computation

Article
Computational Analysis of Natural Ventilation Flows
in Geodesic Dome Building in Hot Climates
Zohreh Soleimani 1 , John Kaiser Calautit 2, * and Ben Richard Hughes 2
1 Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK;
[email protected]
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-0754-4158981

Academic Editor: Demos T. Tsahalis

Received: 2 May 2016; Accepted: 11 August 2016; Published: 17 August 2016

Abstract: For centuries, dome roofs were used in traditional houses in hot regions such as the Middle
East and Mediterranean basin due to its thermal advantages, structural benefits and availability
of construction materials. This article presents the computational modelling of the wind- and
buoyancy-induced ventilation in a geodesic dome building in a hot climate. The airflow and
temperature distributions and ventilation flow rates were predicted using Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD). The three-dimensional Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations were
solved using the CFD tool ANSYS FLUENT15. The standard k-epsilon was used as turbulence model.
The modelling was verified using grid sensitivity and flux balance analysis. In order to validate the
modelling method used in the current study, additional simulation of a similar domed-roof building
was conducted for comparison. For wind-induced ventilation, the dome building was modelled with
upper roof vents. For buoyancy-induced ventilation, the geometry was modelled with roof vents
and also with two windows open in the lower level. The results showed that using the upper roof
openings as a natural ventilation strategy during winter periods is advantageous and could reduce
the indoor temperature and also introduce fresh air. The results also revealed that natural ventilation
using roof vents cannot satisfy thermal requirements during hot summer periods and complementary
cooling solutions should be considered. The analysis showed that buoyancy-induced ventilation
model can still generate air movement inside the building during periods with no or very low wind.

Keywords: airflow; buoyancy flow; Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD); indoor; thermal modelling

1. Introduction
The increasing thermal comfort expectations, the availability of electricity generated by fossil
fuels and the growth in the global average temperature have raised the energy requirements of
mechanical systems (heating, cooling and ventilation) in a rather dramatic way in the building
sector, which makes it responsible for 30%–40% of the global energy demand and 40%–50% of the
world carbon emissions [1]. Therefore, it is essential to replace the mechanical systems with passive
techniques known to have low energy consumption and carbon emissions and provide good indoor
air quality [2,3].
Providing an appropriate thermally comfortable environment with acceptable indoor air quality
by means of passive techniques could be achieved by coupling passive ventilation with building heat
gains reduction. Passive ventilation can be achieved by means of natural ventilation, which relies on
pressure differences at the vent openings either by wind-induced force or temperature differences
(buoyancy ventilation) [4]. Wind-induced ventilation depends on the behavior of the wind, on the
interactions with the envelope of building and on the openings. Fresh outdoor air can be supplied into

Computation 2016, 4, 31; doi:10.3390/computation4030031 www.mdpi.com/journal/computation

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behavior of the wind, on the interactions with the envelope of building and on the openings. Fresh
the building
outdoor frombethe
air can windward
supplied intoinlets (high pressure)
the building from theandwindward
stale warminletsindoor(high
air flows out through
pressure) and stalethe
leeward outlets (low pressure). Buoyancy-induced ventilation occurs
warm indoor air flows out through the leeward outlets (low pressure). Buoyancy-induced when the indoors are warmer
than the outdoors,
ventilation occurs whencausingtheindoor
indoors airare
to rise and escape
warmer than the theoutdoors,
building causing
at higherindoor
openings.
air toThe cooler
rise and
and denser outdoor air enters the building through bottom inlets and displaces
escape the building at higher openings. The cooler and denser outdoor air enters the building warmer and lighter air
upwards [5].
through bottom inlets and displaces warmer and lighter air upwards [5].
The reduction
The reduction in in energy
energy consumption
consumption can can bebe fulfilled
fulfilled by by aa wide
wide range
range of factors, including
including
appropriate building geometry, suitable building orientation, use of shading
appropriate building geometry, suitable building orientation, use of shading devices, vegetation, devices, vegetation,
colour and
colour and insulation
insulation [6,7].
[6,7]. In
In terms
termsof of the
the building
buildinggeometry,
geometry, the the lower
lower thethe building
building surface
surface area
area toto
volume ratio,
volume ratio, the
thelower
lowerthe theheat
heatgain
gainwould
would be,be,
so for a given
so for volume,
a given building
volume, with awith
building spherical shape
a spherical
is moreisenergy
shape more efficient than a typical
energy efficient than cubic building
a typical cubicinbuilding
terms of in heating
termsandof cooling
heating requirements.
and cooling
Accordingly, aAccordingly,
requirements. dome house ahas dome30%house
less surface
has 30% area
lessthan a similarly
surface area than sized box house,
a similarly sizedwhich means
box house,
one-third less heat transfer to and from its surroundings, resulting in an
which means one-third less heat transfer to and from its surroundings, resulting in an averageaverage of 30% savings on the
of
cooling and heating bill [7,8].
30% savings on the cooling and heating bill [7,8].
For centuries,
For centuries, dome
dome roofs
roofs were
were used
used in in traditional
traditional houses
houses in in the
the hot,
hot, arid
arid regions
regions such
such asas the
the
Middle East and the Mediterranean basin (Figure 1) due to its thermal
Middle East and the Mediterranean basin (Figure 1) due to its thermal advantages, structuraladvantages, structural benefits
(self-supporting
benefits arch andarch
(self-supporting vault)andand availability
vault) of the construction
and availability materials
of the construction (adobe, (adobe,
materials stone). stone).

Figure 1.
Figure Traditional dome
1. Traditional dome roof
roof building
building [9,10].

Several studies investigated

Several studies investigatedthe
thepassive
passive capabilities
capabilities of dome
of dome roofsroofs in keeping
in keeping the internal
the internal spaces
spaces
cool in summer with considerable low energy consumption due to several reasons such as:such as:
cool in summer with considerable low energy consumption due to several reasons
(a)
(a) Thermal
Thermal laglag provision
provision via
via applying
applying masonry
masonry thermal
thermal massmass such
such as
as stone
stone and
and adobe,
adobe, which
which
abate the incredible temperature difference between day and
abate the incredible temperature difference between day and night [11]. night [11].
(b)
(b) Lowering
Lowering exposed
exposed surface
surface area
area toto the
the direct
direct solar
solar radiation
radiation by by one-third
one-third compared
compared to to the
the flat
flat
roof results in solar heat gain reduction [12,13].
roof results in solar heat gain reduction [12,13].
(c)
(c) Applying stackventilation
Applying stack ventilationvia
viaroof
roof vents,
vents, which
which let let
the the rising
rising hotescape
hot air air escape
throughthrough and
and allow
allow thefresh
the cool cool air
fresh air to channel
to channel into
into the the space
space from peripheral
from small small peripheral
openingsopenings
at lowerat lower level [14].
level [14].
(d)
(d) Trapping the exhausted, hot air at the higher level compared to the flat roof, due to
Trapping the exhausted, hot air at the higher level compared to the flat roof, due to the
the
increased
increased height
height of
of the
the interior, which leaves
interior, which leaves thethe occupants
occupants in in aa cooler
cooler lower
lower zone
zone [15].
[15].
Currently, the masonry
Currently, the masonry dome
domeroofs
roofsare
arereplaced
replacedwithwiththe
thegeodesic
geodesicdomes
domeswhich
which were
were invented
invented in
in 1954 by Richard Buckminster Fuller. Figure 2 shows examples of modern
1954 by Richard Buckminster Fuller. Figure 2 shows examples of modern geodesic dome buildings. geodesic dome
buildings.
The geodesicThedome
geodesic dome with
with partial partial
spherical spherical
shape is builtshape
up of aisseries
built of
uptriangular
of a series
or of triangular
polygonal or
facets
polygonal facets
that distribute that distribute
stresses within thestresses within
structure itselfthe structure
rather than a itself
seriesrather thanresulting
of arches, a series in
of various
arches,
resulting in various shapes and styles with a limitless covering area and a lower weight
shapes and styles with a limitless covering area and a lower weight compared with masonry domes [15]. compared
with masonrydome
The geodesic domes has[15]. Thebenefits
several geodesic dome has
including several
an open benefits
space plan, including an openinterior
non-load bearing space walls,
plan,
non-load bearing excessive
resistance against interior wind
walls,andresistance against excessive
seismic vibrations, wind and
disaster-proofing, lowerseismic vibrations,
construction costs
disaster-proofing, lower construction costs than traditional houses, endless
than traditional houses, endless design possibilities and also a spectacular look [15–17]. design possibilities and
also a spectacular look [15–17].
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Figure 2.
Figure Example of
2. Example of modern
modern geodesic
geodesic dome
dome building
building [17,18].
[17,18].

