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Chapter

Satellite Control System:

Part I - Architecture and Main
Components
Yuri V. Kim

Abstract

This chapter provides introductory material to satellite control system (SCS). It

is based on the author’s experience, who has been working in areas of SCS develop-
ment, including designing, testing, operating of real SCS, as well as reviewing and
overseeing various SCS projects. It briefly presents SCS generic futures and func-
tional principles: tasks, architecture, basic components and algorithms, operational
modes, simulation and testing. The chapter is divided into two parts, namely, Part I:
SCS Architecture and Main Components and Part II: SCS Simulation, Control
Modes, Power, Interface and Testing. This chapter focuses on Part I. Part II will be
presented as a separate chapter in this book.

Keywords: satellite control, attitude and orbit, determination, estimation, sensors,

actuators, coordinate systems, reference frame, state estimation and Kalman
filtering, earth gravity, magnetic fields

1. Introduction

Satellite control system (SCS) is a core, essential subsystem that provides to

the satellite capabilities to control its orbit and attitude with a certain performance
that is required for satellite mission and proper functioning of satellite payload
operation. However, the first mandatory task for SCS is assuring satellite safe
functionality; providing sufficient electric power, thermal and communication
conditions to be able for nominal functioning during specified life time at different
sun lightening conditions (including potential eclipse periods), protecting against
life critical failures proving to satellite safe attitude in Safe Hold Mode (SHM).
Without SCS or satellite guidance, navigation and control (GN&C) system, any
Earth-orbiting satellite could be considered just as artificial space body, demon-
strating the launcher capability for the satellite launch. As soon as a satellite is
assigned to perform a certain space mission, it has to have SCS and a kind of special
device (s)-payload (s), performing scientific, commercial or military tasks that are
dedicated to this mission. Today, the widespread satellite and SCS design philo-
sophy [1–3] is based on the concept that satellite is a platform (bus or transportation
vehicle) for the very important person (VIP) passenger, which is the payload, and
this platform is aimed just to deliver and carry it in space. This approach has been
proven as successful or, at least, satisfactory from the commercial point of view.
However, the first Soviet satellite “Sputnik” and further Soviet/Russian satellites

1
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

were built and launched under the different philosophy that satellite is the main
“personage” performing a space mission and the payload (unlikely the ballistic
rocket war head (s)) is just one of the satellite subsystems that should be integrated
into the satellite board under the satellite chief designer guidance, who is responsi-
ble for the mission performance. From the author’s point of view, this approach has
certain advantages following from the Aerospace System Engineering, integration
and distribution functions, and responsibilities between the space mission partici-
pants. In this chapter, SCS is presented from this point of view, integrating con-
ventionally separate satellite GN and C subsystems and devices into the joint
integrated system, attitude and orbit determination and control system (AODCS).
The main principles and features of this system are presented in this chapter.

2. Earth-orbiting satellites and the role of the control system

The first human-made Earth-orbiting satellite (Soviet Sputnik), Simplest Satel-

lite (SS-1), was launched on October 4, 1957. This satellite was launched following
the development of the Soviet intercontinental ballistic rocket R-7 (8 K71). Never-
theless, it started a new era of space human exploration (Figure 1).
SS-1 technical characteristics are as follows [4, 5]:

• Mass 83.6 kg; sealed from two identical hemispheres with a diameter of 0.58 m;
life time 3 months; payload, two 1 W transmitters (HF, 20.005 and VHF,
40.002 MHz) with four unidirectional deployable antennas (four 2.4–2.9 m
metallic rods); electrical batteries, silver-zinc; sufficient for 2 weeks.

• Orbit: perigee 215 km, apogee 939 km, period 96.2 min, eccentricity 0.05,
inclination angle 65.10 deg.

• Inside, the satellite sphere was filled by nitrogen, and the temperature was kept
within 20–23 deg. C with automatic thermoregulation-ventilation system
(thermometer-ventilator).

• The satellite had no attitude control and was free rotated around its center of
mass in orbit, keeping initial angular speed, provided by the separation pulse
after the separation from the launch rocket. However, thanks to the four rod

Figure 1.
Soviet designers-creators of the first earth-orbiting artificial satellite SS-1.

2
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
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antennas that provided unidirectional radio transmission in the two-radio

bends, HF and VHF, SS-1 evidently indicated its presence in space for all
people over the world. Even amateur radio operators with amateur receivers
could receive famous now signals: BIP, BIP, BIP … !! (Figure 2).

Figure 2.
SS-1, assembled (left). Open two semispheres (right).

Since SS-1, about 8378 satellites were launched to year 2018 [6]. Early satellite
launches were extraordinary events and demonstrated tremendous achievement of
the launched state, the USSR (4 Oct. 1957, SS-1), the USA (31 Jan. 1958, Explorer 1)
and Canada (29 Sep. 1962, Alouette, launched by Thor-Agena, a US two-stage
rocket), but with time, satellite launches became ordinary and usually pursue a
certain military or civil mission.
Among the civil missions (satellites), the following types can be determined as
already conventional: navigation, communication, Earth observation, scientific,
geophysics and geodetic, technology demonstration and developers training. These
satellites are usually equipped with a kind of payload system(s) (radio/TV trans-
mitter/transducer, radar, telescope or different scientific instrument, etc.) to per-
form certain dedicated space mission(s). For example, the first Canadian Earth
observation satellite RADARSAT-1 (Nov 4, 1995–May 10, 2013; Figure 3) was
equipped with a side-looking synthetic aperture radar (SAR) on board the Interna-
tional Space Station (November 1998, ISS; Figure 4) was installed a Canadian
robotic arm for its assembling and maintenance.

Figure 3.
The first Canadian earth observation satellite RADARSAT-1.

According to the satellite altitude (h), their orbits can be classified as low-
altitude (LEO), 200–2000 km; medium-altitude (MEO), 5000–20,000 km; and
high-altitude (HEO), h > 20,000 km; according to eccentricity as: close to circular
e < 0.01; elliptical 0.01 < e < 0.3; highly elliptical 0.3 < e < 0.8.
There are satellites with special type of orbit such as polar (i = 90 deg), equatorial
geostationary (GEO, i = 0 and h = 35,800 km) and Sun-synchronous provide orbital
precession equal to Sun annual rate (i depends on satellite period) (Figure 5).

3
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Figure 4.
International Space Station (ISS).

Figure 5.
Satellite orbit types (“tundra” and “Molniya” are Russian communication satellites in highly ecliptic orbits).

Miniaturized low-cost satellites are as follows: small satellites (100–500 kg),

microsatellite (below 100 kg) and nanosatellite (below 10 kg).
A large diversity of satellites serving for different missions is in space now. A
widespread point of vew is that all of them are transportation platforms delivering
and carrying in orbit dedicated to the planned space mission payload system, like a
VIP passenger. For example, it could be the postman for the postal horse carriage for
many years ago. Namely, the satellite with its control system (SCS) provides to the
payload all conditions required for the mission performance (orbit, attitude, power,
pressure, temperature, radiation protection and communication with ground mission
control center (MCC)). That is why from the mission integration point of view, the
SCS can be seen as the space segment integration bases that set their development and
operation process in corresponding order. In turn, SCS as satellite subsystem also can
be reviled and established in satellite onboard equipment architecture, combining the
group of subsystems that are dedicated to orbit and attitude determination and
control tasks. It could be done rather from the System Engineering than from the
commercial practice point of view and would significantly streamline satellite devel-
opment order and the degree of responsibility of all the developers.
It should be mentioned that such group of aircraft equipment in aviation has been
named as GN&C Avionics; hence, for space, it can be named as the Spacetronics, and
the heritage of system development and integration wherever it is possible should be
kept. Essential difference with Avionics for the Spacetronics is that it should work for
specified life time in space environment (dedicated orbit) after mechanical start-up
impacts (overload, vibration) connected to the launch into the orbit. The verification
of this capability is usually gained in special space qualification ground tests that
imitate launch impact and space environment with thermo-vacuum and radiation
chambers, mechanical load and vibration stands [7, 8].

