Electric Charges & fields

Electrostatics: The branch of physics, which deals with the study of electric forces, fields & electric
potentials due to charges at rest is known as Electrostatics.
Historically the credit of discovery goes to Thales of Miletus, Greece, around 600 BC.
The name electricity is coined from the Greek word elektron meaning amber.

Electric Charge: Electric charge is a physical property of matter which causes it to experience a force when
placed near other matter.
Two kinds of charges: Benjamin Franklin named the two kinds of charges as positive and negative.

GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE: An apparatus to detect charge on a body is the

gold-leaf electroscope.
It consists of a vertical metal rod housed in a box, with two thin gold
leaves attached to its bottom end. When a charged object touches the
metal knob at the top of the rod, charge flows on to the leaves and they
diverge. The degree of divergence is an indicator of the amount of charge

Electrification: The process of charging a body is known as electrification.

There are three methods of electrification

(1) Charging by Friction: When we rub two insulating substances against each other, both the bodies gets
charged. The body which loses electrons become positively charged & the one which gains electrons
become negatively charged.
(2) Charging by conduction: A body can be charged by putting it in contact with another charged body
either directly or by means of a conductor.
(3) Charging by induction: Uncharged body can be charged, when it is brought near the charged body.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF CHARGES: (M-18, M-19)

1.Electric charge it is a scalar quantity.
2.Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.
3.Additivity of charge: Total charge of a system is obtained by adding algebraically all the charges present
anywhere on the system.
4. Conservation of charge: he net electric charge in an isolated system always remain constant.
5. Quantization of electric charge: Free charges are integral multiple of a basic charge e.
Total charge on a body q   ne
where n  is any integer and e = 1.6 x 10-19C

COULOMB’S LAW (J-15, M-17, M-19, M-20)

Statement: The force between any two point charges at rest is directly proportional to the product of the
magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Explanation: Consider two point charges q1 and q2 are separated in vacuum by a distance r, then

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 q1q 2
According to Coulomb's law, F 
r2
qq
F  K 12 2
r
Where K is electrostatic force constant.

Note: The value of K depends on the nature of medium separating the charges, and on the system of units.
1
When the charges are situated in free space/air, In SI system, K   9  109 Nm 2 C2
40

Where 0  absolute permittivity of free space.

0  8.854 1012 C2 N1m2
1 q1q 2
The magnitude of force is F
4 0 r 2

……………………………………………………….....................................................................................
Coulomb’s law in vector form: (M-15)

Let the position vectors of charges q1 and q2 be r1 and r2 respectively.

1 q1q 2
Force on q2 dueto q1 is F21  rˆ21 → (1) Y⃗
40 r212 𝐹12
q
A1
1 q1q 2 𝑟21
Force on q1 dueto q2 is F12  rˆ12 → (2)
40 r122
B
𝑟1
q
⃗ 21
𝐹
 F12  F21
𝑟2
Thus coulomb’s law agrees with Newton’s third law.
0
X
Unit of charge (M-14, J-16)
The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C).

Definition of unit charge (or) (one coulomb): (M-14, M-15)

Z from another equal & similar charge
One coulomb is the charge that when placed at a distance of one metre
9
in vacuum experiences an electrical force of repulsion of 9×10 N.
Dielectric Constant or Relative Permittivity ∈ r  : of a medium is defined as the ratio of permittivity of the

given medium to the permittivity of free space.  r 
0
(OR) It can also be defined as, the force between two point charges separated by a certain distance in free
space or vacuum to the force between the same two point charges separated by the same distance in the
medium.
F0
εr =
Fm

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Forces between multiple charges:
principle of superposition: According to principle of super position, the force on any charge due to a number
of other charges is the vector sum of all the forces on that charge due to the other charges, taken one at a
time.

Consider a system of three charges q1 , q2 & q3 as shown in figure. F13

F
1 q1q 2
Force on q1 due to q2 is F12  rˆ12
4 0 r122
1 q1q3
Force on q1 due to q3 is F13  rˆ13 r12
40 r132 q2 q1 r13 F12

The resultant force F on the charge q1 due to the two charges q1 & q2 is
F  F12  F13 q3
1 q1q 2 1 q1q3
F rˆ12  rˆ13
40 r12
2
40 r132
1 q1q 2 1 q1q3 1 q1q n
In general, F  ˆ
r  ˆ
r      rˆ1n
40 r122 40 r132 40 r1n2
12 13

q1  n qi 
 F  2 rˆ1i 
40  i 2 r1i 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ELECTRIC FIELDS
Electric field: due to a charge is the space around the charge, in which a test charge will experience an
electrostatic force.

The concept of field was introduced first by ‘Faraday’

Note: The charge, which is producing the electric field is called a source charge and the charge which tests
the effect of source charge is called a test charge.

Electric field intensity ( E ) : At a point is defined as the electrostatic force experienced by a test charge
placed at that point.
The electric field intensity at any point is the strength of electric field at that point.

If F is the force acting on a small test charge +q0 at any point r , then electric field intensity at this point is
given by

F
E
q0

SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C (or) V/m.

Electric intensity is a vector. The direction of E is the same as the direction of F .

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Note: If the source charge is positive, the electric field is directed radially outward from the charge.
If the source charge is negative, the electric field is radially inwards.

Electric field intensity due to a point charge: To calculate electric field intensity at any point P due to a
point charge q at O, at a distance r, imagine a small positive test charge q0 at P.
O P
q r q0
1 q q0
According to coulomb’s law, force on charge qo at P is F  r̂
40 r 2
Where r̂ is unit vector directed form q towards q0
F
By definition, E 
q0

∴ 1 q
E r̂
40 r 2

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Electric field intensity due to a system of charges: Electric field intensity at any point due to a system of
point charges is equal to the vector sum of the electric fields due to individual charges at the same point.

Let P be a point at distances r1, r2, r3 ----- rn from the point charges q1, q2, q3 ----- qn in a system
1 q1
Electric field intensity at P due to charge q1 is E1  rˆ1
40 r12
where r̂1 is the unit vector from q1 to P
1 q2
The electric field at P due to charge q2 at a distance r2 is E 2  rˆ2
40 r22
where r̂2 is the unit vector from q2 to P and so on.

By the superposition principle, the resultant electric field E at the point P due to the system of charges is
E  E1  E2      En
1 q1 1 q2 1 qn 1 n qi
E
40 r12
ˆ
r1 +
40 r22
r̂2 + ------- +
40 rn2
r̂n E   r̂i
40 i 1 ri2

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ELECTRIC DIPOLE: (M-16)

An electric dipole consists of a pair of equal and opposite point charges separated by some small
distance.
Ex.:- molecules of ammonia, water, alcohol, carbon dioxide, HCl etc., -q
+q
Electric dipole moment ( p ): It is defined as the product of the O
2l
magnitude of either charge and the distance between them.
That is P = q 2l 
SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb-metre (C-m)
It is a vector quantity.

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Note: By convention, the direction of dipole moment is from negative charge to positive charge.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Electric field intensity due to a dipole at any point on its axial line (M-16, J-17)

Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges –q and +q -q +q

separated by a small distance 2l. Let E be the electric intensity at a
O B P
point P on the axial line of the dipole at a distance r from the centre
O of the dipole. 2l
r
Step I. If E1 is the electric intensity at P due to charge –q , then
1 q 1 q
E1= = along PA
4πε0 AP 4πε0  r+l 2
2

Step II. Suppose E 2 is the electric intensity at P due to charge +q , then

1 q 1 q
E2 = = along BP
4πε0 BP 4πε0  r-l 2
2

Step III. The resultant intensity E at P is

1 q 1 q
E  E 2  E1  
40  r  l  40  r  l 2
2

q  1 1 
=   2
40   r  l   r  l  
2

 2
q   r+l  -  r-l  
2
q 4lr
E= =
4π0   r 2 -l 2  2
 4πε0  r 2 -l 2 2
 

q×2l×2r
E= (But q×2l= p , the dipole moment)
4πε0  r 2 -l 2 
2

p 2r
E= The direction of E is along BP produced.
r -l 2 
2
4πε0 2

2p
Note: If dipole is short, 2l<< r, then E=
4πε0 r 3
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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Electric field intensity due to a dipole at any point on its equatorial line : (J-17)
F
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges D
–q and +q separated by a small distance 2l with centre O and
dipole moment P = q(2l).
Let E be the electric intensity at a point P on the equatorial P
line of the dipole, where OP = r. R
Let PBAˆ  PABˆ  ,
C E
Step I. Electric intensity at P due to charge –q is
1 q 1 q
E1 = =  AP 2 = OP 2 +OA2 = r 2 +l 2 
4πε0 AP 2
4πε0 r +l
2 2

E1 is along PC r

Step II. Electric intensity at P, due to charge + q is

1 q 1 q A 0 B
E2 = = -q 2l +q
4πε0 BP 2
4πε0 r +l 2
2

E 2 is along PD
E 2 and E1 are inclined at an angle 2
Step III.  Resultant intensity at P is given by
E  E12  E2 2  2E1E2 cos(2 )
E  E12  E12  2E1E1 cos(2 ) ( E  E )
E  2E12  2E12 cos(2 )
E  2E12 [1  2cos(2 )]
E  2E12 [2cos 2 ( )]  1  2cos( )  2cos 2 ( ) 
1 q
∴ E  2E1[cos( )] = 2 cos 
4 0 r  l 2
2

l
Now from ∆AOP, cos(θ)=
r2  l2
1 q l 1 q(2l )
∴ E2 =
4 0 r  a 2
2
r l
2 2 4 0 [r  l 2 ]3/2
2

1 P
E=  P = q  2l 
4πε0  r 2 +l 2  2
3

........................................................................................................................................................................
The direction of E is along PR (along –ve x- axis)

1 -P
In vector form, E= E is in a direction opposite to the direction of P
4πε0  r 2 +l 2  2
3

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1 P
Note: If the dipole is short, 2l << r E  Also Eaxial  2Eequatioral
40 r 3
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Torque on a dipole in a uniform electric field:

Consider an electric dipole

– q & +q  two equal and opposite charges
2l  distance between 2 charges
p = q (2l)  dipole moment

Let this dipole be held in a uniform external

field ⃗E at an angle θ with the direction of ⃗E .
F  qE Force on charge +q along E
F  qE Force on charge - q opposite to E

Torque = Force x perpendicular distance between two forces

  F  AC  F  ABsin 
  qE  2lsin 
  EPsin 
In vector form   E  P
Special cases : (i) Torque is minimum, when θ = 0 τmin = 0. The dipole is in stable equilibrium.
(ii) Torque is maximum, when θ = 90 τmax = pE
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field lines:
It is the path along which a unit positive charge moves in the electric field.

Properties of electric field lines : (J-14, J-15, M-16, M-17, J-18)

1. Electric field lines are continuous curves. They start from a positively charged body and end at negatively
charged body.
2. Electric field lines do not form continuous closed loops.
3. Tangent to the electric field line at any point gives the direction of electric field intensity at that point.
4. No two lines of force can intersect each other. This is because at the point of intersection , we can draw
two tangents to the two lines of force which mean two directions of electric field at the same point, which is
not possible.
5. The electric field lines are always normal to the surface of a conductor.
6. The electric field lines contract longitudinally, on account of attraction between unlike charges.
7. The electric field lines exert a lateral pressure on account of repulsion between like charges.
8. They are more crowded where the electric field is more.
9. They can be stretched like on elastic membrane.

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Area vector:
The vector associated with every area element of a closed surface is taken to be
in the direction of the outward normal.
⃗⃗⃗⃗ at a point on a closed surface can be written as
Thus, an area element vector ∆S
S  S nˆ
Where ∆S is magnitude of the area element and n̂ is a unit vector in the direction
of outward normal drawn at that point , as shown in the figure.

Electric flux:
Electric flux over an area in an electric field is the total number of electric field lines crossing unit area
normally.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ in an electric field ⃗E is defined as

The electric flux ∆φ through an area element ∆S
  E S
  E S cos( )
Note: Total electric flux through any surface of finite area is given by
E   E S

E   E S cos( )
Electric flux is a scalar quantity.
SI unit of flux is Nm2C-1 (M-20)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Continuous distribution of charge:
1. Linear charge density (λ) : when charge is distributed along a line (straight or curved) , then the charge
per unit length is called linear charge density.
q
 SI unit of λ is C/m
L

2. Surface charge density (σ) : When charge is distributed over a surface ( plane or curved), then charge per
unit area is called surface charge density.
Distribution of charge q over a plane surface of area A, then.
q
 SI unit is C/m2
A

3. Volume charge density (  ) : When charge is distributed over a volume of an object , then charge per
unit volume is called volume charge density.
q
 SI unit is C/m3
V
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Gauss’s theorem: (J-17)
1
Statement: The total electric flux over any closed surface is equal to the times the total charge enclosed
0
by that surface.
1
i.e.  = q
ε0
Explanation: Consider a closed surface enclosing the charges q1 ,q2 ,q3 ,.......
1
then the electric flux   Ε ds cosθ = ε  q + q 1 2 + q3 + .......
0

1
  qnet 
ε0
Note:
1) The Gauss theorem is applicable for closed surface (The surface may be of any shape).
2) The closed surface to which the Gauss theorem is applied is known as Gaussian surface.
3) Gauss theorem cannot be applied for a dipole kept inside the sphere. [because electric flux is zero]
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Application of Gauss’s law: It helps us in calculating the electric field of continuous charge
distributions , example line charges, plane sheet of charges, charged spheres etc.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Electric field intensity due to infinitely long straight charged wire (using Gauss’s law):
(J-15, J-16)

Consider an infinite and very thin straight wire having linear charge density λ.
To calculate the electric field intensity E at a point P, distance r from the line charge draw an imaginary
cylinder (Gaussian surface) of radius r and length l around the charged line.

Step I. The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = λ l .

q l
According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface ∅ =  …………..(1)
0 0

Step II. The cylindrical Gaussian surface is divided into three parts I, II, and III i.e. top , bottom and
Curved surface.
Therefore total flux through the surface can be written as

∅=  E.ds +  E.ds +  E.ds

I II III

∅=  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

I II III

For surfaces I and II, angle between E & ds is 900 , so flux is zero.
For surface III, angle between E & ds is 00 , so flux is not zero.
∴ (2) becomes
∅ =  Eds cos(0) =  Eds = E  ds = E (2πrl) …… (3)
III III III

[  ds = area of curved surface of cylinder]

III

l 
Step III. Equate (1) and (3), we get E (2πrl) = ∴ E
0 2r 0
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 1
Note: Thus E∝
r

In vector form E nˆ
2r 0
Where n̂ is unit vector ⊥ to the curved surface of the wire.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Electric field intensity due to uniformly charged infinite plane sheet (using gauss’s law):
Consider a thin, infinite plane sheet of charge.
q
  be the surface density of charge on the sheet.
s
P  any point (at a perpendicular distance r) from the sheet.
Let us imagine a cylinder of cross-sectional area S around P and length 2r, piercing through the sheet.

++
+ +
n̂ ++ n̂
+ +
Q n̂ E
P
+ + ++ →
E n̂
→ r + ++ + r
+ + ++
++
+ +
Step I. The charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q = σ S
q S
According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface    …………..(1)
0 0

Step II. The cylindrical Gaussian surface is divided into three parts I, II, and III i.e. end caps and
Curved surface as shown.

Therefore total flux through the surfaces can be written as

∅ =  E.ds +  E.ds +  E.ds
I II III

∅=  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() +  Eds cos() ………(2)

I II III

For cylindrical surface III, angle between E & ds is 900 , so flux is zero.
For surfaces I and II, angle between E & ds is 00, so flux is not zero.

∴ (2) becomes
∅=  Eds cos(0) +  Eds cos(0)
I II
∅ = ES + ES = 2ES …… (3)

Step III. Equate (1) and (3), we get

S 
2ES = E
0 2 0
.........................................................................................................................................................................

Note: In vector form E  nˆ where n̂ is unit vector ⊥ to the plane of the sheet.
2 0
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Electric field intensity due to a charged spherical shell (using Gauss theorem):
(M-14, J-14, J-18, M-19)
I. At a point outside the sphere:
Consider a conducting spherical shell
R  radius
q  the charges are uniformly distributed on the surface of the sphere.
P  be a point outside at a distance r from the centre of the sphere.

To find ‘E’ at a point P. Imagine concentric sphere of radius r.

q
Step I. According to Gauss’s theorem, flux through the surface   …………(1)
0
Step II. The total flux due to entire Gaussian surface is
φ =  E.ds =  Eds cos() but 𝜃 = 0 [ E along the normal]
s s

∴   Eds
s

  E 4 r 2 ………(2) [  ds =surface area of spherical Gaussian surface = 4 r 2 ]

s
Step III. Equate (1) and (2), we get
1
E (4 r 2 )  q
0
1 q
E
4 0 r 2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

II. E at a point lie on the surface of the spherical shell:

For a point on the surface of the sphere 𝑟 = 𝑅

1 q
∴ Electric field, E 
4 0 R 2
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

III. E at a point inside the spherical shell:

Let P be a point inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre.

According to Gauss theorem,
q
 [but = 0 ]
0
0
∴  0
0
Hence, 𝐸 = 0
∴ Electric intensity inside the Charged spherical shell is zero.

*****************

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 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON ELECTRIC FORCE AND ELECTRIC FIELD
PROBLEMS ON CHARGE AND FORCE

1. A polythene piece rubbed with wool is found to have a negative charge of 3 × 10-7 C. (a) Estimate
the number of electrons transferred (from which to which?) (b) Is there a transfer of mass from wool
to polythene? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 2 × 1012, from wool to polythene (b) Yes, but of a negligible amount ( = 2 × 10-18 kg in
the example)

2. What is the force between two small charged spheres having charges of 2 × 10-7C and 3 × 10-7 C
placed 30 cm apart in air? [NCERT] Ans: 6 x 10-3 N (repulsive)

3. The electrostatic force on a small sphere of charge 0.4C due to another small sphere of charge –
0.8µC in air is 0.2 N. (a) What is the distance between the two spheres? (b) What is the force on the
second sphere due to the first? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 12 cm (b) 0.2 N (attractive)

4. Four point charges qA = 2µC, qB = –5µC, qC = 2µC, and qD = –5µC are located at the corners of a
square ABCD of side 10 cm. What is the force on a charge of 1µC placed at the centre of the
square? [NCERT] Ans: Zero N

5. (a) Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B have their centres separated by a distance of 50
cm. What is the mutual force of electrostatic repulsion if the charge on each is 6.5 × 10-7C? The radii of
A and B are negligible compared to the distance of separation. (b) What is the force of repulsion if
each sphere is charged double the above amount, and the distance between them is halved? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 1.5 × 10-2 N (b) 0.24 N

6. Two point charges 20 µC and 10µC are separated by 0.05m in free space. Find the force between
them. Also calculate the force when a dielectric medium of dielectric constant 3 is introduced between
them. Ans: [720N, 240N]

7. Two identical metal spheres having equal and similar charges repel each other with a force of 103
N when they are placed 10 cm apart in a medium of dielectric constant 5. Determine the charge on
each sphere. Ans: 23.9 x 10-6 C

PROBLEMS ON FIELD

8. Two point charges qA = 3µC and qB = –3µC are located 20 cm apart in vacuum.
(a) What is the electric field at the midpoint O of the line AB joining the two charges?
(b) If a negative test charge of magnitude 1.5 × 10-9 C is placed at this point, what is the force
experienced by the test charge? [NCERT] (M-17)
Ans: (a) 5.4 × 106 N C-1 along OB (b) 8.1 × 10-3 N along OA

9. Two point charges q1 and q2, of magnitude +10-8 C and –10-8 C, respectively, are placed 0.1 m
apart. Calculate the electric fields at points A, B and C shown in Fig. [NCERT]

Ans: EA=7.2 × 104 N C-1 directed toward the right. EB = 3.2 × 104 N C-1 directed towards the left.
EC = 9 × 103 N C-1 points towards the right.

