Chapter 03:

Alternating Current Circuit Analysis

Foreword. This module will tackle the AC approach of Circuit Analysis: the mesh circuit analysis
(concept of super mesh), nodal circuit analysis (concept of super node), Thevenin’s and Norton’s
Theorem, Superposition Theorem, Millman’s Theorem and the Maximum Power Transfer.

I. Mesh Circuit Analysis or MCA, based on Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, is an easy method of
solving complex electrical and electronic circuit. Using this process will results in a lessening
of the math needed to solve large networks that are involved in the circuit. The reduction in
math’s can be a big advantage and will let one save a lot of time.

Solved Problem #1

Solve Vo and all of mesh currents for the circuit shown above, final answer should be in phasor
form.
Solution: Let’s put a uniform clockwise rotation loop around every closed path.
@ Loop 1: (10 − 𝑗3)𝐼1 − (−𝑗3)𝐼2 − 10𝐼3 = 10 (1)
@ Loop 2: −(−𝑗3)𝐼1 + (𝑗5 − 𝑗3)𝐼2 − 𝑗5𝐼4 = 0 (2)
Take a closer look at loop 2, since the mesh current in loop 2 is against the flow with 3A
source current, we can say that,
𝐼2 = −3𝐴 (3)
(negative current because it is against the flow according to the arrow)
Concept of a supermesh. It occurs when a current source is contained between two
essential meshes. Once the equation is formed, another equation is needed to relate the two
meshes with the “assumed not existing” current source.

The circuit is first treated as if the current source does not exist. This leads to one equation
that incorporates two meshes. Basically, we just need to add the equations from loop 3 and
equations from loop 4.
(10 − 𝑗10)𝐼3 − 10𝐼1 + (2 + 𝑗5)𝐼4 − 𝑗5𝐼2 = 0 (4)
Once the equation is formed, another equation is needed to relate the two meshes with the
“assumed not existing” current source. Note that @ node a:
𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 2𝐴 (5)
Since we have gathered all of essential equations, we now proceed to simplification of math’s:
From eq. (1) and (3),
(10 − 𝑗3)𝐼1 + (𝑗3)(−3) − 10𝐼3 = 10
(10 − 𝑗3)𝐼1 − 10𝐼3 = 10 + 𝑗9
From eq. (3) and (5) to (4)
(10 − 𝑗10)𝐼3 − 10𝐼1 + (2 + 𝑗5)(𝐼3 + 2) − 𝑗5(−3) = 0

−10𝐼1 + (10 − 𝑗10)𝐼3 + (2𝐼3 + 4 + 𝑗5𝐼3 + 𝑗10) + 𝑗15 = 0

−10𝐼1 + (12 − 𝑗5)𝐼3 = −4 − 𝑗25
We now have two equations and two unknowns, to solve this we will use the Cramer’s rule.
(10 − 𝑗3) −10 𝐼 (10 + 𝑗9)
| | | 1| = | |
−10 (12 − 𝑗5) 𝐼3 (−4 − 𝑗25)

Where,
∆1 ∆3
𝐼1 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼3 = 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: ∆ 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
∆ ∆
(10 − 𝑗3) −10
∆= | | = (10 − 𝑗3)(12 − 𝑗5) − (−10)(−10) = 5 − 𝑗86
−10 (12 − 𝑗5)
(10 + 𝑗9) −10
∆1 = | | = (10 + 𝑗9)(12 − 𝑗5) − (−4 − 𝑗25)(−10) = 125 − 𝑗192
(−4 − 𝑗25) (12 − 𝑗5)
(10 − 𝑗3) (10 + 𝑗9)
∆3 = | | = (10 − 𝑗3)(−4 − 𝑗25) − (−10)(10 + 𝑗9) = 15 − 𝑗148
−10 (−4 − 𝑗25)
Hence,
125 − 𝑗192
𝐼1 = = 2.3092 + 𝑗1.3192𝐴
5 − 𝑗86
15 − 𝑗148
𝐼3 = = 1.7252 + 𝑗0.0741𝐴; 𝐼4 = 3.7252 + 𝑗0.0741𝐴
5 − 𝑗86
For Vo,

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐼𝑍 = −𝑗3(2.3092 + 𝑗1.3192 − (−3)) = 3.9576 − 𝑗15.9276

