american
educator/spring2009/Willingham(2).pdf. WINTER 2011–2012 35
Editors: Addressing these 15 questions Editors: How do the recitations prepare students ask me to read and comment on
would require a lot of research. How students for the research papers? their drafts, but I grade only the final
do you keep students focused through- paper. Some students work on their papers
Richard Luther: The recitations allow
out the year? Do you integrate their in the classroom; some go to the library. I’ll
students to bite off a little bit of the
research into the rest of the course? walk around to make sure everyone is on
research project as they go along. I tell
task and to answer questions. Administra-
Richard Luther: The answers to these them to consider each question like a
tors at Tenafly High School have been very
questions ultimately form the basis for the chapter in a book about your president. So
good at carving out time for this project.
research papers. But throughout the the first question about family background
months leading up to the AP exam, and childhood would be chapter 1. I always Editors: What do students get out of
students give what I call “recitations” or admonish them, “Make sure you write your this assignment?
oral presentations in which they share sources down. After the recitation is over,
you can write it as an essay and bring it to Richard Luther: The recitations motivate
answers to these 15 questions with the rest
me if you want. I can look at it for you and students to dig further into their research,
of the class. In this way, the research project
make suggestions.” Some students just which in turn makes them well prepared to
serves as a preview to, or review of,
write notes. Others will transform the write. The best papers provide analysis.
material in the too few months we have
recitation into a short essay that can stand That’s what I look for. I want the students
prior to taking the AP exam. So, if it’s
on its own. By the time they’re done, one to think and evaluate what it is that this
September or October and one of the president has done. They don’t have to be
may say the research paper is a collection of
students is talking about Bill Clinton or this president’s chief cheerleader, so to
15 essays, each answering one of those
Ronald Reagan, that’s really a preview of speak. It’s all right to say this president
questions.
material that we’re going to be studying After the AP exam, students have three made a mistake on this particular issue. I
later in the course. In January and February, to four weeks to work on their papers want the students to be able to think about
recitations by the students who have before the final paper is due, usually at the and evaluate their sources. I believe that it’s
chosen people like Washington, Jefferson, end of May or beginning of June. During very important that they learn to question
Lincoln, or McKinley are reviews of this time, students spend class time using their sources: Is this author biased or not?
material. So this research paper helps to computers at school to polish their papers. So that way, whenever they’re doing
reinforce their knowledge of American Good writing doesn’t happen with the first research in the future, they can be critical
history in preparation for the AP exam. draft. It happens after several drafts. Some thinkers. That’s what I’m really after. ☐

Young Hickory: The Life and Presidency of James Knox Polk

The following unedited sample from the Polk?” they jeered.4 The Whigs considered attacks on Polk negatively affected history’s
Concord Review is not quite half of the essay Polk no match for their candidate, Henry view of him. However, attitudes about him
Rachel Waltman wrote for Richard Luther’s AP Clay, a popular and influential politician began to change in the 20th century, as
U.S. History class. We regret that we did not from Kentucky. Even Clay, in a moment of presidential historians took a fresh look at
have room to reprint the whole essay; to read it “arrogant candor,” expressed regret that Polk’s accomplishments, and consistently
in full, go to www.aft.org/pdfs/american the Democrats had not selected a candidate included him in their rankings of America’s
educator/winter1112/Waltman.pdf. For “more worthy of a contest.”5 The Whigs “great” or “near great” presidents.10 As a
more essays from the Concord Review, go to should not have been so smug. Buoyed by result, many Americans were again asking,
www.tcr.org/tcr/essays.htm. the popularity of the Democrats’ expan- “Who is James K. Polk?”
–EDITORS sionist platform, Polk won the election by a
narrow margin.6 At age 49, he became the I. Polk’s Background and How it
BY RACHEL WALTMAN 11th President of the United States, the Influenced him as President
youngest man up to that time to be elected James K. Polk was born on November 2,