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 12

10. Two charges ±10µC are placed 5.0 mm apart. Determine the electric field at
(a) a point P on the axis of the dipole 15 cm away from its centre O on the side of the positive charge,
and (b) a point Q, 15 cm away from O on a line passing through O and normal to the axis of the dipole.
[NCERT] Ans: a) 2.6 × 105 N C-1 along AB b) 1.33 × 105 N C-1 along BA

11. A spherical conductor of radius 12 cm has a charge of 1.6 × 10-7 C distributed uniformly on its
surface. What is the electric field (a) inside the sphere (b) just outside the sphere (c) at a point 18
cm from the centre of the sphere? [NCERT] Ans: (a) Zero (b) 105 N C-1 (c) 4.4 × 104 N C-1

12. A conducting sphere of radius 10 cm has an unknown charge. If the electric field 20 cm from the
centre of the sphere is 1.5 × 103 N/C and points radially inward, what is the net charge on the sphere?
[NCERT] Ans: –6.67 nC

13. A uniformly charged conducting sphere of 2.4 m diameter has a surface charge density of
80.0µC/m2. (a) Find the charge on the sphere. (b) What is the total electric flux leaving the surface of
the sphere? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 1.45 × 10-3C (b) 1.6 × 108 Nm2/C

14. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 × 104 N/C at a distance of 2 cm. Calculate the linear
charge density. [NCERT] Ans: 10µC/m

15. Three charges each equal to +4nC are placed at the three corners of a square of side 2cm. find the
electric field at the fourth corner. (M-18)

16. Two point charges 16nC and 8nC are situated at the corners B and C of an equilateral triangle of
side 0.03m. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant electric field at the vertex A of the
triangle Ans: 21.2X104NC-1 , 40053’ angle with E1

17. Two charges 5µC & -5µC are placed at points A & B, which are separated by a distance of 0.06m.
Find the electric field intensity at a point P on the perpendicular bisector of AB at a distance of 0.04 m
from its middle point. [April 06]

18. Four charges +Q, +2Q, +3Q & +4Q are placed at the corners of a square ABCD of side 0.1 m
respectively. The intensity of electric field at the centre of the square is 5.1 x 103 NC-1. Find the value
of Q. [April 09]

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 13

19. ABC is a right angled triangle such that AB=3m, BC=4m and B= 900. Charges of 9nC and -16nC
are placed at the corners A and C respectively. Calculate the resultant electric intensity and direction
at point B.

20. Two fixed point charges +4μC and +1μC are separated by 30cm in air. Find the position between
them at which the resultant electric field is zero.

PROBLEMS ON DIPOLE

21. A system has two charges qA = 2.5 × 10-7 C and qB = –2.5 ×10-7 C located at points A: (0, 0, –15
cm) and B: (0,0, +15 cm), respectively. What are the total charge and electric dipole moment of the
system? [NCERT] Ans: Total charge is zero. Dipole moment = 7.5 × 10-8 C m along z-axis.

PROBLEMS ON TORQUE

22. An electric dipole with dipole moment 4 × 10-9C m is aligned at 30° with the direction of a
uniform electric field of magnitude 5 × 104 NC-1. Calculate the magnitude of the torque acting on the
dipole. [NCERT] Ans: 10-4 N m

PROBLEMS ON FLUX

23. Consider a uniform electric field E = 3 × 103 î N/C. (a) What is the flux of this field through a
square of 10 cm on a side whose plane is parallel to the yz plane? (b) What is the flux through the
same square if the normal to its plane makes a 60° angle with the x-axis? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 30 Nm /C, (b) 15 Nm /C
2 2

24. Careful measurement of the electric field at the surface of a black box indicates that the net
outward flux through the surface of the box is 8.0 × 103 Nm2/C. (a) What is the net charge inside the
box? (b) If the net outward flux through the surface of the box were zero, could you conclude that
there were no charges inside the box? Why or Why not? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 0.07µC (b) No, only that the net charge inside is zero.

PROBLEMS ON GAUSS THEOREM

25. A point charge of 2.0µC is at the centre of a cubic Gaussian surface 9.0 cm on edge. What is the net
electric flux through the surface? [NCERT] Ans: 1.9 × 105 N m2/C

27. A point charge causes an electric flux of –1.0 ×103 Nm2/C to pass through a spherical Gaussian
surface of 10.0 cm radius centred on the charge. (a) If the radius of the Gaussian surface were
doubled, how much flux would pass through the surface? (b) What is the value of the point charge?
[NCERT]
Ans: (a) –103 N m2/C; because the charge enclosed is the same in the two cases. (b) –8.8 nC

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 14

 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Electric Potential (V): at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in carrying a unit positive
charge (without acceleration) from infinity to that point against the electric field.

(OR) The electric potential (V): at a point is also equal to the potential energy of unit positive charge at
that point.

If W is the work done in carrying a positive charge qo without acceleration from infinity to a point, the
w
electric potential at that point is V 
q0
Electric potential is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is volt (V)

Electrostatic potential difference ( V ): Electrostatic potential difference between two points in an

electrostatic field is defined as the work done in carrying unit positive charge (without acceleration) from
one point to the other point against the electric field.
WAB
V  VB  VA 
q0
SI unit of potential difference is volt
Define 1volt: Potential difference between any 2 points in an electric field is defined as 1volt, when 1 joule
of work is done in moving a unit positive charge between these 2 points in an electric field.

Dimensional formula for electric potential and (potential difference) is [M1 L2 T-3 A-1].
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Electric Potential at a point due to an isolated point charge (5 mark) (M-18)

r x
+q
O P B dx A

Consider a point charge +q at O. Let P be a point at a distance r from O.

Consider some intermediate point A at distance x from O.
1 qo
The electrostatic force on unit positive charge is E  along OA produced.
40 x 2
Small amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge from A to B ( dx ) is
dw  E.dx  E dx cos1800  E dx
 Total work done in moving unit + charge from ∞ to the point P is
q o
r r r
1 qo
W   Edx    dx   x 2dx
 
40 x 2
40 
q o  1 
r
q 1 1 
W    o  r   
40  x   40
W 1 q

q 0 40 r

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 15

 W 1 q
By definition V  V= The electrostatic potential due to a point charge
q0 4πε0 r

Note: Potential due to a +ve charge is +V and due to –ve charge is -V

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential at a point due to group of charges:
q1
Suppose there are a number of point charges q1, q2, q3,….qn at distances r1, r2, r1
r3,….rn respectively from the point P, where electric potential is to be P q2
r2
calculated. Potential at P due to charge q1
r4 r3
1 q1
V1  q3
40 r1
q4
Similarly, values of potential at P due to other charges are
1 q2 1 q3
V2  , V3  & so on
40 r2 40 r3
1 qn
Potential at P due to nth charge is Vn 
40 rn
By the principle of super position, resultant potential at P due to total charge configuration
V  V1  V2  V3  .....  Vn
1  q1 q 2 q3 qn 
V     ....... 
40  r1 r2 r3 rn 

n
1 qi
V
40

i 1 ri

Derive an expression for electric potential at a point due to an electric dipole (5mark)
Consider any point P at a distance r from the centre O of the electric dipole AB. Let OP makes an angle  with the
vector dipole moment p and r1 , r2 be the distances of point P from –q and +q charge respectively.
1 (q)
Step I: Potential at P due to –q is, V1 
4 o r1
1 q
V1  
4 o r1
1 q
Potential at P due to +q is, V2 
4 o r2

 Potential at P due dipole, V  V1  V2

1 q 1 q
or V  
4 o r1 4 o r2
1 q q
or V    .........(1)
4 o  r2 r1 
Step II: Draw a  from A which meets the line OP at C when produced. Also draw BD  on OP.
r1  AP CP  OP  OC  r  l cos  ( from AOC , OC  l cos  )
Then
r2  BP DP  OP  OD  r  l cos  ( from BOD, OD  l cos  )

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 16

Step III: Substituting the values of r1 and r2 in (1), we get,
q  1 1  q  r  l cos   r  l cos  
V    
4 o  (r  l cos  ) (r  l cos  )  4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  

q  2l cos  
V
4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  
1  p cos  
V ....(2)
4 o  r 2  l 2 cos 2  
This is the expression for electric potential due to a dipole
1  p cos  
Note: If r l , thenthe (2) becomes V ......(3)
4 o  r 2 
SPECIAL CASES:
1. If point P lies on the axial line of the dipole i.e.  = 00
1  p
(3) becomes V
4 o  r 2 
2. If point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole i.e.  = 900
(3) becomes V 0

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Equipotential surfaces: (M-18)
An equipotential surface is that surface at every point of which electric potential is the same.

Properties of equipotential surfaces:

* No work is done in moving the test charge from one point of equipotential surface to the other.
* For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field at that
point.
Examples: Equipotential surfaces of a single point charge are concentric spherical surfaces centred at the
charge as shown in fig(a).
For a uniform electric field, say, along the X-axis the equipotential surfaces are planes normal to X-
axis.fig(2), for a dipole (fig 3) and for two equal positive charges fig (4)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Relation between electric intensity and electric potential
(J-14, J-15, M-17, J-17)
E
Consider two equipotential surfaces A and B spaced closely as shown in figure. V-dv
VA = V  potential of A B V
dr
VB = (V- dV)  potential of B
dV  potential diference A

E  is electric intensity normal to A and B

dr  is perpendicular distance between A and B

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 17

Work done in moving unit charge from B to A is, WBA = -E (dr)
By the definition , WBA = VA – VB = V – ( V- dV) = dV
-E dr = dV
dv
E
dr
Negative sign shows that the direction of electric field E is the direction of decreasing potential.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy in the absence of an external field
I. Potential energy of a system of two charges: (in the absence of an external field) (M-14, J-16)
Consider 2 point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.
1 q1
The electric potential due to charge q1 at distance r is V1 
40 r
By definition, V1 is the work done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to a distance r from q 1
against the electric field due to q1. It is also equal to the potential energy of a unit positive charge at a
distance r from q1.
Then the potential energy of the charge q2 placed at a distance r from q1 will be
1 q1q 2
U  V1q 2  q1 r q2
40 r
1 q1q 2
U=
4πε 0 r
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
II. Potential energy of a system of three charges: (in the absence of an external field)
Consider a system of three charges q1, q2 and q3 placed at A, B & C respectively.
q3
AB = r12 , BC = r23 and CA = r13 as in figure. C
r13 r23
No Work is done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to the position A , W1=0.
1 q1q 2 A B
Work done to bring q2 from infinity to B against the field of q1 is W2  q1 r12 q2
40 r12
Let V is potential at C at a distance r3 from q1 and r2 from q2
1 q1 1 q2
 V 
40 r3 40 r2
Work done in bringing q3 from infinity to C against the field of q1 and q2 is
 1 q 2q3 1 q1q3 
 W3    
 40 r23 40 r31 
The total work done will be stored as potential energy of a system of three charges U = W.
1  q1q 2 q 2q 3 q 3q1 
U=  + + 
4πε 0  r12 r23 r31 
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy in an external field
*I. Potential energy of a single charge: Consider the region of space having electric field E and the potential
V at a point P
The work done in bringing a charge q from infinity to the point P is W=qV.
This work is stored in the form of potential energy of charge q.  U  qV

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 18

*II. Potential energy of a system of two charges in an external electric field: Let V1 and V2 be the potentials
due to an external electric field at two points separated by a distance r.
Let a charge q1 be brought from infinity and placed at the point where external potential is V1.
The work done against the external field is = q1 V1.
Next a charge q2 is brought from infinity and placed at the other point where the external
potential is V2.
Now the work done against the external field is = q2 V2 and the work done on q2 against the field due
1 q1q 2
to q1 is 
40 r
1 q1q 2
Therefore the total work done on q2 against two fields is  q 2 v2 
40 r
The potential energy of the system of 2 charges in the external electric field is equal to the total work done
in assembling the configuration of two charges in the external electric field. It is given by
1 q1q 2
U = q1V1 + q 2 V2 +
4πε 0 r

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: Potential energy of dipole is the energy possessed by the
dipole by virtue of its particular position in the electric field.

Expression for Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: (M-19)

Suppose an electric dipole of moment P is oriented at an angle  with the direction of uniform external
electric field E . Then the torque acting on the dipole is   PEsin 

Small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through a small

angle dθ against the torque is dw  d  PEsin  d
 Total work done in rotating the dipole from orientation
1 to 2 is
2

W   PE sin  d  PE   cos 2


1
1

W  PE cos 2  cos 1 

This work done is stored as the potential energy of the dipole.
U  PE cos 2  cos 1 

Note: Work is done only in rotating the dipole from the position perpendicular to the field to any other
position. Taking 1   / 2 and 2   W  PE cos   cos  / 2  PE cos   0
W  PE cos 
 U  PE cos 

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 19

ELECTROSTATICS OF CONDUCTORS
Conductor is a substance that can be used to carry electric charges from one place to the other. They
contain mobile charge carriers. All metals are good conductors of electricity.

Following are some important results regarding electrostatics of conductors.

1. Electric field inside a conductor is zero:

2. At the surface of a charged conductor, the electrostatic field must be normal to the surface at every
point
3. The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in the static situation:
4. Electrostatic potential is constant throughout the volume of the conductor and has the same value as
on its surface

5. The electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is E  nˆ
0
6.Electrostatic shielding is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external electric
field.This effect of electrostatic shielding can be used in protecting sensitive instruments from outside
electrical influence.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
DIELECTRICS AND POLARISATION
Dielectrics are non-conducting substances and they have no charge carriers.
There are two types of dielectric (i) Non-polar dielectrics (ii) polar dielectrics
In non-polar dielectrics, the molecules are non-polar i.e. the centre of positive charge coincides with
the centre of negative charge.
The molecule has no permanent (intrinsic) dipole moment.
Ex:- Molecules of H2, O2, and CO2

In polar dielectrics, the molecules are polar i.e. the centre of positive charge and centre of negative
charge do not coincide.
They have a permanent (intrinsic) electric dipole moment.
Ex:- Molecules of water (H2O), CO and HCl
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
*Dielectric polarization: When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external
field E , the centre of positive charge and the centre of negative charge ±● +
●- ●
(electrons) in each molecule are pulled in opposite direction. Thus the non-
E=0 E≠0
polar molecule develops an induced dipole moment. The dielectric is said to
be polarised by the external field.

Definition of polarization: The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric is called the
polarization or Polarisation density vector.
For linear isotropic dielectrics, P  E or P  e E
Where  e is constant characteristic of the dielectric and it is known as electric susceptibility of the electric.

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 20

*The polarisation of the dielectric modifies the original electric field inside it.

 and    arethe charge density on the plates

 p and   p  arethe polarised (induced )charge density onthe dielectric slab

E0   dielectric field in the abscence of dielectric
0

Eind  p  induced dielectric field in the dielectric
0
  p
E  E0  Eind   reduced electric field in the dielectric
0
Dielectric constant (K): it is the ratio of electric field in air or vacuum to the
reduced electric field in the dielectric medium.
E0  EP
K 
E   p

CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE

Definition of capacitance: Capacitance of a conductor is the ratio of the charge given to the conductor to the
Q
raise in its potential i.e., C
V
SI unit of capacitance of a conductor is farad (F)
Define the unit of capacitance (Define 1 farad): If 1coloumb of charge added to the conductor to rise its
potential by 1 volt, then its capacitance is 1farad.

Capacitance of a conductor depends on

(1) The size and shape of the conductor.
(2) The dielectric medium surrounding the conductor.
(3) Presence of other conductors nearby.

Note: Capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius R surrounded by a dielectric medium of dielectric

constant K is C = 4πKε0 R .
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
capacitor: A capacitor is a system of two conductors separated by an insulator. (J-14)

Capacitance of a capacitor: is the ratio of the charge of the capacitor to the potential difference between the
two conductors.

Note: Capacitance depends on the shape, size and separation of the two conductors and also on the
nature of the dielectric separating the two conductors. (M-17, M-18)

Dielectric strength: The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can with stand without
breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 21

Derive an expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor (5 mark) (M-15, M-20)
Consider a parallel plate capacitor.
A  the area of each plate.
d  the distance between the plates.
+Q and – Q  charges on the plates.
 and   surface charge densities.

Electric field in the region between the plates is

   1 Q
E    since   QA 
20 20 0 0 A
 V 
Potential difference between the plates is V  Ed  E  d 
Qd
V
0A
Q
 The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is, C
V
Q
C
 Qd 
 A 
 0
0 A
 C
d

Note: capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor in the presence of dielectric medium

K0 A
C where K is a dielectric constant
d

COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS

Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance when number 0f Capacitors connected in series (5mark)
(J-18)
Let C1, C2 and C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors connected in series.
V  potential difference be applied across the combination.
q  the charge on each plate
q q q
V1  ; V2  ; V3   are the potential differences across the individual capacitors,
C1 C2 C3
Then net potential V = V1 + V2 + V3
q q q
V  
C1 C2 C3
1 1 1
V  q    → (1)
 C1 C2 C3 
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent capacitance Cs.
q
Then V → (2)
Cs
From equations (1) and (2), we get

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 22

 q 1 1 1
q   
Cs  C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
   
Cs C1 C2 C3

Definition: When a number of capacitors are connected in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitance.
1 1 1 1 1
Note: When n number of capacitors in series, then     ...... 
Cs C1 C2 C3 Cn
C
When n equal number of capacitors in series, then CS 
n
C1C2
When 2 capacitors in series, then CS 
C1  C2

Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance when number 0f Capacitors connected in parallel
(5mark)
Let C1, C2 and C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors connected in parallel between two common
terminals A and B. Let V be the p.d. applied between A and B. Then the p.d. across the plates of all
capacitors is same.
If Q1 = C1 V, Q2 = C2 V & Q3 = C3 V are the charges on the capacitors C1, C2 and C3 respectively,

The total charge q on the combinations Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3

Q = C1 V + C2 V + C 3 V [ q  cv ]
Q = (C1 + C2 + C3) → (1)
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent capacitance C p such that it
acquires the same charge q at the same potential difference V.
Then Q = CpV → (2)

From equations (1) & (2), we get CpV = (C1 + C2 + C3)V

 CP  C1  C2  C3
Definition: The equivalent capacitance of a number of capacitors connected in parallel is always equal to
the sum of the individual capacitances.

