MODULE-III, LASER

LASER is the acronym of “Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation”.
Properties of Lasers:
1. The laser light is very nearly monochromatic.
2. The laser light is coherent with the waves all exactly in phase with one
another.
3. Directionality: Laser beam is highly directional. It hardly diverges. This
property is useful to measure long distance with higher accuracy.
4. Intensity: Laser is extremely intense; hence by Laser we can achieve very
high energy density.
Basic Principle:
When radiation interacts with matter, it leads to the transition of a quantum
system such as atom or molecule from one energy state to another.

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 , (E2  E1) of a system. An electron at

the energy state E1 is exited to E2 , when it absorbs a light photon of energy ∆E =

(E2-E1). If an electron makes a transition from the higher energy state E2 to E1 , a

light of photon of energy ∆E = E2-E1 is emitted. In both the case the frequency of
𝑬𝟐−𝑬𝟏
the photon involved is  =
ℎ
There are three possible ways in which interaction of radiation and
matter can take place.
1. Induced absorption:
“The process in which an atom in a lower energy state is raised to a higher energy
state by absorbing a suitable photon is called stimulated absorption.”
Consider two energy states with energies E1 and E2. Let a photon of frequency,
(E2−E1)
= ℎ be incident on the atom. The atom absorbs the energy of the photon and

its energy becomes equal to E1+h= E2. Hence it makes a transition to the exited
state E2. This is called induced absorption.
Induced absorption can be represented as
atom + photon → atom* (* represents the excited state)

2. Spontaneous emission:
“The process in which an atom in the higher energy state falls to the
lower state by emitting a photon on its own is called spontaneous emission.”

Consider an atom in the excited state, the atom voluntarily emits a photon
of energy ∆E equal to (E2-E1) and falls to the energy state E1. The emission where an
atom emits a photon without any aid by external agency is calledspontaneous
emission. The photons emitted may have any direction and phase. Hence, they are
incoherent.
This process can be represented as
atom* → atom + photon
Note: 1) Life time of atoms in higher energy state is usually very small of the order
of 10-8 sec.
2) If there is an assembly of atoms, the radiation emitted spontaneously by
each atom has a random direction and random phase. Therefore, radiation emitted
by spontaneous emission is incoherent. (Eg: glowing electric bulb)

3. Stimulated emission:
“The process of the emission of a photon by a system under the influence
of an incident photon of suitable energy, due to which the system transits from a
higher energy state to a lower energy state is called stimulated emission.”
 Consider an atom in the exited state with energy E2. Let a photon of energy
∆E = E2-E1 interacts with this atom. As a result, the atom emits a photon and transits
to the lower energy state. The emitted photon will have same phase, energy and
direction of movement as that of the incident photon.” The electromagnetic waves
associated with the two photons will have same phase and thus they are coherent.
This kind of emission is responsible for laser action.
This process can be represented as
atom* + photon → atom + photon + photon

Einstein’s coefficients - Expression for energy density

Consider two energy states E1 and E2 of a system of atoms (E1< E2). Let N1 be
the number of atoms in the energy state E1 and N2 be in E2 per unit volume of the
system. Then N1 and N2 are called the number density of atoms in the energy
states E1 and E2 respectively. Let U d be the energy of the incident radiation per

unit volume of the system where radiations lie in the frequency range  to  + d ,
then 'U ' is called the energy density of frequency " " .

Case (1): Induced absorption:

In this case an atom in the energy level E1 can undergo a transition to
E − E1
the level E2 by absorbing a radiation of suitable frequency  = 2
h
 The number of such absorptions per unit time per unit volume is called the rate of
absorption.
It depends on (a) the number density of lower energy state
(b) The energy density 'U '.

 Rate of absorption  N1U

Or Rate of absorption = B12 N1U → (1)

Where B12→ Einstein’s Coefficient of induced absorption.

Case (2): Spontaneous emission:
In this case, an atom in the higher energy state E2 undergoes a transition to
the lower energy state E1, by itself, emitting a photon. It is independent of
energy density of any frequency. The number of such spontaneous emission per unit
time per unit volume is called the rate of spontaneous emission. It depends only on
the number density of higher energy state ie N2.
Therefore, Rate of spontaneous emission = A21N2 ----------------------------- (2)
where A21 → Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.
Case 3: Stimulated emission:
E2 − E1
In this case an external photon of frequency  = stimulate an atom
h

for the downward transition and thereby cause emission of stimulated photons.
The number of stimulated emissions per unit time per unit volume is called rate
of stimulated emission.
It depends on a) Number density of higher energy state
b) The energy density 'U ' .

Therefore, rate of stimulated emission N 2U

= B21 N 2U --------------- (3

where B21 is the Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

At thermal equilibrium,
Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission+ Rate of stimulated
emission.
ie B12 N1U = A21N2 + B21 N 2U

ie U (B12 N1 − B21 N 2 ) = A21 N 2

𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝜈 =
𝐵12 𝑁1 − 𝐵21 𝑁2
On rearranging,
𝐴21 1
𝑈𝜈 = [ ]---------------(4)
𝐵21 𝐵12 𝑁1 −1
𝐵21 𝑁2

According to Boltzmann’s law we have,



𝐸2−𝐸1
𝑁2
= 𝑒 −( )
𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 −ℎ𝜈∕𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
𝑁1
= 𝑒 ℎ𝜈∕𝑘𝑇 --------------(5)
𝑁2

Therefore equation (4) becomes

𝐴 1
𝑈𝜈 = 𝐵21 [𝐵12 ]----------(6)
21
𝐵21
𝑒ℎ𝜈∕𝑘𝑇 −1

According to Planck’s law of radiation

8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑈𝜈 = [ ]--------------(7)
𝑐3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈∕𝑘𝑇 −1
Comparing equation (6) and (7) we have
A21 8h 3
B12
= , and =1
B 21 C3 B 21

➔ B12=B21=B ---------- (8) and A21 = A

The identity (8) implies that the probability of induced absorption is equal to the
probability of stimulated emission.
Therefore we can write the expression for energy density in terms of Einstein’s A &
B coefficients as

U = h

Be −1
kT
 Condition for Laser action
1. Population inversion:
“It is the state of a system in which the number of atoms in the higherenergy
level is greater than the number of atoms in the lower energy state.”
Under normal condition, the population is more in lower state. But for stimulated
emission and hence for lasing action more atoms must be present inthe excited
state. This can be achieved by some artificial means i.e., by providing energy in to
the active medium of the laser system.