I
n May 1844, Democratic Party leaders met to the position.7 1795 in Mecklenburg County, North
in Baltimore to nominate their candidate For the next four years, Polk tirelessly Carolina, a place “where men lived simply
for the presidential election to be held devoted himself to achieving each and on the fruits of their own labor without
later that year. They passed over leading every one of the goals he set during his expectations of easy wealth and dealt
contenders, including Martin Van Buren, presidency. Yet, despite his many accom- honestly with each other on a basis of
Lewis Cass, John C. Calhoun, and Thomas plishments, Polk did not escape his four rough equality and mutual respect.”11 Polk
Hart Benton, and instead nominated James years in office with his reputation was the first of 10 children. His father,
Knox Polk, a relatively unknown former unscathed. Despite America’s victory in the Samuel Polk, was of Scots-Irish descent, and
Congressman from Tennessee.1 Many Mexican War, the Whigs, led by Abraham was a slaveholder, a successful farmer, and a
people thought Polk’s political career was Lincoln, harshly criticized Polk for his role in surveyor. His mother, Jane Knox Polk, was
over following his second failed bid to win the outbreak of the war, which led to his the great-grandniece of Scottish Reforma-
reelection as Governor of Tennessee just censure by the House of Representatives in tion leader John Knox.12
nine months before.2 The nomination of 1848.8 Several years later, Ulysses S. Grant Polk’s childhood was marked by several
this “dark horse” candidate—which concurred with Lincoln’s assessment of Polk distinct influences that would later affect
surprised no one more than Polk himself— in his memoirs, referring to the Mexican him as President. Significantly, Polk’s
was met with ridicule and derision by the War as “the most unjust war ever waged by grandfather, Ezekial, and his father Samuel,
opposing Whig Party.3 “Who is James K. a stronger against a weaker nation.”9 These were staunch supporters of Jefferson’s