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

3. Satellite control system architecture and components

3.1 SCS architecture

Today, for many satellites, GN&C onboard equipment can be presented by the
following subsystems, performing related functions listed below:

• Global Positioning System (GPS)—onboard satellite orbit and time

determination

• Propulsion system—orbit/attitude control system

• Attitude Determination and Control System (ADCS)—satellite attitude

determination and control

Integration of these subsystems can be named as attitude and orbit determination

and control system or Spacetronic system. Typically, AODCS includes the following
components:

• Onboard computer system (OBCS) or dedicated to AODCS electronic cards

(plates) in Central Satellite Computer System (e.g., command and data
handling computer (C&DH))

• Sensors

• Actuators

Basic AODCS architecture is presented in Figure 6.

OBCS, onboard computer system; TLM, telemetry data and commands; PL,
payload; PS, propulsion system; RW, inertia reaction wheels; MTR, magnetic
torque rods; GPS, satellite navigation Global Positioning System; MAG, 3-axis
magnetometer; SS, 2-axis Sun sensor; HS, horizontal plane sensor; ST, star tracker;
RS, angular rate sensor; EP, electric power; TR, temperature regulation; VP,
vacuumed protection; RP, radiation protection.

Figure 6.
Satellite AODCS system.

5
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Depending on required reliability and life time, each component can be a single
or redundant unit. Unlike airplanes, satellite is an inhabitant space vehicle that is
operated from the ground. The operation is usually performed via a bidirectional
telemetry radio link (TLM) in S-band (2.0–2.2 GHz). Payload data downlink radio
link (unidirectional) is usually performed via X-band (7.25–7.75 GHz;). For both
links, usually the same data protocol standards are applied Figure 7.

Figure 7.
Satellite communications with ground stations.

Two subsystems can be allocated in AODCS architecture, namely, orbit deter-

mination and control subsystem (ODCS) and attitude determination and control
subsystem (ADCS). Practically both subsystems are dynamically uncoupled; how-
ever, orbital control requires the satellite to have a certain attitude (as well as orbital
knowledge itself), and attitude control requires orbit knowledge also. Hence, orbit
(its knowledge) is essentially continuously required on satellite board where it is
propagated by special orbit propagator (OP). Due to orbital perturbations (residual
atmospheric drag, gravity and magnetic disturbances and solar pressure), satellite
orbit changes over time and OP accumulates errors; its accuracy is degraded.
Before the application of satellite onboard GPS receivers, the satellite position
and velocity were periodically determined on ground by the ground tracking radio
stations (GS, dish antenna), and calculated on-ground orbital parameters were
periodically uploaded to satellite OBCS to correct OP, to provide available accuracy.
Now with GPS satellite, orbit can be calculated onboard autonomously, and OP can
propagate data only during relatively short GPS outage periods. For some applica-
tions, orbital data uploaded from the ground still can be used, at least, for fusion
with GPS-based OP.
For newly developed satellites with GPS, orbit maneuvers (correction, deorbiting,
collision avoidance, special formation flying and orbit servicing missions) can be
executed autonomously onboard at planned time or from ground operators using
orbital knowledge and TLM commands to activate satellite orbit control thrusters.

3.2 AODCS components

Below AODCS components are presented to show their generic principles that
can help for the system understanding and modeling. Generic design requirements
are presented in [3]. Some design examples can be found in many sources, for
example, [1, 9–12].

3.2.1 Sensors

AODCS sensors are designed to measure satellite orbital and attitude position
and velocity. From the most general point of view, they can be considered as the

6
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
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vector measuring devices (VMD). The device can measure in space a physical
vector Rm that can be known (referenced) in a reference coordinate system Rr .
Three parameters can be measured: vector module R and two angles of its
orientation Az and El (Figure 8).

Figure 8.
Vector R in the Cartesian coordinate system XYZ.

Vector module and its orientation can be expressed as functions of its

projections Rx , Ry , Rz as follows:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R¼ R2x þ R2y þ R2z
1 Rx
Az ¼ tan
Ry (1)
1 Rz
El ¼ tan qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
R2x þ R2y

It can be noted that measurement of referenced vectors can be used for the
determination of satellite position or angular orientation. A minimum of three vectors
is required to determine satellite position and two to determine its attitude. If more
vectors are measured providing informational redundancy, then such statistical esti-
mation methods as least square method (LSM) and Kalman filter (KF) can be applied.
Satellite velocity and angular rate can be derived by the differentiation of its position
and attitude applying a kind of filter recommended by the filtering and estimation
theory [13–15]. It should also be noted that if vector orientation is measured for the
position determination, then satellite attitude should be known and vice versa.
Especial autonomous satellite navigation system (sensor) is the inertial navigation
system (INS/inertial measurement unit (IMU)). It can be used for the determination
of satellite position, velocity, orientation and angular rate simultaneously. INS is
based on measuring with linear accelerometers and angular rate sensors (“gyros”) the
two vectors: satellite linear active acceleration a and angular rate ω. After integration,
the system provides satellite position, velocity, attitude and angular rate. It is also
assumed in INS theory that the vector of Earth gravity acceleration g is not measured
by the system accelerometers, but it is computed from referenced mathematical
Earth gravity field model. Essential INS disadvantage is that its errors grow with time.
That is why, it has to be periodically corrected by such navigation aids as a pair of
VMD used for the direct attitude determination. A detailed system description is out
of this chapter’s scope and can be found in many publications [16–18]. Only the use of

7
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

angular rate sensors (“gyros”) for determination of satellite attitude is briefly consid-
ered below.

3.2.1.1 Determination of satellite position and velocity (GPS)

Today, satellite GPS can provide onboard accurate data about position, velocity
and time [19] (Figure 9).
Accuracy: position, 15 m (2σ); velocity, 1.5 m/s (2σ); time, 1 μS.

Figure 9.
Satellite GPS SRG-10. Double redundant with a pair of zenith and nadir antennas.

GPS receiver is a radio range measuring device that measures distance from the
desired satellite to navigation satellite constellation (NAVSTAR, USA; GLONASS,
Russia; and GALILEO, Europe) and computes its position and velocity. GPS mea-
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
sures the distance R (R ¼ R2x þ R2y þ R2z ) of the vector from the desired satellite to
the navigation satellite, and this system is invariant of the system orientation (sat-
ellite attitude). The distance between the desired satellite and navigation satellite is
measured by measuring the time delay Δt between the time ts of the radio pulse
transmitted by navigation satellite and the reception time tr of its reception by GPS
receiver installed on the desired satellite Δt ¼ tr ts . Measuring the distance allows
to determine the desired satellite relative position (relatively to navigation satellite),
and using known navigation satellite position that is continuously received by the
receiver for every tracking satellite in the navigation message (NM) converts it in
absolute position.
A minimum of three navigation satellites should be simultaneously traced by the
receiver to determine position and velocity. Then satellite position is the cross-point
of three spherical surfaces of the position equation Ri ¼ const, i ¼ 1, 2, 3. If more
tracked satellites are available, then redundant information can be used to calibrate
the onboard clock (using the four satellites) and to use least square method or
Kalman filter. Four nonlinear algebraic equations (pseudo-range measurements)
are usually used to determine satellite position with GPS receiver:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
i
R ¼ ðx xi Þ2 þ ðy yi Þ2 þ ðz zi Þ2 þ cτ
i ¼ 1, 2, 3, 4 (2)

where Ri is the distance (pseudo-range) to the ith tracked navigation satellite,

xi , yi , zi are the navigation satellite Cartesian coordinates received in the NM, x, y, z
are the Cartesian coordinates of the desired satellite, c ¼ 299 792 458 km=sis the
speed velocity and τ is the GPS receiver clock bias. Satellite position can be found by

8
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

solving it (1) numerically. It could also be linearized by using redundant measure-

ments (t > 4) with LSM or KF. Satellite velocity can be determined by the differen-
tiation of its position. Finally, GPS receiver can provide to AODC OBC current
satellite position and velocity in the reference (e.g., Earth-centered inertial (ECI)
[14] frame x, y, z, V x , V y , V z and synchronized (by GPS) onboard time ts ).