The study evaluates

The study evaluatesthetheinfluence
influenceof of
thethe geometry
geometry of aof a geodesic
geodesic domedome
househouse as a spherical
as a spherical shape
shape construction
construction on the natural
on the natural ventilation
ventilation performance
performance (wind-induced
(wind-induced and buoyancy-induced
and buoyancy-induced flows) in
flows)
the hot,inarid
theclimatic
hot, arid climatic of
conditions conditions of Computational
Yazd, Iran. Yazd, Iran. Computational
Fluid Dynamics Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) (CFD)
modelling is
modelling is conducted to investigate the airflow velocity and indoor temperature
conducted to investigate the airflow velocity and indoor temperature distribution within the geodesic distribution
within the geodesic
dome house. The work dome
will house.
simulateThethework will simulate
atmospheric boundarythelayer
atmospheric
(ABL) flowboundary layer
around the (ABL)
geodesic
flow around the geodesic dome, based on vertical wind-speed profiles for the
dome, based on vertical wind-speed profiles for the city of Yazd. The boundary conditions will city of Yazd. The
boundary conditions will be specified according to guidelines for CFD simulation
be specified according to guidelines for CFD simulation of wind around buildings as proposed by of wind around
buildings as proposed
Architectural Institute ofby Architectural
Japan Institute
(AIJ). Sensitivity of Japan
analysis will(AIJ). Sensitivity
be carried analysis
out to verify thewill be carried
computational
out to verify the computational model and mesh. In order to validate the numerical code,
model and mesh. In order to validate the numerical code, additional simulation of a similar domed-roof additional
simulation
building willof be
a similar domed-roof
conducted building will be conducted for comparison.
for comparison.

2. Literature
LiteratureReview
Review
A fewfewstudies
studies have
haveinvestigated
investigatedthe ventilation performance
the ventilation of dome-shaped
performance roofs or structures.
of dome-shaped roofs or
More attention
structures. Morehas been given
attention has to the given
been airflowtopressure
the airflow overpressure
domed roofs over and
domedtheirroofs
wind-induced
and their
ventilation
wind-induced performance.
ventilation In this section,Ina this
performance. general overview
section, of previous
a general overviewstudies, whichstudies,
of previous can be
which can as
categorized beexperimental,
categorized analytical
as experimental, analytical
and numerical CFD and numerical
modelling, CFD
will be modelling,
presented will the
including be
presented
research aim,including the research
methodologies, andaim, methodologies, and the findings.
the findings.
Faghih and Bahadori [19] evaluated wind pressure coefficient (CP) of a domed roof at different
experimentally. The
points experimentally. The test
test was
was conducted
conductedin in aa wind
wind tunnel
tunnelwith
withmaximum
maximumvelocity
velocityofof7070m/s
m/s on
a 1/10
1/10 scale
scaledome
domemodel.
model.Twelve
Twelveopenings
openingswere wereconsidered
consideredat atthe
thedome
dome collar
collar and
and one
one inin the
the apex.
apex.
The test focused on the dome CP under under three
three different
different situations.
situations. The results showed that the CP
reached its maximum at the collar of the dome, with the highest CP of 1 in the first and second cases
when the openings and the hole were all opened or closed, and the lowest CP was measured at the
−2.3when
apex with −2.3 whenthe theopenings
openingsand andthethehole
holewere
wereall allclosed.
closed.
Faghih and andBahadori
Bahadori [20][20] studied
studied analytically
analytically how domed how roofs
domed roofs thermal
can satisfy can satisfy thermal
requirements
requirements
during warm duringseasonswarm seasonsdifferent
considering considering differentsuch
parameters parameters
as airflowsuch as airflow
around domedaround
roofs,domed
solar
roofs, solarradiation
radiation, radiation, heatradiation
transferheat
withtransfer
the skywith sky andand
and the ground the openings
ground and openings
on the property on ofthea
property
theologicalofschool
a theological school
in Yazd, Iran. Bothinordinary
Yazd, Iran.
materialBothand ordinary material
glazed tiles and glazedfortiles
were considered were
the dome
considered
coverage. It for
wasthe founddomethatcoverage.
the domedItroof wasprovided
found that better thethermal
domedconditions
roof provided bettercompared
in summer thermal
conditions
with the flatinroof,
summer compared
especially when with the covered
it was flat roof,with
especially
glazedwhen tiles. itMoreover,
was covered the with glazed
openings tiles.
caused
Moreover, the openings caused passive airflow inside the building,
passive airflow inside the building, which was useful for meeting thermal comfort. which was useful for meeting
thermal
Atifcomfort.
et al. [21] investigated the optical and thermal performance of a transparent single-glazed
Atif et al. [21]
hemispherical dome. investigated
It was found the that
optical and thermal zenith
at near-normal performance
angels of a transparent
(around the apex) single-glazed
the domed
hemispherical dome. Itlower
skylight transmitted was found that at near-normal
solar radiation and gained zenith
lowerangels
heat(around
than the theplanner
apex) the domed
skylights,
skylight the
whereas transmitted
reverse was lower truesolar radiation
for high zenithand gained
angles around lowertheheat than the
horizon. planner skylights,
Furthermore, the total
whereas
daily solarthe reverse
heat gainswas true
of the for high
domed zenithwere
skylight angles around
greater thanthethehorizon.
plannerFurthermore,
both in summer, the with
total 3%
dailyto
solar heatingains
9%, and winter,of the domed
up to 232%,skylight were greater
by increasing the sitethan the planner both in summer, with 3% to 9%,
latitude.
and in winter, up to 232%, by increasing the site latitude.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 4 of 22

Khademinejad et al. [22] explored the floor heating system in a dome-shaped room based on
comfort conditions of Tehran, Iran. The author applied CFD modelling to compare the thermal comfort
between the room and a rectangular room with the same floor heating system. Key parameters
including velocity and internal temperature were evaluated. The results showed that the air
temperature and speed were more satisfying in the dome room, where the average of air speed
was higher than the cubic room. The total heat transfer from per surface area of the dome room was
23% less than the cubic room.
Romero-Gómez et al. [23] assessed the internal micro-climate conditions in a naturally ventilated
greenhouse under local Mexico climatic conditions. The work applied CFD modelling to examine
the effect of different parameters such as roof vent area orientation and insect screen on air exchange
rate. The results showed that increasing roof vent area from 6% to 15% of the greenhouse floor area
enhanced the ventilation rate by 20%–40%. Tight insect screens could decrease the airflow rate by
almost 50% of those achieved with normal and without insect screens at the same outside wind speed.
Tlili et al. [24] presented a computational CFD model (VHS approach integrated with a turbulence
model) to analyze the effect of the roof shape and the heat source location on the fire-induced airflow
pattern. A flat, domed and pyramidal roof were considered for evaluating the temperature, velocity
distribution, mass flow rates at the openings and neutral plane height. The results showed that the
dome-shaped roof trapped the hot gas in its vicinity resulting in lower temperature inside the room
compared with the other two roofs.
Mahdavinejad et al. [25] applied mathematical and CFD analysis to determine the performance
of a flat and domed roof in terms of airflow and indoor temperature in Tehran´s climatic condition.
Results showed that the domed roof caused lower indoor air temperatures of 8 Kelvin compared with
the flat roof. Moreover, the geometry of the domed roof caused higher pressure difference between
the windward and leeward sides of the house compared with the flat-roofed house resulting in better
natural airflow. Furthermore, the heat gain and loss were lower with the domed roof compared with
the flat roof.
Lu et al. [26] studied the performance of displacement ventilation in a dome cinema auditorium
in summer using CFD modelling. Different arrangements of displacement ventilation were applied to
examine internal temperature and air velocity. The supply grills were placed on the floor, whereas three
different scenarios were considered for the return grills’ location (at the edge of screen, paralleled
with the edge, and in a horizontal ring). Results showed that all three scenarios could satisfy the
thermal comfort and indoor air quality criteria. Furthermore, farther position of outlets relative to
inlets in the horizontal ring scenario provided more upward airflow and better ventilation than the
other two scenarios.
Lin et al. [27] presented a three-dimensional thermal and airflow (3D-TAF) model that predicted
the impact of large domes on the heating load of a protected house located in Montreal, Canada.
The study focused on the airflow model verified with CFD simulations under the COMSOL
Multiphysics environment. Based on the investigation, 62.6% lower annual heating load was reported
in the dome house compared with a common insulated house.
Abohela et al. [28] investigated wind flow around six different roof shapes (flat, domed, gabled,
pyramidal, vaulted and wedged) covering an insulated cubical building 6 m high to determine
optimum height and roof shape for placing a wind turbine using CFD. The roof shapes´ influence was
observed in terms of wind-flow patterns, turbulence intensities and streamwise velocities. Based on
the investigation, the best location for mounting the wind turbine on top of the domed roof was at
1.3 times the building height, where the maximum streamwise wind velocity was obtained, which was
more than the stream-wise velocity at the same location without the building in the flow field.
Several studies have evaluated the ventilation and thermal performance of buildings with dome
roofs; however no current work has investigated the geodesic dome type or geodesic dome house.
In addition, most studies on dome-type roofs evaluated the internal temperature and air velocity
mostly in hot seasons and rarely in cold seasons. Therefore, this study will carry out three-dimensional
Computation 2016, 4, 31 5 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 5 of 22