36 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012

Republican philosophy, which undoubtedly During his childhood, Polk suffered from he strode onto the floor of the Tennessee
influenced Polk’s later political views. As extremely poor health. As a result, his early House of Representatives, there was about
one historian notes, “As Polk grew into education was delayed “in consequence of him a moral certitude and self-righteous-
adulthood, everything he had grasped having been very much afflicted.”18 When ness that he carried to the White House.”28
about the conflict between Federalist and he was 17, his illness was diagnosed as Others have been less charitable of Polk’s
Republican values seemed to reinforce a urinary stones, which required major character and personality, referring to him
basic and logical argument that the country surgery.19 His father sent Polk to Philadel- as “colorless, methodical, plodding [and]
would be better served if national govern- phia in the back of a covered wagon to be narrow”29 and a “stern task-master.”30
ment was the declared servant of all the operated on by Dr. Philip Syng Physick, who Polk’s adversaries often poked fun at his
people (or all those who were not slaves) was known as “the father of American stiff and humorless demeanor. For
and was barred from acting chiefly as the surgery.”20 However, Polk’s pain became so example, John Quincy Adams once wrote
agent of the rich and powerful severe during the journey that his father in his diary that Polk “has no wit, no
constituencies.”13 instead turned to Dr. Ephraim McDowell of literature, no point of argument, no
While the Polk family may have agreed Danville, Kentucky to perform the surgery. gracefulness of delivery, no elegance of
on politics, they did not agree on religion. Polk was awake during the incredibly language, no philosophy, no pathos, no
Polk’s mother, Jane, was a devout Presbyte- painful surgery, in which a sharp instru- felicitous impromptus; nothing that
rian. Raised under the influence of her ment called a “gorget” was forced through constitutes an orator, but confidence,
strict Presbyterianism, Polk derived a rigid his prostate and into his bladder to remove fluency, and labor.”31
self-discipline that would govern his actions the urinary stones.21 Despite excruciating Nonetheless, even Polk’s detractors
throughout his life.14 His father, however, pain, the surgery was a success, although it would surely agree that he was extremely
may have left Polk sterile, as he disciplined and hard-working. He routinely
never had children.22 One historian worked 12-hour days, and rarely delegated
concludes that surviving this responsibilities to others. “I have never in
encounter gave Polk the character- my life labored more constantly or
istics of “courage, grit, and intensely,” he once said of his presidency. “I
unyielding iron will” that he later am the hardest working man in the
displayed in dealing with his country.”32 Polk’s strong work ethic,
opponents as President.23 self-discipline, and confidence would allow
After he was cured of his bad him to accomplish much during his
health, Polk was determined to get presidency. In A Country of Vast Designs,
a proper education. Following his author Robert W. Merry sums it up best:
recovery from the surgery, he
enrolled at a Presbyterian school Small of stature and drab of tempera-
near his home. A year later, his ment, James Polk was often underesti-
mated by Whig opponents and
father agreed to send him to the
sometimes by his own Democratic
more distinguished Bradley
allies, despite his early political
Academy, located in Murfreesboro, accomplishments in Congress. He struck
a small town near Nashville. Polk many as a smaller-than-life figure with
excelled at his new school, where he larger-than-life ambitions. But he
was adjudged “the most promising boy harbored an absolute conviction that
was not deeply religious. During Polk’s in the school.”24 he was a man of destiny, and his
baptism ceremony, Samuel Polk refused to In 1816, Polk was admitted to the unremitting tenacity ultimately
affirm his belief in Christianity. As a result, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. produced a successful presidency.33
the Reverend James Wallis refused to He majored in mathematics and the classics,
baptize the infant Polk.15 Perhaps due to “subjects he felt would best discipline his III. Polk’s Non-Government Career
this religious tension within his family, Polk mind.”25 At the University of North After graduating from the University of
was not known to “speak on his religious Carolina, Polk joined the Dialectic Society, North Carolina with honors in 1818, Polk
commitment” during his presidency, nor is one of the school’s debate clubs, where he returned to Tennessee to study law. Polk
there anything in his presidential diary to honed both his debate and leadership skills. never envisioned the law as a permanent
suggest “that he prayed for guidance or Polk held a succession of offices in the career choice, but rather as a means to an
heavenly intervention in his life—not even Dialectic Society, and twice was elected as end. His participation in the Dialectic
during the war with Mexico.”16 its president.26 Polk’s participation in the Society had spurred an interest in politics,
When Polk was 11, he and his family Dialectic Society led to an interest in a and for Polk, the law provided the most
moved to the Duck River region of Middle career in law and politics. According to obvious path into the political arena.34
Tennessee. There, the family grew rich, historian Walter R. Borneman, “it was here To gain admission to the bar in Polk’s
with Samuel Polk turning to land specula- that he learned to speak, write, and day, it was necessary to study cases under
tion and becoming a county judge and formulate an argument.”27 the guidance of a licensed practitioner. Polk
respected civic leader.17 His family’s desire was accepted to study under Felix Grundy, a
for land and the success they encountered II. Polk’s Character and Personality prominent Nashville trial lawyer and
after moving west no doubt influenced With respect to his character and personal- experienced politician. Grundy had moved
Polk’s later commitment to the large-scale ity, Polk was a man who was true to his to Tennessee from Kentucky, where he had
expansion of the nation’s borders during beliefs, and who never seemed in doubt. As served both as a representative to the
his presidency. one historian notes, “On the first day when United States House of Representatives and

AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012 37

as chief justice of the Kentucky Supreme the Tennessee state senate. He was paid the In June 1834, Speaker of the House
Court.35 Grundy quickly became Polk’s first sum of $6 per day to manage the paper- Andrew Stevenson resigned to become
mentor, and the two men would remain work of the senate, which was viewed as a minister to Great Britain, leaving the
close friends and political allies in the years very generous wage, since legislators position open. Polk ran against John Bell of
to come.36 received only $4 per day.44 Polk quickly Tennessee for the post. After 10 ballots, Bell
After completing his law studies with established a reputation as “a diligent and won, handing Polk the first defeat of his
Grundy, Polk was admitted to the Tennes- effective senate clerk.”45 He was reelected political career.55 However, in 1835, Polk ran
see bar in June 1820.37 He established a law in 1821, and remained in the post until against Bell for Speaker, and this time Polk
practice in Columbia, Tennessee. His first 1822.46 won. A master of rules and procedures,
case involved defending his father against a In 1822, Polk resigned his position as Polk was an effective Speaker of the
public fighting charge. He was able to clerk of the state senate to run for the House.56 He was the first Speaker to
secure a dismissal of the charge for a fine of Tennessee state legislature. He won the “promote openly a president’s agenda,”
$1 plus costs.38 Polk’s law practice was election, defeating the incumbent, William first endorsing the policies of Andrew
successful, since there were many cases Yancey, and became the new representa- Jackson, and then those of his successor,
regarding the settlement of debts follow- tive of Maury County, Tennessee.47 In 1825, Martin Van Buren.57
ing the Panic of 1819. In the courtroom, Polk ran for the United States House of The two major issues during Polk’s term
Polk was described as “wary and skillful, Representatives for Tennessee’s sixth as Speaker were slavery and the economy,
but frank and honorable [and] in address- congressional district. He campaigned following the Panic of 1837.58 As discussed
ing a jury he was always animated and vigorously, traveling throughout the in more detail herein, both of these issues,
impressive in manner.”39 district to court voters. Polk’s opponents particularly slavery, would continue to
Despite his busy law practice, Polk still said that at 29 years old, he was too young plague Polk throughout his political career.
found time for socializing. During this time, to serve in the House of Representatives.48 In 1839, concerned that the rival Whig
he met Sarah Childress, the daughter of a However, Polk proved them wrong and party was becoming increasingly popular in
wealthy and respectable family from won the election. his home state of Tennessee, Polk left
Murfreesboro. While the details of their Polk’s congressional career lasted 14 Congress to return home and run for the
courtship are largely unknown, a favorite years. Elected to the House of Representa- governorship.59 He defeated the incumbent
story among historians is that Andrew tives seven times, Polk learned campaign- Whig, Newt Cannon, yet after serving only
Jackson encouraged their romance: ing techniques and strategies that would one two-year term, Polk twice failed to be
serve him well with the voters. 49 He was a reelected.60 Although his rivals assumed
Supposedly, Polk asked his mentor,
Jackson, what he should do to advance
loyal supporter of the policies of his mentor Polk’s political influence had peaked, he
his political career. Jackson advised him and fellow Tennessee Democrat, Andrew continued to look for opportunities to
to find a wife and settle down. Asked if Jackson, who was elected the seventh revive his political career, and remained
he had anyone in particular in mind, President of the United States in 1828. close to Andrew Jackson.61
Old Hickory replied, “The one who will Jackson was known as “Old Hickory”—as in In 1844, delegates to the Democratic
never give you trouble. Her wealthy “tough as hickory”—a nickname earned Convention—who had not forgotten Polk’s
family, education, health and appear- during the early days of the War of 1812.50 dedication to the Democratic Party over the
ance are all superior. You know her Polk’s support for Jackson’s policies was so years—viewed Polk as a potential vice
well.” It took Polk only a moment to
strong that he was nicknamed “Young presidential candidate.62 However, when
suggest what should have been the
Hickory” after his mentor.51 the party’s leading presidential contenders,
obvious. “Do you mean Sarah Chil-
dress?” he asked. “I shall go at once
In 1833, after being elected to his fifth Martin Van Buren and Lewis Cass, failed to
and ask her.”40 term in Congress, Polk became chairman of gain sufficient support to win the nomina-
the House Ways and Means Committee.52 In tion, the deadlocked convention needed a
Polk and Sarah Childress were married this position, Polk was at the center of the compromise candidate. Polk was put forth
on New Year’s Day 1824. Polk was 28 years major domestic policy debate over the as a “dark horse” candidate, and after nine
old; Sarah was 20. They remained married nation’s banking system. Throughout the ballots, the Democratic Convention
until Polk’s death in 1849.41 By all accounts, crisis, Polk remained loyal to the
their marriage was a true love match, and position of his mentor and now-
Sarah was an “ideal mate” for Polk.42 As President Andrew Jackson, and was an
John Seigenthaler notes in his biography of outspoken critic of the Second Bank.
Polk, “Sarah’s personality—outgoing, After the Ways and Means Committee
vivacious, and witty—was a natural undertook an investigation of the
complement to her husband’s formal bank at Jackson’s request, the majority
reserve. She brought out the best in him.”43 of committee members found no
evidence of wrongdoing. Polk,
IV. Polk’s Government Career however, issued a minority report that
In 1819, during the time Polk was studying contained a stinging criticism of the
law under Felix Grundy in Nashville, Grundy bank, and recited a long list of
was elected to the Tennessee state justifications for removing federal
legislature. He suggested that Polk deposits from it.53 Polk would later
accompany him to Murfreesboro, where deliver a speech on the floor of the
the legislature was to meet, and seek House, in which he railed against the
election as clerk of the state senate. In Bank and its head, Nicholas Biddle,
September 1819, Polk was elected clerk of calling them “despotic.”54

