Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
REGION VIII – EASTERN VISAYAS
DIVISION OF LEYTE
LIM-AO NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
LIM-AO, KANANGA, LEYTE

LEARNING ACTIVITY SHEETS in PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1

Name:_______________________ Section: _____________ Date: __________ Score:________

MELC: 1. Choose appropriate qualitative research design.

2. Describe sampling procedure and sample; and
3. Differentiate the various methods of sampling.

Duration: 5 Days

2nd Semester Quarter 4 Week 1

TOPIC 1: DESIGNING YOUR RESEARCH PAPER

YOUR GUIDE

Five Major Research Designs

1. The ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely from the field of anthrolopogy.
The emphasis in an ethnography is on studying an entire culture. Originally, the idea of a culture
was tied to the notion of ethnicity and geographic location (e.g.,culture of Panay Islands), but it has
been broadened to include virtually any group or organization. That is, we can study the “culture” of
a business or defined group (e.g.,a Rotary club). (Trochim, 2006)

ETHNOGRAPHY
Purpose – to describe a culture’ characteristics
Method
• Identify culture, variables for study, and review literature
• Data collection-gain entrance to culture; immerse self in culture; acquire informants;
gather data through direct observation and interaction with subjects
Key Stages of Ethnographic Research
• Stage One: Research Question
• Stage Two: Participant Observation
• Stage Three: Making Field Notes
• Stage Four: Reflection and the Writing Up of Field Notes
• Stage Five: Interviewing
• Stage Six: Interpretation of Interviews
• Stage Seven: Writing Up the Ethnographic Research
Advantages of Ethnographic Research
• Direct Observation • Contrast and Comparison
• Links with Theory • Actor’s Perceptions
• Detailed Data • Self Awareness
 • Holistic • Ecological
• Validity
Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research
• Time Recruitment • Invasion of Privacy
• Presentation of Results • Scale
• Reliability • Ethics
• Interviewer Effect • Access
• Inhibitions • Other Concerns
• Safety
Analysis - describe characteristics of culture
Outcome - description of culture

2. Phenomenology comes from academic disciplines of philosophy and psychology, and

it is based upon the work of the 20th-century philosopher Edmund Husserl, which was
then later developed by Heidegger. (Van Manen, 1990)

PHENOMENOLGY
Purpose – To describe the experiences as they are lived
• examines the uniqueness of individual’s lived situations
• each person has own reality, reality is subjective
Research Question Development
• What does the existence of feeling or experience indicate concerning the phenomenon
to be explored?
• What are necessary and sufficient constituents of feeling or experience?
• What is the nature of the human being?
Method
• No clearly defined steps to avoid limiting creativity of researcher
• Sampling and data collection
➢ Seek persons who understand study and are willing to express inner feelings
and experiences
➢ Describe experiences of phenomenon
➢ Direct observation
➢ Audio or videotape
• Methodology of Phenomenology
a. Bracketing-process of identifying and holding in abeyance any preconceived
beliefs and opinions that one may have about phenomenon that is being
researched
b. Intuition-occurs when the researcher remains open to the meaning attributed to the
phenomenology those who have experienced it.
c. Analysis-involves process such as coding (open, axial, and selective), categorizing
and making sense of the essential meanings of the phenomenon

Advantages of Phenomenology
Phenomenology provides for:
• in depth understanding of individual phenomena
• rich data from the experiences of individuals. (Van Manen, 1990)
Disadvantages of Phenomenology
• The subjectivity of the data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity of
approaches and information.
• It is difficult to detect or to prevent researcher induced bias.
• There can be difficulty in ensuring pure bracketing –this can lead to interference in the
interpretation of the data.
• The presentation of results-the highly qualitative nature of results can make them difficult
to present in a manner that is usable by practitioners.
• Phenomenology does not produce generalizable data.
 • Because the samples are generally very small, can we ever say that the experiences are
typical?
• The original Husserlian/Heideggerian texts were written in German, and translations of
words could lose the special meaning that was assigned to them by Husserl and
Heidegger.
• On a particular note, it is important to consider the possible difficulties of participants
expressing themselves.
• Participants need to be interested and articulate problems that can cause difficulties in
being able to express themselves include foreign language, age, brain damage, and
embarrassment. (Van Manen, 1990)
Data Analysis
• Classify and rank data
• sense of wholeness
• examine experiences beyond human awareness or cannot be communicated
Outcomes
• Findings described from subject’s point-of-view
• Researcher identifies themes
• Structural explanation of findings is developed

3. Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that was originally developed by Glaser and
Strauss in the 1960s. The self-defined purpose of grounded theory is to develop a theory about
phenomena of interest. But it is not just abstract theorizing they’re talking about. Instead , the theory
needs to be grounded or rooted in observation-hence the term. (Trochim, 2006)

GROUNDED THEORY
Purpose – theory development
• Used in discovering what problems exist in a social science and how persons handle
them
• Involves formulation, testing and redevelopment of propositions until a theory is
developed
Stages of Grounded Theory
• Data collection
• Note taking
• Coding (open, axial, selective) into categories and properties
• Memoing
• Sorting/Integration
• Writing (Glasser & Strauss, 1967)
Advantages of Grounded Theory
• systematic and rigorous procedure
• rich data from the experiences of individuals (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
Disadvantages of Grounded Theory
• The subjectivity of data leads to difficulties in establishing reliability and validity of
approaches and information.
• It is difficult to detect or to prevent researcher-induced bias.
• The presentation of results-the highly qualitative nature of the results can make them
difficult to present in a manner that is usable by practitioners. (Glaser & Strauss, 1967)
Method – steps occur simultaneously, a constant comparative process
• Data Collection-interview, observation, record review, or combination
Analysis
• Concept formation
• Concept development-reduction; selective sampling of literature; selective sampling of
subjects; emergence of core concepts
• Concept modification and integration
Outcome – theory supported by examples from data
4. The historical approach “is employed by researchers who are interested in reporting events and/or
conditions that occurred in the past. An attempt is made to establish facts in order to arrive at
conclusions concerning past events or predict future events.” (Key,1997)

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Purpose – describe and examine events of the past to understand the present and anticipate
potential effects
Method
• Formulate idea-select topic after reading related literature
• Develop research questions
• Develop an inventory of sources-archives, private libraries, papers
• Clarify validity and reliability of data-primary sources, authenticity, biases
• Develop research outline to organize investigative process
• Collect data
Analysis – synthesis of all data; accept and reject data; reconcile conflicting evidence
Outcomes – select means of presentation-biography, chronology, issue paper
Examples of Historical Research
1. A study of the factors leading to the historical development and growth of cooperative
learning
2. A study of the effects of the historical decisions of the Philippine Supreme Court on
Philippine prisons
3. A study of the evolution of print journalism in the Philippines through a study of
collections of newspapers (BCPS, 2010)

5. A case study is an intensive study of a specific individual or specific context. For instance, Freud
developed case studies of several individuals as the basis for the theory of psychoanalysis and
Piaget did case studies of children to study developmental phases. (Trochim, 2006)
Case Study
Purpose – describe in-depth the experience of one person, family, group, community, or
institution
Method
• Direct observation and interaction with subject
Analysis – synthesis of experience
Outcomes – in-depth description of the experience

TOPIC 2: DESCRIBING SAMPLING PROCEDURE and SAMPLE

HISTORY OF SAMPLING
The beginning of sampling could be traced back to the early political activities of the Americans, in
1920 when Literary Digest did a pioneering survey about the American citizens’ favorite among the
1920 presidential candidates. This was the very first survey that served as the impetus for the
discovery by academic researchers of other sampling strategies that they categorized into two
classes: probability sampling and non-probability sampling. (Babbie 2013)

Brown (2006) summarizes the advantages of sampling in the following points

a. Makes the research of any type and size manageable.
b. Significantly saves the cost of the research.
c. Results in more accurate research findings.
d. Provides an opportunity to process the information in a more efficient way.
e. Accelerates the speed of primary data collection (Dudovskiy, 2016)

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLING PROCEDURE

There are numerous ways of getting a sample, but here is the most commonly used sampling
methods.

