MEMORY - Is the process of storing information and behavioral potentiality that results from

experiences for possible retrieval at some point in the experience and cannot be attributed to temporary
future. body states as those included by drugs, illness and
Multi-Store Model of Memory fatigue.
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory states that there are Edward Thorndike and Connectionism
generally three types of memory: sensory, short-term and  His research started with the study of mental
long-term telepathy in young children.
*Differ in terms of three characteristics: (1) capacity that  His later experiments involved chicks, rats, cats,
shows how many units of information can be held at one dogs, fish, monkeys and finally adult humans.
time; (2) duration of storage indicates how long the  He did pioneer work not only in learning theory
information can be held; (3) reason for forgetting which is but also in educational practices, verbal behavior,
a storage failure versus retrieval failure. comparative psychology, intelligence testing, the
1.Sensory Memory: Temporary storage of information nature-nurture problem etc.
a. Capacity. Large; contains most details of sensory  His years of animal research was summarized in
input his doctoral dissertation, entitled “animal
b. Duration of Storage. Visual 1/10 second: 2 intelligence: an experimental study of the
seconds associative process in animals” which is published
c. Reason for Forgetting. Storage failure (e.g. decay) in 1893
2. Short-Term Memory: Also called as working memory is Major theoretical notions
the storage of information currently being used for: CONNECTIONISM – Learning that involved the
a. Capacity. 7 units, plus or minus 2 strengthening of neural bonds (connections) between
b. Duration of Storage. Less than 30 seconds without stimulating conditions and the response to them
rehearsal SELECTING AND CONNECTING or TRIAL AND
c. Reason for Forgetting. Storage failure (e.g. decay, ERROR LEARNING
displacement)  The most basic form of learning.
It decays rapidly (200 ms.) and also has a limited capacity.  The trying of different responses in a problem
Chunking of information can lead to an increase in the solving situation until a response can solve the
short-term memory capacity. problem.
3. Long-Term Memory: Relatively permanent storage of
 He reached this basic notion through his early
information
experimentation, which involved putting animals
a. Capacity. Virtually Unlimited
in an apparatus that was arranged so that when the
b. Duration of Storage. Up to a lifetime
animals made a certain kind of response it escaped
c. Reason for Forgetting. Retrieval failure
 EXAMPLE
(e.g.interference)
 Declarative memory - is conscious memory which
involves recall of factual information. • When put into the box, the cat would show evident
Semantic memory - memory of specific facts and signs of discomfort and of an impulse to escape from
principle just like what we learned in confinement
school.
Episodic memory - includes time related data of
past experiences or episodes in our life.
• It tries to squeeze through any opening, it claws and
 Non-declarative memory - involves indescribable bites at bars or wire, claws at everything it reaches; it
information that usually include skills achieved continues its efforts when it strikes anything loose and
through repetitious exposure of practice such as shaky; it may claw at things within the box
swimming, or riding a bicycle.
PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING
Nature of LEARNING
• It does not pay very much attention to the food
outside, but seems simply to strive instinctively to
 Learning – to gain knowledge, comprehension or escape from confinement
mastery through experience or study (note: this is LEARNING IS INCREMENTAL, NOT INSIGHTFUL
from the dictionary, this is unacceptable to most  Learning occurs in very small systematic steps
psychologist because of the nebulous terms). rather than in huge jumps
 Kimble defines learning as a relatively permanent Incremental Learning – learning that occurs a little bit at
change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a a time rather than all at once.
result of reinforced practice (note: this is popular Insightful learning – learning that occurs all at once
but far from being universally accepted) rather than a little bit at a time
 Modified definition of LEARNING – learning is The law of readiness
a relatively permanent change in behavior or in
  When someone is ready to perform some act, to Two general principles are associated with TYPE R
do so is satisfying. CONDITIONING:
 When someone is ready to perform some act, not  Any response that is followed by a reinforcing
to do so is annoying. stimulus tends to be repeated.
 When someone is not ready to perform some act  A reinforcing stimulus is anything that increases
and is forced to do so, it is annoying. the rate with which an operant response occur.