Note: When n number of capacitors in series, then CP  C1  C2  C3...........  Cn

When n equal number of capacitors in series, then CS  nC
When 2 capacitors in series, then CS  C1  C2

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 23

Derive an expression for energy stored in a capacitor (M-16, M-17, M-20)
Consider a situation when the charges on the conductors are +q and –q.
q
The potential difference between the conductors is V '  .
C
The charge dq is transferred from one conductor to the other,
q
The work done in this process is dw  V 'dq  dq  (1)
C
The total work done in increasing the charge on the capacitor from 0 to Q is
Q Q Q
q 1
W   dw   dw   qdQ
0 0
C C0
Q
1  q2  1  Q2 
W       0
C  2 0 C  2 
Q2
W
2C
This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy of the system. i.e. W = U
Q2
 U
2C

Note: Consider a parallel plate capacitor of area A and the distance between the plates be d.
 E 2V
U 0 Expression for energy stored in a capacitor
2
2
U 0E
u  Expression for energy per unit volumein a capacitor
V 2
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Dushyantha Rao MOB:9844117017 PAGE 24

 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
PROBLEMS ON POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE

1. (a) Calculate the potential at a point P due to a charge of 4 × 10-7 C located 9 cm away. (b) Hence
obtain the work done in bringing a charge of 2 × 10-9 C from infinity to the point P. Does the answer
depend on the path along which the charge is brought? [NCERT]
Ans: a) 4 × 104 V b) 8 × 10-5 J No, work done will be path independent.

2. A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has a charge 5µC at each of its vertices. Calculate the potential at
the centre of the hexagon. [NCERT] Ans: 2.7 × 106 V

3. Two tiny spheres carrying charges 1.5µC and 2.5µC are located 30 cm apart. Find the potential and
electric field:
(a) at the mid-point of the line joining the two charges, and
(b) at a point 10 cm from this midpoint in a plane normal to the line and passing through the mid-
point. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 2.4 × 105 V; 4.0 × 105 V/m from charge 2.5µC to 1.5µC.
(b) 2.0 × 105 V; 6.6 × 105 V/m in the direction that makes an angle of
about 69° to the line joining charge 2.5µC to 1.5µC.
4. Charges 2μC, 4μC and 6μC are placed at the three corners A, B and C of a square ABCD of side x
metre. Find what charge must be placed at the fourth corner so that net potential at the centre of the
square becomes zero. [July 2016]

Problems on null point

5. Two charges 3 × 10-8 C and –2 × 10-8 C are located 15 cm apart. At what points on the line joining
the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero. [NCERT]
Ans: electric potential is zero at 9 cm and 45 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the
negative charge.
6. Two charges 5 × 10-8 C and –3 × 10-8 C are located 16 cm apart. At what point(s) on the line joining
the two charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero. [NCERT]
Ans: 10 cm, 40 cm away from the positive charge on the side of the negative charge.
7. Two charges 30nC and -20nC are located 15 cm apart. At what points on the line joining the two
charges is the electric potential zero? Take the potential at infinity to be zero.
[July 2014, March 2017]

8. Two point charges +1 nC and -4 nC are 1m apart in air. Find the positions along the line joining the
two charges at which resultant potential is zero. [March 2015]

Dushyantha rao MOB:9844117017 Page 25

Problems on potential energy and work done

9. A charge of 8 mC is located at the origin. Calculate the work done in taking a small charge of –2 ×
10-9 C from a point P (0, 0, 3cm) to a point Q (0, 4 cm, 0), via a point R (0, 6 cm, 9 cm). [NCERT]
Ans: 1.2 J; the point R is irrelevant to the answer.
10. ABCD is a square of side 2m. Point charges of 5nC, 10nC and -5nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 5nC from D to the point of
intersection of diagonals. [June 2015]

11. ABCD is a square of side 4cm. Point charges of +2nC, -2nC and +3nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of +4nC from D to the centre of the
square. [M 2018]

12. ABCD is a square of side 1m. Point charges of +3nC, -5nC and +3nC are placed at corners A, B, C
respectively. Calculate the work done in transferring a charge of 12μC from D to the centre of the
square. [June 2019]

CAPACITORS

Problems on capacitance

13. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 6 × 10 -3 m2 and
the distance between the plates is 3 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to a 100 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? [NCERT][M-14]
Ans: 18 pF, 1.8 × 10-9 C
14. What is the area of the plates of a 2 F parallel plate capacitor, given that the separation between
the plates is 0.5 cm? [NCERT] Ans: 1130 km2
15. A parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates has a capacitance of 8 pF. What will be the
capacitance if the distance between the plates is reduced by half, and the space between them is filled
with a substance of dielectric constant 6? [NCERT] Ans: 96 pF
16. A spherical capacitor has an inner sphere of radius 12 cm and an outer sphere of radius 13 cm. The
outer sphere is earthed and the inner sphere is given a charge of 2.5µC. The space between the
concentric spheres is filled with a liquid of dielectric constant 32.
(a) Determine the capacitance of the capacitor. (b) What is the potential of the inner sphere?
(c) Compare the capacitance of this capacitor with that of an isolated sphere of radius 12 cm. Explain
why the latter is much smaller. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 5.5 × 10-9 F (b) 4.5 × 102 V (c) 1.3 × 10-11 F
17. A cylindrical capacitor has two co-axial cylinders of length 15 cm and radii 1.5 cm and 1.4 cm. The
outer cylinder is earthed and the inner cylinder is given a charge of 3.5µC. Determine the capacitance
of the system and the potential of the inner cylinder. [NCERT]
Ans: 1.2 × 10-10 F, 2.9 × 104 V

Dushyantha rao MOB:9844117017 Page 26

18. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the plates, each plate has an area of 8 × 10−3 m2 and
the distance between the plates is 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. If this capacitor is
connected to a 50 V supply, what is the charge on each plate of the capacitor? (Absolute permittivity of
free space = 8.85 x 10-12 Fm-1) [June 2017]

19. In a circular parallel plate capacitor, radius of each plate is 5 cm and they are separated by a
distance of 2 mm. Calculate the capacitance and the energy stored, when it is charged by connecting
the battery of 200 V. (ϵo = 8.854 x 10-12 Fm-1) [March 2019]

Problems on combination of capacitors

20. Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are connected in series.

(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination? (b) What is the potential difference across
each capacitor if the combination is connected to a 120 V supply? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 3 pF (b) 40 V
21. Three capacitors of capacitances 2 pF, 3 pF and 4 pF are connected in parallel.
(a) What is the total capacitance of the combination? (b) Determine the charge on each capacitor if
the combination is connected to a 100 V supply. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 9 pF (b) 2 × 10-10 C, 3 × 10-10 C, 4 × 10-10 C
22. A network of four 10µF capacitors is connected to a 500 V supply,
as shown in Fig. Determine (a) the equivalent capacitance of the
network and (b) the charge on each capacitor. [NCERT]
Ans: a) C = 13.3µF b) 1.7X10-3 C, 5.0X10-3 C

23. Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the network in Fig. For a 300 V
supply, determine the charge and voltage across each capacitor.
[NCERT]
Ans: Equivalent capacitance = (200/3) pF.
Q1 = 10-8C, V1 = 100 V ; Q2 = Q3 = 10-8 C
V2 = V3 = 50 V
Q4 = 2.55 × 10-8 C, V4 = 200 V

Problems on energy stored in a capacitors

24. (a) A 900 pF capacitor is charged by 100 V battery. a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by
the capacitor? (b) The capacitor is disconnected from the battery and connected to another 900 pF
capacitor. What is the electrostatic energy stored by the system? [NCERT]
Ans: a) 4.5 × 10-6 J b) 2.25 × 10-6 J

Dushyantha rao MOB:9844117017 Page 27

25. A 12pF capacitor is connected to a 50V battery. How much electrostatic energy is stored in the
capacitor? [NCERT] Ans: 1.5 × 10-8 J
26. A 600pF capacitor is charged by a 200V supply. It is then disconnected from the supply and is
connected to another uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much electrostatic energy is lost in the
process? [NCERT] Ans: 6 × 10-6 J
27. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 90 cm2 each and are separated by 2.5 mm.
The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400 V supply.
(a) How much electrostatic energy is stored by the capacitor? (b) Calculate the energy per unit
volume u. [NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.55 × 10-6 J (b) u = 0.113 J m-3
28. Energy stored in a system consisting of two capacitors in series and connected across 4kV line is
8J. When the same two capacitors are in parallel across the same line, energy stored is 36J. Find the
capacitance of the capacitors. [March 2016]

29. The plates of a parallel plate capacitor have an area of 100 cm2 each and are separated by 3 mm.
The capacitor is charged by connecting it to a 400V supply. Calculate (a) the energy stored in the
capacitor (b) if a dielectric constant 2.5 is introduced between the plates of the capacitor, then find the
energy stored and also change in the energy stored. [July 2018]

Dushyantha rao MOB:9844117017 Page 28

 Current electricity
Electric current: The rate of flow of electric charges through any cross section of a conductor is a measure of
electric current.
let charge Q crosses through a cross section of a conductor in time t, then
Q
Electric current , I 
t
Direction of electric current: the direction of flow of positive charge gives the direction of electric current.

SI unit of electric current is ampere (A)

Definition of 1 ampere: Current through a conductor is said to be 1 ampere if one coulomb charge flow
through any cross-section of the conductor in one second.

Ohm’s Law (M-17, J-18)

Statement: The steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference between its ends, provided temperature & other physical conditions remain constant.
i.e. VI
or V  IR
Where R  is constant and is known as resistance of a conductor.

Electrical resistance: Resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered to the flow of electric charge in a
conductor
V
According to Ohm’s law V=IR i.e. R =
I
Definition of resistance: The electric resistance of a conductor is numerically equal to the ratio of the
potential difference across the ends of a conductor to the current.

Resistance of a conductor depends on

1. Length of the conductor.
2. Area of cross section.
3. Temperature.

Unit of resistance is ohm (𝛀)

Definition of one ohm: The Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 Ω if the potential difference of 1𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 is
required to maintain a current of 1Ampere in it.

Resistivity (or) Specific Resistance (  ): Experimentally it is found that at constant temperature the resistance
of a conductor is,
1) Directly proportional to its length, i.e. (R  L)
1
2) Inversely proportional to the area of cross section (R  )
A
L L
i.e. R  (OR) R  
A A

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 Where   Resistivity (or) specific resistance

Resistivity    : of a conductor is defined as the resistance of a material of a conductor of unit length

and unit area of cross section. (M-19)

SI unit of Resistivity (or) specific resistance is ohm-metre (   m )

1
Conductance (G): The reciprocal of resistance i.e. G  SI unit is mho (or) siemen (S)
R
1
Conductivity (  ): The reciprocal of resistivity i.e. 𝜎 = 𝜌 SI unit is mho/meter (or) siemen/meter.
Current density ( j ): The electric current per unit area taken normal to the direction of current is known as
current density.
I
Current density, j
A
SI unit of current density is A/m2

Derive the relation j   E (equivalent form of ohm’s law) (J-17)

If E is the magnitude of the uniform electric field in the conductor whose length is l and V is the potential
difference across its ends, then
V
E or V = El………..(1)
l
From ohm’s law
Il  l 
V  IR   R   ……(2)
A  A
Equate (1) and (2), we get
Il
El =
A
I
E=
A
I
E= j ( j )
A
E
∴ j (or) j  E (equivalent form of ohm’s law)


Limitations of ohm’s law: (J-14, J-15, M-15, M-10)

1) Ohm’s law holds good only if all the physical conditions remain the same.
2) It is not applicable for semiconductors, vacuum tubes.
3) It is not applicable for conductors at very low & very high temperatures.

Ohmic devices: Devices which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic devices. (J-17)
e.g. metal, voltmeter, ammeter etc.

Non-ohmic devices: Devices which donot obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices.
e.g. semiconductors, discharge tubes, transistors, diodes etc.

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 Drift Velocity ( Vd ) : The average velocity acquired by free electrons in the presence of external electric
field is called as drift velocity. (J-14, M-18)
Drift velocity is of the order of 10 ms 1
4

Eeτ
Derive an expression for drift velocity of electrons Vd = (M-16, J-16, M-19)
m

Consider electrons inside the conductor moving in random direction. Let there be N electrons and velocity of
ith electron is Ui , then the average velocity of electrons is zero
 0 ………..(1)
1 N
i.e. (U ) 
i avg
N
U
i 1
i

Due to the applied electric field E , acceleration produced in the electrons,

eE
a 
m
where e and m  are charge and mass of electron
th
Consider again i electron at a given time t. let ti be the time elapsed after its last collision. If Ui was its
velocity immediately after last collision, then its velocity Vi at time ti is
Vi = Ui + ati

The average velocity of the electrons at time t is the average of all the Vi and the average time between
collision is  .
i.e. (Vi )avg = (Ui )avg + a(ti)avg

 eE 
Vd  0   
m
eE
Vd    this is the expression for drift velocity
m

Mobility (𝜇): The magnitude of drift velocity acquired by an electron per unit electric field is called mobility
of the electron.
Vd
Mobility  
E
2
Its SI unit is m
Vs

Relaxation time (τ): It is the average time elapsed between two successive collisions.

Derive an expression for current (I = nAeVd)

Consider a conductor of cross-sectional area A and E is the electric field. In a time t electrons drift from one
end of the conductor to another end, through a distance of x Vd t .
Let The number of electrons / volume = n

The number of electrons = n (volume)

= n (distance) (area)
The number of electrons = n (Vd t ) A

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Total charge on electrons = (number of electrons) e
Q = n (Vd t ) A e
Q
 current through the conductor, I=
t
n(Vd t ) Ae
I=
t
I  n Ae Vd This is the expression for current
ne2
Derive an expression for conductivity (   ) (J-15, J-18, M-20)
m
Consider current through a conductor, I = nAeVd
where, n  number density
A  area of cross-section
 eE 
Vd  drift velocity,  Vd 
 m 
 eE 
 I = nAe  
 m 

nAe 2 E
I=
m
I ne2 E

A m
ne E
2
 I
j  j 
m  A
ne2 E
E ( j   E)
m
ne2
 This is the expression for conductivity
m

Colour code of resistor: (M-15)

There are of two major types resistors: wire bound resistors and carbon resistors.
Wire bound resistors: are made by winding the wires of an alloy, viz., manganin, constantan, nichrome or
similar ones.
Carbon resistors : Resistors in the higher range are made mostly from carbon. Carbon resistors are compact,
inexpensive and thus find extensive use in electronic circuits.
Carbon resistors are small in size and hence their values are given using a colour code.
The color code resistor system generally has four bands first band indicates first significant figure. Second
band indicates second significant figure. Third band indicates number of zeros & the fourth band indicates the
tolerance.
Aid to memory: B B R O Y Goes Bombay Via Gate With Gold and Silver

Dushyantha Rao mob: 9844117017 Page 32

Temperature dependence of resistivity:
In metals: resistivity increases with increase in temperature.
Note: Resistivity at a given temperature is given by ρ= ρ0 [1+α(T-T0 )]
where 0  is the resistivity at a temperature T0
  is the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.

In semiconductors: resistivity decreases with increase in temperature.

Temperature dependence of resistance:

As the temperature increases, resistance of a conductor also increases.

Temperature co-efficient of resistance: The resistance of a conductor increases with increase in

temperature, If Rt is the temperature at t 0 c & R0 is the temperature at 00 c then,
R= R0 [1+αt]

Where, ‘𝛼’ is a constant called ‘temperature co-efficient of resistance of the conductor.

Note: If R1 & R2 are the resistances of a conductor at temperature t10 c & t2 0 c , then we have,
R2  R1
 / 0C
R1t2  R2t1

Combination of resistors:
Resistors are connected in two ways
1) Series combination 2) Parallel combination.

Series Combination: Resistors are said to be in series if they are connected end to end.
On applying a potential difference across the combination same current flows through each resistor.

Derivation of equivalent resistance of number of resistors connected in series:

Consider three resistors R1, R2, & R3 connected in series
V  P.D across the combination
I  current through each resistor

V1, V2, & V3  be the potential difference across R1, R2,

& R3 respectively.
Let, V  V1  V2  V3

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 RS
but, V1  IR1 , V2  IR 2 and V3  IR 3
I
V  IR1  IR 2  IR 3 V
I
V  I  R1  R 2  R 3   1
The combination is replaced by a single equivalent resistor of resistance RS
Then, V  IR S   2 
From (1) & (2)
IR S  I  R1  R 2  R 3 
R S   R1  R 2  R 3 

Note: The effective resistance of number of resistors in series is equal to sum of the individual resistances.
For n resistors in series RS  R1  R 2  R 3  ...  R n
For n identical resistances are connected in series then R S  nR

Parallel combination:
Number of resistors are said to be in parallel when they are connected between two points such that p.d
across each resistor is the same.

Derivation of equivalent resistance of number of resistors connected in parallel: (M-14, M-15)

Consider three resistors of resistances R1, R2, & R3 connected in parallel.
V  common p.d across the combination.
I  main current
V V V
I1  , I2  and I3   be the branch currents such that,
R1 R2 R3
Main current I  I1  I 2  I3
V V V
I  
R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 
I  V     1
 R1 R 2 R 3 
The combination is replaced by a single equivalent resistor of resistance RP
RP
V
then I   2
RP I
V
1 I
V 1 1 
From 1 and  2   V   
RP  R1 R 2 R 3 
1 1 1 1
  
R P R1 R 2 R 3

Note: The reciprocal of the effective resistance of number of resistors in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocal of individual resistances.
1 1 1 1 1
For n resistors in parallel     ... 
R P R1 R 2 R 3 Rn

R
For n identical resistors in parallel R p =
n
R1 R 2
For 2 resistors in parallel R p =
R1 + R 2

Dushyantha Rao mob: 9844117017 Page 34

Electrical energy: The work done by a source to maintain a current in the electrical circuit is known as
electrical energy.
Electrical energy is given by E = VIt

Electrical power: It is defined as the heat energy produced per unit time in an electrical device of resistance.

(or) It can also be defined as the rate of doing electrical work.

Electrical power, P = VI
It is a scalar quantity
SI unit of electrical power is watt (W)
Cells: It is device used to maintain the steady current in an electrical circuit.

Electro motive force (emf) ℰ : of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a cell
when no current is drawn from it.

Terminal potential difference (V): of a cell is defined as the potential difference across the terminals of a
cell when current is drawn from it.

Internal resistance (r): of a cell is the resistance of electrolyte of the cell.

Derivation of current drawn by an external resistance:

Consider a simple circuit in which resistance R is connected to a cell of emf ℰ internal resistance r as shown.
I is the steady current flowing through it.

The potential difference across the terminals of a cell is

V = p.d. across P and A + p.d. across N and B + p.d. across A and B
V = (V+ + V- ) - Ir
V = ℰ - Ir  (1)

potential difference across R is

V = IR  (2)
equate (1) and (2), we get
IR = ℰ - Ir
ε
I=  (3) expression for current drawn by external resistance
R+r

Substitute (3) in (2), we get

εR
V= this is the expression for p.d. across R
R+ r

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Equivalent emf of two cells when cells are connected in series:

Consider two cells are connected in series as shown in fig.