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple Random Sampling 3. Stratified Random Sampling
2. Systematic Random Sampling 4. Cluster Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience Sampling 4. Volunteer Sampling

2. Purposive Sampling 5. Snowball Sampling
3. Quota Sampling

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Probability sampling is a type of sampling in which all the members of an entire population have a
chance of being selected. This is also called as scientific sampling and is commonly used in
quantitative research.

a. Simple Random Sampling is a method of choosing samples in which all the members of
the population are given an equal chance of being selected. It is an unbiased way of
selection, as samples are drawn by chance. There are various ways of obtaining samples
through simple random sampling (Treece & Treece, 1986). These include the roulette wheel,
fishbowl method, and the use of table of random numbers.

Example: Observe the following steps using the fishbowl method:

a. The sampling frame, or a list of all the subjects or elements of the population in
question, should be prepared.
b. All the names of the subjects or elements should be written down on strips of paper
(one name per strip of paper).
c. The strips of paper with the listed names are then placed in a bowl or container.
d. Samples can be drawn as desired.

b. Systematic Random Sampling is a method of selecting every nth element of a population,

e.g., every fifth, eighth, ninth, or eleventh element until the desired sample size is reached.

Example: If you want to have a sample of 150, you may select a set of numbers like 1 to 15, and
out of a list of 1,500 students, take every 15th name on the list until you complete the total number
of respondents to constitute your sample.

c. Stratified Random Sampling is a method where the population is divided into different
strata (groups), and then the sampling follows. Age, gender, and educational qualifications
are some possible criteria used to divide a population into strata.

Example: A researcher will study the common effects of smoking on high school students. The
researcher decides to select equal numbers of students from the freshman, sophomore, junior, and
senior levels.

d. Cluster Sampling is used in large-scale studies. Clusters are representative samples of the
population as a whole. After the clusters are established, a simple random sample of the
clusters is drawn and the members of the chosen clusters are sampled. Sampling
procedures are difficult and time-consuming.

Example: A researcher wants to interview 100 teachers across the country. It will be difficult and
expensive on their part to have respondents in 100 different cities or provinces. Cluster sampling is
helpful for the researcher who randomly selects the regions (first cluster), then selects the schools
(second cluster), and then the number of teachers.

2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS

Non-Probability Sampling disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are chosen based
on their availability or the purpose of the study, and in some cases, on the sole discretion of the
researcher. This is not a scientific way of selecting respondents and is commonly used in qualitative
research.

a. Convenience Sampling involves choosing respondents at the convenience of the

researcher. It is also called accidental or incidental sampling.

Example: A researcher intends to study the elementary students of a particular school and has
determined the desired sample size. Due to the study’s constraints, the elementary pupils who are
present at the time of the researcher’s visit to the school will be chosen as respondents.

b. Purposive Sampling involves handpicking subjects, usually to suit very specific intentions.
This is also called judgmental sampling.

Example: In a study about honor students, the researcher uses a list of honor students and chooses
the necessary number of respondents, to the exclusion of all other students.

c. Quota Sampling is somewhat similar to stratified sampling, in that the population is divided
into strata, and the researcher deliberately sets specific proportions in the sample, whether
or not the resulting proportion is reflective of the total population. This is commonly done to
the ensure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population.

Example: A researcher wants to survey the employees of a company regarding their thoughts on
the company’s new policies. The researcher intends to have representatives from all departments in
his sample, but one department is so small that doing random sampling might result in that
department not being represented. The researcher then sets a quota of respondents from that
department to ensure their inclusion in the sample.

d. Volunteer Sampling involves people who self-select into the survey. Often, these folks have
a strong interest in the main topic of the survey.