three-dimensional CFD modelling of a two-storey geodesic dome house to investigate its ventilation
and
CFDthermal performance
modelling in different
of a two-storey climatic
geodesic domescenarios.
house The work will look
to investigate into severaland
its ventilation ventilation
thermal
strategies such as wind-driven and buoyancy-driven natural ventilation of the dome-shaped
performance in different climatic scenarios. The work will look into several ventilation strategies such
building.
as wind-driven and buoyancy-driven natural ventilation of the dome-shaped building.

3.
3. Computational
ComputationalModelling
Modelling
The
The 3D
3D Reynolds-Averaged
Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
Navier-Stokes (RANS)
(RANS) equations
equations along
along with
with the
the momentum
momentum and and
continuity equations were solved using the CFD software FLUENT15. The model
continuity equations were solved using the CFD software FLUENT15. The model employs the control employs the
control
volumevolume
techniquetechnique and the Semi-Implicit
and the Semi-Implicit Method forMethod for Pressure-Linked
Pressure-Linked EquationsEquations
(SIMPLE) (SIMPLE)
algorithm
algorithm with the second-order upwind discretisation. The standard k-epsilon
with the second-order upwind discretisation. The standard k-epsilon (k-e) turbulence model which (k-e) turbulence
model which is
is frequently frequently
used used for incompressible
for incompressible flows, was usedflows,
to was
defineused
thetoturbulence
define thekinetic
turbulence kinetic
energy and
energy and flow rate
flow dissipation dissipation ratemodel
within the within[29].
the model
The use[29]. Thestandard
of the use of thek-estandard
transportk-e transport
model model
on building
on building configurations
configurations has been foundhas been found
accurate accurate in
in previous previous
works worksventilation
on natural on natural studies
ventilation studies
[2–5,30–34].
[2–5,30–34]. The governing equations for the mass conservation, momentum conservation,
The governing equations for the mass conservation, momentum conservation, energy conservation, energy
conservation, turbulence
turbulence kinetic energykinetic energy and
and dissipation ratedissipation rate arehere
are not included notbut
included here but in
fully available fully
theavailable
FLUENT
in the FLUENT
user guide [35]. user guide [35].

3.1.
3.1. Model
Model Geometry
Geometry
Geodesic
Geodesic domes domesare classified
are into five categories:
classified into 1-Icosahedron-based,
five categories: 2-Octahedron-based,
1-Icosahedron-based,
3-Cube-based,
2-Octahedron-based,4-Cuboctahedron-based,
3-Cube-based, 4-Cuboctahedron-based,5-Truncated 5-Truncated Octahedron-based
Octahedron-based and
5-Rhombicuboctahedron-based.
and 5-Rhombicuboctahedron-based. Icosahedron
Icosahedronis the basic
is the form
basic formforfor
most
mostgeodesic
geodesicdomes,
domes,which
which isis
categorized into different
categorized into differenttypes
typesnamed
named byby v suffix,
v suffix, as shown
as shown in Figure
in Figure 3. The3. vThe v is
is the the symbol
symbol for
for spatial
spatial frequency
frequency of ainwave
of a wave in physics
physics and other and othera fields,
fields, measure a measure of how
of how often often components
components of a
of a structure
structure
repeat perrepeat per
unit of unit of distance.
distance. Therefore,Therefore,
the v in 2v,the3v,v 4v
in 2v, 3v, 4vdomes
geodesic geodesic domes
stands for stands for their
their frequency,
frequency,
whereas theywhereas
can bethey canback
traced be traced
to the back
basictoform
the classed
basic form as aclassed as a 1v
1v geodesic geodesic
dome. The dome. The
considered
considered
icosahedronicosahedron
dome in thisdome
studyin this
(see study
Table (see based
1) was Table on 1) was
a 3v,based
whichon hasa a3v, which has
smoother a smoother
shape than a 2v
shape than a dome
icosahedron 2v icosahedron
and lowerdome and lower
complexity thancomplexity than a dome
a 4v icosahedron 4v icosahedron
[36]. dome [36].

Figure Differenttypes
Figure 3. Different typesofoficosahedron-based
icosahedron-based geodesic
geodesic domes
domes [36].[36]. Reproduced
Reproduced withwith permission
permission from
from
Rene Rene K. Mueller,
K. Mueller, SimplyDifferently.org;
SimplyDifferently.org; published
published by 2014.
by 2014.

The
The geometry
geometry was was generated
generated using
using aa CAD
CAD modeller
modeller and
and imported
imported into
into ANSYS15
ANSYS15 for for generating
generating
the
the computational domain as shown in Figure 4b. The computational domain consists of the outdoor
computational domain as shown in Figure 4b. The computational domain consists of the outdoor
domain
domain which
which represents
represents the
the environment
environment and and the
the inner
inner domain
domain which
which represent
represent the
the geodesic
geodesic dome
dome
house.
house. The
Theoutdoor
outdoordomain
domainconsists
consistsofofananinlet
inletonon
oneonecorner and
corner andpressure
pressureoutlet onon
outlet thethe
other side
other to
side
simulate the the
to simulate wind around
wind the building.
around The domain
the building. The domainsize and
sizeposition of building
and position were based
of building wereon the
based
guideline
on the guideline for environmental wind-flow studies, COST 732. The guideline suggests that for aa
for environmental wind-flow studies, COST 732. The guideline suggests that for
building
building with height of
with height of H,
H, the
the distance
distancebetween
betweenthe thebuilding’s
building’ssidewalls
sidewallsand
andthe
the lateral
lateral boundaries
boundaries of
of
thethe computational
computational domain
domain should
should be be
5H.5H.ForFor
the the extension
extension of the
of the domain
domain in flow
in flow direction,
direction, 5H was5H
was suggested
suggested for inlet.
for inlet. Forpressure
For the the pressure
outlet,outlet, the boundary
the boundary shouldshould be positioned
be positioned at leastat15Hleast 15H
behind
behind the building.
the building.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 6 of 23

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Computation 2016, 4, 31 6 of 22

Figure 4. (a) Meshed model (b) Computational flow domain.

Table 1. The specification of the applied 3v 5/9 icosahedron dome in this study.
Figure4.4.(a)
Figure (a)Meshed
Meshed model (b) Computational
model (b) Computationalflow
flow domain.
domain.
Figure 4. (a) Meshed model (b) Computational flow domain.
Specification Dimensions
BaseTable 1. The specification
Diameter at A of the applied 3v 5/9 icosahedron dome in this
13.70 m study.
Table
The1.specification
The specification
of theofapplied
the applied
3v 5/93vicosahedron
5/9 icosahedron
dome dome in this study.
Table 1.
Height at C
Specification 2.41 m this study.
in
Dimensions
Height
Base atSpecification
B
Diameter at A 9.06 mDimensions
13.70 m
Specification Dimensions
Height ofBase Diameter
Riser
Height Dat C at A 0.33 mm 13.70 m
2.41
Base Diameter
Height
Height
Entrance Opening atEBat Cat A 13.70
9.06
5.46 mmm 2.41 m
Height Height
of Riserat C
D 2.41 m2m
0.33
Floor area atHeight
base at B 143 m 9.06 m
Height at B 9.06 m
Entrance
Roof Height
area Opening
of RiserED 329 5.462m 0.33 m
Height of Riser D 0.33m m 2
Floor
Volume area at
Entrance
Entrance base E E
Opening
Opening 864 143
5.46 mm3m 5.46 m
Roof area
Floor area 143 m2m 143 m2
329 2
Floor areaatatbase
base
Volume
Roof area 329864
m2m 329 m2
3
Roof area 3
Volume 864 m
Volume 864 m3