3.2.1.2 Determination of satellite attitude and angular rate

3.2.1.2.1 TRIAD method (MAG, SS, HS)

The TRIAD method [10] is applied when two different vectors are measured.
They usually can be any of the three pairs combined with the following three
vectors: Earth magnetic induction vector B (measured with three-axis MAG), Sun
vector S (measured with two-axis SS), and local vertical r (perpendicular to the
local infrared radiation temperature surface, measured with the HS). At least two
different not collinear vectors (their orientation) should be measured to deter-
mine satellite attitude that here is considered as satellite directional cosine matrix
(DCM) and related three Euler angles of the certain order of rotations (e.g., 3-2-1)
[9, 10] .
Let us assume that two different physical nature not collinear vectors U ¼ S and
V ¼ r are measured U m , V m by two vector measuring devises (SS and HS) installed
on the satellite board and both these vectors are referenced in the reference frame as
U r , V r . Let us choose U as the main vector and V as an auxiliary vector. Then an
orthogonal coordinate system (frame) with basis unit vectors, q, r and s can be
defined as follows [10, 20]:
!
! U
q¼ !
∣U ∣
! !
! UV (3)
r ¼ ! !
∣U  V ∣
! ! !
s ¼qr

These unit vectors expressed at a given time by measured values in measured

frame or body frame and reference values in a reference frame define two rotation
matrixes, Cm and Cr , as follows:
 
Cm ¼ qm ; rm ; sm
  (4)
Cr ¼ qr ; rr ; sr

where vectors q, r, s are written in the matrix form as matrix columns.

Rotation matrix Cbr that defines attitude in the body frame with respect to
reference frame is determined by the following formula:

Cbr ¼ Cm
Cr (5)

Three Euler angles of rotation, roll (ϕ), pitch (θ), and yaw (ψ), can be expressed
through the elements of the matrix Cbr . Certain trigonometric formulas depend on
the agreement about the order of the body rotations. For the order 3-2-1, the matrix
Cbr is as follows [9, 10]:

9
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

2 3
cθcψ cθsψ sθ
Cbr ¼ 4 sϕsθcψ cϕsψ sϕsθsψ þ cϕcψ sϕcθ 5 (6)
6 7

cϕsθcψ þ sϕsψ cϕsθsψ sϕcψ cϕcθ

where c and sstand for cosine and sine angle. Then, formulas for Euler angles can
be derived from (6) as:
C231
ϕ ¼ tan ,
C33
θ ¼ sin 1 C13 , (7)
C12
ψ ¼ tan 1
C11

Vector measured sensors

If a pair from the three vectors (B, S, r-write as vectors) is measured, then following
VMD in the pair can be used: SS (Figure 10), HS (Figure 11) and MAG (Figure 12).

Figure 10.
S-vector sensor Bradford fine sun sensor, accuracy, 0.2 deg. (2σ).

Figure 11.
r-vector sensor HS CMOS/SRAM-modular infrared horizon sensor, accuracy, 0.4 deg. (2σ).

Figure 12.
B-vector sensor MAG TFM100-S, accuracy, 10mG (2σ).

3.2.1.2.2 LSM method for star tracker (ST)

If more than two vectors are measured and available for attitude determination,
then LSM-BATCH method [10] can be applied to use informational redundancy for

10
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

increasing the stochastic estimation accuracy. This method basically can be applied
for any set of VMD but is specifically convenient for the star tracker (ST), when
some number (n) of navigation stars are in the device field of view (FOV) and are
detected and tracked simultaneously, providing measured vectors Rm to these stars
that are referenced in the device space catalog Rr (Figures 10–13).

Figure 13.
Star direction R-vector measured sensor (optic and computer units). Advanced stellar compass, accuracy,
200 1600 ð2σ Þ.

Let us consider the transformation of the referenced vector Rr in satellite body

frame, where it is measured with the ST
Rm ¼ CRr (8)

where C is the DCM of the rotation from the reference frame to satellite body
frame and vectors Rr and Rm are written in the matrix form as matrix columns.
If the ST is in the tracking mode keeping in its FOV some n detected navigation
stars, then it can be assumed that C is a small-angle matrix that is independent of
the rotation order and can be expressed as follows:
2 3
1 αz αy
C ≈ 4 αz
6 1 αx 75 (9)
αy αx 1

where αx , αy , αz are small angles of satellite rotation about X, Y, Z axis, respectively.

Then subtracting from (8) Rr , the following equation can be written:

δR ¼ δCRr (10)
2 3
0 αz αy
where δR ¼ Rm Rr , δC ≈ 4 αz
6 0 αx 75.
αy αx 0
Transforming in (10) matrix product and taking into account random measure-
ment errors, this equation can be represented in the following form:

δR ¼ Rr δC þ V (11)

Rrz Rry Vx
2 3 2 3 2 3
0 αx
2 3
δRx
6 R Rrx 7
where δR ¼ 4 δRy 5, Rr ¼ 4 rz 0 5, δC ¼ α ¼ 4 αy 5, V ¼ 4 V y 5,
6 7 6 7 6 7
δRz Rry Rrx 0 αz Vz

11
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

V is random measurement error vector (considered as the white Gaussian noise,

having covariance matrix R ¼ rI).
Then this equation can be considered as a “standard” linear algebraic equation:

zi ¼ hi x þ Vi
(12)
i ¼ 1, 2, ::n number of measured vectors
2 3
Rrz Rry Vx αx
2 3 2 3
0
4 Rrz
where, zi ¼ δRi, hi ¼ Rri ¼ 6 0 Rrx 5 , Vi ¼ 4 V y 5 x ¼ δC ¼ α ¼ 4 αy 5.
7 6 7 6 7
Rry Rrx 0 i Vz i αz
If n ¼ 1, only a single vector is measured, then dethi ¼ Rrx Rry Rrz þ
Rrx Rry Rrz  0, and thus, determining all three angles of satellite attitude is impossi-
ble. If it takes informational redundancy, then optimal estimate (providing mini-
mum of standard deviation of satellite attitude errors) can be found with the
following LSM formula [13]:

^ ¼ Kz
α (13)
 1
where K ¼ HT R 1 H HT R 1 H, H ¼ ½h1 h2 h3 ::hn ŠT .


3.2.1.2.3 Determination of the angular rate

Direct measurement
Satellite angular rate ω (vector absolute angular velocity) can be measured directly
by three-axis rate sensor (RS) that could have mechanical, optical, or microelectro-
mechanical systems (MEMS) design [21, 22] (Figure 14). Traditionally, independent
of the design type, these RS are usually named “gyros,” paying respect to their
historical appearance for aerospace vehicle control purposes as a mechanical
gyroscope (Figure 15).
Measured angular velocity vector ω can be used to determine satellite attitude by
the integration of matrix kinematic Poisson’s Equation [9, 10]:
^
C_ ¼ ωC, Cð0Þ ¼ C0 (14)

Figure 14.
Measurement of satellite angular velocity ω with three rate sensors RSx , RSy , RSz .