Generally, we can say that interfering with goal directed REINFORCER – anything that increases the probability of
behavior causes frustration and causing someone to do a response recurring.
something they do not want to do is also frustrating Purpose: To modify behavior and development of human
The law of exercise personality.
LAW OF USE - Connections between a stimulus and a SHAPING - The process whereby a desired response is
response are strengthened as they are used encourage through the use of differential
LAW OF DISUSE - Connections between situations and reinforcement and successive approximation rather
responses are weakened when practice is disconnected or than simply waiting for it to occur
if the neutral bond is not used EXTINCTION - Involves the gradual decrease in the
The law of effect frequency with which a conditioned response occurs after
 It refers to the strengthening or weakening of a it is no longer reinforced
connection between a stimulus and a response as a GENERALIZED REINFORCERS - A secondary
result of the consequence of the response. reinforcer that has been paired with more than one primary
reinforcer
• Satisfying state of affairs – a condition that an CHAINING - One response can bring the organism into
contact with stimuli that acts as an stimulus
organism seeks out and attempts to preserve. discrimination for another response, which in turn

• Annoying state of affairs – a condition that an

causes it to experience stimuli that causes 3rd
response and so on
PUNISHMENT - Occurs when a response removes
organism actively avoids
RESPONSE BY ANALOGY something positive from the situation or adds something
 Refers to the fact that our response to unfamiliar negative
situation is determined by its degree of similarity Note: Although punishment suppresses a response as long
to a familiar situation. as it is applied, it does not weaken the habit
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT:
 Transfer of training – when something learned in
 Fixed-ratio Schedule– Behavior is reinforced
one situation is applied in another situation.
after a specific number of responses.
 Formal discipline – the belief held by some
 Variable-ratio Schedule– Behavior is reinforced
faculty psychologist that specific training can
after an average, more unpredictable number of
strengthen a specific faculty.
responses.
ASSOCIATIVE SHIFTING - The process whereby a
 Fixed Interval Schedule– a behavior is
response is CARRIED from one set of stimulating
reinforced for the first response after a specific
conditions to another by gradually adding new
amount of time has passed.
stimulus elements and subtracting the old one.
 Variable-Interval Schedule- Behavior is
BF SKINNER AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
reinforced for the first response after varying
 Skinner taught psychology at the University of amounts of time.
Minnesota between1936 and 1945 during which IVAN PETROVICH PAVLOV AND CLASSICAL
time he wrote his highly influential text “The CONDITIONING
Behavior of Organism”.
 He studied to become priest
RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR – elicited by a known
 He change his mind, and spend most of his life
stimulus ex: salivation in the presence of food.
studying physiology.
OPERANT BEHAVIOR – not elicited by known
stimulus but is simply emitted by the organism  In 1904, he won a nobel prize for his work on the
TYPE S CONDITIONING (RESPONDENT physiology of digestion
CONDITIONING) - It is called type S conditioning to  He did not begin his study of the conditioned
emphasized the importance of the stimulus in eliciting the reflex until he was 50 years of age
desired response.  Empirical observations
TYPE R CONDITIONING (OPERANT
CONDITIONING) - It is called type R to emphasized DEVELOPMENT OF A CONDITONED REFLEX-
response Also called as conditioned response (CR) is a response
OPERANT CONDITIONING PRINCIPLES that is made to a stimulus not originally associated with
the response.
INGREDIENTS OF CONDITIONING INCLUDES: RETENTIONAL PROCESSES
 UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US) – elicits  The variables involved in encoding certain
a natural and automatic response from the observations for memory.
organism.  Bandura believes that observations are stored in
 UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR) – memory through imaginal and verbal symbols
natural and automatic response elicited by the US.  Reciprocal determinism
 CONDITIONED STIMULUS – neutral stimulus  Banduras contention that the environment, the
in that it does not elicit a natural and automatic person and the persons behavior all interact to
response from the organism produce behavior.
GENERALIZATION - The tendency for an organism to  Potential environment – the environmental
respond not only to the specific stimulus it was trained on events that is available to an organism if it acts
but also to other related stimuli. in ways that actualized them.