Thus, final answer will be…

𝐼1 = 2.6594∠29.7385° | 𝐼2 = 3∠0° | 𝐼3 = 1.7268∠2.4594° | 𝐼4 = 3.7259∠1.1396°
𝑉𝑜 = 16.4119∠ − 76.0460°
 Try yourself…
(a) Calculate current Io in the circuit given below:

II. Nodal Circuit Analysis or NCA, based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law. The application of NCA is
the same with MCA, it is used as an easy method to solve complex electrical and electronics
circuitry. We can use Nodal Analysis in AC circuits because Kirchhoff’s Current Law is valid
for phasors. The demonstration of examples are as follows:

Solve Problem #2

Solve for Ix and determine all of node voltage in the given circuit
Solution:
Transform the circuit first into its phasor equivalent value
𝑉 = 12 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 0) ; 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑉 = 12∠0° 𝑉; 𝜔 = 120𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1
𝑋𝑐 = = 20.4045
(120𝜋)(0.13x10−3 )
9𝜋
𝑋𝐿1 = 120𝜋(15x10−3 ) =
5
24𝜋
𝑋𝐿2 = 120𝜋(8x10−3 ) =
25
Now we use NCA to solve the circuit

@ node a,
𝑉𝑎
𝐼1 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑥 =
−𝑗20.4045
12 − 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
= +
12 −𝑗20.4045 𝑗9𝜋
5

1 1 1 1
1=( − + ) 𝑉𝑎 − ( )𝑉
12 𝑗20.4045 𝑗9𝜋 𝑗9𝜋 𝑏
5 5
1
( − 𝑗0.1278) 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑗0.1768 = 1 (1)
12
@node b,
𝐼3 = 2𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼2
𝑉𝑏 − 0 𝑉𝑎 𝑉𝑎 − 𝑉𝑏
= 2( )+
𝑗24𝜋 −𝑗20.4045 𝑗9𝜋
25 5

2 1 1 1
( + ) 𝑉𝑎 − ( + )𝑉 = 0
−𝑗20.4045 𝑗9𝜋 𝑗24𝜋 𝑗9𝜋 𝑏
5 25 5
(−𝑗0.0788)𝑉𝑎 + 𝑗0.5084𝑉𝑏 = 0 (2)
Now we have two equations and two unknowns, we will solve it by using Cramer’s rule.
1
( − 𝑗0.1278) 𝑗0.1768 𝑉𝑎 1
| 12 || | = | |
𝑉𝑏 0
(−𝑗0.0788) 𝑗0.5084
∆𝑎 ∆𝑏
𝑉𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑏 =
∆ ∆
 1
( − 𝑗0.1278) 𝑗0.1768 1
∆= | 12 | = ( − 𝑗0.1278) (𝑗0.5084) − (−𝑗0.0788)(𝑗0.1768)
12
(−𝑗0.0788) 𝑗0.5084

∆= 0.0510 + 𝑗0.0424
1 𝑗0.1768
∆𝑎 = | | = 𝑗0.5084
0 𝑗0.5084
1
( − 𝑗0.1278) 1
∆𝑏 = | 12 | = −𝑗0.0788
(−𝑗0.0788) 0

Thus,
𝑗0.5084
𝑉𝑎 = = 4.9005 + 𝑗5.8945 𝑉
0.0510 + 𝑗0.0424
𝑗0.0788
𝑉𝑏 = − = 0.7596 + 𝑗0.9136𝑉
0.0510 + 𝑗0.0424
4.9005 + 𝑗5.8945
𝐼𝑥 = = −0.2889 + 𝑗0.2402𝐴
−𝑗20.4045

Solve Problem #3

Compute the nodal voltage V1 and V2

Solution:
Concept of Supernode. It is done by viewing a voltage source on a wire as a point source
voltage in relation to other point voltages located at various nodes in the circuit, relative to a
ground node assigned a zero or negative charge.
Each supernode contains two nodes (one non-reference node and either non-reference node
or reference node). Supernodes containing the reference node have one node voltage
variable. In NCA, the supernode construct is only required between two non-reference nodes.