3.2. Computational Mesh Design

Due to the complexity of the geometry, the computational model was meshed using
unstructured meshing
3.2. Computational method
Mesh Designwith patch independent mesh algorithm [29,31–33]. The patch
3.2. independent
Computational Meshalgorithm
mesh Design is based on the subsequent spatial subdivision algorithm which
ensuresDue to the ofcomplexity of essential,
the geometry, thelarger
computational model wastherefore
meshed using
Due torefinement
3.2. Computational the complexity
Mesh Designtheofmesh
the where
geometry, but retains
the computational elements
model where
was meshed feasible,
using unstructured
unstructured
allowing faster meshing
computingmethod with patch
times. Figure independent
4a,b displays meshmodel
the meshed algorithm
along [29,31–33].
with the flow The patch
meshing method with patch independent mesh algorithm [29,31–33]. The patch independent mesh
independent
Duedomain
to theused formesh
complexity algorithm
the CFD of is based
the geometry,
analysis. The on
thethe
computational subsequent
computational
model comprisedspatial
model subdivision
of 4.6was meshed
million algorithm
elements. The which
using
algorithm is based on the subsequent spatial subdivision algorithm which ensures refinement of the
ensures
unstructured refinement
meshing
computational of the
method
modelling mesh
with
was where
patch
verified essential,
independent
using butmesh
sensitivity retains larger
algorithm
analysis and fluxelements where
[29,31–33].
balance The
analysisfeasible,
patchtherefore
detailed
mesh in
where essential, but retains larger elements where feasible, therefore allowing faster computing
the mesh
next sections.
independentallowing faster computing
algorithm times.
is based on Figure 4a,b displays
the subsequent thesubdivision
spatial meshed model along which
algorithm with the flow
times. Figure 4a,b displays the meshed model along with the flow domain used for the CFD analysis.
domain used
ensures refinement for mesh
of the the CFD analysis.
where The but
essential, computational
retains largermodel comprised
elements whereof 4.6 million
feasible, elements. The
therefore
The3.3.
computational model comprised of 4.6 million elements. The computational modelling was
Sensitivity Analysis
allowing computational
faster computing modelling
times. was
Figureverified
4a,b using
displayssensitivity
the meshed analysis and along
model flux balance
with theanalysis
flow detailed
verified using sensitivity analysis and flux balance analysis detailed in the next sections.
domain used The
in the computational
next
for the sections.
CFD analysis. model
The used was verified
computational modelusing grid sensitivity
comprised analysis
of 4.6 million which The
elements. was
performed
computational by
modellingconducting additional simulations of the same domain and boundary conditions but
3.3. Sensitivity Analysiswas verified using sensitivity analysis and flux balance analysis detailed
with
in the next3.3. various mesh sizes
Sensitivity Analysis
sections. [2–5,31–33]. The area-weighted average value of the velocity measured from
aThe computational
vertical modelthe
line drawn across used was
centre ofverified
the domeusing
housegrid
wassensitivity
used as theanalysis which The
error indicator. wasvertical
performed
line The
provides
by conducting computational of model
velocity of used
airflow was
in verified
different areasusing
and grid
speeds, sensitivity
additional simulations of the same domain and boundary conditions but withwith
analysis such as analysis
upper areas which was
various
3.3. Sensitivity Analysis
mesh performed
high speed
sizes by conducting
(>0.8),
[2–5,31–33].areasThewith additional
rotation flows
area-weighted simulations
and lower
average of theofwith
areas
value same domain
the low and boundary
wind measured
velocity speeds (<0.2).
from conditions
The vertical but
a grid
line drawn across the centre of the dome house was used as the error indicator. The vertical linefrom
with various mesh sizes [2–5,31–33]. The area-weighted average value of the velocity measured
a vertical
provides line of
analysis drawn across
velocity the centre
of airflow of the dome
in different house
areas andwas usedsuch
speeds, as the
aserror
upperindicator.
areas with The vertical
high
line provides analysis of velocity of airflow in different areas and speeds, such as upper areas with
high speed (>0.8), areas with rotation flows and lower areas with low wind speeds (<0.2). The grid
Computation 2016, 4, 31 7 of 22

Computation 2016, 4, 31 7 of 22
speed (>0.8), areas with rotation flows and lower areas with low wind speeds (<0.2). The grid was
classified
was into the following:
classified coarse mesh
into the following: with
coarse 2,910,143
mesh elements,
with 2,910,143 medium
elements, with 4,674,895
medium elements
with 4,674,895
and fine with 8,185,701
elements and fineelements. Figure 5elements.
with 8,185,701 shows theFigure
summary of thethe
5 shows velocity measurements
summary for all the
of the velocity
points.measurements
The average for all between
error the points.fine
Theandaverage
mediumerrormesh
between fine for
results andthe
medium mesh
velocity wasresults
5.72%,forwith
the the
maximumvelocity wasat5.72%,
error with the maximum
9% (measured at 3.8 m)error at 9% (measured
equivalent to ±0.018 at m/s.
3.8 m)The
equivalent
average to error
±0.018between
m/s. The fine
average error
and medium meshbetween
resultsfine
for and
the medium
velocitymesh results for
was 3.79%, thethe
with velocity was 3.79%,
maximum with
error the maximum
at 9% (measured at
error at 9% (measured at 4.6 m) equivalent to ±0.018 m/s. In order to have
4.6 m) equivalent to ±0.018 m/s. In order to have a balance between accuracy and computational a balance between
accuracy and computational speed, the medium mesh with 4.6 million
speed, the medium mesh with 4.6 million elements was employed for all the simulations. elements was employed for
all the simulations.
10
9 Coarse Medium Fine
8
7
Height (m)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Velocity (m/s)

Figure
Figure 5. Sensitivity
5. Sensitivity analysisofofthe
analysis the computational
computational modelling.
modelling.

3.4. Convergence of Solution and Conservation of Property

3.4. Convergence of Solution and Conservation of Property
Solution convergence is used to approach a zero error in numerical method via applying
Solution
iterationsconvergence
to produce aissolution
used to of
approach
the grid.a Solutions
zero errorarein numerical method against
based on iterations via applying iterations
pre-defined
convergence
to produce criterion.
a solution of theFLUENT defined 10
grid. Solutions are and
−6 based 10 onasiterations
−3 the default convergence
against criterion
pre-defined for the
convergence
energy
criterion. equation
FLUENT defined 10−other
and all 10−3 as the
6 and equations respectively. However, criterion
default convergence this pre-defined convergence
for the energy equation
and allcriterion does not apply
other equations to all types
respectively. of simulations
However, and in this convergence
this pre-defined study this option was not
criterion used
does notand
apply
instead the residuals were monitored as shown in Figure 6a. The iteration process
to all types of simulations and in this study this option was not used and instead the residuals were is continued until
there was
monitored no difference
as shown between
in Figure the iterations.
6a. The In addition,
iteration process quantities such
is continued untilasthere
the air
wasvelocity near
no difference
the roof (9 m height) and middle (3 m height) (Figure 6b,c) were also monitored. Furthermore, the
between the iterations. In addition, quantities such as the air velocity near the roof (9 m height) and
conservation of properties (mass flux balance) was also achieved. The mass flux balance was below
middle (3 m height) (Figure 6b,c) were also monitored. Furthermore, the conservation of properties
the required value or below 1% of smallest flux through the computational domain.
(mass flux balance) was also achieved. The mass flux balance was below the required value or below
1% of 3.5. Methodflux
smallest Validation
through the computational domain.