12
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

Figure 15.
ω-vector sensor RS, BEI QRS-11 single-axis body rate sensor, accuracy, 7deg=h ¼ 0:0019deg=s ð2σ Þ.

where C ¼ Cib C ¼
2 Cib is the DCM between
3 the inertial frame ECI and satellite
0 ωz ωy
^
body frame and ω ¼ 4 ωz
6 0 ωx 75 is skew symmetric matrix measured in
ωy ωx 0
the satellite frame components of vector of satellite absolute angular velocity. After
determination of the DCM, satellite attitude in three Euler angles can be derived with
Eq. (7) above. Unfortunately, gyro drift causes unlimited growing up errors in
integrated attitude that require periodic corrections from two VMD, measuring the
attitude directly (Figures 10–12).
Body rate estimator
Often, specifically for attitude stabilization (keeping or aka pointing) mode,
satellite angular rate is estimated by using the so-called body rate estimator and is not
measured directly by the RS. Indeed, using for attitude keeping mode small angles and
linear approximation, we can simplify satellite attitude dynamics model [9] to three
single-axis state equations and present it with the stochastic influences as follows:
8
<ω
> _ ¼w
α_ ¼ ω (15)
>
z¼αþv
:

where ω is the angular velocity, α is the satellite deviation angle from the desired
direction and z is the satellite deviation angle measurement with random Gaussian
white noise error v. Realistically, it is a wide spectrum correlated process that
components have spectral density ri ¼ 2σ 2vi T vi , i ¼ x, y, z (σ vi is standard deviation of
the random error vi , T vi is vi ðtÞ correlation time), wi is exciting angular acceleration
noise with spectral density qi ¼ 2σ 2wi T wi (σ wi is standard deviation of the random
angular acceleration wi ¼ MJi i , Mi is exciting external random torque, J i is satellite
moment of inertia, T wi is wi ðtÞ correlation time).
The linear KF can be applied to synthesize the estimator for the optimal
estimation of the vector angle α and the vector of angular velocity ω, using noisy
measurements z [9]:
(
^_ ¼ k12 ðz α
ω ^Þ
(16)
^_ ¼ ω
α ^ þ k22 ðz α^Þ

where α
^ and ω
^ are the optimal estimates of the angle α and the angular velocity
ω correspondingly.

13
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Matrix KF (16) is separated in three independent scalar channels for X, Y, Z axis.

Its weight coefficients k12 and k22 can be determined by solving KF Riccati Equation
[13–15] for each of these three separate channels independently.
It can be shown that in the considering case, the steady-state (t ! ∞) KF
coefficients are determined by the following formulas (identically for X, Y, Z axes,
i = 1,2,3):
( pffiffiffiffi
k12i ¼ ξi
pffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (17)
k22i ¼ 2ξi ξi

q
where ξi ¼ rii is the ratio of spectral densities of satellite disturbing torque noise
to measured attitude error noise (assuming that both are white Gaussian noises).
This parameter can be considered as the filterability index. Eq. (16) can be
represented in the transfer function (Laplace operator) form as a second-order
differential equation unit:
8 s
> ω
^ i ¼ 2
zi
T i s2 þ 2di T i s þ 1
>
>
<
(18)
> 2dT i s þ 1
^¼ zi
>
:α
>
2 2
T i s þ 2di T i s þ 1

where s is the Laplace operator, T i is the time constant, and di is the specific
damping coefficient that is determined by the following formulas:

1 1
8
> T i ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ p ffiffiffiffi
k12i
> 4
>
>
< ξi
pffiffiffi (19)
k 2
>
22
>
: di ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
i
¼ ¼ 0:707
>
>
2 k12i 2

or in other words, the time constant is in inverse proportionality to the filter-

ability index (in ¼ degree) and the specific damping coefficient is conventional for
such a second-order unit 0.707 for each of the three channels.

3.2.1.2.4 Multisensory sensor unit (MSU)

As it can be seen from the consideration above, the use of directly measuring
devices (e.g., ST and RS) for attitude and body rate determination has a disadvan-
tage. The random noises are at the devices output, and they have to be filtered in the
closed control loop of satellite attitude control that puts some constraints to choose
the control law coefficients. However, using indirect body rate measurement, the
state estimator (filter) unavoidably introduces additional phase delay in the control
loop because of the consecutive inclusion of this filter in the control loop. To use the
RS (gyro) and the integrator for body rate and attitude determination autono-
mously for a long time is not possible because of the accumulated attitude errors
caused by the integration of the gyro drift. The following scheme (that is common
in Aviation) can be considered as free from the disadvantages above. Let us assume
that satellite attitude is determined in two ways: continuous integration of RS
angular velocity (IMU) and using VMD, for example, ST. Then this ST is used to
correct the attitude derived by the integration of RS output. The idea of MSU is
shown in Figure 16.

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Figure 16.
Integration of multisensory sensor unit (MSU) single-axis channel.

In integrated IMU attitude (IMU = RS + integrator) as in Figure 14 above (three

identical channels), αi (inertial angle) has been growing with time deterministic error
δα due to the integration of RS bias δω and ST has random noisy error ΔαΔα. The
difference of these signals is equal to the difference of system errors z ¼ δα Δα. This
difference is used for estimation of errors of IMU with a kind of filter, and after the
compensation at the system output, the estimates (^ α and ω^ ) can be used for satellite
control. As it can be seen, in this scheme the filter is not connected in the control loop,
and consequently, it does not introduce additional phase delay; however, the scheme
still performs its job to filter the noise and estimate RS bias. This scheme can be very
effective in practice. It can be presented similar to Eqs. (15) and (16) as follows:

< δω_ ¼ w1
8
>
IMU model equations : δα_ ¼ δω (20)
>
z ¼ δα þ Δα
:

where δω is the RS error of measuring the angular velocity; δα is attitude error

after the integration of the RS signal; zis IMU attitude error measurement with
random Gaussian white noise error v Δα ¼ v, having spectral density r1 ¼ 2σ 2Δα T Δα
(σ Δα is the standard deviation of the random error Δα, T Δα is its correlation time);
and w1 is the exciting noise of RS random drift with spectral density q1 ¼ 2σ 2w1 T w1
(σ w1 is the standard deviation of the random drift, T w is the wðtÞ correlation time).
(
δω^_ ¼ k12 ðz δ^ αÞ
KF equations : (21)
^
δα_ ¼ δ^ω þ k22 ðz δ^
αÞ

where KF coefficients k12 and k22 are determined by (17), substituting there q1
andr1 instead of q and r.

3.2.2 Actuators

3.2.2.1 Propulsion system (PS)

Satellite propulsion system [9, 10] is usually designed for satellite orbital and/or
angular control. In the first case, PS is commanded from the ground OC by TLM
commands in some cases when satellite orbit has to be changed (orbit correction,
deorbiting, collision avoidance), in the second controlled automatically from
onboard AODCS. It consists of such typical elements as orbital and attitude
thrusters (number and installation scheme depending on certain application), pro-
pulsion tank with associated pipes, valves, regulators, and electronics. General
principles of PS act independently of the type (ion thrusters (0.01–0.1 N), liquid
propellant and solid motor (100–10,000 N), cold gas (1-3 N)).

15
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Figure 17.
Satellite control with PS thruster principles.

Figure 15 illustrates the satellite control with PS thruster principles. The princi-
ple of the formation of the propulsion jet force can be presented by the following
equation of variable mass body dynamics that from Russian sources, for example,
[23], is known as Prof. I. Meshchersky’s equation:
dV dm
M ¼F Vp (22)
dt dt

where M is the mass body, F is the external force, V P is the propellant exhaust
velocity and m is the propellant mass. The term V p dmdt is the propulsion force
(propulsion thrust) (Figure 17).

dm
T¼ Vp (23)
dt

In Section 3.2.2.1.2, it is always dm

dt < 0, then T > 0. Usually for any propulsion
V
system, let us introduce parameter specific pulse Isp , where Isp ¼ gjTm_ j ¼ gp then V p ¼
Isp g m
_ and T ¼ Isp g m.
_ If the satellite thruster is installed such as satellite point of
the center of mass (CM) is located on the line of the action of the force T (red
thruster in Figure 17), then the thruster can serve for satellite orbit correction, and
the pulse of the control thrust causes increment of satellite velocity dV ¼ M1 Tdt. If
satellite thrusters are installed in such a way that having an arm L from the CM,
then they create rotating torque (green reversible thruster pair in Figure 17) and
can be used for attitude control (control torque is T r ¼ LT). And the increment in
attitude angle for the time dt of the pair of thruster activation will be dα ¼ TJr dt.
The expelled propulsion mass Δm can be calculated with the K. Tsiolkovsky
formula [9, 24] that follows from Eq. (22)
h dV i
Δm ¼ m0 1 e gIsp
(24)

where m0 is the propellant initial mass. Photos of I. Meshchersky and K.