The current in the voltage source cannot be directly calculated, hence we can’t write the
equations for either node 1 or node 2. However, we also know that the current entering from
node 1 is also the same with the current leaving at node 2 and the combined current of these
two nodes is zero. This combination of two nodes is called supernode. Thus,

Hence, we can say,

𝑉1 − 0 𝑉2 − 0 𝑉2 − 0
[3 = + + ] ∗ 12 (𝐼 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 12)
−𝑗3 𝑗6 12
36 = 𝑗4𝑉1 + (1 − 𝑗2)𝑉2 (1)
But a voltage source is connected between nodes 1 and 2, right? Applying KVL @ Loop 1 will
result to:
𝑉1 − 𝑉 − 𝑉2 = 0
Hence,
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 10∠45° (2)
Substituting eq. (2) to eq. (1),
36 = 𝑗4(𝑉2 + 10∠45°) + (1 − 𝑗2)𝑉2
𝑉2 = 31.4085∠87.1838° 𝑉
𝑉1 = 25.7812∠ − 70.4805° 𝑉
 Try yourself…
(a) Calculate V1 and V2 in the circuit shown below

III. Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem.

Thevenin’s theorem as applied to AC circuits, provides a method for reducing any circuit to
an equivalent form, regardless of how complex the original circuit is, that consists of an
equivalent AC voltage source in series with an equivalent Impedance.

(a)

(b) (c)

In Thevenin’s theorem, the circuit in the block can be reduced to an equivalent form, which as
you can see in the figure (c). The term ‘equivalent’ means that the original circuit and its
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit has the same value of load voltage and load current. Hence, as
far as the load is concerned, there is no difference between the original circuit and its
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.

It is important to note that for AC circuits the equivalent circuit is for one particular frequency
only. Any changes in the frequency will result to recalculation of the equivalent circuit.
Steps for applying Thevenin’s theorem:
(1) Open the two terminals between which you want to find the Thevenin circuit. This is done
by removing the component from which the circuit is to be viewed.
(2) Determine the voltage across the two open terminals.
(3) Determine the impedance viewed from the two open terminals with ideal voltage sources
replaced with short circuits and ideal current sources replaced with open circuit.
(4) Connect Vth and Zth in series to produce the complete Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Norton’s Theorem
Like Thevenin’s theorem, it provides a method of reducing a more complex circuit to a simpler
equivalent form, regardless of how complex the original circuit is, that consists of an equivalent
AC current source in parallel with an equivalent impedance.

(a)

(b) (c)

Norton’s equivalent current is defined as the short-circuit current between two specified
terminals in each circuit. Suppose to say that the circuit shown above has a load resistor
connected to terminals A and B, as indicated in part (b). We wish to find the Norton equivalent
for the circuit external to RL. To find IN, calculate the current between terminals A and B with
those terminals shorted, as shown in part (b).

Steps for applying Norton’s theorem:

(1) Replace the load connected to the two terminals between which the Norton circuit is to be
determined with a short
(2) Determine the current IN through the short.
(3) Open the terminals and determine the Impedance ZN between two open terminals with all
sources replaced with their internal impedances.
(4) Connect IN and ZN in parallel.
Solve Problem #4
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit below as seen from terminals a-b

Solution:

Step 1: Since the given requires us to get the Thevenin equivalent through terminals a-b then
let’s proceed to the next step.

Step 2:

KCL @ Node 1
15 = 𝐼𝑜 + 0.5𝐼𝑜 → 𝐼𝑜 = 10𝐴

KVL @ Node 3
10(2 − 𝑗4) − 5(4 + 𝑗3) − 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = −𝑗55 𝑜𝑟
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 55∠ − 90° V

Step 3: Obtain the ZTH by replacing an open circuit to the ideal current source. But there is a
problem, we know what to do in ideal source yet there is an existing dependent source here.
To obtain ZTH, aside from making the ideal source open circuited, we need to connect a 3A
current source (3 is an arbitrary value chosen for convenience in here, it is chosen because it
is a number divisible by the sum of currents leaving the node) to terminals a-b as shown in
above.
KCL @ node VS
3 = 𝐼 𝑜 + 0.5𝐼𝑜 → 𝐼𝑜 = 2𝐴
Applying KVL to the outer loop of circuit,
𝑉𝑠 − (4 + 𝑗3 + 2 − 𝑗4)𝐼𝑜 = 0
𝑉𝑠 = 12 − 𝑗2
Hence,
𝑉𝑆 12 − 𝑗2 2
𝑍𝑇𝐻 = = =4−𝑗 Ω
𝐼𝑆 3 3
2
∴ 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 55∠ − 90° V and 𝑍𝑇𝐻 = 4 − 𝑗 Ω
3

Solved Problem #5
Obtain current Io using Norton’s Theorem
Solution:
Step 1: To solve IN, first we need to short circuit the load terminal a-b