3.5. MethodInValidation
order to validate the modelling method used in the current study, additional simulation of a
similar domed-roof building [37] was conducted for comparison. It is worth noting that this
Inparticular
order tomodel wasthe
validate selected becausemethod
modelling of the similarities
used in thewith the current
current study,work such as the
additional geometry of a
simulation
(domed shaped), inlet conditions (ABL type flow), grid (non-uniform with refinement),
similar domed-roof building [37] was conducted for comparison. It is worth noting that this particular turbulence
modelmodel
was selected because of the similarities with the current work such as the geometry (domed
(k-epsilon,
shaped), standard was
inlet conditions (ABLused
typein flow),
the current
grid study but RNGwith
(non-uniform in [37]) and modelling
refinement), procedure
turbulence model
(SIMPLE algorithm, finite volume method, etc.). Figure 7 shows a comparison between the
(k-epsilon, standard was used in the current study but RNG in [37]) and modelling procedure (SIMPLE
numerical results and experimental values of u (streamwise) and v (cross-streamwise) components
algorithm, finite volume method, etc.). Figure 7 shows a comparison between the numerical results and
of velocity for location z/Href = −0.163. It can be seen in Figure 7 that the current model’s results have a
experimental values ofwith
good agreement u (streamwise)
the numericaland andv experimental
(cross-streamwise) components
data, although of velocity
the results of the for location
current
= −0.163.
z/Hrefmodel were more consistent with the numerical data particularly beyond y/Href = 0.2. In all cases, thewith
It can be seen in Figure 7 that the current model’s results have a good agreement
u component
the numerical and isexperimental
lower closer to the ground
data, although andtheincreases
resultsgradually upwards
of the current while
model the vmore
were component
consistent
decreases
with the gradually
numerical with elevation.
data particularly Figurey/H
beyond 8 displays a In
ref = 0.2. comparison
all cases, between the numerical
the u component results
is lower closer
to theand experimental
ground data forgradually
and increases streamwiseupwards
and cross-streamwise
while the v velocity
componentflow profiles
decreasesat z/H ref = −0.155.with
gradually
elevation. Figure 8 displays a comparison between the numerical results and experimental data for
streamwise and cross-streamwise velocity flow profiles at z/Href = −0.155. Similarly, the streamwise
 Computation2016,
Computation 2016,4,4,3131 88of
of22
22

Similarly, the streamwise velocity flow profile was in good agreement with previous works´
velocity flowand
numerical profile was in good
experimental agreement
results, withthe
however, previous works´ numerical
cross-streamwise and
velocity experimental
flow profile wasresults,
more
however, the cross-streamwise velocity flow profile was more consistent with the experimental
consistent with the experimental data for this location. Overall, the numerical code was capable data
of
for this location.
accurately Overall,
simulating thethe numerical
wind-flow code was
conditions capable
around of accurately
a domed-roof simulating
building and the
waswind-flow
therefore
conditions
employedaround a domed-roof building and was therefore employed in this study.
in this study.

Figure6.6. (a)
Figure (a) FLUENT
FLUENT solution
solutionresiduals
residualsand
andmonitoring
monitoringof convergence for (b)
of convergence for velocity at 9 m;
(b) velocity at and
9 m;
(c) velocity at 3 m.
and (c) velocity at 3 m.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 9 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 9 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 9 of 22

Figure7. 7. Comparison
Figure Comparison between
betweennumerical
numericalpredictions
predictions andand
numerical/experimental data [37]
numerical/experimental datafor
[37]
Figure 7. Comparison between numerical predictions and numerical/experimental data [37] for
streamwise
forstreamwise and
streamwiseand cross-stream
andcross-stream velocity
cross-stream results
velocity at
results z/H ref = −0.163.
at z/H = −0.163.
velocity results at z/H ref = ref
−0.163.

Figure 8. Comparison between numerical predictions and numerical/experimental data [37] for
Figure8. 8. Comparison
Comparison between
between numerical
numerical predictions andand numerical/experimental data [37]
datafor
Figure
streamwise and cross-stream velocity results atpredictions
z/Href = −0.155. numerical/experimental [37]
streamwise and cross-stream velocity results at z/H ref = −0.155.
for streamwise and cross-stream velocity results at z/Href = −0.155.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 10 of 22

Computation 2016, 4, 31 10 of 22
3.6. Boundary Conditions
The basic assumptions for the CFD simulation include a three-dimensional, fully turbulent, and
3.6. Boundary Conditions
incompressible flow. For the wind-induced flow model, the geometry was modelled as an open
structure
The basic with assumptions
openings on the for roof which
the CFD allows theinclude
simulation incoming air to pass through
a three-dimensional, it, inturbulent,
fully order to
simulate
and and analyse
incompressible the airflow
flow. For the pattern inside the
wind-induced flow structure.
model, the For geometry
the buoyancywas flow
modelledmodel, as the
an
geometry
open was also
structure withmodelled
openingsas onan open
the roofstructure
which allows with openings
the incoming on theairroof andthrough
to pass also withit,windows
in order
(one
to at windward
simulate and one
and analyse theatairflow
leeward side) open
pattern insideinthe lower level. The
structure. Foroutdoor domainflow
the buoyancy (Figure 4b)
model,
consists
the geometryof a velocity
was alsoatmodelled
the left-hand as anside,
openand a pressure
structure with outlet
openings(atmospheric
on the roof pressure)
and alsoonwith the
opposing (one
windows boundary wall. Theand
at windward vertical
one wind-speed
at leeward side) monthly open profiles
in lowerin Figure
level. 9b were
The imposed
outdoor at the
domain
inlet of 4b)
(Figure theconsists
domain.ofMathematical
a velocity at the descriptions
left-hand side,and derivations
and a pressure of the vertical
outlet ABL velocity
(atmospheric pressure)profile,
on
kinetic
the energyboundary
opposing and dissipation
wall. The rates are available
vertical wind-speedin [38].monthly
The temperature
profiles ininlet was9b
Figure also
wereset imposed
based on
local
at the average
inlet of thetemperatures in Figure 9a. descriptions
domain. Mathematical The sides and and top walls are of
derivations setthe
as vertical
symmetry ABL walls. The
velocity
standard
profile, wall functions
kinetic energy and were applied rates
dissipation to theare wall boundaries
available in [38]. except for the ground,
The temperature inletwhich
was also hadsetits
wall functions
based adjustedtemperatures
on local average for roughness. In order
in Figure 9a.toThe simulate
sides and indoor heat gains,
top walls are set the heat flux of
as symmetry the
walls.
floors
The (upper wall
standard and functions
lower) of were the dome
appliedhouse
to the waswall setboundaries
to 25 W/mexcept 2. Thisforwastheset based which
ground, on typical
had
internal
its heat gainadjusted
wall functions levels infor residential
roughness. buildings.
In order to This takes into
simulate indooraccount heat gains
heat gains, from
the heat fluxlighting
of the
(10 W/m
floors (upper
2 ), equipment
and lower)(12 W/m
of the dome
2 ) and occupancy
house was set(3 to W/m
25 W/m2 2
) [39,40].
. ThisThese
was setvalues
basedvary greatly
on typical based
internal
on many
heat factorsinsuch
gain levels as the design,
residential buildings.use This
of space,
takesindoor and outdoor
into account conditions,
heat gains etc.; however,
from lighting (10 W/mfor 2 ),

the purpose(12
equipment of W/m 2 ) andthis
this study, was set to
occupancy (3 aW/m 2 ) [39,40].
constant value These
for simplification
values varyand should
greatly basedbe sufficient
on many
for investigating
factors such as thethe capabilities
design, of theindoor
use of space, ventilation strategyconditions,
and outdoor to cool theetc.;indoor space.for
however, The theboundary
purpose
conditions
of this study,for thewas
this CFD setmodel are shown
to a constant valueinforTable 2.
simplification and should be sufficient for investigating
the capabilities of the ventilation strategy to cool the indoor space. The boundary conditions for the
CFD model are shown inTable Table2.2.Boundary conditions set for the CFD simulation.
Parameter
Table 2. Boundary conditions set for the CFD Dimensions
simulation.
Geometry Solid zone
Parameter
Enclosure Dimensions Fluid zone
Turbulence Model
Geometry SolidStandard
zone k-epsilon
Enclosure Fluid zone
Near-Wall Treatment Standard Wall Functions
Turbulence Model Standard k-epsilon
Velocity Formulation
Near-Wall Treatment Absolute
Standard Wall Functions
VelocityInlet
Velocity Formulation Absolute
ABL Profile (see Section 3.6)
Velocity Inlet ABL Profile (see Section 3.6)
Pressure Outlet Atmospheric
Pressure Outlet Atmospheric
Temperature InletInlet
Temperature see Temperature
see Temperature in Section 3.6
in Section 3.6
SolverSolver
TypeType Pressure-Based
Pressure-Based
Time Steady
Time Gravity −9.81 m/s2 Steady
Gravity −9.81 m/s2

Figure 9. Cont.
Computation 2016,4,4,31
Computation2016, 31 11 11 of 22
of 22

Figure9.9.(a)
Figure (a)The
Themean
meanhigh
hightemperatures
temperatures[41];
[41];(b)
(b)Calculated
Calculatedvertical
verticalwind-speed
wind-speedmonthly
monthlyprofiles
profilesfor
the city of Yazd [42].
for the city of Yazd [42].