2: Metastable state:
Under normal condition, population inversion doesn’t exist. However, it is possible to
achieve the population inversion in certain systems which possess a special excited
state called metastable state.
It is an excited state different from the ordinary excited state. The atomswhich

are excited to normal higher energy states remain for a short duration of 10-8 sec
and return to lower energy state. In case the state at which the atom is exitedis a

metastable state, then it stays there for a longer time of about 10-3 to 10-2 sec. This
property helps in achieving population inversion.

Consider 3 energy levels E1, E2, and E3 of an atomic system. Let E2 be a metastable
state. By supplying suitable external energy, the atoms are exited from E1 to E3.
The atoms in E3 undergo spontaneous transition to E1 and E2 rapidly. Since E2 is
a metastable state, the atoms in this state stay for a longer time duration because
of which the population in E2 increases and population inversionis created. Once
the population of E2 exceeds that of E1, the stimulated emission takes place. The
photons emitted are all identical in respect of phase, wavelength and direction; grow
to a large number which is the laser light.
Requisites of a laser system.
i. An excitation source for pumping action.
ii. An active medium which supports population inversion.
iii. A laser cavity.
1) An excitation source provides energy in an appropriate form for pumping the
atoms to higher energy levels. If the pumping is achieved by light energy input then
it is called optical pumping (Ruby laser). If the pumping is achieved by electrical
energy input, then it is called electrical pumping (He-Ne laser).
2) Active medium. A medium in which light gets amplified is known an active
medium. The medium may be solid, liquid or a gas.
3) Laser cavity:

A laser device consists of an active medium bound between two parallel mirrors of
high reflectivity. The mirrors reflect the photon to and fro through the active
medium. Thus, the two mirrors along with the medium is called cavity.Inside
the cavity two types of waves exist, one moving towards the right and other to the
left. These waves interfere constructively or destructively depending on the phase
difference.

In order to arrange for constructive interference, the distance ‘L’ between the two
mirrors should be such that the cavity should support an integral number of half
wavelength,

i.e.L = m2 , where m is an integer.

This results in the amplification of stimulated emission of radiation which is the

laser light.
 Carbon Dioxide Laser:
The carbon dioxide gas laser is a four-level molecular laser which operates at
10.6 µm in a far IR region. It operates in a continuous wave (CW) mode and is
capable of generating very high power of 100 kilo watts at relatively high efficiency
of 40%. Therefore, it is the most widely used laser in communications, weaponry
and laser fusion.
Fundamental modes of vibration in CO2 molecule:

A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the centre with two oxygen atoms
attached, one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits three independent modes of
vibrations. They are

a) Symmetric stretching mode.

b) Bending mode

c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

Symmetric stretching mode.

In this mode of vibration, carbon atom is at rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate
simultaneously along the axis of the molecule moving away or towards the fixed carbon
atom.

Bending mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to
molecular axis.

Asymmetric stretching mode

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically, i.e.,
oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in the other direction.
 Construction:

The CO2 laser has a discharge tube of length 5 m and diameter 2.5 cm. The ends of the
tube are closed with Brewster windows. Outside the ends of tube, mirrors are placed on
each side. This forms theresonant cavity. The discharge tube is filled with a mixture of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen and helium gases in 1:2:3 respectively. The ends of the
discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser light generated
will be polarized.
A high DC voltage is applied to the mixture. The pumping mechanism based on electric
discharge is usedto create population inversion. The active medium is a gas mixture of
CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition takes place between the vibrational states of
CO2molecules.
Energy Level Diagram
Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.
When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the free electrons collide with nitrogen
molecules and they are raised to excited states. This process is represented by the
equation

N2 + e1 = N2* + e2

N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state e1 = electron with kinetic energy

N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state e2= same electron with lesser energy

The energy level v=1 of nitrogen matches with asymmetric vibrational level (001) of
CO2 (E5 shown in diagram). Therefore, more CO2 atoms are raised to E5 level by
colliding withnitrogen molecules in C2 state. There is an efficient transfer of energy
between C2 level of nitrogen and E5 level of CO2. This kind of energy transfer is
called resonant energy transfer.
This process is represented by the equation

N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2

N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state. CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground
state CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state N2 = Nitrogen molecule in
ground state.

This energy transfer results in the population inversion between E5 and E4 and
between E5 and E3. As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the
spontaneously emitted photon will trigger laser action in the tube. There are two types
of laser transition possible both in IR region.

1.Transition E5 to E4 :

This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm

2.Transition E5 to E3
This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm. Normally 10.6μm
transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition.

The helium atoms help to depopulate the lower energy level E2, which otherwise
will be populated due to transitions from E1,E3,E4. If not controlled such transitions
to E2 will create problems for population inversion condition of E5. Also due to high
thermal conductivityof He, the heat is conducted away from laser cavity.
Applications:
1. CO2 lasers are extensively used in industries for welding, cutting and drilling.
2. CO2 lasers are extensively used in communication systems.