DISCRIMINATION - Learning to respond to one  Actual environment – that proportion of a
stimulus but not to their stimuli although they may be potential environment that is actualized by an
related to the first organism’s behavior
BACKWARD CONDITIONING - An experimental SELF REGULATED BEHAVIOR – behavior that is
arrangement whereby the conditioned stimulus is regulated by ones own performance standards, moral
presented to the organism after the unconditioned codes or imagination.
stimulus is presented. PERFORMANCE STANDARD – the internalized
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS - When an organism criteria that come from either direct or vicarious
learns that their behavior is independent of outcome, they experiences used to monitor, evaluate and reinforce or
sometimes give up trying. With human it is associated punish one’s own behavior
with emotional state of depression. VERBAL PERSUATION – temporarily convince people
FLOODING - The organism is forced to experience that they should try or avoid some task.
feared CSs long enough to learn that an aversive MORAL CONDUCT – like ones performance’s’
experience will not follow, thus creating the conditions standards and ones perceived self-efficacy, one moral
necessary for extinction. code develops through interaction with models.
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION - A phobia is  On the case of morality, the parents usually model
extinguished by having a client approach the feared moral rules and regulations that are ultimately
experience one small step at a time while relaxing after internalized by the child.
each step.  These mechanisms make it possible for people to
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING - Learning by depart radically from their moral principles
observing the behavior of another person or model. without experiencing self contempt:
NOTE: Observational learning may or may not involve MORAL JUSTIFICATION – an attempt to escape from
imitation. self contempt by attributing one’s immoral behavior
Albert bandura and observational learning to a higher cause.
Bandura’s experiment  Example: I committed crime so that I could provide
 Children observe a film in which a model was food for my family.
shown hitting and kicking a large doll ADVANTAGEOUS COMPARISON – an attempt to
 In this case, a film showed an adult modelling escape from self-contempt by comparing one’s immoral
aggressiveness . actions to another persons even more immoral actions.
 One group of children saw the model reinforced Example: Yes I did that, but look at what he did.
aggressiveness DISPLACEMENT OF RESPONSIBILITY – an attempt
 A second group of children saw the model to escape self-contempt by claiming that a person in a
punished for his aggressiveness. position of authority caused one to act immorally.
 For the third group the consequences of the Example: I did it, because I was ordered to do so.
model’s aggressiveness were neutral; that is, the DIFFUSION OF RESPONSIBILITY – an attempt to
model was neither reinforced nor punished escape self contempt by saying that the decision to engage
 Later, children in all three groups was exposed to in an immoral act has been made by a group.
the doll and their aggressiveness toward it was Example: No single individual feels responsible.
measured DISREGARD OR DISTORTION OF
Variables affecting observational learning CONSEQUENCES - an attempt to escape self-contempt
ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES by minimizing the harm caused by one’s immoral actions.
 Those variable that determines what attended to Example: The agent of harm may deny that people were
during observational learning. seriously harmed, or say that the punishment actually was
 Before something can be learned from a model, good for the individual because it toughened him up.
the model must be attended to.
DEHUMANIZATION – making victim of one’s immoral  The theories explain that if one knows how a
actions appear to be less human in an attempt to escape person performs on one task that is highly
self contempt. saturated with “g”, one can safely predict a similar
Example: Why not take their land, they are nothing but level of performance for another highly “g”
savages without souls. saturated task. Prediction of performance on tasks
ATTRIBUTION OF BLAME – an attempt to escape self with high “s” factor is less accurate
contempt by saying the victim of one’s immoral actions 3. Terman’s Stanford Binet Individual Intelligence Test
caused one to act what one did.  The classic formula for the IQ is: IQ = mental age
Examples: Rapist's beliefs that rape victims are divided by chronological age x 100.
responsible for their own victimization because they have  By far, the Terman’s Stanford Binet Individual
supposedly invited rape by their sexually provocative Intelligence Test is considered as the best
appearance and behavior and by resisting sexual assault available individual test of intelligence.
weakly. 4. Thorndike’s Stimulus Response Theory (1920)-
JOHN B. WATSON BEHAVIORISM Thorndike drew an important distinction among three
 Behaviorism emphasizes the role of broad classes of intellectual functioning:
environmental factors in influencing behavior, to Intelligence test – is measured by standard intelligence
the near exclusion of innate or inherited factors. test.