Step 2: Find IN
MCA @ Loop 2,
−(8 − 𝑗2)𝐼1 + (18 − 𝑗2)𝐼2 − (10 + 𝑗4)𝐼3 = 𝑗40 (1)
Notice that loop 1 and loop 3 form a supermesh, thus,
(13 − 𝑗2)𝐼1 − (8 − 𝑗2)𝐼2 + (10 + 𝑗4)𝐼3 − (10 + 𝑗4)𝐼2 = 0
(13 − 𝑗2)𝐼1 − (18 + 𝑗2)𝐼2 + (10 + 𝑗4)𝐼3 = 0 (2)
@ node a,
𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 3 (3)
By observation, let’s add (1) and (2)
−(8 − 𝑗2)𝐼1 (18 − 𝑗2)𝐼2 −(10 + 𝑗4)𝐼3= 𝑗40
(13 − 𝑗2)𝐼1 −(18 + 𝑗2)𝐼2 +(10 + 𝑗4)𝐼3= 0
5𝐼1 + 0𝐼2 + 0𝐼3 = 𝑗40
𝐼1 = 𝑗8 (4)
Substitute (4) to (3)
𝐼3 = 3 + 𝑗8
But 𝐼3 = 𝐼𝑁 , hence
𝐼𝑁 = 3 + 𝑗8 𝐴
 Step 3: Open the terminals on the load, open all ideal current sources and short all ideal voltage
sources. It will look like this

Step 4: Solve ZN
𝑍𝑁 = 5Ω
By conventional flow of current, it travels from ‘+’ terminal to ‘-‘ terminal and it will pass through
to a wire that has lesser to no resistance (short circuit) that’s why the Norton impedance here
is 5-ohm.
Finally, we arrive to the Norton’s equivalent circuit

Using current divider,

5
𝐼𝑜 = (3 + 𝑗8) ( )
5 + 20 + 𝑗15
𝐼𝑜 = 1.4653∠38.4802° A
Try yourself…
(a) Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit as seen from terminals a-b.

Ans. 𝑍𝑇𝐻 = 4.474∠ − 7.64° Ω, 𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 11.763∠72.9° 𝑉

 (b) Determine the Norton equivalent of the circuit as seen from terminals a-b. Used the
equivalent to find Io

Ans. 𝑍𝑁 = 3.176 + 𝑗0.706Ω, 𝐼𝑁 = 8.396∠ − 32.68°𝐴, 𝐼𝑜 = 1.9714∠ − 2.10°𝐴

IV. Superposition Theorem. This theorem can be stated as follows:
“The current in any given branch of a multiple-source circuit can be found by
determining the currents in that particular branch produced by each source acting
alone, with all other sources replaced by their internal impedances. The total
current in the given branch is the phasor sum of the individual source current”
Steps for applying superposition theorem:
Step 1: Leave one of the sources in the circuit and replace all others with their internal
impedance. For ideal voltage sources, the internal impedance is zero (assumed as short
circuit). For ideal current sources, the internal impedance is infinite (assumed as open circuit).
Step 2: Find the current in the branch of interest produced by one remaining source.
Step 3: Repeat step 1 and step 2. When complete, you will have a number of current values
equal to the number of sources in the circuit.
Step 4: Add the individual current values as phasor quantities.
#IMPORTANT NOTE: If the circuit has sources operating at different frequencies, then
it is the best to use superposition theorem.

Solved Problem #6
Find 𝑣𝑜 of the circuit using superposition theorem
Solution:
As observed from the circuit, the three sources operate at three different frequencies (𝜔 =
2, 𝜔 = 5 and 𝜔 = 0 for DC source). We know from previous chapters that we can’t use
mathematical operations directly on phasors with different frequencies. But it doesn’t mean its
unsolvable! We just need to use superposition theorem. So, we let,
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3
Let’s do this! Find 𝑣1 first, so…

If you’re wondering as to why the inductor and capacitor was replaced by a short and open
circuit respectively, you just need to remember that the 𝜔 = 0 for DC source𝑠.
𝑋𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 = 𝑗(0)(𝐿) = 0 → 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑡
1 1
𝑋𝐶 = = = ∞ → 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗(0)(𝐶)
Using voltage divider,
1
−𝑣1 = 5 ( )=1V
4+1
𝑣1 = −1 V
Then we proceed to 𝑣2 ,