1 ,  2  emf’s of two cells
r1 , r2  internal resistance of the two cells.
I  same current through the cells
VA , VB and VC  the potentials at A, B and C respectively.
p.d. across AB is VAB = VA – VB = ℰ1 – Ir1 ( V = ℰ – Ir)
p.d. across BC is VBC = VB – VC = ℰ2 – Ir2
p.d. across AC is VAC = VA – VC = (VA – VB) + (VB – VC)
= (ℰ1 – Ir1) + (ℰ2 – Ir2 )
= (ℰ1+ ℰ2 ) – (Ir1 + Ir2)
VAC = VA – VC = (ℰ1+ ℰ2 ) – I (r1 + r2)  (1)
The two cells are replaced by a single equivalent cell between AC of emf ℰequi and internal resistance requi,
then
VAC  equi  Irequi  (2)
Compare (1) and (2), we get
εequi = ε1 + ε2 and requi = r1 + r2

For n cells in series εequi = ε1 + ε2  ......  εn and requi = r1 + r2  .....  rn

Equivalent emf of two cells when cells are connected in parallel : (M-18, M-19)
Consider two cells are connected in parallel as shown in fig.
1 ,  2  are emf’s of the two cells
r1 , r2  are the internal resistance of the two cells.
I1 , I2  be the current through the cells
V1 , V2  are the potential at B1 and B2 respectively.
p.d. across the first cell is V = V1 – V2 = ℰ1 – I1r1

1  V
 I1 
r1
p.d. across the second cell is V = V1 – V2 = ℰ2 – I2r2
2  V
 I2 
r2
Main current, I = I1 +I2
ε1 -V ε2 -V
I= +
r1 r2
ε1 V ε2 V
I= - + -
r1 r1 r2 r2

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 ε ε   1 1 
I =  1 + 2  -V  +   1
 r1 r2   r1 r2 
The two cells are replaced by a single equivalent cell between AC of emf ℰequi and internal resistance requi,
then
V  equi  Irequi
equi  V
 I
requi
   1 
 I   equi   V     2
 requi   requi 
Compare (1) and (2), we get
εequi ε1 ε 2 1 1 1
= + and  
requi r1 r2 requi r1 r2

εequi ε1 ε 2 ε
For n number cells connected in parallel = + .......+ n
requi r1 r2 rn

KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Electrical Network: Electrical network is the combination of various circuit elements & electrical sources.

Node (or) Junction: Node or Junction of an electrical network is a point where more than two
conductors meet.

Loop (or) Mesh: Loop or Mesh of an electrical network is a closed path for the flow of current.

Kirchhoff’s first law (or) Kirchhoff’s Current law (or) KCL (or) node law:
Statement: The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a node in an electrical network is zero.
I  0
Let I1 ,I2 ,I3 and I4 are the currents through different conductors meeting

then I1  I2  I3  I4  0
I1  I3  I2  I4

Note: By convention current entering a node is taken as (+) and current leaving a node is taken as ( -)
Kirchhoff’s law is based on the law- Conservation of charge.

Kirchhoff’s second law (or) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law (or) KVL: (J-17, M-18)
Statement: In a current loop of an electrical network the algebraic sum of the emf’s and potential difference
across different elements is equal to zero.
that is     IR  0
    IR
1   2  3  I1R1  I 2 R 2  I3 R 3

Note: Kirchoff’s II law is based on the law of Conservation of Energy.

Kirchoff’s II law is applicable only for a closed path or for a loop.
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Wheatstone’s Network (or) Bridge:
It is the arrangement of four resistors used to compare two unknown resistances. If one of the resistances is known the
other can be found.

Derive an expression for Balancing condition for Wheatstone’s bridge: (M-14, J-14, M-16, J-16, M-17)
Wheatstone’s network consists of four resistances P, Q, R & S connected in the form of a quadrilateral ABCD.
A sensitive galvanometer of resistance ‘G’ is connected between B & D.
A cell of emf ε is connected across A & C
I g  current through the galvanometer
Apply KCL for the node B
I1  Ig  I3  1
Apply KCL for the node D
I 2  Ig  I 4   2 
Apply KVL for the loop ABDA
I1P  Ig G  I2S  0   3
Apply KVL for the loop BCDB
I3Q  I4S  Ig G  0   4 
Under the balanced condition, Ig  0
Equation (1,2,3 and 4) becomes,

I1  I3   5 I2  I4   6 
I1P  I2S   7  I3Q  I4S  8
Dividing equation (7) by (8),
I1P I 2 R
 [Since I1  I3 and I2  I4 ]
I3Q I 4S

P R
= This is the balancing condition.
Q S

Meter Bridge:
It is a device used to compare two unknown resistances. If one of the resistance is known, the other can be
found. It is based on the principle of balanced Whetstone’s network.

Description:
A meter bridge consists of a uniform resistance wire of length 1m stretched on a wooden board between two
terminals ‘A’ & ‘B’. Two ‘L’ shaped metal strips are fixed to the ends of the wire. Another metal strip is
fixed in between the metal strips so that two gaps are formed. The strips are provided with terminals for
electrical connections. A meter scale is fixed beside the wire so that its ends coincide with zero & 1m
makings of the scale.

Theory: (Determination of unknown resistance)

The electrical connections are made as shown in the diagram. The conductor whose resistance P is to be
found is connected in the left gap. A standard resistance box Q is connected in the right gap. The
+𝑣𝑒 terminal of a cell is connected to the end ‘A’ & the −𝑣𝑒 terminal to the end ‘C’. A sensitive
galvanometer ‘G’ is connected to the terminal ‘B’ through a sliding key.

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A suitable known resistance is introduced in the right gap resistance box. The slider is moved on the wire
AC to a point called balancing point ‘D’ for which the deflection in the galvanometer is zero. Its distance
from the end ‘A’ is called balancing length 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐿 is measured.
Comparing the meter bridge with a Wheatstone’s
network
P R
Using Wheatstone’s principle 
Q S
Since R α L and S α (1- L)

P L
∴ =
Q (1 - L)

Potentiometer:

Potentiometer is a device used to measure potential difference, to compare & to measure emfs of cells.

Principle: The principle of potentiometer is that the fall in potential across any portion of the wire is
directly proportional to the length of that portion (provided the wire is of uniform area of cross-section
and a constant current is flowing through it).

If I is the current flowing through the wire & V is the potential difference across the length l of the wire
then V l
V = φl

where φ is a constant, called potential gradient (potential drop per unit length)

****************

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 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON CURRENT ELECTRICITY

PROBLEMS ON RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

1) A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section 6.0 ×
10-7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the material at the
temperature of the experiment? [NCERT] Ans: 2.0x10-7 Ωm

2) 100mg mass of Nichrome metal is drawn into a wire of area of cross section 0.05mm2. Calculate the
resistance of this wire. Given density of Nichrome 8.4 x103 kgm-3 and the resistivity of the material is
1.2 x 10-6 Ω [March-18]

PROBLEMS ON DRIFT VELOCITY AND CURRENT

3) Estimate the average drift speed of conduction electrons in a copper wire of cross-sectional area
1.0 × 10-7 m2 carrying a current of 1.5 A. Assume that each copper atom contributes roughly one
conduction electron. The density of copper is 9.0 × 103 kg/m3, and its atomic mass is 63.5 u. [NCERT]
Ans: 1.1 × 10-3 m s-1

4) The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor estimated as 8.5 × 1028 m-3. How long
does an electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area of cross-
section of the wire is 2.0 × 10-6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A. [NCERT]
Ans: 2.7x104 s (7.5 h)

5) A wire of length 2m, diameter 1mm and resistivity 1.963 × 10-8 Ω m is connected in series with a
battery of emf 3V and internal resistance 1Ω . Calculate the resistance of the wire and the current in
the circuit. [July 2016]

PROBLEMS ON TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTANCE AND RESISTIVITY

6) An electric toaster uses nichrome for its heating element. When a negligibly small current passes
through it, its resistance at room temperature (27.0 °C) is found to be 75.3Ω. When the toaster is
connected to a 230 V supply, the current settles, after a few seconds, to a steady value of 2.68 A. What
is the steady temperature of the nichrome element? The temperature coefficient of resistance of
nichrome averaged over the temperature range involved, is 1.70 × 10-4°C-1 [NCERT]
Ans: 847 °C

7) At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature
coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10-4 °C-1 [NCERT]
Ans: 1027 ºC

8) A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver. [NCERT] Ans: 0.0039 ºC-1

9) The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice point is 5 Ω
and at steam point is 5.23Ω. When the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the resistance of the
platinum wire is 5.795Ω. Calculate the temperature of the bath. [NCERT] Ans: 345.65 °C

10) A heating element using nichrome connected to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of 3.2 A
which settles after a few seconds to a steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady temperature of the
heating element if the room temperature is 27.0 °C? Temperature coefficient of resistance of nichrome
averaged over the temperature range involved is 1.70 × 10-4 °C-1. [NCERT] Ans: 867 ºC

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PROBLEMS ON COMBINATION OF RESISTORS
11) (a) Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance,
obtain the potential drop across each resistor. [NCERT] Ans: (a) 6 Ω (b) 2 V, 4 V, 6 V

12) (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 5 Ω are combined in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance,
determine the current through each resistor, and the total current drawn from the battery. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) (20/19) Ω (b) 10A, 5 A, 4A; 19A

13) A network of resistors is connected to a 16 V battery

with internal resistance of 1Ω, as shown in Fig.
(a) Compute the equivalent resistance of the network.
(b) Obtain the current in each resistor. (c) Obtain the
voltage drops VAB, VBC and VCD. [NCERT]

Ans: a) 7Ω
b) the current in the 12Ωresistor is (2/3) A,
while the current in the 6 Ω resistor is (4/3) A.
c) 4V, 2V and 8V

14) (a) Given n resistors each of resistance R, how will you combine them to get the (i) maximum (ii)
minimum effective resistance? What is the ratio of the maximum to minimum resistance?
(b) Given the resistances of 1 Ω, 2 Ω, 3 Ω,
how will be combine them to get an
equivalent resistance of (i) (11/3) Ω
(ii) (11/5) Ω, (iii) 6 Ω, (iv) (6/11) Ω?
(c) Determine the equivalent resistance
of networks shown in Fig. [NCERT]

Ans: (a) (i) in series, (ii) all in parallel; n2.

(b) (i) Join 1Ω, 2 Ω in parallel and the combination in series with 3 Ω,(ii) parallel combination of
2Ω and 3 Ω in series with 1Ω (iii) all in series, (iv) all in parallel.
(c) (i) (16/3) Ω, (ii) 5 R.

15) Determine the current drawn from a 12V supply with

internal resistance 0.5Ω by the infinite network shown in Fig.
Each resistor has 1Ω resistance.
Ans: Hint: Let X be the equivalent resistance of the infinite
network. Clearly, 2 + X/(X +1) = X which gives X = (1+3) Ω;
therefore the current is 3.7 A.

16) (a) Three resistors 2 Ω,3 Ω , and 4 Ω are combined in series. What is the total resistance of the
combination? (b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 10 V and negligible internal
resistance, obtain the potential drop across each resistor. [March 2016]

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17) (a) Three resistors 4Ω, 6Ω and 8 Ω are combined in parallel. What is thekj? total resistance of the
combination? (b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 25 V and negligible internal
resistance, determine the current through each resistor, and the total current drawn from the battery.
[June 2017]

18) When two resistances are connected in series with a cell of emf 2V and negligible internal
resistance, a current of 2/5A flows in the circuit. When the resistances are connected in parallel, the
main current is 5/3A. Calculate the resistances. [March 2017]

19) Two resistors of resistance 12Ω and 6 Ω are connected in parallel to a battery of 12V. (a) Calculate
the equivalent resistance of the network. (b) Obtain the current in 12 Ω and 6Ω resistors. [July 2014]

20) Two resistors are connected in series with 5V battery of negligible internal resistance. A current
of 2A flows through each resistor. If they are connected in parallel with the same battery a current of
25/3 A flows through combination. Calculate the value of each resistance. [March 19]

21) In the given diagram, calculate (i) the main current through the circuit
and (ii) also current through 9Ω resistor. [June-18]

PROBLEMS ON CELL
22) The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is 0.4 Ω,
what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery? [NCERT] Ans: 30 A

23) A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current in the
circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery when
the circuit is closed? [NCERT] Ans: 17 Ω, 8.5 V

24) Two resistors of resistances 3Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel with a battery of emf 6V and
internal resistance 1Ω.Calculate the main current through the circuit and current through 3Ω and 6Ω.

24) A battery of internal resistance 3Ω is connected to 20Ω resistor and potential difference across the
resistor is 10V. If another resistor of 30Ω is connected in series with the first resistor and battery is
again connected to the combination, calculate the emf and terminal p.d across the combination.
[March 2014]
25) Two identical cells either in series or in parallel combination, gives the same current of 0.5A
through external resistance of 4 Ω . Find the emf and internal resistance of each cell. [June 2015]

PROBLEMS ON KCL, KVL AND WHEATSTONE’S BRIDGE

26) Determine the current in each branch of the

network shown in Fig. [NCERT]

Ans: I1 = 2.5A, I2 =5/8A, I3 = 7/8A

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 27) Determine the current in each branch of the network shown in
Fig. [NCERT]
Ans: Current in branch AB = (4/17) A, in BC = (6/17)
A, in CD = (–4/17) A, in AD = (6/17) A, in BD. = (–2/17) A, total
current = (10/17) A.

28) A battery of 10 V and negligible internal resistance is

connected across the diagonally opposite corners of a cubical
network consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 1Ω Fig..
Determine the equivalent resistance of the network and the
current along each edge of the cube. [NCERT]
Ans: 5/2R

29) The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge have the following

resistances: AB = 100Ω, BC = 10 Ω, CD = 5 Ωand DA = 60 Ω. A
galvanometer of 15Ω resistance is connected across BD. Calculate
the current through the galvanometer when a potential difference
of 10 V is maintained across AC. [NCERT]
Ans: 4.87 mA

30) Two cells of emf 2V and 4V and internal resistance 1 Ω and 2 Ω respectively are connected in
parallel so as to send the current in the same direction through an external resistance of 10 Ω . Find
the potential difference across 10 Ω resistor. [March 2015]

PROBLEMS ON METRE BRIDGE

31) In a metre bridge (Fig), the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from A. If now a resistance
of 12Ω is connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and
S. [NCERT] Ans: S = 13.5Ω , R = 6.86Ω

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32) (a) In a metre bridge Fig. , the balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the end A, when the
resistor Y is of 12.5 Ω. Determine the resistance of X. Why are the connections between resistors in a
Wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge above if X and Y are interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge?
Would the galvanometer show any current? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) X = 8.2 Ω; to minimise resistance of the connection which are not accounted for in the bridge
formula.
(b) 60.5 cm from A. (c) The galvanometer will show no current.

33) In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the
wire. If the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of
the second cell? [NCERT] Ans: 2.25 V

ADDITIONAL HOME WORK QUESTIONS

34) The terminals of a cell of emf 1.5 V are connected to the ends of a 10 Ω coil. If the current in the
circuit is 140 mA, calculate the internal resistance of the cell.

3 5)Three resistors of resistance 12Ω, 8Ω and 4Ω are connected as shown in the circuit diagram.
Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit. E=4V, r=2/3

36) The number density of conduction electrons is 9.5x1028 m-3. Calculate the time taken by an
electron to drift from one end of the wire 4m long to the other end. The area of cross-section of the
wire is 1.8x10-6 m2 and is carrying a current of 5 ampere.

37) Three resistors of 3 Ω,4Ω & 6 Ωare connected in parallel. The combination is connected to a cell of
emf 2V and internal resistance 2Ω Calculate: i) effective resistance of the parallel combination (ii)
current drawn from the cell (iii) P. D. across the parallel combination resistance (iv) current through
the 3Ω

38) A uniform copper wire of length 2 m and cross-sectional area 5×10-7m2 carries a current of 2 A.
Assuming that there are 8×1028 free electrons per m3 of copper; calculate the drift velocity of
electrons. How long will an electron take to drift from one end of the wire to the other?

39) Two resistors of 8Ω and 12 Ω are connected in series across a battery of potential difference 10
volt. Calculate the current in the circuit, when another unknown resistance is connected in parallel
with the two resistors across the same battery, the current in the circuit changes to 2.5 A. Calculate
the unknown resistance.

40) The four arms of a Wheat stone’s network ABCD have the following resistances. AB=2 Ω , BC=4 Ω
, CD=4 Ω and DA=8 Ω. A galvanometer of resistance 10 Ω is connected between B and D. Find the
current through the galvanometer, when the potential difference between A and C is 5V.

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 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Magnetic field produced by electric current
When current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced in the region surrounding the
conductor.
It is first observed by Prof. H.C.Oersted, he demonstrated it by keeping a magnetic needle above a
conductor. The deflection in the needle was observed when current passed through it. The direction in
which deflection produced is given by Ampere’s swimming rule.

Right hand clasp rule (Right hand thumb rule)

The direction of the magnetic field around the straight conductor carrying current is found using right hand
thumb rule.
Statement: If a straight current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right hand such that the
thumb pointing in the direction of current, then curled fingers gives the direction of the magnetic field.

Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field (J-14, J-16, M-19)

Consider a charge q moving with a velocity v in a magnetic field of strength B.
The force experienced by this moving charge is given by F = qvB sinθ
or F  q(v x B)
where θ  is the angle between the velocity of moving charge and the direction of magnetic field.

Case (i): The force is maximum, when θ = 90° Fmax = qvB

Case (ii): The force is minimum, when θ = 0o or θ = 180° Fmin = 0

Definition of magnetic field B: The strength of the magnetic field is defined as the force experienced by a
moving charge of unit magnitude with unit velocity in a perpendicular magnetic field.
Units of magnetic field (𝐵⃗)
1. In C.G.S. system, unit of magnetic field strength is gauss (G).
2. In SI, unit of magnetic field strength is tesla (T).
Note: 1 gauss(G) = 10-4 T

Define1tesla: The force experienced by a moving charge of 1C with a velocity of 1ms-1 in a perpendicular
magnetic field is said to be 1tesla (T).
Note: Consider the magnetic force, F  q(v x B) the direction of this force is perpendicular to both 𝑣 and

⃗ . Thus, angle between the force 𝐹 and the displacement 𝑥 of the charge is 900.
𝐵
Hence, work done by the magnetic force on the charge is given by zero. i.e. W = 𝐹 . 𝑆 = F S cos 900 = 0.