38 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012

 most notable achievement was 12. Borneman, p. 6.

likely his utter lack of achievement: 13. Seigenthaler, p. 11.

14. Johannsen, p. 3.
The trouble with Polk was that he 15. Ann Graham Gaines, James K. Polk: Our Eleventh President
never did anything to catch the (Mankato, Minnesota: Child’s World, 2009) p. 7.
people’s eye; he never gave them 16. Seigenthaler, p. 14.
anything to remember him by; 17. Borneman, p. 7.
nothing happened to him. He 18. Seigenthaler, p. 19.
never cut down a cherry tree, he 19. Ibid., p. 19.
didn’t tell funny stories, he was 20. Borneman, p. 7.
not impeached, he was not shot, 21. Ibid., p. 8.
he didn’t drink heavily, he didn’t 22. Seigenthaler, p. 19.
gamble, he wasn’t involved in 23. Ibid., p. 20.
scandal.70 24. Borneman, p. 8.

Similarly, in accounting for the 25. Johannsen, p. 3.

26. Borneman, pp. 9–10.
fact that so few Americans are
27. Ibid., p. 8.
unanimously nominated Polk as its familiar with Polk, another historian
28. Seigenthaler, p. 1.
presidential candidate for the election to remarked that “men are remembered for
29. Allan K. Nevins, ed., Polk: The Diary of a President:
be held later that year.63 their unique qualities, and Polk had 1845–1849 (New York: Longman’s Green, 1952) p. xi.
Challenging the well-known Whig none.”71 30. Thomas M. Leonard, James K. Polk: A Clear and
candidate Henry Clay in the 1844 election, Nonetheless, while Polk never wrote his Unquestionable Destiny (Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly
Resources, 2001) p. 43.
Polk promised to actively encourage memoirs and had no literary or other
31. Seigenthaler, p. 53.
America’s westward expansion. He favored achievements during his lifetime, he did
32. Johannsen, p. 5.
the annexation of Texas and the acquisition keep a detailed diary during his presidency.
33. Merry, p. 242.
of the Oregon territory.64 Although critics It was discovered—along with a collection
34. Borneman, pp. 9–10.
expressed concern that aggressive expan- of his other personal correspondence and 35. Seigenthaler, pp. 22–23.
sionism might lead to war with Great papers—in the attic of his widow, Sarah, 36. Borneman, p. 10; Seigenthaler, p. 23.
Britain or Mexico, a majority of American after her death in 1896.72 The diary was first 37. Bergeron, “The Presidency,” p. 10.
voters accepted Polk’s vision, and in 1844, published in four volumes in 1910, and 38. Borneman, p. 11.
they elected him the 11th President of the reprinted and abridged in later editions. 39. Seigenthaler, p. 24.
United States by a slim margin. He was 49 Today, it is recognized as “one of the most 40. Borneman, p. 13.
years old, the youngest person up to that valuable documents for the study of the 41. Bergeron, “The Presidency,” p. 11.
time to be elected president.65 American presidency,” since it provides a 42. Seigenthaler, p. 117.
After receiving his party’s Democratic “rare behind-the-scenes glimpse of the 43. Ibid., p. 26.

nomination in 1844, Polk announced that if decision-making process in the White 44. Borneman, p. 11.

he were elected President, he would not House, and offers insight into the day-to- 45. Bergeron, “The Presidency,” p. 11.

seek a second term.66 Aware that the day administration of the government 46. Seigenthaler, p. 25.