4x(-𝑗5)
𝑍𝑝 = = 2.439 − 𝑗1.9512
4 − 𝑗5
Using voltage divider,
1
𝑣2 = 10 ( ) = 2.4981∠ − 30.7846°
1 + 𝑗4 − 𝑗5 + 2.439 − 𝑗1.9512
𝑣2 = 2.498 cos(2𝑡 − 30.79°) V
 Lastly, we need to solve 𝑣3 ,

4x(-𝑗2)
𝑍𝑝 = = 0.8 − 𝑗1.6
4 − 𝑗2
By current division,
𝑗10
𝐼1 = (2) ( ) = 2.3281∠12.9048°
𝑗10 + 1 + 0.8 − 𝑗1.6
𝑣3 = 𝐼1 𝑍 = (2.3281∠12.9048°)(1) = 2.3281∠12.9048° V
𝑣3 = 2.3281 sin(5𝑡 + 12.9048 °) V
Therefore,
𝑣𝑜 = −1 + 2.498 cos(2𝑡 − 30.79°) + 2.3281 sin(5𝑡 + 12.9048 °) V

V. Millman’s Theorem. For AC, this theorem states that…

“If ‘n’ number of voltage sources 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , 𝑉3 , … , 𝑉𝑛 having internal impedances
𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , 𝑍3 , … , 𝑍𝑛 are connected in parallel across the load 𝑍𝐿 then this arrangement
may be replaced by a single voltage source 𝑉𝑒𝑞 in series with equivalent
impedance 𝑍𝑒𝑞 .

Where, 𝑌 → 𝑎𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑽𝟏 𝒀𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 𝒀𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 𝒀𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝑽𝒏 𝒀𝒏
𝑽𝒆𝒒 =
𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 + 𝒀𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒀𝒏
𝟏
𝒁𝒆𝒒 =
𝒀𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 + 𝒀𝟑 + ⋯ + 𝒀𝒏
 Solved Problem #7

Find the current across terminal a-b using Millman’s Theorem. Use the value given below:
Voltages: 𝑉 = 5∠0°, 𝑉1 = 10∠30°, 𝑉2 = 15∠45°
Capacitor: 𝐶 = 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = −𝑗5 Ω
Inductor: 𝐿 = 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 = 𝑗10 Ω
Resistor: 𝑅 = 15 Ω

Solution:

First, we compute for the value of all admittances:

1 1
@ branch 1: 𝑌1 = 𝑅 = 15 ℧
1 1 1
@ branch 2: 𝑌2 = 𝐿 = 𝑗10 = −𝑗 10 ℧
 1 1
@ branch 3: 𝑌3 = = ℧
𝑅+𝐿 15+𝑗10

1 1 1
@ branch 4: 𝑌4 = (𝐿+𝐶) = 𝑗10+(−𝑗5) = −𝑗 5 ℧

1 1
@ branch 5: 𝑌5 = 𝑅+𝐶 = 15−𝑗5

1 1 1
@ branch 6: 𝑌6 = = =𝑗
𝐶 −𝑗5 5

Then, we solve for 𝑉𝑒𝑞

1 15√2 1 1
[(5 + 𝑗0) ( ) + 0 + 0 + ( 2 (1 + 𝑗)) (−𝑗 ) + 0 + (5√3 + 𝑗5) (𝑗 )]
15 5 5
𝑉𝑒𝑞 =
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ (−𝑗 ) + ( ) + (−𝑗 ) + ( ) + (𝑗 )
15 10 15 + 𝑗10 5 15 − 𝑗5 5
𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 6.9894 + 𝑗2.2274 V
1
𝑍𝑒𝑞 =
1 1 1 1 1 1
+ (−𝑗 10) + ( ) + (−𝑗 ) + ( ) + (𝑗 )
15 15 + 𝑗10 5 15 − 𝑗5 5
6
𝑍𝑒𝑞 = (337 + 𝑗216) Ω
493

𝑽𝒆𝒒 6.9894 + 𝑗2.2274 V

𝑰𝒂𝒃 = =
𝒁𝒆𝒒 + 𝑹 6
(337 + 𝑗216) Ω + 15Ω
493
𝐼𝑎𝑏 = (374.8582 + 𝑗65.0198) mA
VI. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem. It states that when a load is connected to a circuit,
maximum power is transferred to the load when the load impedance is the complex conjugate
of the circuit’s output impedance.

More of this in the next chapter, the AC power.