Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

GEOSYNCLINES
Geosyncline is a term still occasionally used for a subsiding linear trough that was caused
by the accumulation of sedimentary rock strata deposited in a basin and subsequently
compressed, deformed, and uplifted into a mountain range, with attendant volcanism and
plutonism. The filling of a geosyncline with tons of sediments is accompanied in the late
stages of deposition by folding, crumpling, and faulting of the deposits. Intrusion of
crystalline igneous rock and regional uplift along the axis of the trough generally complete
the history of a particular geosyncline. It is then transformed into a belt of folded
mountains. Thick volcanic sequences, together with greywackes (sandstones rich in rock
fragments with a muddy matrix), cherts, and various sediments reflecting deepwater
deposition or processes, are deposited in eugeosynclines (the outer deepwater segment
of geosynclines.It has been suggested that the Gulf of Mexico is a modern example of a
geosyncline.
Types of geosynclines
Geosynclines are divided into 6 different kinds
Eugeosynclines- One which has thick sediments with an abundance of volcanic rocks,
forming some distance away from the craton. It mostly consist of rocks from deep marine
environments.
Miogeosynclines- A thinner development of sediments and no volcanic rocks forming
adjacent to the craton. It develops along a passive margin of a continent and is composed
of sediments with limestones, sandstones and shales. The occurrences of limestones and
well sorted quartz sandstones indicate a shallow water formation.
Taphrogeosyncline- synonymous to rift valleys (e.g. East African rift Valley)
Parageosyncline- Geosyncline that lies within the craton
In the Northern Appalachians, prior to the Appalachian Orogeny Miogeosynclines and
Eugeosynclines appeared to be separated by the Geanticline (a large scale upwardly
flexed earth crust), depending on the types of discernable rock strata of the mountain
system(Fig 5.3). As can be seen, the Eugeosynclinal deposits are typically more
deformed, metamorphosed, and intruded by small to large igneous plutons.

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

Eugeosyncline often contain flysch typical of a continent – continent convergent

boundary.

Fig. 5.3: Imagined Cross Section across the Northern Appalachians, Prior to the
Appalachian Orogeny (After Marshall Kay, 1948)

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

SECTION 6
AFRICAN TECTONICS
The African Plate is a tectonic plate which includes the continent of Africa, as well as
oceanic crust which lies between the continent and various surrounding ocean ridges.

Fig. 6.1: Overview of the African and Arabian Tectonic Plate Region (Modified after
McClusky et al., 2003)

The westerly side is a divergent boundary with the North American Plate to the North and
the South American Plate to the south, forming the central and southern part of the Mid-
Atlantic ridge. The African Plate is bounded on the northeast by the Arabian Plate, the
southeast by the Indo–Australian Plate, the north by the Eurasian Plate and Anatolian
Plate, and on the south by the Antarctic Plate. All of these are divergent or spreading
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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

boundaries with the exception of the Eurasian Plate (except for a short segment near the
Azores, the Terceira rift)
The African Plate includes several cratons, stable blocks of old crust with deep roots in
the sub-continental lithospheric mantle, and less stable terranes, which came together to
form the African continent during the assembly of the super continent (Pangaea) around
550 million years ago. The cratons are, from the south to north, the Kalahari craton,
Congo craton, Tanzania craton and West African craton. The cratons were widely
separated in the past, but came together when Gondwana split up. The cratons are
connected by orogenic belts, regions of highly deformed rock, where the tectonic plates
have engaged. The Saharan Metacraton has been tentatively identified as the remains of
a craton that has become detached from the subcontinental lithospheric mantle, but
alternatively may consist of a collection of unrelated crustal fragments swept together
during the Pan-African orogeny.

Fig 6.2: Map showing pre-Pan-African cratons, Pan-African mobile belts and cover
rocks within Gondwana (after Petters, 1991; Unrug, 1997; De Wit et al., 1999).

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

The development of the basins in Africa during the Phanerozoic can be thought of as
relating to the polyphase break-up of Gondwana, which was accomplished, in general, by
reactivation along the Pan-African sutures. Rifting associated with the break-up of
Gondwana was dominant from the Late Carboniferous onwards, and basins developed
as a result of this extension both at the margins and within the continental African plate.
Rifting began in earnest during the Early-Middle Jurassic, when East and West
Gondwana separated, and the central Atlantic Ocean began to open. From the Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, the South Atlantic opened progressively northwards, and
intraplate extension led to the development of the West, Central and East African rift
basins. The final episode of rifting took place between the Late Eocene and Early
Miocene, and opened the Dead Sea– Red Sea–Gulf of Aden basins, with rifting in the
East African Rift continuing to the present day.

Fig.6.3 Sedimentary basins in Africa (modified after Petters, 1991).