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Force on a current carrying conductor:
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area A and length l.
The number of charge carriers /volume = n
The number of charge carriers N = n(volume)
N = n (Al)
The total charge, q = Ne = n (Al)e
I  steady current
vd  be the drift velocity of the charge
B  external magnetic field
θ  is the angle between length of the conductor and direction of magnetic field
The force on these charges is F = qvB sin 
F = (nAl)e vd B sin  [ I = nAevd]
F = I l B sinθ

In vector form F  I( x B)

Case (i): The force experienced by the current carrying conductor is maximum when it is placed
perpendicular to the magnetic field i.e., θ = 90° Fmax = B I l
Case (ii): The force experienced will be zero when the conductor is placed parallel or anti parallel to the
direction of magnetic field. Fmin = 0.

Fleming’s left hand rule:

Stretch the left hand such that the fore finger, the central finger and the thumb are mutually perpendicular to
each other. When fore-finger points in the direction of magnetic field and central finger points in the
direction of current (moving charge), then the thumb gives the direction of the force acting on the conductor.
Moving charge in a magnetic field
Case I. A moving charged particle does not experience any force (F = 0) if its motion is parallel (   0o ) or
anti -parallel (   180o ) to the magnetic field. And the path of the charged particle is straight line

Case II. When charged particle moves at right angle to the magnetic field.(5 mark)
A charge moving perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field experiences a force so that it undergoes
uniform circular motion.
(i) Radius of circular path: For a charge of q moving in a magnetic field of strength B, in a circular path of
radius r with a linear speed v, having mass m, the centripetal force is provided by the magnetic force.
Hence, FCPF  FMAGNETIC

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 mv 2
 qBv
r
mv
r
qB

rαv (Radius directly proportional to velocity)

(ii) Time period (T): The time period of revolution of the charge in a circular
2r
path is given by T
v
2m
T
qB
Time period is constant

qB
(iii) Frequency (f): The frequency of revolution of the charge in a circular path is given by  
2m
qB
(iv)Angular frequency,  = 2 = 2 ( )
2 m

qB
= This angular frequency is called gyro frequency.
m

CaseIII: When the charged particle moves at an angle to the magnetic field (other than 00, 900 and 1800)
When a moving charge enters a magnetic field with a velocity v, at an angle other than 0o 180o or 90o, it
undergoes a helical path.
 Pitch: The linear distance travelled by the charged particle
in one rotation is called pitch of the helix i.e. pitch of the helix,
p  vcosθ T
2 m
p  vcosθ
qB

2πmv
p cosθ
qB

Lorentz force: (J-17)

When a charged particle having charge q moves in a region, where both electric field 𝐸⃗ and magnetic
⃗ exist, it experiences a net force called Lorentz force (𝐹 ).
field 𝐵
i.e. Lorentz force, 𝐹 = force on charge due to electric field + Force on charge due to magnetic field
F  FE  FM
 
F  qE  q v  B

F  q  E   v  B 
 

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Velocity selector: is a set up to select charged particles of a particular velocity from a beam passed
through a space having crossed electric and magnetic fields.

When the value of E and B is adjusted in such a way that the two forces are equal, then, total force on the
charge is zero and the charge will move in the fields undeflected.
This happens when, FE = FB
qE=vqB

E
V (M-20)
B
This condition is used to select charged particles of a particular velocity out of a beam containing charges
moving with different speeds (irrespective of their charge and mass). The crossed E and B fields, therefore,
serve as a velocity selector.
Uses of velocity selector:
1. This method can be used to measure specific charge
2. Mass spectroscope works on the principle of velocity selector. It is a device used to separate ions
according to their specific charge.
Cyclotron (M-16, M-20)
Cyclotron* is a device used to accelerate positively charged particles (like protons, 𝛼 particles, deuteron,
ions etc.) to acquire enough energy to carry out nuclear disintegrations.
Principle: It works on the following principle: when a positively charged particle is made to move time and
again in a high frequency electric field and using strong magnetic field, it gets accelerated and acquires
sufficiently large amount of energy.

Construction: The cyclotron is a device to accelerate

charged particles to high energies. The cyclotron uses both
electric and magnetic fields in combination to increase the
energy of charged particles. The cyclotron consists of two
semicircular disc-like metal containers, D1 and D2, called
dees. They are connected to an oscillator. The experimental
set up is completely evacuated. The positive charged
particles ‘q’ of mass ‘m’ to be accelerated are released at the
centre P. When a particle enters a dee, the magnetic field ‘B’
makes it go round in a circular path inside. Every time the
particle moves from one dee to another, it is acted upon by the electric field. The sign of the electric field is
changed alternately and hence acceleration takes place. Each time the acceleration increases the energy and

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the particle moves with larger and larger radii until it attains a maximum energy. Finally the beam is
deflected and made to leave the system.

THEORY OF CYCLOTRON: (J-18)

2m
The period of revolution of charged particle is given by, T 
qB
qB
The frequency of revolution of the charge in a circular path is given by  c 
2m

is also called cyclotron frequency.

m v max
Maximum radius of the circular path is given by rmax 
qB
where vmax is the maximum velocity of the charged particle when it leaves the system.
1
The maximum kinetic energy of the particle is Ek  m v 2max
2

B2q 2 rmax
2
or Ek 
2m
Limitations of cyclotron
1. Cyclotron cannot accelerate uncharged particles.
2. Cyclotron is not suitable for accelerating electrons.
Uses of a cyclotron: (J-14, M-14, M-18)
1. It used to produce radioactive material for medical purposes e.g. for the purpose of diagnostics and
treatment of chronic diseases.
2. It is used to synthesis the fresh substances.
3. It is used to bombard the atomic nuclei with highly accelerated particles to study the nuclear reactions.

Biot –Savart’s law (Laplace’s law)

Laplace’s law is used to determine the strength of the magnetic field at a
point near a current carrying conductor.

Laplace’s law states that the magnetic field dB at a point P due to a current
element is directly proportional to the
i) strength of the current (I)
ii) length of the element, (dl)
iii) sine of the angle between the element and the line joining the point to the element, (sin) and
iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and the current element, (r2)

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Consider a conductor
XY  conductor length
I  current through the conductor
P  be a point at a distance r from the conductor.
Idl sin 
From Biot-savarts law dB 
r2
μ0 Idlsinθ
dB =
4π r 2

0
where is constant of proportionality,  o =4  x 10-7 Hm-1 is called permeability of free space.
4
Magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current:
(M-14, M-15, M-17, M-18, M-19)
Consider a circular coil of n turns
r  radius
I  current through the coil
AB
P  point on the axis of a coil at a distance ‘x’ from the dBcosα M
a
centre of the coil O r α
Step I: Consider a pair of diametrically opposite elements α dBsinα
I O x P dBsinα
AB and CD of length dl.
The magnetic field at P due to the element AB is given by dBcosα N
CD
   IdlSin     Idl
dB =  o  =  o 2 along PM ( θ = 90°)
 4  a  4  a
2

The field at P due to the element CD is given by

   Idl
dB =  o  2 along PN
 4  a
Step II: Resolve dB into dB cos α along y axis and dB Sin α along x axis.
The components along y- axis cancel each other and the components along x-axis add up.

Hence the field at P due to elements AB and CD = 2 dB Sin α along OP

Step III: The magnetic field at P due to one turn of coil B =  2dBsin α
   Idl
=  2  o  2 sin α where sin α = r / a
 4  a
   Ir
= 2  o  3  dl
 4  a
   2 Ir  circumference 
=  o  3 r   dl   r 
 4  a  2 

  2Ir
2
Resultant field, B =  o  3
 4  a

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    2nIr
2
For n turns of coil, B=  o 
 4  a
3

From figure a2 = r2 + x2 2
 a = (r + x )
2 1/2 3 2
 a = (r +x )
2 3/2

   2nIr
2
 B=  o  2 along the axis OP
 4  (r  x )
2 3/ 2

Direction of B : If the current flow in clockwise direction then the direction of magnetic field is along the
axis and away from the observer, it is towards the observer when the current flows in the anticlockwise
direction.

Magnetic field at the centre of a current carrying circular coil:

From the equation of magnetic field at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current

   2nIr
2
B=  o  2
 4  (r  x )
2 3/ 2

   2nIr 2
At the centre x=0, hence B=  o 
 4  r
3

o nI
B
2r

Ampere’s circuital law: (M-15, J-14)

The line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path in air is equal to μ o times the total current
enclosed by the path
According to Ampere circuital law  B.dl = μ I
o net

where  B.dl  is line integral of magnetic field B around any closed path

I net  is the net current enclosed by the path.

Applications of Ampere’s circuital law

(i) Magnetic field due to straight current carrying conductor

(J-15, M-18)
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor.
I
I  current through the conductor B
r dl
P  point at a distance r from the conductor O P
r  radius of circular loop
dl  the small element chosen

The magnetic field B act on the same direction

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Hence from Ampere’s circuital law  B.dl = μ I o

 Bdl cos 0 = μ I
o
o

B  dl = μ o I
B (2πr)= μ o I
μoI
B=
2πr

The solenoid
Solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a helix with the closely
spaced turns insulated from each other. Its length is very large
compared to its radius.
 Inside the solenoid the magnetic field is uniform and parallel
to the solenoid axis.
 Outside the solenoid the magnetic field is very small and assumed to be zero.

To determine the magnetic field inside the solenoid

Consider a solenoid
I  the current flowing in the solenoid
n  the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid., a
abcda  rectangular closed loop is chosen as shown.
StepI: The line integral of B over a closed path is given
b c d a
by  B.dl =  B.dl   B.dl   B.dl   B.dl
a b c d

c a

 B.dl   B.dl  0
b d
( the anglebetween B and dl is 90o )

c
and  B.dl  0
d
( the magnetic field outsidethe solenoid is 0)

b
Hence  B.dl  B l .....................(1)
a

Step II: According to ampere’s circuital law,

 B.dl =  0  net current enclosed by loop ABCD.

 B.dl =  0  number of turns in the loop ABCD  I

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  B.dl =  0nlI………………. (2)
from (1) and (2), we have
Step III: Bl  o I enc
Bl  o  nIl 
B = μo n I

where n = N/L where N is the number of turns in the length of the solenoid L.

The toroid (M-16)

A solenoid in the form of a ring is called toroid.

To determine the magnetic field inside the toroid (M-16)

Consider a toroid of mean radius r. Let I be the current flowing through it.
The number of turns per unit length be n. consider three circular Amperian
loops 1,2 and 3 are shown by dotted lines
StepI: Let B1 is the magnetic field along loop 1,
From Ampere’s circuital law B1  2 r1   o I e

the loop encloses no current so I e = 0 hence B1 = 0

StepII: Let B2 is the magnetic field along loop 3,
From Ampere’s circuital law B2  2 r3   o I e

the net current enclosed by the loop is, I e = 0 hence B3 = 0

StepIII: Let the magnetic field inside the toroid be B , a closed loop with radius r is chosen as shown.
According to ampere’s circuital law,

 B.dl = μ I ...........(1)
o enc

 B dl cos 0 = μ (net current closed by the circle of radius r)

0
o

B  dl  μ  n  2 r  I
o

B 2 r  μ o  n  2 r  I
B  μ o nI expression for the magnetic field due to a toroid

Force between two parallel conductors carrying currents

When two parallel current carrying conductors are close together they exert force on one another. If the
direction of currents is same there exists a force of attraction between the two. If currents are in opposite
directions, the conductors repel each other.

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Expression for Force between two parallel conductors carrying currents
(J-15, M-16, J-16, J-17, J-18, M-19, M-20)
Consider two infinitely long parallel conductors carrying current I1 & I2 respectively in the same direction as
shown. Let‘d’ be the distance of separation of two conductors.
a b
The magnetic field at any point P on the conductor b due to current I1 in conductor a is
 o I1
Ba = into the plane of paper
2 d
Ba
Due to this magnetic field, the conductor b experiences a force which given by F
P
Fb = Ba I2 l
 I  d
=  o 1  I 2 l
 2 d  I1 I2
  I I l
or Fb =  o  1 2
 2  d
is the expression for force experienced by the conductor b towards a.

Note: 1) Fb = –Fa forces are mutual.

2) Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel currents repel. (M-14, J-14)

Definition of ampere
  I I l
From F =  o  1 2
 2  d
4 x 10 7
When I1 = I2 = 1A, d = 1 m, when the conductors are in vacuum, Fl = = 2 x 10-7 N/m
2
1ampere: is defined as that steady current which when flows through two infinitely long straight conductors
separated by a distance of 1m in air or vacuum experiences a force of 2 x 10-7 N per meter length of each
conductor.

Torque on a rectangular Current Loop in a magnetic field

Consider a rectangular loop ABCD placed in an external magnetic field of strength B.
a and b  length and breadth respectively
I  current flowing through the coil
A conductor of length l experiences a force of
F = BIl sinθ in an external magnetic field B.
When the plane of the loop is in the direction of the magnetic field:
The forces on the sides BC and AD are FBC = FAD = 0

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The forces on the sides AB and DC are given by
FAB = BIl sin 90o = BIl into the plane of the paper
FCD = BIl sin 90o = BIl out of the plane of paper
The two forces FAB and FCD constitute couple. Hence the loop rotates. The rotating effect of the loop is
measured by torque.
Torque on the loop, τ = one of the forces x arm of the couple
τ = F x b = BIl x b
τ = B I A where A is area of the loop
For n turns of wire in the loop, τ = nBIA
When the area vector (normal to the plane of the loop) makes an angle with B:
When the area vector (normal to the plane of the loop) makes an angle θ with B. The
force on the two sides of the loop FAB and FCD constitute couple. F
arm of couple
Torque on the loop, τ = one of the forces x arm of the couple
= F x bsinθ [ from the diagram, sinθ = arm of couple / b] b B
θ θ
= BIl x b sinθ n
= B I A sinθ where A is area of the loop F
For n turns of wire in the loop, τ = nBIAsinθ

Note: Torque is minimum when θ = 0° when the plane of loop is perpendicular to the magnetic field and it
is maximum when the plane of the loop is parallel to the magnetic field.

Magnetic dipole moment (magnetic moment) m :

The product of current I flowing through the loop and the area enclosed A by the loop is termed as magnetic
moment. M  IA
Its SI unit is magnetic moment A-m2
It is always directed towards normal to the current loop.
Hence torque on the current loop is given by τ = MBsinθ
where M = nBA for a loop of n turns.

Magnetic orbital dipole moment of a revolving electro (atom as a magnetic dipole):

(5 mark)
⃗ acts
If an electron revolves in anti-clockwise direction as shown in figure, the angular momentum vector 𝐿
along the normal to the plane of the orbit in upward direction.
Thus, the orbit of electrons is considered as tiny current loop.

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 L
Magnitude of angular momentum is given by L= mevr  vr   1
me

where, m  is the mass of electron

v  is the velocity
r  is the radius of orbit.
e
Current due to orbital motion of electron I 
T
where e  is the charge on an electron
T  is the period of orbital motion.
2 r
But T=
v
ev
∴ I =
2 r
Orbital magnetic moment of a current loop,
ev evr
𝜇𝑙 = I × A = 𝜋𝑟2 =
2 r 2
eL
μl =   2 from(1)
2me

𝑒
Note: In vector notation, ⃗⃗⃗
𝜇𝑙 = -(2𝑚 ) L
𝑒

l e
Note: From eqn.(2) 
L 2me

this constant is experimentally verified and is known as gyro magnetic constant.

Note: According to Bohr’s quantization law, angular momentum of electrons is given by
h
L= n , where n=1,2,3……..and h is Planck’s constant.
2
e nh  eh 
Then eqn. (2) becomes l   n
2me 2  4 m 

 eh 
if n = 1, then l (minimum)=  , which is Bohr magneton. It is also denoted by  B .
 4 m 
It serves as natural unit of magnetic moment.
Bohr magneton: can be defined as the orbital magnetic moment of an electron circulating in the innermost
 eh 
orbit of the atom. B = 
i.e.  4 m 

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Moving coil galvanometer
Moving coil galvanometer is a device used to detect and measure very low currents.
Principle: A current carrying loop experiences a torque in a uniform magnetic field.
Description:
It consists of a rectangular coil having n turns of copper wire wound on a
nonmagnetic frame. A cylindrical piece of soft iron is placed inside the
coil without touching it. This intensifies the magnetic field. The whole
set up is placed between two concave magnets which makes the
magnetic field radial. The coil is connected to a fine hair spring, to
which a pointer is pivoted. The pointer is free to move over the scale.
Theory
I  current through the coil it deflects in the magnetic field.
The deflecting torque acting on the coil is given by, τd = nBIA
B  the magnetic field
A  area of the coil.
When the coil deflects, the hair spring exerts a restoring torque which tries to bring the coil to its original
position.
Restoring torque, τd = k θ where K  is the couple per unit twist.
Hence at equilibrium, deflecting torque = restoring torque
nBIA = k θ
 k 
I 
 nBA 

I 

i.e., the current is directly proportional to the deflection of coil.

Sensitivity of a galvanometer:
A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if a small current flowing through the coil of galvanometer produces a
large deflection in it.
I. Current sensitivity (J-18)
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the galvanometer per unit
current flowing through it.
  ( NAB) NAB
i.e. current sensitivity =  i.e. current sensitivity =
I k k
SI unit of current sensitivity is div/A

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II. Voltage sensitivity: Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced in the
galvanometer per unit voltage applied to it.
  NAB
i.e. voltage sensitivity =  i.e. voltage sensitivity =
V IR kR
SI unit of voltage sensitivity is div/volt

Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter with the help of shunt: (M-15)

The introduction of ammeter should not alter the current to be measured in the circuit. ∴The resistance of
ammeter should be low. To decrease the effective resistance of the Galvanometer, a low resistance called
shunt resistance ‘S’ is connected in parallel with the Galvanometer.
This modified version of the Galvanometer is called ammeter. The value of ‘S’ to be connected
across the Galvanometer depends on the current to be measured. If I is the current to be measured and Ig is
the current for which the Galvanometer gives full scale deflection, then
IS
Ig 
GS
I g G  S   I S
Ig G
S
I  Ig

Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: (M-17, J-17)

A Galvanometer as it is cannot be used as a voltmeter since the resistance of the galvanometer is low. To
increase the effective resistance of the Galvanometer, a high resistance R is connected in series with the
Galvanometer. The value of R to be connected in series with the galvanometer depends on the p.d to be
measured. If V is the p.d. to be measured then.
V = Ig (G +R)
V
∴G+R=I
g

𝐕
R=𝐈 –G Where Ig  is the current through galvanometer for full scale deflection.
𝐠

Galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a high resistance

Note: The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero

The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.