3.7.Case
3.7. CaseStudy
Study Location
Location
Yazdisislocated
Yazd located
in in
thethe
EastEast of Isfahan
of Isfahan and south
and south of Lutofdesert at 31◦ Natlatitude
Lut desert and 54◦ Eand
31°N latitude 54°E
longitude.
longitude.
Yazd was usedYazdforwas usedmonths.
various for various months.
Monthly Monthlyand
temperature temperature
wind-speed and wind-speed
profile profile
for different for
months
different
are shownmonths are9.shown
in Figure Basedinon Figure
Köppen 9. Based on Köppen
classification, theclassification, the climatic
climatic conditions conditions
of this provinceofare
this province
categorized asare categorized
a hot as a hot
desert climate desertAccording
(BWh). climate (BWh).
to theAccording to the
study of [41], studylower
Yazd´s of [41], Yazd´s
and upper
lowerof
limits and uppercomfort
thermal limits ofin
thermal
summer comfort in summer
are 294.35 K and are 294.35
301.15 K and 301.15
K, whereas K, whereas
in winter in winter
they are 293.55 K
they297.95
and are 293.55 K and 297.95
K respectively K respectively
in the in the
centre of Iran. Forcentre
moreof Iran. For
realistic more realistic
prediction of theprediction
model, theofactual
the
model, the actual wind profiles [32] for different
wind profiles [32] for different months were used. months were used.

3.8.Measurement
3.8. Measurement of
of Indoor
Indoor Velocity
Velocity and
and Temperature
Temperature
InInorder
order totostudy
study wind-flow
wind-flow characteristics,
characteristics, 18
18 different
different points
points(1–9
(1–9for
forlower
lowerfloor/11–19
floor/11–19forfor
upper floor) at 1.2 m height and 4.2 m height were located inside the dome for measuring velocity
upper floor) at 1.2 m height and 4.2 m height were located inside the dome for measuring velocity and
and temperature
temperature (Table(Table
3). 3).

4.4. Results
Results and
and Discussion
Discussion

4.1.Wind-Induced
4.1. Wind-Induced Flows
Flows
During the
During the windy
windy period,
period, ventilation
ventilation is
is driven
driven by
by wind-induced
wind-inducedflows.
flows.InInthis
thiscase, two
case, twoside
side
windowswere
windows wereassumed
assumed to
to be
be closed and the
the entrance
entranceof
offresh
freshair
airand
andexhaust
exhaustofofstale
staleairair
were
werebyby
thethe
toproof
top roofvents.
vents.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 12 of 22

Computation 2016, 4, 31 12 of 22

Table 3. Location of measurement points in lower (1–9) and upper floors (11–19).
Table 3. Location of measurement points in lower (1–9) and upper floors (11–19).

Points X [m] Y [m] Z [m]

Points X [m] Y [m] Z [m]
1 −3.6 3.6 1.2
1 2 −3.6 0 3.6 3.6 1.2
1.2
2 30 3.6 3.6 3.6 1.2
1.2

Lower Floor
3 4 3.6 −3.6 3.6 0 1.2
1.2
4 5
−3.6 0
0 0 1.2
1.2
Lower Floor 5 0 0 1.2
6 3.6 0 1.2
6 3.6 0 1.2
7 −3.6 −3.6 1.2
7 −3.6 −3.6 1.2
8 0 −3.6 1.2
8 0 −3.6 1.2
9 9
3.6 3.6
−3.6−3.6 1.2
1.2
11 −3.6 3.6 4.2
11 12−3.6 0 3.6 3.6 4.2
4.2
12 130 3.6 3.6 3.6 4.2
4.2
Upper Floor

13 14
3.6 −3.6
3.6 0 4.2
4.2
14 −3.6 0 4.2
15 0 0 4.2
Upper Floor 15 0 0 4.2
16 3.6 0 4.2
16 3.6 0 4.2
17 −3.6 −3.6 4.2
17 −3.6 −3.6 4.2
18 18
0 0
−3.6−3.6 4.2
4.2
19 193.6 3.6 −3.6−3.6 4.2
4.2
4.1.1. Velocity Distribution (Wind-Induced Flows)
4.1.1. Velocity Distribution (Wind-Induced
Figure 10a shows the Flows)
airflow velocity streamlines inside the dome house with the top vents
open to ventilate the space. In this case, the windows were assumed to be fully closed. As observed,
Figure 10a shows the airflow velocity streamlines inside the dome house with the top vents
the wind enters from the left velocity-inlet wall and lower airflow speed can be observed towards
open to ventilate the space.
the ground In this
of thecase,
domain the(atmospheric
windowsboundary
were assumed to The
layer flow). be fully
airflowclosed.
can be seenAs lifting
observed,up as it
the wind enters fromapproaches
the left velocity-inlet
the dome housewall and lower
and accelerates nearairflow speedthecan
the top where beare
vents observed
located. The towards
top vents
capture
the ground of the domain some of the airflow
(atmospheric boundaryand recirculates it mainly
layer flow). The inairflow
the upper
canfloor area. The
be seen air that
lifting up passed
as it
through the dome can be seen recirculating at the back side and then exits towards the right side of
approaches the dome house and accelerates near the top where the vents are located. The top vents
the domain where the pressure-outlet is located. The recirculating airflow pattern at the upper floor
capture some of the airflow
is positionedandinrecirculates
the windwardit region
mainly in the
of the upper
building, floor
which area. aThe
indicates mainlyair positive
that passed vertical
through the dome canairflow
be seen recirculating
in the most windward at the backofside
portion and then
the building andexits towards
a negative thedirection
vertical right side
in theofmiddle
the
and leeward portion of the building.
domain where the pressure-outlet is located. The recirculating airflow pattern at the upper floor is
Figure 10b shows the velocity contours plotted along the vertical central plan passing through
positioned in the windward region of the building, which indicates a mainly positive vertical airflow
the building to illustrate airflow distribution in and around the geodesic dome. The left-hand side of
in the most windward portion
the plot shows of the
thescale
building
of airflowandvelocity
a negative vertical
(m/s). The contour direction
plot in theinfluid
thedomain
middle is and
colour
leeward portion of thecoded
building.
and related to the CFD colour map, ranging from 0 to 4.4 m/s and 0 to 3.2 m/s for summer and
Figure 10b showswinter cases respectively.
the velocity contoursFor the summer
plotted along case, the plot displayed
the vertical central planthat passing
the air velocity
through gradually
the
decreased to 1.5 m/s from a reference velocity of 3.15 m/s after entering the geodesic dome. On
building to illustrate airflow distribution in and around the geodesic dome. The left-hand side of the
average, the air velocity was 24% higher at the upper level in relation to the lower level during
plot shows the scale of airflow
summer. velocity
Figure (m/s).
11 shows The contour
the airflow velocity atplot in the
different fluidinside
points domain is colour
the geodesic dome coded
during
and related to the CFDdifferent
colourmonths.
map, ranging
In addition,from 0 to 4.4velocity
maximum m/s and was 0achieved
to 3.2 m/s
in thefor summer
upper and
floors of thewinter
geodesic
cases respectively. For(points 18–19–16)case,
the summer with the
a maximum value of 0.22
plot displayed thatm/s.
theInair
contrast, the lowest
velocity velocity
gradually was measured
decreased to
at the center of the lower floor; point 5 with 0.05 m/s. As with the summer case, in winter the average
1.5 m/s from a reference velocity of 3.15 m/s after entering the geodesic dome. On average, the air
velocity was higher at the upper floor compared with the lower floor by 33%. During winter, points
velocity was 24% higher18 and at 5the upper
showed level in the
respectively relation
maximumto theandlower
minimum level during
velocity valuesummer.
with 0.17 Figure
m/s and 11 0.05
shows the airflow velocity
m/s. at different points inside the geodesic dome during different months.
In addition, maximum velocity was achieved in the upper floors of the geodesic (points 18–19–16)
with a maximum value of 0.22 m/s. In contrast, the lowest velocity was measured at the center of the
lower floor; point 5 with 0.05 m/s. As with the summer case, in winter the average velocity was higher
at the upper floor compared with the lower floor by 33%. During winter, points 18 and 5 showed
respectively the maximum and minimum velocity value with 0.17 m/s and 0.05 m/s.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 13 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 13 of 22

Computation 2016, 4, 31 13 of 22

Figure 10. (a) Streamline plot of velocity inside the dome during summer with wind-induced flow.
Figure 10. (a) Streamline plot of velocity inside the dome during summer with wind-induced flow;
(b) Velocity contour results of the airflow distribution inside the dome (wind-induced flows).
(b) Velocity contour
Figure 10. results of
(a) Streamline theofairflow
plot velocitydistribution inside
inside the dome the dome
during (wind-induced
summer flows).flow.
with wind-induced
(b) Velocity contour results of the airflow distribution inside the dome (wind-induced flows).