Example: A noontime show like ‘It’s Showtime asks viewers to participate in an online poll, or to vote
for the winner in “Tawag ng Tanghalan.” This would be a volunteer sample since the sample is
chosen by the viewers, not by the survey administrator.

e. Snowball Sampling does not give a specific set of samples, similar to snow expanding
widely or rolling rapidly. This is true for a study involving unspecified group of people.
Dealing with varied groups of people such as street children, drug dependents, gang
members, informal settlers, street vendors, and the like is possible in this kind of non-
probability sampling.

A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who

might be willing or appropriate from the study.

STRATEGIES TO OBTAIN A QUALITY SAMPLE

1. Focus on the study - Make certain that the research question is feasible, and the study
answers a question with clear variables.
2. Find a representative sample - Determine the necessary addition and omission criteria for the
study population such that findings cane exactly generalize or identify results to the target group.
3. Determine a recruitment strategy - Spell out a plan to identify and enroll study participants.
This may entail screening or establishing criteria from number, location, and sampling method.
 4. Consult with the community to identify and recruit potential participants – Study existing
infrastructure to discover venues of contacting suitable samples. Researchers must also be
considerate and receptive to the recommendation of local experts and leaders.
5. Avoid selection bias - It is also essential to recruit a fitting comparison group.
6. Do not give up after the first attempt to recruit a potential participant - Follow-up using
various communication strategies, including personal, written, or electronic messaging. The
importance of personal contact should not be undervalued.
7. Allow flexibility in the process - If existing recruitment strategies are resulting to inadequate
enrollment of participants or modifications are made in criteria of participants, the solution may
be to change the sampling plan.

Well done! You have now learned the essential concepts of the
lessons. This time let’s have some practice to hone your skills
better.

PRACTICE TASKS

Task 1: What design fits me?

Directions: Read and analyze each question and identify what research design is appropriate for each.
Choose your answers from the choices in the box. Write the letter of the correct answer in a ½ sheet of
paper.
1. Phenomenology 3. Case Study 5. Grounded Theory
2. Ethnography 4. Historical

1. What were the roles of women in the Katipunan?

2. What are the effects of cyber bullying among victims?
3. What are the effects of having absentee parents to students?
4. What coping mechanisms do patients employ after major surgery?
5. What are the spending practices of parents with children attending college?
6. What are the reactions of parents towards the new normal setting in education during the
pandemic?
7. What are the trainings of Aeta teachers from Cantillejos, Zambales for the past ten years to
provide insights into the formulation of a teacher education model for indigenous people?
8. What are the demographic profile and migratory adaptations of squatter families in Barangay
Cutcut, Angeles City (Dela Cruz, 1994)?
9. What were the experiences of Filipino people during the declaration of Martial Law in the time of
Marcos’ rule?
10. How did the Reming survivors recover from the physical devastation and haunting memories
brought about by the typhoon?

Task 2: What to do: On your answer sheet, write the letter of the correct answer corresponding to the
statements.
A B
1. A group of entrepreneurs is asked to fill out a survey a. Probability
2. A sampling method where all members of the population are
given equal chances to be included in the sample. b. Quota
3. This number of elements generally forms an adequate sample
4. A sampling method which uses every nth element of the c. Systematic
population
5. Every person who enters the gate is included in the sample d. Respondents
6. Intentional choosing of sample
 7. Origin of sampling e. 30
8. The researcher made sure to include 15 honor students in his
sample of 100 students f. Cluster
9. Names are put into a bowl, and the researcher draws them at
random to generate a sample g. Simple random
10. Group by group selection
h. Population

i. Non-probability

PERFORMANCE TASK 1
Directions: Below is a sample written statement that is answered in Chapter 3 (Research Methodology)
under the part of Participants/Respondents. Your task is to do the same for your own research study.

Sample:
The researchers will utilize purposive sampling from Senior High School (Grades 11-12) students for the
school year 2015-1016, who give an affirmative response about them bring Facebook users would be
considered as potential respondents. For all those who had been identified as potential respondents, the
researchers will purposively select 15 most active Facebook users as the actual number of participants.

Describe your sampling method and sample. Write your answer below.
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