This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. Mechanical Intelligence- is the ability to visualize
 Behaviorism is primarily concerned with relationships among objects and understand how the
observable behavior, as opposed to internal events physical world works.
like thinking and emotion. Social Intelligence – is the ability to function
 Behavior is the result of stimulus-response successfully in interpersonal situations
 He emphatically denied that we are born with any  Thorndike is cited for his work on what he
mental abilities or predispositions. considered as two most basic intelligence: trial
 His famous statement “Give me a dozen healthy and error and stimulus response association.
infants, well formed, and on my own specified  His proposition stated that stimulus response
world to bring them up in and ill guarantee to take connections that are repeated are strengthened
any one at random and train him to become any while those that are not used are weakened.
type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, 5. THURSTONES MULTIPLE FACTORS THOERY
artist and yes even beggar man and thief, OF INTELLIGENCE
regardless of his talents, tendencies, abilities, Factor Analysis - statistical procedure that identifies
vocations and race of his ancestors” clusters of related items (called factors) on a test used to
INTELLIGENCE identify different dimensions of performance that underlie
 Ability to learn from experience, solve problems, one’s total score
and use knowledge to adapt to new situations  His Multiple Factors Theory of Intelligence
 The capacity to understand the world, think identified 7 primary mental abilities: verbal
rationally and use resources effectively when comprehension, word fluency, number facility,
faced with challenges spatial visualization, associative memory,
Theories Definition of intelligence perceptual speed and reasoning
1. THE BINET-SIMON SCALE (Alfred Binet and 6. CATTELL’S THEORY ON FLUID AND
Theodore Simon) CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE
 Define intelligence based on intelligence quotient  FLUID INTELLIGENCE – essentially non-
or IQ is evolved verbal which involves adaptive and new learning
 The IQ is the ratio of mental age to chronological capabilities, related to mental operations and
age with 100 as the average processes on capacity, decay, selection and storage
MENTAL AGE - The average age of individuals who of information.
achieve a particular level of performance of a test  CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE - the
2. SPEARMAN’S TWO FACTOR THEORY OF accumulation of information, skills and strategies
INTELLIGENCE that people have learned through experience.
 General Intelligence (g)- factor that Spearman and  It refers to our ability to call up information from
others believed underlies specific mental abilities long term memory.
measured by every task on an intelligence test 7. STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF
 The performance of any intellectual act requires INTELLIGENCE
combination of “g factor” available to same  CONTEXTUAL INTELLIGENCE –
individual to the same degree for all intellectual emphasized intelligence on its socio-cultural
acts and “s factor” which are specific to that act. context
Example: intelligence for a child requires adaptive photographers, movie directors, set designers,
behavior that is not required for an older person. cartoonist.
Similarly it may be stated that intelligence for a 5. Musical intelligence
Filipino child who are deprived of the basic MUSIC SMART - The ability to enjoy, perform or
needs requires adaptive behavior that is not compose a musical piece
required of an American child etc. Composers, musicians, opera artist, signers, rappers,
 EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING – emphasized sound recording artist
insight and ability to formulate new ideas and 6. Interpersonal intelligence
combine seemingly unrelated facts or information PEOPLE SMART - Is the ability to understand and get
Habitual, highly practiced ways of dealing with the along with others
environment are not true indicators of intelligence, rather  Teachers, social workers, doctors, nurses,
it is the way a person responds to an event that is new, counselors, priests, nuns, politicians
novel and even unexpected that show how smart he or she 7. INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
is. SELF SMART - The ability to gain access to and
 COMPONENTIAL INTELLIGENCE – understand one’s inner feelings, dreams and ideas.