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Only two parts of Africa were marginally involved in Phanerozoic collision tectonics.
Northwest Africa comprising the Moroccan Hercynide foreland and thrust belt and
the Mesozoic to Cenozoic Atlas and Rif Alpine orogenic systems with thin-skinned thrust
belts, and the Early Paleozoic Cape Fold Belt in South Africa, were affected by
Phanerozoic orogenies. During the middle and later parts of the Carboniferous,
the Hercynian mountain-building episodes occurred as a result of collision between the
North American and African plates. The Mauritanide mountain chain was compressed
and folded at that time along the western margin of the West African craton from Morocco
to Senegal. The Tell-Rif (Tell in Algeria and Tunisia; Rif in Morocco) is the orogenic
system fringing to the south the West Mediterranean basins. The Tell-Rif is interpreted as
the direct result of the progressive closure of the Maghrebian Tethys until the collision
between AlKaPeCa microcontinent and Africa and, subsequently, the propagation of
the deformation within Africa. The Rif is located in northernmost Morocco, and the Tell
region in northernmost Tunisia and Algeria, between the Atlas belt and the Mediterranean
(Pique´ et al., 2002).

Some Tectonic Features of the African Plate

a.) Central and West African Rift System: The separation of Africa and South America in
the Early Cretaceous was a major event in the tectonic history of both continents which
has been documented to extend well into their interiors. The Benue Trough was the most
prominent continental structure formed as these continents completed their separation
during the Cretaceous and is associated with major hydrocarbon reserves. From a larger
perspective, the Benue trough is one element of an extensive rift system which can be
studied on both sides of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean. This rift system is termed the West
and Central African Rift System (WCARS) (Fig.6.4). It extends from northeastern Brazil
through the Benue Trough and across Africa (Chang et al., 1992). The African portion of
this rift system has several arms and may extend as far eastward as Kenya.

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

Fig 6.4 Plate tectonic setting of WCARS in the cretaceous (after Fairhead and Green
(1989)
b.) West African Mobile Belt: The West African Mobile Belt is a Cenozoic relict area
where materials eroded from the Afro-Arabian Craton were deposited at the western
continental margin. Much of this area was later uplifted by continental displacement. The
mobile belt may have at one time been coterminous with the mobile belt along the eastern
margin of North America that eventually gave rise to the Appalachian Mountains. The belt
dates to the Late Paleozoic (500-230 million years ago)
c.) Cape Mobile Belt: The Cape Mobile Belt is a Cenozoic relict area where materials
eroded from the Afro-Arabian Craton were deposited at the southern continental margin.
Much of this area was later uplifted by continental displacement. This mobile belt was
probably never coterminous with any of the other land masses of the period. The belt
dates to the late Paleozoic (500-230 million years ago)

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

Fig. 6.4. (A) Map showing Mesozoic–Cenozoic rift-related basins and magmatism
associated with the break-up of Gondwana, and other Phanerozoic basins (modified from
Guiraud and Bosworth, 1997).

d.) East African Rift System: The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental
rift zone in East Africa. The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene, 22–
25 million years ago. The East African Rift is a geological zone where continental plates
in Eastern Africa have developed a tectonic plate boundary (Fig 6.5 & 6.6). This is a part
of the larger Great Rift Valley, where the African Plate is in the process of dividing into
two new tectonic plates called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate. A series of distinct
rift basins, the East African Rift System extends over thousands of kilometers. The EAR
consists of two main branches. The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift)
includes the Main Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which
continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley. The Western Rift Valley includes
the Albertine Rift, and farther south, the valley of Lake Malawi. To the north of the Afar
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Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west to the Red Sea Rift or east to
the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.

Fig. 17.The East African Rift system

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 Lecture notes on Global Tectonics and Structures (GEO 321)

Fig 6.6. A huge fissure developed in the East African Rift Valley in Kenya on March 19,
2018. From Daily Nation/JAMES KAHONGEH on March 20, 2018

e) Red Sea Rift: The Red Sea Rift began during the Miocene Epoch (about 25 million
years ago) and continues today. Its formation is related to the formation of the Aden Rift.
The two rifts have now effectively separated Africa from Arabia, although the two were
once part of the same landmass, the Afro-Arabian Craton. It has been suggested that the
rifting was caused by Africa being displaced 200 kilometres south and west of its original
position. Both rifts attain oceanic depths (that is 2,000 metres below sea level) over most
of their extent. It is possible that Africa is actually pivoting away from Arabia.

f.) Aden Rift: The Aden Rift began during the Miocene Epoch and continues today. Its
formation is related to the formation of the Red Sea Rift. The two rifts have now effectively
separated Africa from Arabia, although the two were once part of the same landmass, the
Afro-Arabian Craton. The cause of this rifting is the same with that of the Red Sea Rift.

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