Figure 11. Comparison of the airflow velocity distribution inside the dome house during winter and
summer (wind-induced flows).

Figure 11. Comparison of the airflow velocity distribution inside the dome house during winter and
Figure 11. Comparison of the airflow velocity distribution inside the dome house during winter and
summer (wind-induced flows).
summer (wind-induced flows).
Computation 2016, 4, 31 14 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 14 of 22

4.1.2. Temperature
4.1.2. TemperatureDistribution
Distribution(Wind-Induced
(Wind-InducedFlows)
Flows)
Figures
Figures1212
andand13 illustrate cross-sectional
13 illustrate cross-sectionalplotsplots
of the
of temperature
the temperaturedistribution insideinside
distribution the domed
the
domed
room room
in the in theofmonth
month of July
July and and January.
January. The left-hand
The left-hand side ofside
the of the contour
contour shows shows the scale
the scale of
of static
static temperature (K).The contour plot in the fluid domain is colour coded
temperature (K).The contour plot in the fluid domain is colour coded and related to the CFD colour and related to the CFD
colour
map, map, ranging
ranging from 284from K to284
320K K.
to For
320 K.theFor the summer
summer case,
case, it canitbecan be observed
observed that that the upper
the upper floor
floor (315–317.5
(315–317.5 K) was K)at awas at atemperature
lower lower temperature as compared
as compared to the to the lower
lower floor (318–320
floor (318–320 K) which
K) which is dueisto
thedue to the
higher higherinairflow
airflow in the
the upper upper
floor floorfrom
coming coming
the from
outdoorthe (313
outdoor
K) via(313
theK)roof
viaopenings.
the roof openings.
Clearly, in
order to achieve comfortable temperature levels inside the dome during this period,this
Clearly, in order to achieve comfortable temperature levels inside the dome during period, a
a mechanical
mechanical
system system orofintegration
or integration other coolingof other cooling(evaporative
strategies strategies (evaporative cooling,
cooling, etc.) etc.) is necessary.
is necessary. A similar
A similar pattern can be observed for the winter case (Figure 13), with the upper
pattern can be observed for the winter case (Figure 13), with the upper floor at a lower temperature floor at a loweras
temperature as compared to the lower floor. Using the upper roof vents as a
compared to the lower floor. Using the upper roof vents as a natural ventilation strategy during winternatural ventilation
strategy during winter periods is advantageous and could reduce the indoor temperature and also
periods is advantageous and could reduce the indoor temperature and also introduce fresh air. A flow
introduce fresh air. A flow control system can be integrated with the roof vents to optimise the
control system can be integrated with the roof vents to optimise the indoor velocity and temperature.
indoor velocity and temperature.

Figure 12.12.Mid-plane
Figure Mid-planecontour
contourplot
plotof
ofthe
the temperature
temperature distribution insidethe
distribution inside thedome
domeduring
duringsummer
summer
month of July (wind-induced flows).
month of July (wind-induced flows).
Computation 2016, 4, 31 15 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 15 of 22

13. Comparison
Figure 13. Comparisonofofthe airflow
the velocity
airflow distribution
velocity inside
distribution the dome
inside househouse
the dome duringduring
winter winter
month
of January
month (wind-induced
of January flows). flows).
(wind-induced

Figure 14 shows the temperature distribution inside the dome in upper and lower floors during
summer and winter scenarios. In summer, the average internal temperature was recorded at 317.5 K for
the upper floor and 320 K for the lower, when the external temperature was set at 313 K. Furthermore,
the minimum temperature was 315 K as recorded at the entrance of the airflow into the dome
zone, and the maximum value was 320 K, as measured on the lower floor, thereby indicating the
warmer conditions of the lower floor compared with the upper floor. For the winter case, the external
temperature was set at 284 K. The average internal temperature was 290 K for the upper floor and
293 K for the lower floor, whereas 295 K (points 7–9) and 289 K (points 11, 12, 17) were the maximum
and minimum recorded values.

Figure 14. Comparison of the airflow temperature distribution inside the dome house during winter
and summer (wind-induced flows).
 Figure
Computation 2016,13. Comparison of the airflow velocity distribution inside the dome house during winter 16 of 22
4, 31
month of January (wind-induced flows).

Computation 2016, 4, 31 16 of 22

Figure 14 shows the temperature distribution inside the dome in upper and lower floors during
summer and winter scenarios. In summer, the average internal temperature was recorded at 317.5 K
for the upper floor and 320 K for the lower, when the external temperature was set at 313 K.
Furthermore, the minimum temperature was 315 K as recorded at the entrance of the airflow into the
dome zone, and the maximum value was 320 K, as measured on the lower floor, thereby indicating
the warmer conditions of the lower floor compared with the upper floor. For the winter case, the
Figure
external
Figure 14.14. Comparison
temperature
Comparison ofofthe
was theairflow
set airflow
at temperature
284 K. distribution
The average
temperature inside
insidethe
thedome
internal temperature
distribution house
was
dome 290 during winter
K during
house for the upper
winter
andand
floor summer
and
summer K(wind-induced
293(wind-induced flows).
for the lowerflows).
floor, whereas 295 K (points 7–9) and 289 K (points 11, 12, 17) were the
maximum and minimum recorded values.
4.2. Buoyancy-Induced Flows
4.2. Buoyancy-Induced Flows
During periods of very low to no wind, fresh outdoor air can still be induced inside the building
During periods of very low to no wind, fresh outdoor air can still be induced inside the building
usingusing
the buoyancy forces
the buoyancy from
forces heated
from airair
heated which
whichcreates
createsflow
flowfrom
fromthe
the lower floortotothe
lower floor theupper
upper floor as
floor
shown asin Figure
shown in 15. In this
Figure case,
15. In thistwo
case,side
twowindows
side windowswerewere
assumed
assumedto be
to open
be opento to
allow
allowfresh
freshairairtotoenter
from outside andoutside
enter from replace thereplace
and warmthe andwarm
staleand
air inside the
stale air dome
inside thehouse.
dome The stale
house. Theairstale
is then
air isexhausted
then
by theexhausted
top roof by
vents.
the top roof vents.

Figure
Figure 15. Streamline
15. Streamline plot ofplot of velocity
velocity inside inside the during
the dome dome during
winter winter withlow
with very very lowwind
or no or no
speed.
wind speed.
4.2.1. Velocity Distribution (Buoyancy-Induced Flows)
4.2.1. Velocity Distribution (Buoyancy-Induced Flows)
Figure 15 shows the airflow velocity streamlines inside the dome house with the two side windows
Figure 15 shows the airflow velocity streamlines inside the dome house with the two side
and top roof vents
windows and open.
top roof Clearly, the air
vents open. velocity
Clearly, thedistribution in the buoyancy
air velocity distribution case is more
in the buoyancy casenon-uniform
is more
compared with the
non-uniform wind-driven
compared case.
with the The cooler
wind-driven ambient
case. air flowed
The cooler ambientinto the building
air flowed into thefrom the two
building
side windows andside
from the two thenwindows
flowed along
and thentheflowed
floor where it picked
along the up heat.
floor where The heated
it picked airThe
up heat. moved upwards
heated air
moved upwards to the upper floor due to buoyancy and makes a large separation zone
to the upper floor due to buoyancy and makes a large separation zone at the center of the upper floor. at the center
of the
Shearing upper
with thefloor.
dome Shearing
walls atwith
the the dome
upper walls
floor, theat air
the moved
upper floor,
upward the air movedthe
toward upward toward
roof vents where
the roof vents where its velocity accelerated before leaving the building. It can be seen that the air
movement in the lower floor near to the windows (points 6 and 4) was larger than that in the upper
floor and the lowest air velocity values were observed away from openings. In addition, the velocity
values were larger near the windows than the roof vent openings.
Computation 2016, 4, 31 17 of 22

its velocity accelerated before leaving the building. It can be seen that the air movement in the lower
floor near to the windows (points 6 and 4) was larger than that in the upper floor and the lowest air
velocity values
Computation 2016, 4,were
31 observed away from openings. In addition, the velocity values were larger 17near
of 22
the windows than the roof vent openings.
Figure 16
Figure 16 shows the velocity distribution
distribution inside the building during typical summer and winter
conditions. ForFor the maximum velocity
the summer season, the maximum velocity values
values were
were 0.21
0.21m/s
m/s and
and 0.11
0.11 m/s
m/s
points 6 and
respectively at points and 44 which
which were
were close
close to
to the
the side
side windows.
windows. In contrast,
contrast, the lowest velocity
was measured
was measured at at the
the upper
upper floor,
floor,point
point1818with
with0.027
0.027m/s.
m/s. During winter, points 6 and 44 showed
showed thethe
highest values
highest values with
with 0.35
0.35 m/s
m/s and
and 0.077
0.077 m/s,
m/s,and
andpoint
point16
16had
hadthe
thelowest
lowestvalue
valuewith
with0.004
0.004m/s.
m/s.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the airflow
airflow speed
speed distribution
distribution inside
inside the
the dome
dome house
house during
during winter
winter and
and
summer (buoyancy-induced
summer (buoyancy-induced flows).
flows).