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 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS ON MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
Problems on force on a charge and current carrying conductor

1. What is the magnitude of magnetic force per unit length on a wire carrying a current of 8 A and
making an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T?
[NCERT] Ans: 0.6 N m-1
2. A 3.0 cm wire carrying a current of 10 A is placed inside a solenoid perpendicular to its axis. The
magnetic field inside the solenoid is given to be 0.27 T. What is the magnetic force on the wire?
[NCERT] Ans: 8.1 × 10-2 N; direction of force given by Fleming’s left-hand rule
3. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at a certain place is 3.0 ×10-5 T and the
direction of the field is from the geographic south to the geographic north. A very long straight
conductor is carrying a steady current of 1A. What is the force per unit length on it when it is placed
on a horizontal table and the direction of the current is (a) east to west; (b) south to north?
[NCERT] Ans: a) 3 × 10-5 N m-1 downwards b) zero
4. A straight horizontal conducting rod of length 0.45 m and mass 60 g is suspended by two vertical
wires at its ends. A current of 5.0 A is set up in the rod through the wires. (a) What magnetic field
should be set up normal to the conductor in order that the tension in the wires is zero? (b) What will
be the total tension in the wires if the direction of current is reversed keeping the magnetic field same
as before? (Ignore the mass of the wires.) g = 9.8 m s-2. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) A horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.26 T normal to the conductor in such a direction
that Fleming’s left-hand rule gives a magnetic force upward. (b) 1.176 N.

5. A uniform magnetic field of 1.5 T exists in a cylindrical region of radius10.0 cm, its direction parallel
to the axis along east to west. A wire carrying current of 7.0 A in the north to south direction passes
through this region. What is the magnitude and direction of the force on the wire if,
(a) the wire intersects the axis,
(b) the wire is turned from N-S to northeast-northwest direction,
(c) the wire in the N-S direction is lowered from the axis by a distance of 6.0 cm? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 2.1 N vertically downwards
(b) 2.1 N vertically downwards
(c) 1.68 N vertically downwards
Problems on moving charge in a magnetic field and cyclotron

6. What is the radius of the path of an electron (mass 9 × 10-31 kg and charge 1.6 × 10-19 C) moving at
a speed of 3 ×107 m/s in a magnetic field of 6 × 10-4 T perpendicular to it? What is its frequency?
Calculate its energy in keV. ( 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J). [NCERT] Ans: 2 MHz, 2.5 keV

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7. An electron emitted by a heated cathode and accelerated through a potential difference of 2.0 kV,
enters a region with uniform magnetic field of 0.15 T. Determine the trajectory of the electron if the
field (a) is transverse to its initial velocity, (b) makes an angle of 30º with the initial velocity.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) Circular trajectory of radius 1.0 mm normal to B.
(b) Helical trajectory of radius 0.5 mm with velocity component 2.3 × 107 ms-1 along B.

8. A cyclotron’s oscillator frequency is 10 MHz. What should be the operating magnetic field for
accelerating protons? If the radius of its ‘dees’ is 60 cm, what is the kinetic energy (in MeV) of the
proton beam produced by the accelerator. (e =1.60 × 10-19 C, mP = 1.67 × 10-27 kg, 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10-
13 J). [NCERT] Ans: 0.66 T, 7 MeV

9. In a chamber, a uniform magnetic field of 6.5 G (1 G = 10-4 T) is maintained. An electron is shot into
the field with a speed of 4.8 × 106 m s-1 normal to the field. Explain why the path of the electron is a
circle. Determine the radius of the circular orbit. Obtain the frequency of revolution of the electron in
its circular orbit. Does the answer depend on the speed of the electron? Explain. (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C,
me = 9.1×10-31 kg) [NCERT] Ans: 4.2 cm

Problems on Biot –Savart’s law (B due to circular current coil)

10. A circular coil of wire consisting of 100 turns, each of radius 8.0 cm carries a current of 0.40 A.
What is the magnitude of the magnetic field B at the centre of the coil? [NCERT] Ans: 3.1 × 10-4 T

11. Consider a tightly wound 100 turn coil of radius 10 cm, carrying a current of 1 A. What is the
magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the coil? [NCERT] Ans: 6.28 × 10-4 T

12. Two concentric circular coils X and Y of radii 16 cm and 10 cm, respectively, lie in the same vertical
plane containing the north to south direction. Coil X has 20 turns and carries a current of 16 A; coil Y
has 25 turns and carries a current of 18 A. The sense of the current in X is anticlockwise, and
clockwise in Y, for an observer looking at the coils facing west. Give the magnitude and direction of the
net magnetic field due to the coils at their centre. [NCERT] Ans: 1.6 × 10-3 T towards west

13. A wire of length 0.26 m is bent to form a circular loop. If 2A of current is flowing through this loop,
calculate the magnetic field due to this loop at a point P, which is at a distance of 0.15m from its centre
on its axis. [March-2018]

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14. The magnetic fields at two points on the axis of a circular coil at a distance of 0.05m and 0.2m from
the centers are in the ratio 8:1. Find the radius of the coil.

15. A and B are two identical coils, of diameter 0.134m having 10 turns each. They are placed
concentrically with their planes at right angles to each other. A current of 1A flows through each coil.
Calculate the resultant magnetic field at their common centre.

Problems on B due to solenoid, toroid and straight conductor

16. A long straight wire carries a current of 35 A. What is the magnitude of the field B at a point 20 cm
from the wire? [NCERT] Ans: 3.5 × 10-5 T

17. A long straight wire in the horizontal plane carries a current of 50 A in north to south direction.
Give the magnitude and direction of B at a point 2.5 m east of the wire.
[NCERT] Ans: 4 × 10-6 T, vertical up

18. A horizontal overhead power line carries a current of 90 A in east to west direction. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field due to the current 1.5 m below the line?
[NCERT] Ans: 1.2 × 10-5 T, towards south
19. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air
by a uniform horizontal magnetic field B. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field?
[NCERT] Ans: 0.65 T
20. A solenoid of length 0.5 m has a radius of 1 cm and is made up of 500 turns. It carries a current of 5
A. What is the magnitude of the magnetic field inside the solenoid? [NCERT] Ans: 6.28 × 10-3 T

21. A closely wound solenoid 80 cm long has 5 layers of windings of 400 turns each. The diameter of
the solenoid is 1.8 cm. If the current carried is 8.0 A, estimate the magnitude of B inside the solenoid
near its centre. [NCERT] Ans: 2.5 × 10-2 T
22. A solenoid 60 cm long and of radius 4.0 cm has 3 layers of windings of 300 turns each. A 2.0 cm
long wire of mass 2.5 g lies inside the solenoid (near its centre) normal to its axis; both the wire and
the axis of the solenoid are in the horizontal plane. The wire is connected through two leads parallel to
the axis of the solenoid to an external battery which supplies a current of 6.0 A in the wire. What value
of current (with appropriate sense of circulation) in the windings of the solenoid can support the
weight of the wire? g = 9.8 m s-2. [NCERT] Ans: 108 A

23. A magnetic field of 100 G (1 G = 10-4 T) is required which is uniform in a region of linear
dimension about 10 cm and area of cross-section about 10-3 m2. The maximum current-carrying

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capacity of a given coil of wire is 15 A and the number of turns per unit length that can be wound
round a core is at most 1000 turns m-1. Suggest some appropriate design particulars of a solenoid for
the required purpose. Assume the core is not ferromagnetic
[NCERT] Ans: Length about 50 cm, radius about 4 cm, number of turns about
400, current about 10 A. These particulars are not unique. Some adjustment with limits is possible.

24. A toroid has a core (non-ferromagnetic) of inner radius 25 cm and outer radius 26 cm, around
which 3500 turns of a wire are wound. If the current in the wire is 11 A, what is the magnetic field (a)
outside the toroid, (b) inside the core of the toroid, and (c) in the empty space surrounded by the
toroid. [NCERT] Ans: (a) Zero, (b) 3.0 × 10-2 T, (c) zero.

Problems on two parallel conductors carrying current

25. Two long and parallel straight wires A and B carrying currents of 8.0 A and 5.0 A in the same
direction are separated by a distance of 4.0 cm. Estimate the force on a 10 cm section of wire A.
[NCERT] Ans: 2 × 10-5 N; attractive force normal to A towards B
26. The wires which connect the battery of an automobile to its starting motor carry a current of 300
A (for a short time). What is the force per unit length between the wires if they are 70 cm long and 1.5
cm apart? Is the force attractive or repulsive? [NCERT] Ans: 1.2 N m-1; repulsive.

Problems on torque

27. A 100 turn closely wound circular coil of radius 10 cm carries a current of 3.2 A. (a) What is the
field at the centre of the coil? (b) What is the magnetic moment of this coil? The coil is placed in a
vertical plane and is free to rotate about a horizontal axis which coincides with its diameter. A uniform
magnetic field of 2T in the horizontal direction exists such that initially the axis of the coil is in the
direction of the field. The coil rotates through an angle of 90º under the influence of the magnetic field.
(c) What are the magnitudes of the torques on the coil in the initial and final position? (d) What is the
angular speed acquired by the coil when it has rotated by 90º? The moment of inertia of the coil is 0.1
kg m2. [NCERT] Ans: a) 2 × 10-3 T b) 10 Am2 c) 20 N m d) 20 s-1

28. A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns and carries a current of 12 A. The coil is suspended
vertically and the normal to the plane of the coil makes an angle of 30º with the direction of a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 0.80 T. What is the magnitude of torque experienced by the
coil? [NCERT] Ans: 0.96 N m

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29. A circular coil of 20 turns and radius 10 cm is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.10 T normal
to the plane of the coil. If the current in the coil is 5.0 A, what is the (a) total torque on the coil, (b)
total force on the coil, (c) average force on each electron in the coil due to the magnetic field? (The coil
is made of copper wire of cross-sectional area 10-5 m2, and the free electron density in copper is given
to be about 1029 m-3.) [NCERT]
Ans: (a) Zero, (b) zero, (c) force on each electron is evB = IB/(nA) = 5 × 10-25 N

30. (a) A circular coil of 30 turns and radius 8.0 cm carrying a current of 6.0 A is suspended vertically
in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 1.0 T. The field lines make an angle of 60º with
the normal of the coil. Calculate the magnitude of the counter torque that must be applied to prevent
the coil from turning. (b) Would your answer change, if the circular coil in (a) were replaced by a
planar coil of some irregular shape that encloses the same area? (All other particulars are also
unaltered.) [NCERT] Ans: (a) 3.1 Nm, (b) No, the answer is unchanged because
the formula 𝛕= N I A × B is true for a planar loop of any shape.

Problems on conversion of galvanometer into ammeter and voltmeter

31. Two moving coil meters, M1 and M2 have the following particulars:
R1 = 10 Ω, N1 = 30,
A1 = 3.6 × 10-3 m2, B1 = 0.25 T
R2 = 14 Ω, N2 = 42,
A2 = 1.8 × 10-3 m2, B2 = 0.50 T
Determine the ratio of (a) current sensitivity and (b) voltage sensitivity of M2 and M1.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 1.4, (b) 1
32. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 12 Ωand the metre shows full scale deflection for a current
of 3 mA. How will you convert the metre into a voltmeter of range 0 to 18 V?
[NCERT] Ans: Resistance in series = 5988 Ω
33. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 15 Ω and the metre shows full scale deflection for a current
of 4 mA. How will you convert the metre into an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A?
[NCERT] Ans: Shunt resistance = 10 m Ω
34. A galvanometer of resistance 80Ω requires a current of 1mA for full scale deflection. How to
convert it into an voltmeter of range 0-10V and an ammeter of range 0-5A.

35. A galvanometer having coil of resistance 12 Ω gives full scale deflection for a current of 4 mA. How
can it be converted into a voltmeter of range 0-24V? [July 2016]

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 Magnetism and matter
The bar magnet:
The bar magnet may be rectangular shaped rod having north and
south pole separated by a small distance.

Properties of bar magnet:

1. Property of attraction: Poles of bar have ability to attract small pieces of
magnetic materials like Ni, cobalt iron etc.,
2. Property of alignment: A magnet, when suspended freely comes to rest
along geographical N-S pole.
3. Unlike poles attract and like poles repel each other.
4. Property of pairs: The poles of the magnet cannot be separated (isolated). i.e. magnetic monopoles do not
exist.
5. Property of induction: A magnet can induce magnetism when an iron, cobalt or nickel rod is placed nearer
a bar magnet, the bar magnet induces magnetism in the rod.
6. Repulsion is the surest test of magnetism.

Magnetic field lines: magnetic field is an imaginary curve, the tangent at any point of which gives the
direction of magnetic field

The magnetic field of a bar magnet resembles the magnetic field produced by a solenoid. (M-14)

Properties of magnetic field lines: (J-14, M-15)

1. Magnetic field lines are continuous and closed curves (forms closed loop) from N-pole to S-pole outside
the magnet and from S-pole to N-pole inside the body of the magnet.
2. The tangent at any point on the magnetic field line gives the direction of the net magnetic field ( B ) at that
point.
3. Two magnetic field lines do not intersect or cross each other. If they so, then at the point of intersection,
there will be two directions of the magnetic field at a single point, which is not possible.

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4. The number of field lines crossing normally per unit area, represents the magnetic field B at that points.
(Also known as magnetic flux density)
5. Widely spaced field lines represent weak magnetic field and closely spaced lines represent the strong
magnetic field.

Torque on a magnetic dipole(Bar magnet) placed in uniform magnetic field

Torque,   m  B
magnitude of torque, τ = mBsin(θ)
where m→is magnetic dipole moment
B→ is uniform magnetic field
θ→ is the angle between magnetic dipole moment and magnetic field

Expression for time period of oscillation of small compass needle in a uniform magnetic field:
(or) Bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid carrying current: (J-17)

Consider a solenoid of length 2l

I  current through the solenoid
a  radius
P  point on the axis of the solenoid at a distance r from the centre O
n  number of turns per unit length
dx  thickness of circular element at a distance x from O.
n dx  Number of turns in this element

The magnetic field at P due to the circular element is

   2 n dx I a
2
dB   o 
 4   r  x 2  a 2  2
3

  
[When r a and r x , (neglect a and x)

3
Then,  r  x   a 2   r3 ]
2 2
 

   2 n dx I a
2
 dB   o 
 4  r3
   2 n I a
2
dB   o  dx  1
 4  r3

Total magnetic field at ‘P’ due to whole solenoid can be obtained by integrating equation (1) between
limits x = - l to and x = l
l
 o  2 n I a
2

 bB    4  r 3 dx
l 
2 l
  2 n I a
B o
 4

 r3  dx
l

   2 n I a
2

 xl
l
B o 
 4  r3

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   2 n I a
2
B o  l   l  
 4  r3
  2 n I a
2
B o   2l 
 4  r3
  2  n 2l  I  a 
2

B o 
 4  r3
 magnetic dipole moment of a current loop 
   2m  
B o  3  m  no. of turns  current  area 
 4  r  m  n  2l   I   a 2 
 
This expression is same as in the case of a bar magnet. Hence, a finite solenoid carrying current
is equivalent to a bar magnet.

Determination of B using compass needle by oscillation method:

The torque acting on a compass needle is given by
τ = mBsin(θ)  1

This torque is known as restoring torque. This torque makes

the magnetic needle (NS) to oscillate.

Let ‘I’ be the moment of inertia of the needle. The torque is

  I
d 2
 I   2
dt 2
‘α’ is angular acceleration
From equations (1) and (2)
d 2
I 2  mB sin 
dt
when  is very small , then sin  
d 2
I  mB
dt 2
d 2
I 2  mB  0
dt
d  mB
2
  0   3
dt 2 I

d 2
This equation represents a simple harmonic motion. 2
  2  0   4 
dt
Comparing equation (3) and (4), we get

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 mB
2 
I
 2 
2
mB
  
 T  I
The time period of oscillations is
I
T  2
mB
4 2 I
Magnetic field B 
mT 2

Expression for Potential energy of a dipole in an external field: (M-18)

Suppose an magnetic dipole of moment m is oriented at an angle  with the direction of uniform external
magnetic field B . Then the torque acting on the dipole is   mBsin 

It tries to rotate the dipole to align it with B .

Small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through a small angle dθ against the torque is
dw  d  mBsin  d

 Total work done in rotating the dipole from orientation 1 to 2 is

2

W   mBsin d  mB   cos 2


1
1

W  mBcos 2  cos 1 

This work done is stored as the potential energy of the dipole.

Note: when 1   / 2 and 2  

W  mBcos   cos  / 2  mBcos   0

 W  mBcos  or U  mB cos 

Note: potential energy, U= 0 at θ = 90º,

potential energy is minimum, Umin = –mB at θ = 0º (most stable position)
potential energy is maximum, Umax = +mB at θ = 180º (most unstable position).

Gauss’ Law in Magnetism: (J-16)

Gauss law in magnetism states that, net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.

Consider a small vector area element S of closed surface S.

The magnetic flux  through S is given by   B S  0

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Earth’s magnetism:
The study of earth’s magnetic field is called Geomagnetism or
terrestrial magnetism.
The earth’s magnetic field is in the order of 10-5 tesla.

Dynamo effect:Theory suggests that, the magnetism of earth

may be due to molten charged metallic fluid mostly consisting
iron and nickel in the core of the earth. As the earth rotates
about its axis, the charged fluid also rotates. This gives rise to
electric currents in the fluid. These electric currents are
responsible for earth’s magnetism. This effect is known as
dynamo effect.

Geographic meridian: It is a vertical plane which passes

through the geographic axis.

Magnetic meridian: It is a vertical plane passing through the magnetic axis.

A freely suspended bar magnet at a place comes to rest along the magnetic meridian

Magnetic elements of the earth: (M-14, M-15, J-15, M-17, M-18, M-19)
1. Declination (D)
2. Inclination or magnetic dip (I)
3. Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH)

Declination (D): The angle between geographic meridian and the magnetic meridian is called declination at
the place.

Note : The declination is greater at

higher latitudes and smaller near
the equator.

Magnetic inclination or dip (I): The angle between earth’s total magnetic field and the horizontal drawn to the
magnetic meridian is called dip. (J-16, J-18, M-17, M-18)

Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field (BH): The component of the earth’s magnetic field (B) at a
place along the horizontal drawn in the magnetic meridian is called the horizontal component (BH) of the
earth’s field at the place.

Bv
Note: Vertical component cos I 
B
BH
Horizontal component sin I 
B
Bv
Tangent law tan(I) =
BH

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Magnetization or Intensity of magnetization(M): The degree to which a substance is magnetized when
placed in the magnetizing field. (M-16)
(or) Magnetic dipole per unit volume of the substance
mnet
M
V

Magnetic intensity (or) Intensity of magnetizing field (H): The degree to which a magnetic field can
magnetize a magnetic substance. (or) it the ratio of magnetizing field to the permeability of free spac
B
H 0
0

Magnetic permeability(μ): The extent to which magnetic field lines can enter a substance is known as
Magnetic permeability.
(or) it the ratio of magnetic induction to the Intensity of magnetizing field
B

H

Relative permeability: It is the ratio of magnetic induction inside the material to the flux density in vacuum
B
r 
B0

Magnetic susceptibility(χ): It is the property of a substance which shows how easily the substance can be
magnetized when placed in magnetic field. (M-14, M-19)

Magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of the magnetization (M) to the intensity of magnetizing field (H).
M
x
H

It has no unit. Higher the value of χ for a material means it is more easily magnetized.