emphasizes the effectiveness of informational 8. NATURALIST INTELLIGENCE
processing. NATURE SMART - Ability to identify and classify
Component – cognitive mechanism that carry out patterns in nature
adaptive behavior to novel situations  A person uses his or her naturalist intelligence in
Cognitive mechanism are equivalent to the skills, the was he or she relates to the environment
knowledge and competencies that a person would have Intelligence test - People who can perceive the stimulus
acquired mainly through education and experience very quickly tend to score somewhat higher on
Two kinds of components: intelligence tests
 Performance – used in actual execution of the Origins of Intelligence Testing
tasks, includes encoding, comparing etc. Intelligence Test - a method of assessing an individual’s
 Metacomponents – higher order executive mental aptitudes and comparing them to those of others,
processes used in planning, monitoring and using numerical scores
evaluating one’s working memory program  The first intelligence test were developed by the
Theory of Multiple intelligence French Psychologist ALFRED BINET
Gardner’s intelligence theory that proposes that there are Stanford-Binet - The widely used American revision of
eight distinct spheres of personality Binet’s original intelligence test; revised by Terman at
1. LINGUISTIC INTELLIGENCE Stanford University
WORD SMART - The ability to use language to excite, Mental Age - The average age of individuals who achieve
please, convince, stimulate or convey information a particular level of performance of a test
Novelist, poets, teachers journalist, story tellers, actors,  a measure of intelligence test performance devised
orators, comedians and politicians by Binet
2. Logical mathematical intelligence  chronological age that most typically corresponds
LOGIC SMART - The ability to explore patterns, to a given level of performance
categories and relationship by manipulating objects or Intelligence Quotient (IQ)- defined originally the ratio of
symbols and to experiments in controlled orderly ways mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by
Mathematicians, scientist, computer engineers and 100
programmers, inventors, accountants, lawyers, detectives  IQ = ma/ca x 100)
and economist  on contemporary tests, the average performance
3. Bodily kinesthetic intelligence for a given age is assigned a score of 100
BODY SMART - The ability to use fine and gross motor Assessing Intelligence
skills in sports, the performing arts and crafts production Aptitude Test - a test designed to predict a person’s future
Ballet and folk dancers, choreographers, sculptors, performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
professional athletes, surgeons, watch makers, carpenters, Achievement Test - a test designed to assess what a person
circus performers. has learned
4. Spatial intelligence Assessing Intelligence
PICTURE SMART - The ability to perceive and Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
mentally manipulate a form or object, perceive and create  most widely used intelligence test
tension, balance and composition in visual or spatial  subtests – verbal; performance (nonverbal)
display Assessing Intelligence: Sample Items from the WAIS
 Urban planners, engineers, surveyors, explorers, Assessing Intelligence
map designers, florists, interior designers,
  Standardization - defining meaningful scores by Human being is inherently:
comparison with the performance of a pretested Biological, conditioned by the environment, gathering
“standardization group” data about the world through the senses and organizing
 Normal Curve - the symmetrical bell-shaped that data
curve that describes the distribution of many  Emotion comes from the Latin word emovere
physical and psychological attributes; most scores which means to stir up, to agitate, to upset, or to
fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores move.
lie near the extremes  A subjective sensation experienced as a type of
Assessing Intelligence psycho-physiological arousal
Reliability - the extent to which a test yields consistent  Result from the interaction of:
results  perception of environmental stimuli
- assessed by consistency of scores on:  neural & hormonal responses to perceptions
 two halves of the test (feelings)
 alternate forms of the test  a cognitive appraisal of the situation arousing the
 retesting state
Validity - the extent to which a test measures or predicts  an outward expression of the state
what it is supposed to Emotions
The Dynamics of Intelligence  determine personal viability
Mental Retardation - a condition of limited mental  prepare us for action
ability; indicated by an intelligence score below 70;  shape our behavior (emotions are
produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; reinforcing)
varies from mild to profound  regulate social interaction
Down Syndrome - retardation and associated physical  facilitate communication nonverbally
disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one’s genetic  facilitate adult-child relations and thus
makeup development
 make life worth living by adding value
to experience
 allow us to respond flexibly to our
environment (approaching good,
avoiding bad)
 largely a conscious phenomena
 involve more bodily manifestations than
other conscious states
 vary along a number of dimensions:
intensity, type, origin, arousal, value,
self-regulation, etc.
 are reputed to be “antagonists of
rationality.”