Tsiolkovsky are presented (Figures 18 and 19).
Discrete pulse modulation control is usually used to minimize the consumption
of the propellant for attitude control [9]. Examples of the gas thruster and the tank
are presented in Figures 20 and 21.

3.2.2.2 Magnetic torque rods (MTR)

Magnetorquers are essentially sets of electromagnets. A conductive wire is

wrapped around a ferromagnetic core which is magnetized when excited by the
electric current caused by the control voltage applied to the coil. The disadvantage
of this design is the presence of a residual magnetic dipole that remains even when

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Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
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Figure 18.
Prof. I. Meshchersky (1859–1935).

Figure 19.
K. Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935).

Figure 20.
Cold gas GN-2 thruster, nominal thrust 3.6 N (230 psi), specific impulse 57 s.

the coil is turned off because of the hysteresis in the magnetization curve of the
core. It is therefore necessary to demagnetize the core with a proper demagnetizing
procedure. Normally, the presence of the core (generally consisting of ferromag-
netic) increases the mass of the system. The control voltage is controlled by AODCS
control output (Figures 18–20). The magnetic dipole generated by the
magnetorquer is expressed by the formula:

M ¼ niS (25)

17
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Figure 21.
60 liter propulsion gas tank.

where n is the number of turns of the wire, i is the current provided, and S is the
vector aria of the coil. The dipole interacts with the Earth magnetic field, generating
a torque whose expression is:

Tm ¼ M  B (26)

where M is the magnetic dipole vector moment, B is the Earth magnetic field
induction vector and T m is the generated magnetic torque vector. This equation in
the scalar form is as follows:

T mx Bz By Mx
2 3 2 32 3
0
7 6 B Bx 7
4 T my 5 ¼ 4 0 54 My 5 (27)
6 6 7
z
T mz By Bx 0 Mz

Typically, three coils are used; the three-coil assembly usually takes the form of
three perpendicular coils, because this setup equalizes the rotational symmetry of the
fields which can be generated; no matter how the external field and the craft are placed
with respect to each other, approximately the same torque can always be generated
simply by using different amounts of current on the three different coils (Figure 22).
It can be seen from Eq. (26) that MTR cannot generate the magnetic torque in
the direction that is parallel to Earth magnetic field B (MkB) and it always is
perpendicular to the Earth magnetic field vector T m ⊥B. Unfortunately, from
Eq. (27), the required magnetic moments cannot be found, because it has zero
determinant, and we cannot invert it.

Bz By 
 
 0

Δ ¼  Bz 0 Bx  ¼ Bx By Bz þ Bx By Bz ¼ 0 (28)
 
 By Bx
 
0 

However, the following approach can be used to find required vector M [9].
When we take cross-product of B with both sides of Eq. (26) and take into account
that it is useless to apply M in parallel direction to B, and hence we can require that
M⊥B and M
B ¼ 0, then the following formula can be derived:

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Figure 22.
3D orthogonal magnetic torque rods.

B  Tm
M¼ (29)
B2

Another MTR control method is the so-called B-dot control [25].

M¼ kB (30)

where k is control gate coefficient.

As the result of (29) control, the satellite will reduce its body rate and is finally
slow rotated along Earth’s geomagnetic field line (vector B). Eventually it achieves
its threshold of capture by the gravity gradient effect.
If the redundancy is required, it is provided by additional (redundant) coil with
the same core (Figure 23).

Figure 23.
Magnetic torque rod SSTL MTR-30, magnetic moment, M ¼ 30 Am2 .

3.2.2.3 Reaction/reaction-momentum wheels (RW/RMW)

Reaction wheels (RW), aka momentum exchange devices [9] or reaction-

momentum wheels (RMW), have massive rotated rotor with big axial moment of
inertia with respect to the axis of rotation. They are electrically controlled by the
electric motors and the rotor is installed on the rotating motor shaft. The controlled
voltage, applied to the control winding of the motor, controls its rotor angular
speed. The product of the rotor angular acceleration Ω _ multiplied by its axial inertia
I is the RW generated inertia control torque Ti ¼ IΩ _ that is applied to the satellite
body in opposite to the acceleration direction. Special embedded angular speed

19
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Figure 24.
Three orthogonal reaction wheels (RW).

sensor (tachometer) measures the motor rotor angular speed and allows organizing
RW inertia torque control proportional to the applied control voltage. At least three
RW, as in Figure 24, are required to produce control torque vector in three-
dimensional spatial, having desired value and pointed in the desired direction.
Sometimes redundant unit of three redundant wheels or one with 4th redundant
skewed wheel is applied to meet reliability requirements.
RW can generate control inertia torques Ti only when they are accelerated or
decelerated. With this torque, they cannot compensate a permanent disturbance
torque Td ¼ const applied to satellite for a long enough time and come eventually to
some maximum/minimum available speed aka the saturation speed. At that state T i
becomes zero. That is why RW is usually applied with other types of actuators such as
MTRs or gas thrusters to de-saturate the RW to use them as the source of Ti again.
In general case, RW can be run around in some nominal angular speed Ω0 . In
this case they can be named as reaction-momentum wheel (RMW) and then just
RW. Mathematically RW/RMW dynamics can be presented as follows. Let us con-
sider satellite with RW unit angular momentum:

Hs ¼ H þ h (31)

where H ¼ Jω is the satellite absolute angular momentum vector (column matrix),

J xx J xy J xz
2 3

ω is the vector of satellite absolute angular velocity, J ¼ 4 J yx J yy J yz 7

5 is the
6
J zx J zy J zz
satellite inertia matrix, h ¼ IΩ is the RMW relative angular3momentum vector, Ω is the
Ixx 0 0
2

RW relative rotation speed vector, and I ¼ 4 0 Iyy 0 5 is the RW inertia matrix.

6 7

0 0 Izz
Then differentiating (31) in rotating with angular velocity satellite axis ω and
using Euler’s rigid body dynamics formula [9], we can get the following equation:

h_
^ ^
_ þω
H H¼ ωh þ T (32)
2 3
0 ωz ωy
^
where ω ¼ 4 ωz
6 0 ωx 75 is the satellite angular velocity matrix and T is
ωy ωx 0
the vector of the external torque applied to the satellite. In the right side of Eq. (32),

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we can see two terms that have meaning of torques applied from the RMW unit to
the satellite body: h_ ¼ Ti the inertial torque and ωh ¼ Tg the gyro torque. They
^

are RMW generated torques that can be used for the satellite attitude control.
Eq. (32) presents satellite attitude dynamics under the action of RMW torques. The
RW dynamics can be presented similar to Eq. (32):

h_ w þ ωhw ¼ Mw þ Mf
^
(33)

where hw ¼ h þ hc is the absolute RW momentum, hc ¼ Iω is the carrier

component of RW absolute momentum, QUOTE Mw is the RW motor control
torque, and Mf is the RW friction torque.
Eq. (33) can be represented in the following form:

h_ ¼ IΩ
^
_ ¼ Iω
_ ωðh þ hc Þ þ Mw þ Mf (34)

where Mf ¼ ke Ω Mdf sgn Ω is the friction torque, ke is the motor natural

damping coefficient, Mdf is the dry friction torque, and Mw is the control motor torque.
The torque Mf usually consists of two components: the viscous torque
(counter electromotive voltage in the control coil) ke Ω and dry or Coulomb
friction torque in the RMW bearings—Mdf sgn Ω. The control torque Mw can be set
as follows:

Mw ¼ ðkΩ þ ke ÞðΩ Ω0 Þ kT Tc (35)

where kΩ is the motor control damping coefficient, Ω0 is the desired angular

RMW speed, kT is the control torque coefficient, and Tc is requested from AODCS
OBC control torque. Taking into account Eq. (35), Eq. (34) can be rewritten in the
following form:
^
_ þ ðkΩ þ ke ÞΩ ¼ ðkΩ þ ke ÞΩ0 þ Tc
IΩ Iω
_ ωðh þ hc Þ þ Mf (36)

In the operator Laplace s-form (transfer function), Eq. (36) can be rewritten as
follows:

ΩðsÞ ¼ WðsÞ Ω0 þ kw1 Tc

  ^ 
Isω ωðh þ hc Þ þ Mf (37)
2 3
1
ðT wx þ 1Þ 0 0
1
where WðsÞ ¼ 6
6 7
T wy þ 1
  7 is the RW matrix
4 0 0 5
0 0 ðT wz þ 1Þ 1
transfer function, T wx ¼ kΩxIþk
x
ex
, T wy ¼ kΩyIþk
x
ey
, T wx ¼ kΩzIþk
x
ez
is the RW time con-
stants, and.
2 3
ðkΩx þ kex Þ 1 0 0
6  1 7
kΩy þ key
 7 is the RW control speed
kw ¼ 6 4 0 0 5
1
0 0 ðkΩz þ kez Þ
coefficient.
It should be noted that sometimes the RW control loop is more sophisticated.
Special integrators could be connected into the loop to memorize and compensate
the dry friction torques acting in bearings. Some small nominal rotating speed can
be set for all three RMW to eliminate the dry friction torque having a pike when the
wheel speed is zero Ω ¼ 0.