Relation between µr and χ :

Total magnetic field (B) in a solenoid having material core is the sum of the magnetic field in vacuum (B0)
and the magnetic field due to material (Bm)
i.e. B = B0 + Bm
But B0  0 H and Bm  0 M
 B  0  M  H 
B M 
by H  0   1
H H 
  0    1

  1
0
r    1

Magnetic materials:
Faraday classified the materials into three groups according to their magnetic properties. They are
Diamagnetic materials , Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic material

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Distinguish between Diamagnetic materials , Paramagnetic materials and Ferromagnetic material
(J-14, M-15, J-15, J-16, J-17, M-15, M-16, J-18, M-17, M-19, M-20)

Ferro magnetic Para magnetic Diamagnetic

The materials which are strongly The materials which are weakly The materials which are weakly
magnetized in the direction of the magnetized in the direction of the magnetized in a direction opposite
applied field are known as applied field are known as to the applied field are known as
ferromagnetic materials. paramagnetic materials. diamagnetic materials.
Example : Iron, nickel, cobalt, Example : Aluminium, chromium, Example : gold, silver, copper,
alnico manganese, platinum, calcium, zinc, lead, bismuth, mercury etc.,
antimony, sodium, lithium etc.,
They are strongly attracted by a They are weakly attracted by a They are weakly repelled by a
magnet. magnet. magnet.
A freely suspended ferromagnetic A freely suspended paramagnetic A freely suspended diamagnetic
rod quickly sets itself along the rod slowly sets itself along the rod slowly sets itself at right
direction of external magnetic direction of external magnetic angles to the direction of external
field. field. magnetic field.
When they are placed in a When they are placed in a When they are placed in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field magnetic field, most of the magnetic field, the magnetic field
lines prefer to pass through them. magnetic field lines prefer to pass lines do not prefer to pass through
through them. them.
Permeability is much more than Permeability is more than unity, Permeability is less than unity, i.e.
unity, i.e. μ >>1 i.e. μ >1 μ <1
Magnetic flux density (B) inside a Magnetic flux density (B) inside a Magnetic flux density (B) inside a
ferromagnetic material is much paramagnetic material is larger diamagnetic material is less than in
larger than in air. than in air. air.
The sample gets strongly The sample gets weakly The sample gets weakly
magnetized in the direction of magnetized in the direction of magnetized in the direction
magnetizing field. magnetizing field. opposite to the direction of
magnetizing field.
Magnetisation has large positive Magnetisation has small positive Magnetisation has small negative
value. value. value.
Susceptibility has a large +ve Susceptibility has a small +ve Susceptibility has a small -ve
value, i.e. χ>>1 value, i.e. χ>1 value, i.e. χ<1
They obey curie’s law. They obey curie’s law. They do not obey curie’s law.
They move from weaker to They move from weaker to They move from stronger to
stronger magnetic field. stronger magnetic field. weaker magnetic field.

Curie’s law in paramagnetism: Magnetisation of a paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to absolute

temperature. (J-15, J-16, J-18)
(or)
Magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to absolute temperature of the material.
1
i.e.  
T
C
(or)  
T
Where ‘C’ is curie constant.

Curie temperature (TC): At a certain temperature, the ferromagnetic becomes paramagnetic known as Curie
temperature.

For temperature T > TC, the  is inversely proportional to excess of its temperature above the curie point.

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 1

T  TC
C

T  TC
Where C  is a constant.

Meissner effect: The phenomenon of expelling the magnetic field lines by the diamagnetic material is called
the Meissner effect.

Hysteresis: The phenomenon of lagging behind the magnetic induction (B) with respect to the magnetizing
field (H) is called hysteresis.

Magnetization curve (or) Hysteresis curve (or) B-H curve:

(M-16)
B = magnetic induction
H = magnetic intensity or magnetizing field.

The ferromagnetic material is subjected to a cycle of

magnetization and demagnetization, the graph ‘B’ verses ‘H’ is
shown. The resulting graph is known as hysteresis loop.

Explanation:
Consider a ferromagnetic material in which B = 0 when
H = 0. As the applied field (H) increases, the intensity of the
magnetization (or) B also increases and reaches a max. And
attains saturation. The corresponding applied field is called Hmax.

Now the field is decreased, the intensity of magnetization does not follow the previous path but it follows AB.
When the applied field is brought down to zero B ≠ 0, instead it is retaining some of the properties of the
magnetism.
The field retained by the material even after the applied field is brought down to zero is called
residual field.
The phenomenon of retaining some of the properties of the magnetism even after the applied field is
brought to zero is called retentivity. (J-18, M-20)

To make B = 0, negative field has to be applied.

Coercive field: The minimum negative required to make B = O is called coercive field.

Coercivety: The phenomenon of making the intensity of magnetization zero by applying negative field is
called coercivety. (J-18, M-20)

B – H Curve or hysteresis curve: The further decrease of the field, B decreases and reaches minimum constant.
The corresponding applied field is called Hmin. Now again the field is increased, the B follows EFA path. The
complete cycle ABCDEFA is called B – H Curve or hysteresis curve.

Hysteresis loss: During the process of magnetization and demagnetization, some energy is spent which appears
in the form of heat and this cannot be recovered from the material. Hence this loss is called hysteresis loss.
Hysteresis loss can be measured by measuring the area of hysteresis curve.

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Permanent magnets: The substances which retain their ferromagnetic properties for a long time at room
temperature are called permanent magnets.
Permanent magnets are used in measuring instruments. Materials for making permanent magnet
should have
(i) high retentivity, so that it is not easily demagnetised.
(ii) high permeability, so that it can be magnetised easily.
(iii) high coercivity, so that it is not easily demagnetised.

Example: Steel, Alnico, Ticonal, Cobalt.

Electromagnets: A ferromagnetic material placed inside a current carrying solenoid acts as an electromagnet.
Material for making electromagnets should have
(i) High permeability.
(ii) Low retentivity.
(iii) Low coercivity.

Soft iron has high permeability and low retentivity and therefore it
is suitable material for electromagnets.

Uses of electromagnets: (M-20)

1. They are used in electric bells, loud speakers, telephone diaphragms etc.
2. Huge electromagnets are used in cranes to lift bulk quantities of iron and steel, and lift machinery.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Definition of EMI: The phenomenon of induction of emf (and hence current) in a circuit due to change in
magnetic flux linked with it is called electro magnetic induction.

[Michel faraday and Joseph Henry through their experiments showed that electric current can be produced
by varying magnetic field]

Electromagnetic induction is the basis of the working of power generators, dynamos, transformers etc.

EXPERIMENTS OF FARADAY AND HENRY

Experiment 1 : Current induced by a magnet (coil - magnet experiment) (M-16, J-18)

The observations about the deflections in the galvanometer

(G) are,

1) There is a deflection when the magnet is moved

toward the coil.
2) The deflection is opposite if the magnetic is moved
away.
3) Faster movements result in a larger deflection.
4) There is a deflection even if the coil is moved relative
to the magnet.
5) There is no deflection if there is no relative movement.
This experiment shows that the change in the magnetic flux causes induced emf and hence a
defection in (G).

Experiment 2: Current Induced By Current (coil - coil experiment).

The observations about the deflection in the ‘G’ are

1) There is a defection when the key ‘S’ is closed.

2) When ‘S’ is opened, the defection is opposite.
3) When there is a steady current in the primary. There is no
deflection.
4) There is deflection even if the secondary coil is moved relative to
the primary with ‘S’ closed.
This shows that a change in flux causes induced emf and hence
deflection in ‘G’.

Experiment 3: Current Induced By Changing Currents

1) When the key K is pressed, the galvanometer shows

momentary deflection and returns to zero immediately.

2) When the key K is kept pressed continuously, there is no

deflection in the galvanometer

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3)When the key K is released the galvanometer again shows momentary deflection, but in the opposite
direction and returns to zero immediately.

4)The galvanometer deflection increases dramatically when the iron rod is inserted into the coils along the
axis and the key is pressed of released

FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Faraday’s I law
Statement: Whenever the magnetic flux through a circuit changes, an emf is induced in it. The
induced emf lasts as long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

Faraday’s II law (J-14, M-18, M-16, M-17)

Statement: The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linked with the circuit.

Explanation: If dB is the change in magnetic flux in a small time interval dt, the induced emf is given by
dB

dt

Lenz’s law: This helps to find the direction of induced emf. (M-15, J-16, M-17, J-18, M-14, M-20)

Statement: The direction of induced current in a coil is such that it opposes the cause which is produces it.
(It is based on law of conservation of energy)

Explanation: When a bar magnet with its north pole moved toward a coil, the induced current flows in the
coil nearer to the magnet acts like north pole and hence the magnet is repelled.

When the magnet is moved away from the coil, current

reverses its direction and there by the face acts like South Pole.
Due to this the magnet is attracted.

d B
If   is the induced emf &  rate of change of flux,
dt

dB
Then 
dt

Magnetic flux: The magnetic flux B through a plane area ds placed in a uniform magnetic field B can be
B B . ds
written as
B Bds cos

Where θ is the angle between B and ds

Motional emf: The emf induced across the ends of the conductor, when it is moved across the magnetic field
is called motional emf. (J-17)

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Derive an expression for Motional emf: (J-14, M-15, J-16, M-17)

Consider a long, straight conductor PQ

l  length of a conductor
v  velocity of conductor perpendicular to the magnetic field B
Let the conductor moved through a distance dx in a small time interval dt.
dS = dx  Area covered by the conductor

The change in magnetic flux across the conductor is d  BdS  B dx.

d Bldx
The magnitude of the emf induced in the conductor is   
dt dt
dx
Since v  is the velocity of the conductor.
dt

  B v This is the expression for motional emf

Eddy currents: The induced circulating currents produced in a conductor due

to change in magnetic flux linked with it are called eddy currents. (M-14, J-15)

Applications of Eddy currents: (J-17)

(i) Electromagnetic damping: This is used in dead beat galvanometers.

(ii) Induction furnace: It is used to produce high temperatures and can be

utilized to prepare alloys by melting the constituent metals.

(iii) Magnetic brakes: Coupled with the wheel of the train is a metal drum which rotates as the train is
running. Strong electromagnets are situated near the metal drums. When electromagnets are
activated, eddy currents are set up in the drums which oppose the motion of the train. As the speed is
reduced, eddy currents also reduced and the braking action is smooth.

(iv) Induction motor: In an induction motor (AC motor), a rotating magnetic field produces strong eddy
currents in a rotor. The rotor starts rotating in the direction of rotating magnetic field.

(v) Speedometer: In speedometer, a tiny magnet rotates according to the speed of the vehicle and
produces the required changing magnetic field. The magnet rotates in an aluminium drum. The eddy
currents set up increases as the speed increases. Using calibrated scale, the speed of the vehicle can
be obtained.

Self induction: It is the phenomenon in which an emf is induced in a coil due to the change in current in the
same coil. (J-15)

Co-efficient of self induction (or) Self inductance [L]:

When a current flows through a coil the magnetic flux is proportional to the
current.
If B is the magnetic flux linked with a coil when a current I flows through it,

then B  I
B  LI

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Where L  is a constant, known as coefficient of self induction (or) self inductance of the coil.
When current in the coil changes, the magnetic flux linked with the coil also changes and emf is
induced in the coil.
dB d(LI)
The emf induced in the coil is   
dt dt
dI
 ε = -L This is the expression emf in terms of self- inductance of a coil.
dt

Define of self inductance of a coil: is numerically equal to the emf induced in it when the current is changing
at a rate of 1 A/s in the same coil. (J-16)

The SI unit of self inductance is henry (H)

Definition of 1 henry: Self inductance of a coil is one henry if one volt emf is induced in the coil when
current changes at a rate of one ampere per second.

Derive an expression for Self-inductance of a solenoid:

Consider a long solenoid

A  cross-sectional area
l  length
n  no. of turns per unit length N l
N = nl  Total number of turns.
I  current flowing in the solenoid
The magnetic field due to the solenoid is B  o nI

The total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid is   NBA

  (n )(o nI)A  o n 2A I

But magnetic flux,   LI

 LI  o n 2 A I
L = μo n2 Al expression for Self-inductance of a solenoid

Note: If the solenoid has a core of some magnetic material of relative permeability μr, then

Self inductance is given by L = μr μo n Al

2

Physical significance of self-inductance: It is the electromagnetic analogue of mass in mechanics (inertia

of electricity)
Note: 1. The self-inductance of a coil depends upon no. of turns per unit length, area of cross-section
and the length of the coil (J-18, M-19)
2. The self- induced emf always opposes any change in current in the circuit. Hence it is called back
emf. Work needs to be done against this back emf in establishing the current.

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Mutual induction: It is the phenomenon in which an emf is induced in one coil due to the variation of
current in the neighbouring coil.

Coefficient of mutual induction (or) mutual inductance [M]:

Let B be the magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil when a current I
flows through the primary coil.

Then 2  I1
2  M 21I1

Where M  is constant called the co-efficient of mutual induction

(OR) Mutual inductance of 2 w.r.to 1
The emf induced in secondary coil is

d2 d(M 21I1 )

2  
dt dt

ε 2 = -M 21
dI1
This is the expression emf in terms mutual inductance of a coil.
dt

Definition mutual inductance [M]: The mutual inductance of two coils is equal to the emf induced in one
coil (secondary) when current changes at a rate of 1 ampere/second in the other coil (primary).

The SI unit of mutual inductance is henry (H)

Derive an expression for Mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids:

Consider two coaxial solenoids S1 and S2 each of length
n1 and n2  the number of turns per unit length of S1 and S2
r1 and r2  the radius of S1 and S2
I2  current through S2
B2 = μ0n2I2  magnetic field in S2 due to current I2

Magnetic flux through S1 is 1  N1B2 A1

where N1  n1 is total number of turns in S1 and A1  r12 is the cross sectional area of S1

 1  (n1 )(0 n 2 I2 )(r12 )

1  0 n1n 2 r12 I2  1

By the definition, magnetic flux through S1, 1  M12 I2   2

Where M12  the mutual inductance S1 w.r.t S2

From (1) and (2) we get M12 I2  0 n1n 2 r12 I2

M 12 = μ0 n1 n2 πr12 l Expression for Mutual inductance of two

long coaxial solenoids

Note: Mutual inductance of two coils depends on their geometry, their separation and relative orientation.

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Note: If a magnetic material of relative permeability μr is present inside the solenoids, then
M = μr μo n1 n2 πr12 l

Derive an expression for Energy stored in an inductor: (M-14, J-15)

Work needs to be done against the back emf in establishing the current. This work done is stored as
magnetic potential energy.

Let dW be the work done in establishing a current I in the coil in a time dt.
Then dw   dq
 dq 
dw   ( I dt )  current I  
 dt 
dI  dI 
dw  L ( I dt )  emf   L 
dt  dt 

The total work done in establishing the current from 0 to I is

I
I
 I2  1
W   dW   LIdI  L    LI 2
o  2 0 2

Magnetic potential energy, U=W

1
U = LI 2 Expression for Energy stored in an inductor
2

GENERATOR:
A generator or a dynamo is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Principle of AC generator: It is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

The direction of induced current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Fleming’s right hand rule: If we stretch the first three fingers of the right hand along three mutually
perpendicular directions such that the forefinger (index finger) points in the direction of the magnetic field
and the thumb (main finger) points in the direction of motion of the conductor, then the central finger
(middle finger) would give the direction of the induced current.

AC Generator construction: Following are the main parts of AC Generator

(i) Field magnet: The magnetic field In which the coil is to rotate is
produced by the field magnet NS. In small dynamo, permanent magnets
are used. In commercial generator, an electromagnet is used.

(ii) Armature: It consists of a coil abcd of a large number of turns of

insulated copper wire wound on a laminated soft iron core. It is
mechanically rotated about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field
with the help of a shaft.

(iii) Slip rings: There two hollow metal rings R1 and R2 fixed rigidly
on the same shaft which is used to rotate the coil. The rings rotate
with the rotation of the coil.
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(iv) Brushes: There are two flexible metal plates or carbon rods B1 and B2 which are stationary. But they
are always in contact with the rotating rings.

Working: When the armature rotates with its axis perpendicular to the magnetic field B , the magnetic flux
linking the coil abcd changes and an emf is induced in the coil. Therefore induced current flows in the coil,
and in the external circuit connected to the coil through the brushes and the slip rings. The emf is taken
across the external circuit ‘R’

Derive an expression for instantaneous emf in an ac generator (or) Theory of ac generator: (M-20)
Consider a coil of N turns and cross-sectional area A placed with its
plane perpendicular to the magnetic field B , so that θ = 0o at t = 0.
As the coil rotates magnetic flux  will keep changing continuously.
Because of this, an emf will be induced in the coil.

As the coil rotates with constant angular velocity  ,

The angle θ between the magnetic field B and normal to the plane of the
coil figure at an instant of time t is given by   t
The magnetic flux linking the coil at any instant of time t is given by

B  NAB cos   NAB cos t

From Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the coil is given by

dB d
   (NAB cos t)   NAB( sin t)
dt dt

That is,   NAB sin t

ε = ε0 sin  ωt  instantaneous value of emf

Where 0  NAB  is the maximum value of induced emf
I = I o sin  ωt  instantaneous value of current

0 NAB
Where I0    is the maximum value of induced current
R R

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 ELECTRO MAGNETIC INDUCTION
Problems on induced emf and current
1) A square loop of side 10 cm and resistance 0.5Ω is placed vertically in the east-west plane. A uniform
magnetic field of 0.10 T is set up across the plane in the north-east direction. The magnetic field is decreased to
zero in 0.70 s at a steady rate. Determine the magnitudes of induced emf and current during this time-interval.
[NCERT] Ans: 2mA
2) A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2Ω is placed with its plane perpendicular to the
horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. It is rotated about its vertical diameter through 180° in 0.25
s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and current induced in the coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s
magnetic field at the place is 3.0 × 10-5 T. [NCERT] Ans: 1.9 × 10-3 A

3) A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 cm 2 placed inside the solenoid normal to
its axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 2.0 A to 4.0 A in 0.1 s, what is the induced
emf in the loop while the current is changing? [NCERT] Ans: 7.5 × 10-6 V

4) An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm, area of cross-section 25 cm-2 and number of turns 500, carries a
current of 2.5 A. The current is suddenly switched off in a brief time of 10-3 s. How much is the average back emf
induced across the ends of the open switch in the circuit? Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the ends of
the solenoid [NCERT] Ans: 6.5 V

5) The current in a coil of self inductance 5mH changes from 2.5A to 2.0A in 0.01S. Calculate the value of
induced emf. [M-16]

6) The magnetic flux linked with the coil varies as   3t 2  4t  9 . Find the magnitude of emf induced at t = 2
second. [J-17]

7) A long solenoid with 20 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.5 cm2 placed inside the solenoid normal to its
axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily from 0.2 A to 0.6 A in 0.1 s, calculate the induced
emf in the loop while the current is changing [M-18]

Problems on motional emf

8) A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut is moving out of a region of uniform
magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 T directed normal to the loop. What is the emf developed across the cut if the
velocity of the loop is 1 cm s-1 in a direction normal to the (a) longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For how
long does the induced voltage last in each case? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.4 × 10-4 V, lasting 2 s
(b) 0.6 × 10-4 V, lasting 8 s

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9) A jet plane is travelling towards west at a speed of 1800 km/h. What is the voltage difference developed
between the ends of the wing having a span of 25 m, if the Earth’s magnetic field at the location has a
magnitude of 5 × 10-4 T and the dip angle is 30°. [NCERT] Ans: 3.125 V

10) A metallic rod of 1 m length is rotated with a frequency of 50 rev/s, with one end hinged at the centre and
the other end at the circumference of a circular metallic ring of radius 1 m, about an axis passing through the
centre and perpendicular to the plane of the ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 1 T parallel to the
axis is present everywhere. What is the emf between the centre and the metallic ring? [NCERT] Ans: 157 V

11) A 1.0 m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400 rad s-1 about an axis normal to the
rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is in contact with a circular metallic ring. A constant
and uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T parallel to the axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between
the centre and the ring. [NCERT] Ans: 100 V

12) A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with a speed of 120 rev/min in a plane normal
to the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field HE at a place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, what is the
induced emf between the axle and the rim of the wheel? Note that 1 G = 10-4 T. [NCERT]
Ans: 6.28 × 10-5 V

13) A circular coil of radius 8.0 cm and 20 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with an angular speed of
50rads-1 in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 3.0x10-2 T. Obtain the maximum and average emf
induced in the coil. If the coil forms a closed loop of resistance 10Ω, calculate the maximum value of current in
the coil. Calculate the average power loss due to Joule heating. Where does this power come from? [NCERT]
Ans: 0.603 V, zero, 0.0603 A, 0.018W, The induced current causes a torque opposing the rotation of the
coil. An external agent (rotor) must supply torque (and do work) to counter this torque in order to keep the coil
rotating uniformly. Thus, the source of the power dissipated as heat in the coil is the external rotor.