Genetic Influences - The most genetically similar people  have a central place in moral education
have the most similar scores and moral life through conscience,
Genetic Influences empathy, and many specific moral
Heritability - the proportion of variation among emotions such as shame, guilt, and
individuals that we can attribute to genes; variability remorse; inextrictably linked to moral
depends on range of populations and environments studied virtues
Group Differences Theories of Emotions
The Mental Rotation Test - Which two of the other James-Lange Theory of Emotion
circles contain a configuration of blocks; identical to the – William James and Carl Lange
one in the circle at the left?  The theory that emotional feelings
Stereotype Threat - A self-confirming concern that one result when an individual becomes
will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype aware of a physiological response to
an emotion-provoking stimulus
 Requires separate and distinct
physiological activity for each
emotion
– Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
 The theory that an emotion-provoking
EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS stimulus is transmitted simultaneously
 to the cortex, providing the feeling of Heightened activity means the
emotion, and to the sympathetic increased rate of discharge of nerve
nervous system, causing the impulses.
physiological arousal  Sensory feedback from the muscle to
 Cognitive labeling and action would the nervous system increases the
follow consciousness of feeling and activation of the emotion.
physiological arousal • Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion
– Schachter-Singer theory of emotion – Charles Darwin
 A two-stage theory stating that for an • Feedback from facial muscles results
emotion to occur, there must be (1) in emotional feelings.
physiological arousal and (2) an • These feedback sensations from the
explanation for the arousal (3) movement of facial muscles and skin
emotional feeling and overt behavio are interpreted by the brain as
 Accounts for subjective interpretation emotional feelings. The steps in the
 Does not account for specific emotional response.
physiological states associated with – First step - Facial muscle
some emotions changes (example: a dog
• Affective-Primacy Theory attack)
 We feel an emotion before we have – Second step - Interpretation
the time to appraise the situation. The of the changes in brain
opposite of Cognitive Appraisal (perception of the dog causes
Theory. facial muscle changes- big
 The steps of emotional response are: eyes, mouth open, and
– First step - Stimulation (e.g. eyebrow raised)
wining a lotto) – Third step - Emotional feeling
– Second step - Interpretation (emotion of fear is expressed
or appraisal (elicits a feeling resulting to brain
of happiness interpretation)
– Third step - Emotional feeling • Emotion and the Brain
(being already happy, you  Emotion associated with the limbic system
may now think what you are  The brain structure most closely associated with fear
going to do with the money) is the amygdala
– Fourth step - Bodily response  When the emotion of fear first materializes, much of
(you smile, jump, or even cry) the brain’s processing is nonconscious
• Lazarus Theory of Motivation • Researchers using electro-encephalographs to track
– Lazarus mood changes have found that reductions in both
 The theory that an emotion-provoking anxiety and depression are associated with a shift in
stimulus triggers a cognitive electrical activity from the left to the right side of
appraisal, which is followed by the the brain
emotion and the physiological arousal • Basic Emotions
 Three aspects of appraisal  Paul Ekman and Carroll Izard
– Primary (relevance) – Insist that there are a limited number of basic
– Secondary (options) emotions
– Reappraisal (anything  Basic emotions
changed) – Emotions that are found in all cultures, that
• Limbic Theory of Emotion are reflected in the same facial expressions
– E. Gelhorn across cultures, and that emerge in children
 The visceral brain comprises the according to their biological timetable
limbic system, which composed of  Ekman
variety of nerve centers. – Suggested considering emotions as families
 The visceral brain interprets feelings – The anger family might range from annoyed
that arise from internal organs of the to irritated, angry, livid, and, finally, enraged
body. – If perceived as a family, anger should also
• Activation Theory of Emotion include various forms of its expression
– D.B. Lindsley • Range of emotion
 Asserted that emotion is a heightened  Ekman and Friesen
state of activity of the cerebral cortex.