21
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

However, more representative case is when Ω0 is set (usually in one direction as

in Figure 23—axis Y) to provide to the satellite a gyro-stiffness (gyro-stabilization
capability) with respect to another two axes X and Z.
_x ¼Ω
Indeed, if we put in (32) that ω_ x ¼ ω_ y ¼ ω_ z ¼ Ω _y ¼Ω
_ z ¼ 0, and ωx ¼ ωz ¼
Ωx ¼ Ω _y ¼Ω _ z ¼ 0, ωy ¼ ω0 ¼ const, Ωy ¼ Ω0 ¼ const, then it can be written as:

ωz H y þ h y ¼ T x
(  
(38)
ωx H y þ h y ¼ T z
 

where Hy ¼ J y ω0 , hy ¼ Iy Ω0 . In this case carrier orbital angular velocity ω0 helps

to increase satellite momentum Hsy ¼ Hy þ hy. Eq. (38) is known as three degrees of
freedom of a free gyroscope precession [21] and represents the gyro-stabilization
effect: that gyroscope vector Hsy being free of disturbing torques can keep its
direction and value in inertial spatial (Figure 25).

Figure 25.
Reaction/momentum wheel HR-0610, torque, 75
10 3 Nm; momentum, ð4 12Þ Nms.

3.2.3 AODCS OBCS

Independently of sytem arhitecture; it is separate dedicated to AODCS com-

puter, or a special AODCS card within central satellite C&DH computer, it is the
integration element of AODCS [1, 11]. AODCS system may consist of the computer
(computer card) itself (OBC) and auxiliary intercommunication electronic units
(electronic cards) AEU carrying DC/DC electric power conversion and I/O (analog
and digital) interface and commutation functions.
OBC can be divided into two parts: the hardware (HW, power convertor, pro-
cessor, input/output [I/O] convertors, non-volatile and volatile memory) and the
software (SW, operation system [OS] and vital or functional software [VS/FS])
(Figure 26).
What makes the satellite OBC essentially different for the airplane OBC is that
its SW can be uploaded and updated from the ground and during operation and
scheduled maintenance. OS OBC includes generic computer programs: program of
I/O interface, time schedule (dispatcher), embedded test, timer and standard
mathematic functions. Satellite SW often is considered as satellite SW subsystem that
is verified during development (with mathematical high-fidelity Matlab/Simulink
simulators and semi-natural processor-in-the-loop (PIL) simulators). SW
subsystem should be tested to meet SW requirements [26, 27]. The flight version of
the SW subsystem is supported with operation real-time satellite simulators (RSS)
[1, 11] located in operation center. It should be mentioned that only final AODCS

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Figure 26.
Satellite OBCS, MAC-200 (C&DH unit with AODCS card) comprises of two OBC: Prime and redundant
(cold reserve).

(OBC (HW + SW), sensors, and actuators) functional test [2] that should be
performed in the Space Qualification Laboratory [7] during satellite Space Qualifi-
cation and Acceptance campaign can really minimize the risk of launching a not
ready satellite and prevent against AODCS refinishing in orbit during commission-
ing and operation.
VS can be separated in two parts, ODCS SW and ADCS SW. For both parts, I/O
interface with sensors and actuators is determined in special interface control
document(s) (ICD), describing type, certain connectors, and electrical parameters
of the exchanging data. These data before using them for functional tasks are
pre-processed in OBC with special algorithms.

3.2.3.1 Satellite sensors/actuators data preprocessing

This group of algorithms performs the following common tasks:

• Convert data into required physical parameters and units, taking into account
certain sensor input–output scale function.

• Transform data in certain device frame and compensate device misalignment,

bias and scale function errors if it is possible, monitor device state, establishing
“on/off,” “work/control,” “data bad/good” flags.

• Transfer to C&DH TLM data about sensor/actuator state and their data.

• Perform some other auxiliary functions if they are required.

• Main functional tasks ODCS SW and ADCS SW can be listed as below.

3.2.3.2 ODCS SW

3.2.3.2.1 Satellite orbit propagation (OP)

To understand the idea of propagation of satellite orbit in Earth gravity field to

the simplest, Keplerian motion propagator based on spherical Earth gravity field
model might be used [9]; however more realistic results can be obtained with more
accurate propagator, taking into account the second zonal harmonic J 2 in the
function of approximation of Earth gravitational potential. The following
equations of motion of satellite center of mass in Earth gravitational field can be
considered [9]:

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Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

x xz2 x


€ ¼ μ 3 þ AJ2 15 7
x 3 5 ,
r r r
y yz2 y


€y ¼ μ 3 þ AJ2 15 7 3 5 ,
r r r
(39)
z z3 z


€z ¼ μ 3 þ AJ2 15 7 9 5 ,
r r r
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ¼ x 2 þ y2 þ z 2 ,

where x, y, z are the Cartesian coordinates of satellite center of mass in inertial

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
frame ECI, r ¼ x2 þ y2 þ z2 is the module of the radius vector from the center of
Earth to satellite center of mass, μ ¼ 3:986004418
1014 ½m3 =s2 Š is the Earth gravi-
tational constant, AJ2 ¼ 21 J 2
R2e is a constant, J 2 =0.00108263 is the second zonal
harmonic coefficient in the raw of Earth potential function, and Re ¼ 6378137:00 m
is the mean radius of the Earth at the equator.
These equations can propagate satellite position and velocity (x, y, z and x, _ y_ , z_ )
in the inertial Cartesian ECI coordinate system if the initial parameters are initially
set x0 ¼ xð0Þ, y0 ¼ yð0Þ, z0 ¼ zð0Þ and x_ 0 ¼ x_ ð0Þ, y_ 0 ¼ y_ ð0Þ, z_ 0 ¼ z_ ð0Þ. They can be
periodically determined from GPS or MCC TLM information. The propagation
credibility time depends on orbit perturbations [9, 10, 27] and required accuracy.
The most accurate and common ground propagators are NORAD Simplified Per-
turbation Model (SGP) propagators. NORAD SGP is used for proving to users two-
line element (TLE) satellite orbital data. For the low Earth orbit (LEO), having
altitude below 6000 km (period about 225 min), they provide position accuracy
about 1 km within a few days that for many users is accurate enough and needs to
be updated once or twice per week. Currently almost every satellite is equipped
with GPS and its onboard propagators are practically continuously corrected with
GPS (and sometimes MCC TLM) data that provide position within 10–100 m and
velocity within 0.01–0.1 m/s accuracy range. Only some short periods of GPS data
outage require orbit propagation. In addition to satellite position and velocity, OP
calculates conventional orbital parameters (Figure 14) that can be computed with
the following formulas [9]:
μ
a¼ 
V2

μ
2
r 2
hzi
i ¼ cos ‐1
h
hxi
Ω ¼ tan 1 (40)
hyi
r
V
1
ν ¼ tan
p r
zi
u ¼ sin 1
r sin i
ω ¼ u‐θ

where h ¼ r  V is the satellite orbital linear momentum vector, a is the satellite

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
orbit semi-major axis, h ¼ h2xi þ h2yi þ h2zi is the linear momentum module, p ¼
að1‐e2 Þ is the satellite orbit focal parameter, i is the satellite orbit inclination angle, Ω

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is the satellite orbit right ascension of ascending node angle (RAAN), uis the
argument of latitude angle, ν is the satellite true anomaly angle, and ω is the satellite
orbit argument of perigee angle (Figure 27).