14) A horizontal straight wire 10 m long extending from east to west is falling with a speed of 5.0 m s -1, at right
angles to the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field, 0.30x10-4 Wb m-2.
(a) What is the instantaneous value of the emf induced in the wire?
(b) What is the direction of the emf?
(c) Which end of the wire is at the higher electrical potential? [NCERT]
Ans: (a) 1.5 × 10–3 V, (b) West to East, (c) Eastern end.
15) A conductor of length 3m moving in a uniform magnetic field of strength 100T. It covers a distance of 70m
in 5 Sec. Its plane of motion makes an angle of 300 with direction of magnetic field. Calculate the emf induced in
it. [M-19]

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Problems on self inductance and mutual inductance
16) Current in a circuit falls from 5.0 A to 0.0 A in 0.1 s. If an average emf of 200 V induced, give an estimate of
the self-inductance of the circuit. [NCERT] Ans: 4H

17) A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 to 20 A in
0.5 s, what is the change of flux linkage with the other coil? [NCERT] Ans: 30 Wb
Current in a coil falls from 2.5A to 0 A in 0.1 second, inducing an emf of 200V. Calculate the value of self
inductance. [M-15]

Problems on ac generator
18) Kamla peddles a stationary bicycle the pedals of the bicycle are attached to a 100 turn coil of area 0.10 m2.
The coil rotates at half a revolution per second and it is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.01 T
perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the coil. What is the maximum voltage generated in the coil? [NCERT]
Ans: 0.314 V
19)A circular coil of radius 10cm and 25 turns is rotated about its vertical diameter with angular speed of 40
radian per second in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of magnitude 5x10-2 T. Calculate the maximum emf
induced in the coil. Also find the maximum current in the coil if the resistance of the coil is 15Ω. [M-18]

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT

Basic definitions for AC

Period (T): It is the time taken to complete one cycle.
Frequency (f): It is the no. of cycles per second.

  2f   angular frequency.

Instantaneous value: The value of alternating current or voltage at any instant of time ‘t’ is called the
instantaneous value.

I = Io sin (𝜔t), V =Vo sin (𝜔t)

Here I and V are the instantaneous value of current and voltage.
Maximum (or) peak value: The maximum value attained by V or I during one cycle is called the peak
value.
V0 and Io are the peak value of V and I.
Mean value (average value) of alternating current: The mean (or average) value of alternating current over a half
cycle is defined as that steady current which would send the same amount of charge through a circuit in the same time
half cycle,as is send by the alternating current in the same time.

2 2 2
mean  peak Vm  V0 and I m  I 0
  
Root mean square value (r m s value) :The root mean square value of (rms value) of alternating current is
defined as that value of steady current (dc) which would generate the same amount of heat in a given resistance in a
given time, as is done by the alternating current when passed through the same resistance for the same time.

1 1 1
rms  peak Vrms  V0 and I rms  I0 (M-14)
2 2 2

Phase (∅): phase of ac represent the state of vibration.

AC circuits
AC circuit with pure resistor:

Consider resistor of resistance R connected in series with AC source.

The applied voltage is V = V0sin (𝜔t)

The current through the resistor is given by

𝑉 𝑉0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
I=𝑅= 𝑅

I =I0 sin (𝜔t)

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 ∴ V and I are in phase i.e both V and I simultaneously become zero or max etc.

Power in purely resistive circuit:

when an alternating current passes through a resistor, there is dissipation of electrical energy, and there is joule heating
effect.
P  Vrms I rms thereis an average power dissipationin pure resistiveckt

AC circuit with pure inductor (M-15)

Consider a pure inductor of inductance ‘L’ connected to an AC source.

Voltage across the source be V  V0 sin(t )

Apply Kirchhoff’s law     IR

  0  R  0 for pureinductor 

V   0

dI  dI 
V L
dt
0     L dt 

Vo
dI  sin t  dt
L
V
 dI   Lo sin t  dt
V  cos t  
I  0  
L  
V0  
I sin  t  
L  2
 
I  I 0 sin  t  
 2
V
where I 0  0 is the peak value of current.
L
𝜋
i.e, in a pure inductor voltage leads current by 2

Inductive reactance ( X L ): It is the opposition to the flow of ac by an inductor.

V0
We have I0 
L
V0
 L
I0
X L  L Inductive reactance

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SI unit of inductive reactance is ohm (  )

Note: 1 X L  L  2 f 
XL  f
2 For steady DC (f = 0 ) X L  0 , hence a pure inductor offers zero opposition for DC

Power in a purely inductive circuit: The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle is zero.

AC circuit with capacitor:

Consider a pure capacitor of capacitance C connected to an AC source.

Voltage across the source be V  V0 sin(t )

dq d (CV )  q
The instantaneous current is given by I    C 
dt dt  V

dV d V0 sin  t  
I C C
dt dt

I  CV0  cos  t 
 
I  CV0  sin  t  
 2
 
I  I 0 sin  t   where I 0  CV0 peak value of current
 2
𝜋
In a pure capacitor, current leads voltage by 2

Capacitive reactance ( X c ): is the opposition to the flow of AC by a capacitor.

We have I 0  CV0
V0 1

I 0 C
1
XC  capacitive reactance
C

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 SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohm (  )
1 1
Note: 1 XC    M - 20 
C C 2 f
1
XC 
f
2 For steady DC (f = 0 ) X C   hence a pure capacitor offers infinite opposition for DC

Power in a purely capacitive circuit: The average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.

LCR series circuit (Phasor-diagram solution): (M-18, M-19)

Consider an AC circuit containing a resistor R
inductance L and capacitance C connected in series as
shown,

V  V0 sin(t )  voltage across the source

I  Instantaneous current in the circuit.

VL, VC and VR  potential difference across inductor,

capacitor and resistor respectively.


VL = I XL  Voltage leads the current by
2


Vc = I Xc  Voltage leads behind I by
2
VR = IR  Voltage and current are in phase.

Let VL > Vc
From the figure, OA=VR OP = VL OM = VC OB = (VL - VC)
The parallelogram OABD completed.
The magnitude of the resultant voltage: The diagonal OD gives the resultant Voltage V
From the OAD

OD 2  OA2  AD 2
V 2  VR 2  VL  VC 
2

V 2  I 2 R 2   IX L  IX C 
2

V 2  I 2 R2  I 2  X L  X C 
2

V 2  I 2  R2   X L  X C  
2
 
V  I  R2   X L  X C  
2
 

V IZ where Z  R 2   X L  X C 
2
called impedance

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The direction of the resultant voltage:

VL  VC I  X L  X C 
fromthe OAD tan   
VR IR

tan  
 X L  XC 
R

Impedance: It is the total opposition offered to an AC by the elements in LCR circuit.

V V V
Z  R 2   X L  X C   0  rms  m
2

I 0 I rms I m

SI unit of impedance is ohm (  )

Resonance: At certain frequency they become equal. i.e, XL = XC. Due to this XL - XC =0. And hence
impedance becomes minimum. As a result of this the current becomes maximum. (J-18)

Resonant frequency( f 0 ): The frequency at which the inductive reactance becomes equal to capacitance is
called resonant frequency( f 0 ).

At resonance 1. The impedance is minimum and it is only due to resistor.

2. The current through the circuit is maximum.
Expression for resonant frequency: (J-14)

At resonance the inductive reactance XL and the capacitive reactance become equal XC

X L  XC
1
2f 0 L 
2f 0C
1
f02 
 2 
2
LC
1
f0  This is the expression for resonant frequency.
2 LC

Sharpnes of Resonance.
A graph of current (I) v/s frequency (f) in an LCR series circuit for different (R) values is as shown.
Quality factor: It is the ratio of the resonant frequency to the band width.

Band width: is the difference between the half power frequencies.

Half power frequencies: are the frequencies at which the power is half of the maximum power at resonance.

Expression for quality factor:

resonant frequency
Quality factor 
band width

0 L 1 L
The quality factor is given by Q   0 
2 R R C

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Power in AC circuits:
Power is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated.

Power in LCR circuit: P  Vrms I rms cos 

Where   phase angle between V and I

Here cos()  is called power factor LCR circuit. (J-17)

 For AC circuit containing pure resistor  = 0, and cos (0) = 1. Hence power loss is maximum.
 For AC circuit containing inductor or capacitor  = 900 and cos (900) = 0. Hence power loss is
minimum. ∴ These circuits are called wattles circuits. The corresponding current is called wattles
current. (J-18)
R
 power factor is given by cos() 
Z

Transformers: These are the devices which are used to increase or decrease the AC voltage. (M-16, M-17)
It works on the principle of mutual induction. (J-15)
It consists of two coils namely primary and secondary coils wound on same laminated core. The alternating
voltage can to be altered is applied across primary coil and altered voltage is obtained across secondary coil.
Working: (J-16)

As the current through primary varies

the magnetic flux linked with secondary coil
changes. As a result alternating emf of same
frequency is induced across secondary. The
magnitude of this emf depends on voltage
across primary and number of turns in the
primary and secondary coils.

VP and VS  are Voltages across primary and secondary.

NP and NS  are number of turns in the respective coils.

VP N P
Then 
VS NS

Turns ratio: it is the ratio of no. of turns in the secondary to the no. of turns in the primary

VS NS
T 
VP N P

Step – up transformer:If the voltage across the secondary is more than of the primary then it is called step
up transformer.
Step- down transformer:If the voltage across the secondary is less than that of primary then it is called
stepdown transformer.
For step – up transformer: Vs > Vp, Ns > Np and T > 1
For step – down transformer: Vs < Vp , Ns < Np and T < 1

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For an ideal transformer, input power = out put power
Vp Ip = Vs Is
But no transformer is 100% efficient due to many losses in the energy
VS IS  VP IP

output power
Efficiency 
input power
VS IS

VP I P

Sources of power loss in transformer (J-15, M-16, M-17, M-18, M-19, M-20)

1) Heating of wire due to its resistance: this is also called copper loss or joule heat loss.
2) Flux leakage b/n primary and secondary.
3) Hysteresis loss: soft iron core is used to minimize this.
4) Eddy current loss in the core: the core is laminated to minimize this.
***************

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 ALTERNATING CURRENT NUMERICALS

Problems peak, mean and rms (voltage/current)

1) The peak voltage of an ac supply is 300 V. What is the rms voltage? (b) The rms value of current in an ac
circuit is 10 A. What is the peak current? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 212.1V (b) 14.1A

Problems on pure resistor circuit

2) A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find (a) the resistance of the bulb; (b) the peak voltage of
the source; and
(c) the rms current through the bulb. [NCERT] Ans: a) 484Ω, b) 311V, c) 0.45A

3) A 100Ω resistor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. (a) What is the rms value of current in the circuit?
(b) What is the net power consumed over a full cycle? [NCERT] Ans: (a) 2.20 A (b) 484 W

Problems on pure inductor circuit

4) A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive reactance and rms current
in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. [NCERT] Ans: 7.85Ω

5) A 44 mH inductor is connected to 220 V, 50 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the
circuit. What is the net power absorbed by each circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
[NCERT] Ans: 15.9 A, Zero

6) A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the inductive reactance and r.m.s current
in the circuit if the frequency of the source is 50 Hz. [July 2014]

Problems on pure capacitor circuit

7) A 15.0µF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the capacitive reactance and the current (rms
and peak) in the circuit. If the frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the current?
[NCERT] Ans: 212Ω, 1.04A, 1.47A

8) A 60 µF capacitor is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz ac supply. Determine the rms value of the current in the
circuit. What is the net power absorbed by each circuit over a complete cycle. Explain your answer.
[NCERT] Ans: 2.49 A, Zero

Problems on LCR circuit

9) A resistor of 200Ω and a capacitor of 15.0µF are connected in series to a 220 V, 50 Hz ac source. (a) Calculate
the current in the circuit; (b) Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor.
[NCERT] Ans: 291.5Ω, 220V

10) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R =
3Ω, L =25.48 mH, and C = 796µF. Find (a) the impedance of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between the
voltage across the source and the current; (c) the power dissipated in the circuit; and (d) the power factor.
Suppose the frequency of the source can be varied. (e) What is the frequency of the source at which resonance
occurs? (f) Calculate the impedance, the current, and the power dissipated at the resonant condition.

[NCERT] Ans: a) 5Ω, b) 53.10, c) 4800W, d) 0.6, e) 35.4 Hz, f) 3Ω, 66.7A, 13.35 Kw
11) A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100Ω is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the coil?
(b) What is the time lag between the voltage maximum and current maximum?
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 1.82 A, (b) 3.2 ms

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12) A 100µF capacitor in series with a 40Ω resistance is connected to a 110 V, 60 Hz supply.
(a) What is the maximum current in the circuit?
(b) What is the time lag between the current maximum and the voltage maximum?
[NCERT] Ans: (a) I0 = 3.23 A (b)1.55 ms

13) A series LCR circuit connected to a variable frequency 230 V source. L = 5.0 H, C = 80µF, R = 40Ω.
(a) Determine the source frequency which drives the circuit in resonance.
(b) Obtain the impedance of the circuit and the amplitude of current at the resonating frequency.
(c) Determine the rms potential drops across the three elements of the circuit. Show that the potential drop
across the LC combination is zero at the resonating frequency.
[NCERT] Ans: (a) 50 rad s-1 (b) 40 Ω, 8.1 A c) zero

14) A circuit containing a 80 mH inductor and a 60µF capacitor in series is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
The resistance of the circuit is negligible.
(a) Obtain the current amplitude and rms values.
(b) Obtain the rms values of potential drops across each element.
(c) What is the average power transferred to the inductor?
(d) What is the average power transferred to the capacitor?
(e) What is the total average power absorbed by the circuit?
(f) Suppose the circuit has a resistance of 15Ω. Obtain the average power transferred to each element of the
circuit, and the total power absorbed. [NCERT]
Ans: (a) I0 = 11.6 A, Irms = 8.24 A, (b) 437 V, (c) zero, (d) zero, (e) Total average power absorbed is
zero.
(f) Average power to R = I2rmsR = 791W, Average power to L = Average power to C = 0 Total power
absorbed = 791W

15) An inductor and bulb are connected in series to an AC source of 220V, 50 Hz ac source. A current of 11A
flows in the circuit and phase angle between voltage and current is π/4 radian. Calculate the impedance and
inductance of the circuit. [July 2016]

16) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 283 V and frequency 50 Hz is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R =
3 Ω , L = 25.48 mH, and C = 796 μF. Find (a) the impendence of the circuit; (b) the phase difference between
the voltage across the source and the current (c) the power factor (d) Average power dissipated in the circuit.
[March 2015]

17) A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 285 V is applied to a series LCR circuit in which R = 5 Ω , L = 28.5 mH,
and C = 800 μF. Find (a) resonant frequency (b) Calculate the impedance, current and power dissipated at
resonance. [June 2017]

18) A resistor 100 Ω , a pure inductance coil of L = 0.5 H and capacitor are in series in a circuit containing an ac
of 200V, 50 Hz. In the circuit current is ahead of the voltage by 30o. Find the value of the capacitance.
[June 2015]

19) A 20Ω resistor, 1.5 H inductor and 35µF capacitor are connected in series with a 220V; 50 Hz ac supply.
Calculate the impendence of the circuit and also find the current through the circuit. [June 2018]

20) A source of alternating emf of 220V, 50 Hz is connected in series with a resistance of 200 Ω and inductance
of 30μF. Does the current lead or lag the voltage and by what angle? [March 2017]

21) A resistor, an inductor and a capacitor are connected in series with a 120V, 100Hz ac source. Voltage leads
the current by 35° in the circuit. If the resistance of the resistor is 10W and the sum of inductive and capacitive
reactance is 17 Ω, calculate the self-inductance of the inductor

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Problems on resonance and quality factor
22) A charged 30µF capacitor is connected to a 27 mH inductor. What is the angular frequency of free
oscillations of the circuit? [NCERT] Ans: 1.1x103 s-1

23) Obtain the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit with L = 2.0H, C = 32µF and R = 10Ω. What is the Q-
value of this circuit? [NCERT] Ans: 125 s-1 , 25

24) A series LCR circuit with R = 20Ω, L = 1.5 H and C = 35µF is connected to a variable-frequency 200 V ac
supply. When the frequency of the supply equals the natural frequency of the circuit, what is the average power
transferred to the circuit in one complete cycle? [NCERT] Ans: 2,000 W

25) A series LCR circuit with L = 0.12 H, C = 480 nF, R

supply.
(a) What is the source frequency for which current amplitude is maximum. Obtain this maximum value.
(b) What is the source frequency for which average power absorbed by the circuit is maximum. Obtain the
value of this maximum power.
(c) For which frequencies of the source is the power transferred to the circuit half the power at resonant
frequency? What is the current amplitude at these frequencies?
(d) What is the Q-factor of the given circuit?
[NCERT]
Ans: (a) ω0 = 4167 rad s-1; f0 = 663 Hz; Imax = 14.1A
(b) f0 = 663 Hz ; pmax = 2300W ;
(c) f = 648 and 678; Imax = 10A
(d) Q = 21.7

26) Obtain the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit with L = 4.0 H, C = 27 μF and R = 8.4 Ω .What is the Q-
value of this circuit? Also find the band width. [March 2014, March 2016]

Problems on transformer
27) A power transmission line feeds input power at 2300 V to a stepdown transformer with its primary
windings having 4000 turns. What should be the number of turns in the secondary in order to get output power
at 230 V?
[NCERT] Ans: 400

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