4.2.2. Temperature
4.2.2. Temperature Distribution
Distribution (Buoyancy-Induced
(Buoyancy-InducedFlows)
Flows)
Figures 17
Figures 17and
and1818 illustrate
illustrate cross-sectional
cross-sectional plotsplots
of theoftemperature
the temperature distribution
distribution inside
inside the domed the
domed room in the month of July and January. Accordingly, airflow temperature
room in the month of July and January. Accordingly, airflow temperature is lower in the lower zone is lower in the
lower zone near to the two side inlets, which increases away from the opening
near to the two side inlets, which increases away from the opening at the center and the upper floor. at the center and the
upper floor. Furthermore,
Furthermore, due to the
due to the geometry of geometry
the building,of the
hot,building,
stale airhot,
has stale air has current
an upward an upward current
toward the
toward the roof vents by moving along the dome walls. As a result, the
roof vents by moving along the dome walls. As a result, the center of the upper floor is cooler center of the upper floor
than is
cooler
its than During
corners. its corners. During
winter, winter, the ventilation
the ventilation strategy canstrategy can lower
effectively effectively lower the temperature
the temperature inside the
inside the building particularly in the lower floor. A flow control
building particularly in the lower floor. A flow control system can be integrated system can be integrated with the
with the openings
openings to optimise the indoor velocity and temperature during
to optimise the indoor velocity and temperature during the winter period. Similar temperature the winter period. Similar
temperaturecan
distribution distribution
be observed canduring
be observed during
the summer thethe
with summer
outdoor with
air the outdoor
entering fromairthe
entering from the
lower openings
lower openings and stale air rising towards the exhaust stack. However, due
and stale air rising towards the exhaust stack. However, due to the already high outdoor temperatures to the already high
outdoor temperatures during summer, the resulting indoor temperature would
during summer, the resulting indoor temperature would cause discomfort to occupants and mechanical cause discomfort to
occupants
or and cooling
evaporative mechanical or evaporative
is necessary during cooling is necessary during this period.
this period.
In the summer, the average internal
In the summer, the average internal temperature temperature was
was recorded
recorded at 320 K for
at 320 the the
K for upper floorfloor
upper and
317 317
and K for the the
K for lower, when
lower, when thetheexternal
external temperature
temperaturewas wassetsetatat313
313 K.
K. Further,
Further, thethe minimum
minimum
temperature was 315 K near the side windows, at the entrance of the airflow into the building, and
the maximum value was 320 as measured at the upper floor near the dome perimeter, indicating the
warmer conditions of the upper floor compared with the lower floor as Figure 19 shows. For the
winter case, the external temperature was set at 284 K. The average internal temperature was
recorded at 292 K for the upper floor and 289 K for the lower floor, whereas 297 K (points 4–6) and
Computation 2016, 4, 31 18 of 22

temperature was 315 K near the side windows, at the entrance of the airflow into the building, and
the maximum value was 320 as measured at the upper floor near the dome perimeter, indicating the
warmer conditions of the upper floor compared with the lower floor as Figure 19 shows. For the winter
case, the external temperature was set at 284 K. The average internal temperature was recorded at
292 K for the upper floor and 289 K for the lower floor, whereas 297 K (points 4–6) and 294 K (points 18
and 19) were
Computation 2016,the maximum and minimum recorded values respectively.
4, 31 18 of 22

Figure 17. Comparison of the airflow speed distribution inside the dome house during winter and
summer (buoyancy-induced flows).
Computation 2016, 4, 31 19 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 19 of 22
Computation 2016, 4, 31 19 of 22

Figure
Figure 18. Mid-plane
18. Mid-plane contour
contour plot plot oftemperature
of the the temperature distribution
distribution inside
inside the dome
the dome with with during
during summer
summer
andFigure and winter (buoyancy-induced
winter18.
(buoyancy-induced flows). flows).
Mid-plane contour plot of the temperature distribution inside the dome with during
summer and winter (buoyancy-induced flows).

Figure 19. Comparison of the airflow temperature distribution inside the dome house during winter
and summer (buoyancy driven flows).
Figure 19.19.
Figure Comparison
Comparison ofofthe
theairflow
airflowtemperature
temperature distribution
distribution inside
insidethe
thedome
domehouse
houseduring winter
during winter
and summer (buoyancy driven flows).
and summer (buoyancy driven flows).
Computation 2016, 4, 31 20 of 22

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the potential of natural ventilation (wind induced and buoyancy induced) within
a modelled geodesic-type dome under the climatic conditions of Yazd was investigated using
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The standard k-e model was used to define the turbulence
kinetic energy and flow dissipation rate within the model. The computational modelling was verified
using grid sensitivity analysis and flux balance analysis. The average error between fine and medium
mesh results for the velocity was 3.79%. In order to validate the modelling method used in the current
study, additional simulation of a similar domed-roof building was conducted for comparison. For the
wind-induced flow model, the dome structure was modelled with openings on the roof. For the
buoyancy flow model, the geometry was modelled with openings on the roof and also with two
windows open in the lower level. The indoor heat gain was simulated by setting a constant heat flux
for the floor surfaces. The outdoor wind speed and temperature were based on the local conditions.
For a more realistic simulation of the wind flow, the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) wind profiles
for Yazd were used. The results showed that using the upper roof vents as a natural ventilation strategy
during winter periods is advantageous and could reduce the indoor temperature and also introduce
fresh air. It is suggested that a flow control system is integrated with the roof vents to optimise the
indoor velocity and temperature. The results reveal that natural ventilation using a roof vent cannot
satisfy thermal requirements during hot summer periods, and mechanical or evaporative cooling is
required. To maximise the savings of active cooling and enhance the natural ventilation performance
during the cooler months, an adequate amount of thermal mass with a night-cooling strategy would
be one potential approach. The airflow inside the building ranges between 0.04 to 0.2 m/s with the
wind-induced flow, whereas the airflow velocity inside the building ranges from 0 to 0.22 m/s with the
buoyancy-induced mode. On average, the buoyancy-induced flow was significantly lower compared
to the wind-induced flow. However, the analysis showed that the ventilation strategy can still generate
air movement inside the building during periods with very low winds. The results also showed that
wind-induced flow (from the roof vent) caused better airflow movement and temperature reduction in
upper floor, whereas buoyancy-induced flow (roof vent and windows) caused better airflow movement
and temperature reduction in the lower floor. In addition, it was found that ventilation rate was not
at its highest in the wind-induced case because a considerable quantity of the flow left the top roof
vent without entering the building. It is also important to note that other factors which were not
investigated in the current study, such as the effects of surrounding buildings, wind directions and
solar radiation, should be included in future research. Future modelling work should investigate
the impact of different turbulence models on the accuracy of the results. Building Energy Modelling
tool could be used to assess the energy performance of the building. The potential for incorporating
low-energy cooling technologies such as evaporative cooling and phase change materials (PCMs)
should be investigated.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the University of Sheffield for
providing the computational resource for this project.
Author Contributions: The main author (Z.S.) carried out the review and design of the dome house and analysed
the data. J.K. carried out the computational modelling. B.H. participated in the analysis of data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
ABL Atmospheric Boundary Layer
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
FVM Finite Volume Method
HVAC Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning
RANS Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
SIMPLE Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations
TKE Turbulence Kinetic Energy
Computation 2016, 4, 31 21 of 22

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