Democratic Party had been splintered into during one of the most critical and exciting 47. Ibid., p. 25.

periods in American history.”73 ☐ 48. Borneman, pp. 23–24.

bitter factions, Polk hoped that by promis-
49. Bergeron,” The Presidency,” p. 12.
ing to serve only one term if elected, his
To continue reading, go to www.aft.org/ 50. Borneman, p. 10.
disappointed Democratic rivals would unite
pdfs/americaneducator/winter1112/ 51. Seigenthaler, p. 4.
behind him, believing they had another
Waltman.pdf. 52. Borneman, p. 34.
chance at the nomination in four years.67
53. Leonard, pp. 21–22.
True to his campaign pledge, at the end Endnotes 54. Seigenthaler, pp. 52–53.
of his first term, Polk left office and 1. John Seigenthaler, James K. Polk (New York: Henry Holt & Co.,
55. Borneman, p. 34.
2003) p. 84.
returned to Tennessee in March 1849. 56. Ibid., p. 35.
2. Walter R. Borneman, Polk: The Man Who Transformed the
However, he did not have much time to Presidency and America (New York: Random House, 2009) p. xvii. 57. Seigenthaler, p. 57.
pursue a career after leaving the presi- 3. Seigenthaler, p. 3; Robert W. Johannsen, “Who Is James K. 58. Ibid., p. 57.
dency—either in the public or private Polk? The Enigma of our Eleventh President,” Rutherford B. 59. Leonard, pp. 30–31.
Hayes Presidential Center 14 February 1999, http://www.rbhayes.
sector—since he died of cholera on June 15, org/hayes/scholarsworks/display.asp?id=502 (accessed December 60. Bergeron, “The Presidency,” pp. 13–15.
1849 in Nashville, Tennessee, only three 7, 2009). 61. Leonard, p. 34; Borneman, p. 84.
months after leaving office.68 4. Seigenthaler, p. 92. 62. Seigenthaler, p. 68.
5. Terry D. Bilhartz and Alan C. Elliott, Currents in American 63. Ibid., p. 84.
V. Polk’s Literary and Other History: A Brief History of the United States vol. 1 (New York:
64. Borneman, p. 125.
M.E. Sharpe, 2007) p. 80.
Achievements 6. Robert W. Merry, A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, the
65. Johannsen, p. 1.
Mexican War and the Conquest of the American Continent (New 66. Seigenthaler, p. 92.
Many people find Polk’s election as
York: Simon & Schuster, 2009) p. 110. 67. Borneman, pp. 112–115; Leonard, p. 39.
President somewhat baffling, since he
7. David M. Pletcher, “James K. Polk,” in The Presidents: A 68. Borneman, p. 344.
lacked the charisma of many of his fellow Reference History 3rd ed., edited by Henry F. Graff (New York:
Thomson Gale, 2002) p. 155. 69. They Might Be Giants, “James K. Polk,” Audio CD, A User’s
presidents. In addition, while Polk garnered Guide to They Might Be Giants (Elecktra/Wea, 2005).
8. Seigenthaler, p. 146.
praise for his oratorical skills—earning him 70. James Thurber, “Something about Polk,” Wisconsin
9. Merry, p. 474.
the nickname “Napoleon of the Stump”69— Magazine of History 50, vol. 2 (Winter 1967) p. 146.
10. Ibid., p. 473; Borneman, p. 352; Seigenthaler, p. 154. 71. Johannsen, p. 4.
he had no literary or other achievements
11. Paul H. Bergeron, The Presidency of James K. Polk (Lawrence: 72. Ibid., p. 2.
during his lifetime. As one historian points University Press of Kansas, 1987) (Hereafter cited as Bergeron,
73. Ibid., p. 2.
out in his tongue-in-cheek essay on Polk, his “The Presidency”) p. 10.

AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012 39

 (Continued from page 34) ence and history, they lack the knowledge—of both content and
“It took me two years to gain a working knowledge of paper- the nature of nonfiction writing—necessary to undertake research
writing ... where I was constructing arguments and using evidence papers in middle and high school. Teachers who do assign
to support them.... So here I am, about to graduate, with a GPA research papers must begin with the basics of academic writing.
much lower than it should be and no real way to explain to gradu- To really teach students how to write, educators must give
ate schools and recruiting companies that I spent my first semes- them examples of good writing found in nonfiction books and
ters just scraping by.” require students to read them, not skim them, cover to cover.
Arandes, who graduated from Harvard in 2005, was unpre- Reading nonfiction contributes powerfully to the knowledge that
pared for college-level writing because serious academic reading, students need in order to read more difficult material—the kind
research, and writing had been neglected in her K–12 curriculum, they will surely face in college. But more importantly, the work of
as it is in so many schools. In elementary schools, teachers right- writing a research paper will lead students to read more and
fully focus on teaching students how to read. However, as E. D. become more knowledgeable in the process. As any good writer
Hirsch, Jr., an emeritus humanities professor whose research on knows, the best writing emerges from a rich store of knowledge
comprehension inspired him to establish the Core Knowledge that the author is trying to pass on. Without that knowledge and
the motivation to share it, all the literacy strategies in the world
will not make much difference.

I
The best writing emerges from a rich suggest that our schools start assigning a page per year: each
first-grader would be required to write a one-page paper on
store of knowledge that the author a subject other than himself or herself, with at least one
is trying to pass on. Without that source. At least one page and one source would be added
each year to the required academic writing, so that fifth-graders,
knowledge and the for example, would have to write
motivation to share it, a five-page paper with five
sources, ninth-graders would
all the strategies in the have to write a nine-page paper
with nine sources, and so on,
world will not make until each and every high school
much difference. senior could be asked to prepare
a 12-page history research paper
with 12 sources.
Such a plan would gradually
Foundation, and Daniel T. Willing- prepare students for future aca-
ham, a professor of psychology who demic writing and could also
focuses on applying cognitive sci- reduce the need for remedial
ence to K–12 classrooms, have writ- instruction in writing (and per-
ten, teachers have erroneously been haps in remedial reading as well)
told to focus on reading compre- when students enroll in college.
hension strategies, such as finding If school districts adopted such a
the main idea and identifying the plan, it wouldn’t take high school
author ’s audience.* Such an teachers nearly as much time as
approach is time-consuming and it does now to teach students to
shifts the emphasis away from texts that build students’ knowl- write history research papers; students could draw on the knowl-
edge and vocabulary. As a result, students tend to spend more edge they gained in previous grades to distinguish between pri-
time practicing strategies with trivial fiction than acquiring the mary and secondary sources, formulate an argument or a
knowledge (found in serious fiction and nonfiction) that drives narrative based on those sources, develop a bibliography, and
comprehension. In middle and high school, students are expected write and revise numerous drafts.
to independently read nonfiction science and social studies texts, As long as we leave it to chance whether students encounter
but far too many of them struggle because they haven’t acquired teachers who somehow manage to carve out time to guide stu-
the necessary foundation in elementary school. dents through the research and writing process, students like
As for writing, many elementary teachers do teach students to Laura Arandes will continue to “scrape by” in college writing.
write, but this writing tends to focus only on students writing “Modern public high schools have an obligation not to simply
about themselves or writing short stories. Because students don’t pump out graduates at the end of the year, but also to prepare
spend enough time in the early grades reading nonfiction in sci- them for the intellectual rigors of college,” Arandes wrote in her
letter to me. As she learned, there is no better preparation for col-
lege than having students write history research papers.
*For more on why reading comprehension depends largely on knowledge, see the
Spring 2006 issue of American Educator, available at www.aft.org/newspubs/ So I urge teachers to do their best to assign them. I look forward
periodicals/ae/spring2006/index.cfm. to reading them. ☐

40 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2011–2012