 • Claim there are subtle distinctions in • Found that among first to third
the facial expression of a single graders, girls were better able to hide
emotion that convey its intensity disappointment than boys were
• Development of facial expressions  Not only can emotions be displayed but not
 Like the motor skills of crawling and felt, they can also be felt but not displayed
walking, facial expressions of emotions  Most of us learn display rules very early and
develop according to a biological timetable abide by them most of the time
of maturation • Experiencing Emotion
 Consistency of emotional development • Facial-feedback hypothesis
across individual infants and across cultures  Sylvan Tomkins
supports the idea that emotional expression is • Claimed that the facial expression
inborn itself – that is, the movement of the
• Expression of Emotion facial muscles producing the
• Universality of facial expressions expression – triggers both the
 Charles Darwin physiological arousal and the
• First to study the relationship between conscious feeling associated with the
emotions and facial expressions emotion
• Believed that the facial expression of  Facial-feedback hypothesis
emotion was an aid to survival • The idea that the muscular
because it enabled people to movements involved in certain facial
communicate their internal states and expressions trigger the corresponding
react to emergencies before they emotions
developed language  Ekman and colleagues
• Maintained that most emotions, and • Documented the effects of facial
the facial expressions that convey expressions on physiological
them, are genetically inherited and indicators of emotion using 16
characteristic of the entire human participants
species • Reported that a distinctive
• Concluded that facial expressions physiological response pattern
were similar across cultures emerged for the emotions of fear,
 Scherer and Wallbott sadness, anger, and disgust, whether
• Found very extensive overlap in the the participants relived one of their
patterns of emotional experiences emotional experiences or simply
reported across cultures in 37 made the corresponding facial
different counties on 5 continents expression
• Also found important cultural • Researcher found that both anger and
differences in the ways emotions are fear accelerate heart rate, but fear
elicited and regulated and in how they produces colder fingers than does
are shared socially anger
• Cultural rules for displaying emotion  Izard
 Display rule • Believes that learning to self-regulate
• Cultural rules that dictate how emotional expression can help in
emotions should be expressed and controlling emotions
when and where their expression is • Proposes that this approach to the
appropriate regulation of emotion might be a
 Often, a society’s display rules require useful adjunct to psychotherapy
people to give evidence of certain emotions • Gender differences in experiencing emotion
that they may not actually feel or to disguise  David Buss
their true feelings • Has reported that women are far more
 Cole likely to feel anger when their partner
• Found that 3-year-old girls, when is sexually aggressive
given an unattractive gift, smiled • Men experience greater anger than
nevertheless women when their partner withholds
• They had already learned a display sex
rule and signaled an emotion they  Research by evolutionary psychologists also
very likely did not feel suggests clear and consistent differences
 Davis between the sexes concerning feelings of
jealousy
 • Men, more than women, experience
jealousy over evidence or suspicions
of sexual infidelity
• A women is more likely than a man to
be jealous of her partner’s emotional
attachment and commitment to
another and over the attention, time,
and resources diverted from the
relationship
• Emotion and cognition
 Emotion allows us to detect risk more
quickly than we could with rational thought
alone
 It is possible that the anger-optimism link
arises from confidence, whether justified or
not, in concrete measures directed towards
people who are perceived as potentially
threatening
• Fostering Emotional Functioning
• Emotional understanding
– discern one’s own emotional states
– discern other’s emotional states
– properly use emotional vocabulary.
• Emotional expression
– use of gestures to display emotional
messages nonverbally
– demonstrate empathy by connecting one’s
emotions to those of others
– display both self-conscious as well as
complex social emotions
– Distinguishing between experiencing an
emotion and action
• Emotional regulation and management
– coping with both pleasurable and
aversive/distressing emotions
– regulation of those situations that elicit
emotions
– ability to use an experience to strategically
organize the experience in terms of setting
goals and learning to motivate oneself and
others
• Triangular Theory of Love
• Robert Sternberg’s theory that three components –
intimacy, passion, and decision/commitment –
singly and in various combinations produce seven
different kinds of love:
 Liking (I)
 Infatuated love (P)
 Empty love (C)
 Romantic love (I, P)
 Fatuous love (C, P)
 Companionate love (C, I)
 Consummate love (I, C, P)