Figure 27.
Satellite orbit in the inertial ECI (XYZ) coordinate system.

3.2.3.2.2 Orbital thrusters control

If orbit maneuver is required, then it can be commanded by AODCS SW auton-

omously, or special control commands TLM (uploaded command tables) are send-
ing to satellite AODCS, and in predetermined time they are executed activating at
scheduled time for the calculated period ðΔtÞ the orbital thrusters that provide for
the required orbital correction/maneuver pulseðFΔtÞ.

3.2.3.3 ADCS SW

3.2.3.3.1 Satellite attitude and angular velocity estimation algorithms

This group of algorithms was presented above in 3.2.1.2 and can be used here.
For example, let us consider single-axis stabilized satellite that should keep one
axis (e.g., Z) permanently pointed to the Sun as in Figure 28. Only two angles of the
satellite deviation from this direction and their angular velocities are required to
know to point and keep it in this direction. The satellite has two-axis Sun sensor that

Figure 28.
Satellite pointed by the Z-axis to the sun.

25
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

can measure two angles αx , αy of satellite deviation from the sun direction. Its axes
coincide with the satellite axes xyz. The axis z is the sensitivity axis that nominally
should point into the Sun’s direction (center of brightness), and xy is the focal plane.
The Sun vector is referenced in the Sun frame as Sr ¼ ½0 0 SŠT and is measured in
T
the Sun sensor measured frame as Sm ¼ Sx Sy Sz .


In Figure 28, xyz is the satellite body frame, xs ys zs is the Sun reference frame, SS
is the two-axis Sun sensor and αx and αy are the turn angles of satellite x and y axis
accordingly.
The following formula represents the mathematical transformation of the Sun
vector from the reference into the body frame:

Sm ¼ Cbs Sr (41)
T
where Sr ¼ ½0 0 SŠT , Sm ¼ Sx Sy Sz , and Cbs is the DCM between the refer-


ence (Sun) and measured (satellite) frames. Let us consider that the order of
rotation from the Sun to the satellite frame is 3-2-1 (αz , αy , αx); the DCM matrix Cbs is
as follows [9]:
2 3
cos αy cos αz cos αy sin αz sin αy
Cbs ¼ 4
6 cos αx sin αz þ sin αx sin αy cos αz cos αx cos αz þ sin αx sin αy sin αz sin αx cos αy 7
5
sin αx sin αz þ cos αx sin αy cos αz cos αx cos αz þ cos αx sin αy sin αz cos αx cos αy
(42)

Then from (41), (42) can derive the following formulas:

< Sxm ¼ S sin αy

8
>
Sym ¼ S sin αx cos αy (43)
Szm ¼ S cos αx cos αy
>
:

From (43), desired angles and can be derived that can be used for satellite
attitude control.

Sym
8
αx ¼ tan 1
>
>
Szm
>
>
<
1 Sxm (44)
>
> α y ¼ sin q ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
S2 þ S2
>
>
ym zm
:

3.2.3.3.2 Angular velocities (body rates)

Let us also assume that the satellite does not have angular velocity sensors RS and
its angular velocities should be derived from the measured angles αx and αy . Simple
low-frequency first-order differentiating fitters can be applied for this purpose.
Laplace operator s-form (transfer functions) of these filters are presented below:’
8
^ s
< α_ x ¼ T s þ 1 αx
>
>
fx
s (45)
: ^_y ¼
>α αy
T fy s þ 1
>

where T fx , T fy are filter time constants, typically, T f < ð3 10Þ s.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

3.2.3.3.3 Satellite control algorithms

If not the optimization criterion to characterize the control quality [13] is

required, then conventional negative feedback closed control loop with linear PID
(proportional, integral, and damping) control law [9] that provides a good perfor-
mance for many practical satellite control applications can be used to satisfy the
requirements. They are typical for any automatic control system requirements: such
as transfer process decay time and overshooting, residual static error caused by the
permanent external disturbance, etc. Today, attitude control system performance
can be verified mainly on ground with simulation. If we try to evaluate it in flight,
then only onboard attitude sensors TLM data can be used for postprocessing, and it
should be taken into account that mainly sensors that detect high-frequency noise
(perceived errors) will be observable and low-frequency components (sensor
biases) are compensated in the closed control attitude stabilization loop. Simple
example of single-axis satellite attitude stabilization control loop is presented below.
It is a simplified linear model; however, it presents the stabilization principle and
essential features. Let us assume that a simple, positional, and damping control law
is used to stabilize satellite axis Z in Sun direction S as in the example C1 for attitude
and angular rate determination above. Let us assume that only the one-axis control
channel X is considered; small angle αx ð tan αx ≈ αx Þ is measured with SS (44), and
its rate is derived with linear differentiating filter (45). Then requested PD control
torque can be presented by the following formula:

s
T cx ¼ kpx αxm kdx αxm (46)
T fx þ 1

where kpx is the position control coefficient, kdx is the damping control coeffi-
cient, s ¼ dtd is the Laplace operator, T fx is the differentiating filter time constant,
αxm ¼ αx þ Δαx is the measured angle αx ,αx is the true value and Δαx is the
measured error. Let us assume that this torque is generated by only one MTR Y.
Eq. (27) is determined as:

T cx ¼ Bz My ¼ Bz kTRy uy (47)

where Bz ¼ const is the local Z component of Earth magnetic induction vector,

My ¼ kTRy uy is the Y MTR magnetic moment, kTRy is the Y MTR control gate and iy
is the control voltage applied to Y MTR winding. Then as it follows from (46), (47)
requested from the AODCS OBC control voltage to the winding of Y MTR is:

s
uy ¼ K px αxm K dx αxm (48)
T fx þ 1

k
where K px ¼ Bz kpxTRy and K dx ¼ BzkkdxTRy are position and damping magnetic control
coefficients.
Let
2 us take a 3ball-shaped satellite with the inertia matrix as follows:
Jx 0 0
J ¼ 4 0 J y 0 5 where J x ¼ J y ¼ J z J x ¼ J y ¼ J z . Then in inertial spatial, its linear
6 7

0 0 Jz
angular dynamical equations for the axis X can be approximately written as follows:

J x s2 αx ¼ T cx þ T dx (49)

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Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

where s ¼ dtd is the Laplace operator, T cx is the control torque, and T dx is the
disturbing external torque (satellite residual and induction magnetism torque,
atmosphere drug torque, solar pressure torque). Then substituting in Eq. (49)
Eqs. (47) and (48), we can rewrite it as follows:
s
J x s2 αx ¼ kpx αxm kdx αxm þ T dx (50)
T fx s þ 1

Let us divide all terms in Eq. (50) by the coefficient kp and substitute αxm value,
then it can be represented in the following form:
!
s 1
T 2x s2 þ 2dx T x þ 1 αx ¼ T dx Δαx (51)
T fx s þ 1 kpx
qffiffiffiffiffi
Jx
where T x ¼ kpx is the X control channel time constant and dx ¼ pkffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
dx ffi
is the
2 kpx J x
Xcontrol channel-specific damping coefficient. Eq. (51) is a third-order linear differ-
ential equation and could be analytically analyzed. In particular its stability can be
analyzed with algebraic Hurwitz criterion [13]. However, more simple and general
results can be obtained with the following approximate consideration. If T fx < < T x ,
then by the filter time constant, T fx can be neglected, and (51) can approximately be
considered as a standard second-order control unit, presented by the second-order
linear time invariant (LTI) differential equation and rewritten as follows:

1
T 2x s2 þ 2dx T x s þ 1 αx ≃ T dx
 
Δαx (52)
kpx

As it follows from Eq. (52), steady-state error in attitude stabilization can be

calculated with the formula:

1
T 2x s2 þ 2dx T x s þ 1 αx ≃ T dx
 
Δαx (53)
kpx

where T dx0 ¼ const and Δαx0 ¼ constΔαx0 ¼ const (ATT sensor bias).
pffiffi
For Eq. (52), the optimal damping coefficient is dx ¼ 22 ¼ 0:707 [13].
Numerical example
Let us evaluate satellite time constant T x. Let us assume that for the LEO satellite
magnetic field induction vector B has the following value of the projection on the
Sun direction.
and MTR has the following parameters: maximal magnetic moment My max ¼
35Am2 , maximal control current Iy max ¼ 100 mA, winding resistance R ¼ 280 Ohm;
My max
and maximal control voltage uymax ¼ R
Iy max ¼ 28 V. MTR gate is kTRy ¼ uy max ¼
2
35Am
28V ¼ 1:25Am2 =V. Then maximal available magnetic torque is T cx max ¼ 10 Nm. If 3

maximal linear zone for this control channel is αy max ¼ π2 rad, then the position
control coefficient kpx can be calculated with the following formula:

T cx max
kpx ¼ (54)
αmax
0:001
For the data above, it has the value of kpx ¼ 3:14
0:5 ¼ 6:366
10 4 Nm=rad.
Let us consider example of the first Soviet satellite “Sputnik” (SS-1) that had the

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Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

mass m ¼ 83:6 kg and the radiusR ¼ 0:29 m and take the assumption that its
mass was homogeneously distributed within its spherical volume of V ¼ 43 πR3 ¼
0:1 m3 , and then its inertia ( J ¼ J x ¼ J y ¼ J z Þ can be calculated with the following
formula:

2
J ¼ mR2 (55)
5

as for a homogeneous sphere. Substituting into Eq. (55) the data above, we can
calculate that for SS-1 J ¼ 2:82 kgm2 , then its time constant with the considered
MTR control might be:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Jx 2:82kgm2
Tx ¼ ¼ ¼ 66:56 s:
kpx 6:366
10 4 kgm2 s 2

Now damping coefficient can be calculated with the following formula:

kdx ¼ 2dx T x kpx (56)

4
It has the following value: kdx ¼ 2
0:707
66:56
6:366
10 s
Nm=rad ¼
0:06 Nms=rd.
k
Finally, K px and K dx can be calculated. They are as follows: K px ¼ Bz kpxTRy ¼
6:366
10 4 Nm=rad
2:86
10 5
1:25T
A
m2 =V
¼ 17:8 V=rad and K dx ¼ BzkkdxTRy ¼ 2:86
10
0:06Nms=rad
5

1:25T
A
m2 =V
¼ 1:678

3
10 sV=rad.
When T x is determined, then the time constant for the differencing filter T fx can
be chosen from the condition that T fx < < T x . In our example T x ¼ 66:56 s, let us
take that T fx ¼ 5 s.
Simulation
Eqs. (51) and (52) were simulated using Simulink (see Figure 29).

Figure 29.
Satellite single-axis attitude control Simulink block scheme.

29
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

Blocks in the pink color present the satellite model, the dark green color is for
control law blocks, the cyan blocks are registration oscilloscopes, and the display and
the orange color are the disturbances. The red manual switch allows to implement the
differentiating filter, transforming the scheme from the approximation (52) to the
accurate presentation (51). Disturbing external torque Md is constant; attitude sensor
error is represented by the constant value ALP0 and limited range white noise V that
has spectral density SV ¼ 2σ 2V T v (σ v is the standard deviation (SD), T v is the
correlation time). The results of the simulation (Figure 29) with and without the
differentiating filter (with the assumption that α_ x α_ x is directly measured without any
errors) are presented below in Figures 30–34 (left A, (52), without the filter; right B,
(51), with the filter). The numerical data for the simulation are as follows:
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Jx kdx
J ¼ 2:82 kgm2 , T x ¼ ¼ 66:56 s, dx ¼ ¼ 0:707,
kpx 2T x kpx
4
kpx ¼ 6:366
10 Nm=rad, kdx ¼ 0:06 Nm
s=rad, T fx ¼ 5 s,
Md ¼ 10 5 Nm, Δαx0 ¼ dltALP0 ¼ 0:1∘ , Δαx0 ¼ dltALP0 ¼ 0:1∘

Simulation of ACS (Figure 29) is presented in Figures 30–34. Units: vertical

axis (deg), horizontal axis: (s).

Figure 30.
Response to initial deviation angle αx0 ¼ 10 . (a) without dif. filter and (b) with dif. filter.

Figure 31.
Response to initial angular velocity α_ x0 ¼ 0:01deg=s.

Figure 32.
Response to external disturbance torque T d ¼ 10 5 Nm. Static error αx∗ ¼ 0:898∘ .

30
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

Figure 33.
Response to attitude sensor bias Δx0 ¼ 1∘ plus white noise σ V ¼ 0:1∘ , T V ¼ 1 s. Satellite attitude stabilization
errors, ALP.

Figure 34.
Satellite attitude measured errors ALPm.

Decay time: τ ¼ 195s, αx ð3τÞ ¼ 5%αx0 (deg), (s) τ ¼ 275s.

As it can be seen, measured noise is filtered effectively in the control loop, and
stabilization error is equal to the sensor bias with opposite sign.
In Figure 34, we can see that the measured (perceived) errors that TLM data
provide to ground after the decay time do not present sensor bias and present only
measured noise. It is because satellite stabilization error with opposite sign com-
pensates the bias. In general, it can also be seen that the simulation of the approxi-
mate second-order model (52) is very close to the accurate model (51). Hence, at
least for the analytical representation, (52) can be successfully used.

4. Conclusion

Part I of this chapter presents an overview of practical satellite control system,

satellite guidance, navigation and control equipment. The work presented here is
based on the author’s point of view of integration of this GN&C equipment in the
integrated AODCS system (satellite GN&C Spacetronics System). Main work prin-
ciples, architecture, and components of the satellite control system were briefly
highlighted.
The chapter can serve to a wide pool of space system specialists as an introduc-
tion to satellite control system development.

Acknowledgements

The author wishes to express his sincere gratitude to the Canadian Space
Agency, where he had the opportunity to learn and possess the knowledge and
experience related to the writing of this chapter. As well, he is very thankful to
many of his colleagues from Canadian Magellan Aerospace Company (Bristol Aero-
space Division) with whom he discussed and analyzed satellite AODCS design pro-
jects and issues that helped him to work out the system analysis and its principal
concepts presented in this chapter. Additionally, he cannot forget that his

31
Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis

experience and background in Aerospace Technology were also accumulated from

the former USSR (Moscow Aviation Institute, Moscow Aviapribor Corporation,
Moscow Experimental Design Bureau Mars, Institute in Problems in Mechanic of
RAN) and Israel (IAI, Lahav Division and Tashan Engineering Center), where he
could observe and learn from diverse and wealthy engineering and scientific schools
led by great scientists and designers such as Prof. BA. Riabov, Prof. V.P. Seleznev,
V.A. Yakovlev, G. I. Chesnokov, V.V. Smirnov, Dr. A. Syrov, Acad. F. Chernousko,
A. Sadot and Dr. I. Soroka.
This chapter was written as a solo author since his friend and regular coauthor
Prof. George Vukovich from York University of Toronto passed away 2 years ago.
For many years, Prof. Vukovich served as Director of his Department of Spacecraft
Engineering in CSA. He will always keep good memories of Prof. Vukovich who
helped and encouraged him continue his scientific and engineering work.
The author also acknowledges the copyrights of all publishers of the illustrations
that were extracted from the open sources in the Internet.

Note

Dedicated to Prof. G. Vukovich.

Author details

Yuri V. Kim
David Florida Laboratory, Canadian Space Agency (CSA), St. Hubert, Ottawa,
Canada

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

32
Satellite Control System: Part I - Architecture and Main Components
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.92575

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